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CONTENTS 4

J
Poge
THE NETTAR AND IKONTA CAMERAS... 4
i

The Nettars
I

... 4
The lkontas ... 5
The Lenses ... t2
The Shutters l1
Viewfinders ... t8
Rangefinder for Nettar and lkonta 20

HANDLING 2l
Loading 2l
Shooting 22
Unloading 28

FOCUSING 30
Depth of Field 30
Control of Depth of Field 30
Zone Focusing 33
Hyperfocal Distance and Depth of Field Tabtes 34
Hyperfocol Distonces 34
Depth of Field Table for 7.5-B cm. Lenses 35
Depth of Field Table for l0.S-12 crn. Lenses 36

FILMSAND FILTERS ... 37

Colour Sensitivity ... 37
Speed 37
Conversion Toble of Different Speed Degrees ... 38
Grain... 40
Gradation 40
Latitude 40
Chorocteristics of Some Films 4l
Colour Film 42
Colour Films on the Morket 42
The Use of Filters 43
Filter Foctors 45
Polarizing Filter 45
 www.butkus.us
\
Poge

EXPOSURE 46
Exposure Toble for Doylight 47
The Right Negative 48

tl 49
CLOSE.UP WORK
C/ose-Ups with 2tx3f, in. lkonto ond Nettor ... 50
Close-Ups with 2f,x2f, in. lkonto ondltx 2t in. Nettor 5l
Close-Up Depth of Field Toble ... 52

FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY s3
How to Use Flash ... 53
Speed-Synch ronized Shutters 54
Suitoble Shutter SPeeds for Flosh 56
The Correct Aperture 57
Apertu res w ith F I ashb u I bs 57
,
SUBJECTS IN FRONT OF THE CAMERA 58
l

Landscapes 58
Portraits 59
1

Children 6l
Animals 62
Sports 63
Shutter SPeeds to Arrest Movement 64

CONVERSION OF FEET AND INCHES INTO METRIC UNITS 66

HOW TO... ... 67

WHAT IS WHERE? .., 67

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ts :{{ E
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Shutter Aperture lever

tensioning levgr
Flash socket Speed rtng
Depth of field
Focusing scale scal e
Synchronizing
switch

o How to lood: poge 2t O How to choose f,/ms: poge 37

I How to shoot: poge 22 O How to use f/ters: poge 43
a How to unload: poge 28 O How to use flosh: pdge 53
FOR FULL REFERENCE SEE PAGE 67
"--
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TTIE NETTAR AIVD TTIE IKONTA CAMERAS

The Nettar and the lkonta are roll film cameras of the
folding tlpe, fitted with a variety of lenses and shutters and
taking di-fferent picture sizes. They are d_esigned to suit the
diverie requirements in dimensions, performance and price
of the amateur photographer.
-at
It should be stated this stage that lkonta models are
numerous and widely varied. They include, in addition to
the simple roll film cameras dealt with in this guide, more
advanced models with built-in rangefinder, and miniature
cameras for 35 mm. film. These are the subject of separate
Camera Guides.
Both the Nettar and the lkonta have been produced over
a period of almost twenty years. They have in th.e course of
tiine undergone changei in construction and been fitted
with improvements. An)r significant change in the develo.p-
ment oi these camera models is covered in this guide,
though minor alterations which are of no material con-
sequence, may not always be listed.
The two cameras were constructed with particular regard
to simple and quick handling and ability to stand up to hard
wear. Yet they are of the smallest possible dimensions
consistent with full efticiency.

The Nettars
Basically, the Nettar is a standard roll film model equipped
with a rairge of lenses from the inexpensive to the medium
priced, and fitted with appropriate shutters.
l. THE 2*'ltx 3* in. NEfiAR will take 8 exposures on standard 120
size film. has an all-metal body with hinged back and is connected
with leather bellows to the self-erecting front. Focusing is done by
means of the front cell. The camera is also fitted with a brilliant reflect-
ing finder and direct vision frame finder, and is covered in black
teitherette. The early model (Code 51012), was fitted with an f 7.7
Nettar lens in a 2-sp'eed shutter, with or without built-in delayed
action release. {
 fts successor (Code 5l5l2r, was similar In design. The earlier modefs
of this were without body release. Later ones had this addition, but
a!l were fitted with faster lenses and speedier shutter, namely the Nettar
f 6.3, f 4.5, or f 3.5, or Tessar f 4.5 in Derval, Klio, Telma, or Compur
shutters.
The early post-war camera,s were equipped with Vario, Pronto, or
Prontor S shutters.
In 1952 this type was redesigned and marketed as the Nettar ll. lt
was more streamlined, had an optical direct vision finder built into the
camera body (Code 517l2l, and a Novar f 6.3, or f 4.5 in Vario, Pronto,
or Prontor SV shutter was fitted as well as a depth of field indicator.
2. THE lf x 2f in. NETTAR takes 16 exposures on standard 120 size
film and has similar specifications to the 2f x 3i in. model, but is with-
rt out brilf iant-reflecting finder. The early model (Code 510) was fitted
with a Nettar f 6.3 in a Derval shutter. lts successor (Code 515) was of
t nearly identical design but fitted with the f 4.5 Nettar in a Klio shutter,
first without, later with, built-in body release. This model has not been
re-introduced since the end of the war.
3. THE 2l x 2! in. NETTAR was first introduced towards the end of
f 938 (Code5l5ll6), and was designed for 12 exPosures on_standard 120
film. lt is of the same design as the l$ x 2f in. Nettar (Code 515) and
fitted with a Nettar f 6.3 or f 4.5 in a Telma or Klio shutter. Early post-
war models were equipped with Vario, Pronto, or Prontor S shutters.
rl In 1952 the redeiigned 2f, x 2f in. Nettar was introduced on the
market as the Nettar ll (Code 517ll6l. This was more streamlined, with
an optical direct vision finder built in, and fitted with a NovarF6.1 9f
f 4.5'in Vario, Pronto, or Prontor SV shutter. lt also has a depth of field
indicator.
-tl
The lkontas
The lkonta is the somewhat more de luxe counterpart of
I
the Nettar, with superior body finish and lenses of high
t
{::
Performance.
l. THE BABY IKONTA is intended for 16 pictures lf x lf in. (3 x
4 cm.) on standard vest-pocket film (127 size), and is o{ the smallest
possible dimensions, I x'2f x 3fr in.,'weighin! 12 oz. The body is all
inetal, with hinged back and is finished in black enamel, with nickel-
plated fittings; -the fully self-erecting front gives perfect rigidity.
Focusing opelates by meins of the front cell from 3 ft. to infinity. The
finder ii of ihe folding direct vision frame type. Leather bellows connect
the camera front to the back.
A variety of lenses from the f 6.3 Novar to the fast f 3.5 Tessar have
been fitted in shutters ranging from the simple two-speed to the
I
elaborate Compur Rapid. A-tripod bush is let into the camera body.
E
This model was discontinued in 1938.
t'- The Code No. of the Boby lkonto is 5201t,8. 5
I
I
I
I
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CURRENT NETTAR MODELS (Page 4)

The 2[ in. squore Nettor ll is the

atest of the 2[ in square Nettars.
f

Like the preceding models it

takes l2 exposures. A built-in
optical viewfinder takes the place
of the direct vision finder and
carries a shoe for accessories. The
shutter fitted is synchronized and
the lens is coated. Also fitted is
a depth of field indicator. Code
No. 517 116.

mike Digitally signed by mike butkus

DN: cn=mike butkus,
o=orphancameras, ou=29,

Since Autumn 1953 this model is

butkus email=mike@butkus.org, c=US
Date: 2019.01.11 19:31:58 -05'00'

also supplied with double ex-

posure lock.

The 2[ x 3[ in. Nettor II is the

latest of the 2* x 3f in, Nettars.
Like the preceding models it takes
8 exposures. The shutter fitted is
synchronized and the lens coated.
An optical viewfinder is built-in
and carries a shoe for accessories.
Also fitted are a body release and
double exposure lock as well as a
depth of field indicator, Code No,
st71?,.
 ORIGINAL NETTARS (page 4)

The 2[ x 3i in. Nettor takes I exposures on

standard 120 film. A brilliant reflecting view-
finder is fitted as the direct vision finder.
well as
a two-speed shutter.
The f 7.7 lens is mounted in
Later models carry faster lenses and multiple
speed shutters and are also fitted with a body
release. Code No. 51012.

The l8 x 2f, in. Nettor takes 16 exposures on

standard 120 film. lt is similar to the 2* x 3f, in.
Nettar but is not fitted with a brilliant reflecting
viewfinder. An f 6.3 lens is mounted in a 3-speed
shutter. Later models carry an F 4.5 lens in an
8-speed shutter. Code No. 510.

The 2t in. sguore Nettor, takes

l2 exposures on standard 120
film. lt is similar to the 18 x
2f in. Nettar and f 6.3 or f 4.5
lenses are mou nted in 3 or
8-speed shutters. Code No.
5t5/16.
 www.butkus.us
. 2. THE l* x 2* in. TKONTA takes 16 pictures, lf x 2{ in. (4.5 x
6 cm.) on standird 2i x 3i in. film (120 size). The dimensions of this
modei are lfr x 3 x'4!in,,weight 14 oz, The body is of hard alumin'
ium alloy wiih hinged back; the front is fully self-erecting, giving pgrfecl
rieidity;' metal parts are stove enamelled, and fittings nickel-plated.
Fo=cusihg is effected by rotating the front cell. The front is connected
with lealher bellows io the camera back. A variety of lenses from the
Novar f 6.3 to the fast Tessar f 3.5 have been fitted in shutters varying_
from the three-speed Derval to the Compur-Rapid. The finder is of
the direct vision folding type. Ihe Code No. of this lkonto is 520.
The models made in I936 are suitable for use with both | 20 and the
metal, narrow core 620 spools.
In 1937 an improved mbdel of this camera came on the market (with
. Code No. 521) having a body release and metal fittings in chrome
finish.
In 1939 the l$ x 2| in. lkonta was also equipped with a double'
exposure f ock. (Code No. remoined 521.1
Post-war modils are unchanged. Th-ose produced since 1950 have
coated lenses and flash-synchronized shutters (Code No. unchanged, S2ll.
3. THE 2* in. SQUARE IKONTA is for l2 exposures,2* x 2{ in. (6 x
6 cm.) on'standard 2* x 3* in. film (120 size). The dimensions of this
mode'l are l{ x 3 x 5} in., weight 19 oz. The general description is
the same as for the lN x 2f, in. lkonta (see above).
While the first mod-els (1937) were fitted with body release, the later,
ones (from 1938 on) had ilso i double-exposure lock. The Code No. of
the 2t sguore ikonto is 521l16.
Poit-*ar models are similar, and are now called lkonta | (Code No.
still 52lll6). Those produced since 1950 have coated lenses and flash-
synchronized shutters.
'fn l95f this model was replaced by the lkonta ll (Code No.523116l,-
which has a built-in opticalfihder insiead of the folding one, a depth of
field indicator, and carries an accessory shoe.
4. THE 2* x 3* in. IKONTA takes [l exposures, 2] x 3{ in. (6 x
9 cm.) on itandard 2* x 3* in.film (120 size). The models made during
1936 ire suitable als6 for irse with the narrow metal core 620 spools.
The dimensions of this model are l$ x 3$ x 6$ in., weight 24 oz.
From 1936 on the 2* x 3* in. lkbnta was fitted with a second film
window and mask for tiking i6 exposures, lf x 2| in. (a.5 x 6 cm.) on
the same film. lts general-description is the same as that oJ the lf x
2d in. lkonta (see a-bove), except that it is fitted with two finders, the
direct vision'eye level-and a reversing reflecting (brilliant) finder.
The Code No. of the 2* x 3* Ikonto is 52012.
In 1937 the-direcf visioi optical finder was replaced by the Albada
finder and a body release *as incorporated. (Code No. unchonged
s2012.)
In 1938 the double-exposure lock was added and all metal fittings
8 direct vision opticat"finder re-installed.
-
fr

'';:.-:.:r-
 CURRENT IKONTA MODELS (page 5)

The 2[ in. sguo re lkonto ll is the latest

of the 2f in. square lkontas. Like the
preced ing models it takes 12 €X-
posures. The camera is fitted with a
double exposure lock and a body
release. A built-in optical viewfinder
takes the place of the direct vision
finder, and carries a shoe for accessoF-
ies. The shutter fitted is synchronized
and the lens is coated. Code No.
523 I 16.

The 2[ x 3* in. lkonto is the latest of

the 2* x 3* in. lkontas. lt takes 8
exposures. This model is fitted with
a synchronized shutter, has a coated
lens and a depth of field indicator.
An optical viewfinder is built-in and
carries an accessory shoe. Also fitted
are a body release and a dou ble
exposure lock. Code No. 52312.

Ihe l$ x 2* in. lkonto is basically the

same as the earlier models and still
carries the same code number.
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ORIGINAL IKONTAS (page 5)

The Boby lkonta takes | 6 exposu res

on standard 127 film. lt is fitted with
a direct vision finder. A variety of
lenses from f 6.3 to f 3.5 are fitted in
shutters ranging from 2-speed to
8-speed models. Code No. 520 ll8.

nlt

The l$ x 2i in. Ikonto takes 16 €X-

posures on standard 120 film. lt is
similar to the Baby lkonta. The Post-
war models are unchanged. Code
No. 520.

The 2[ x 3[ in. lkonta takes I ex'

posures on standard 120 film' This
model is fitted with a brilliant re-
flecting viewfinder in addition to the
direct vision finder. In other respects
it is very similar to the 18 x 2f in.
lkonta. Code No. 520/2.
 LATER IKONTAS (page 5)

The lfi x 2* in. lkonto is similar to the

Baby lkonta, but this later model has
a body release for greater co[v€]l-
ience. lt also has a double exposure
lock to avoid two or more exposures
on one frame of film. A signal
window shows red when the film-has
been wound on.

t?:

The 2* in, square lkonto takes 12

exposures on standard 120 film. lt is
fitted with a direct vision viewfinder.
Its construction is similar to the l8 x
2$ f konta. Code No. 52 | ll6.

The 2[ x 3[ in.
lkonto takes 8 ex-
posures on standard | 20 fi lm and is
very similar in construction to the
original 2t x 3* in. lkonta. The
brilliant reflecting viewfinder has
been discontinued but a body release
is fitted. Also a double expoiure lock
is built-in to avoid two or mor€ €X-
posures on one frame of film, Code
No. 521/2.
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In | 939 the masking device was dropped. (Code No. of thcse lost versions
s2t
--pbsi-war
12.)
models are similar. Those produced since 1950 have coated
lenses and flash-synchronized shutters' (Code.No. still 5]l l2').
'-i"
lgSf this m6del was replaced by ihe lkonta lt (Code No.523-l2l'
which has an optical finder iristead of'the folding one, a depth of field
indicator, and an accessorY shoe.
i. rHe i+ x + in. IKoNTA will take 8 exposures, 2{ x 4l in.(6.5 x
ll i
cm.) o'n Z+ +l in. film on metal spool (616 size). The dimensions
of this'model are i3 x f1 x 7$ in., weight 30 oL.
- From 1936 on tt hlas be6n fittid with aiecond film window and mask
allowing 16 exposures, 2$ x 2{ in. (5.1 x .0.S..f.) to be ,made' lts
qeneraid"scription is the-same-as that for the 4.5 X 6 cm. lkonta (see i
ibove) exceDt that it is fitted with two finders: the direct vision eye
ievel-6pttcai and a reversing reflecting (-britliant). {lagt^, This model
was distontinued in 1939. fFe Code No. oithis model is 520115.

The Irenses
The lenses of the Nettar and lkonta are not interchange-
able and consequently neither telephoto. nor wide anSle
lenses can be usbd. The only oPtical suPPlementary equip-
ment employable consists of converging me.niscus lenses
which all6w the camera to be set at nearer distances than
would be possible with the unaided lens (see p. 49).
THE NOVAR is a three-lens, air spaced, anirstigmat, made in three
apertures: f 6.3, f 4.5, F 3.5. lt has a good standard of definition over
if," n"g"ti;" fieid even at full ap6rture and is gradually improved
t"t ""tii"
rtoppea down to f 8. lt is suiiable for all general photographic
"n
work.
tte f 4.5 lens, being twice-as {Tt-T f 6.3, allows work under un-
tavouiiUte light ionditions. The f 3.5 lens is again gl.nP:t twice as fast
as the f 4.5 lins and almost four times as fqt as the f 6.3. Novar, and can
uiefully be employed for taking photographs in particularly poor light,
of fast movingiuSlects, in sporti photographYr etc.
TtlF NETTAR, fitted to earlv
THE NFTTaR- early Nettar iarireias,
cameras. isis of similar construc-
tion to the Novar and was also made in f 7 .7 .
iHE ifSSAn is a four-tens ani$tigmai, front component air spaced,
back component cemented. lt is accepted throughout the world as a
ii.t'-.|'..'.,ntiral design.
high-class'optical dcqion- The definition considered very good even
definiti6n is con
at-full apertlre, covering the negative
covering.the negative.fully an{_gvenly illuminating it to
fully and
"t?rtt
the veri, corners, ana iin"t gr"it.brilliaricy.. The bdst performance of
"p"rtirre,
in" furi"r is given around f 5.6; the correitions remains undiminished
aiimaller apErtures. Tessars of varying aPertures are built into the
t2 lkonta.
 The Tessar f 4;5 may be called a universal type suitable for all average
exposures inciuding lindscapes, poftraits, street scenes, etc., except in
conditions of poor light.
The Tessars'f 3.8 ana 1a.S are almost, twice as fast as the f 4.5 Tessar.
They have the same fieid of application but are also suitable for more
unfavourable light conditioni,- fast moving subiects, sPorts photo'
graphy, etc.

The latest development in improving qhe pglfgrmance of a

photographic lens is a process Senerally-called coating or
bloom'ing. lt consists of the application of a microscopically
fine film- of some inorganic substance on the glass sur-
faces, which considerably reduces the light reflection
between glass and air surfaces in the lens. -The gain will be
r fully appriciated if it is understood that, for example, in a
Teslar'f 4.5 the loss of light due to surface reflection is in
the region of about 35 per _cent.' a figure wh-ich can be
reducei by coating to about 5 per cent. Apart from a gain
in the spebd of the lens which may be in actual Practice 50
per cent. (half a stop), its main importance lies in the elimina-
iion of thi scatter bi llght which impairs the contrast of the
image. This results in-a more brill'iant negative'.especially
' in t[e shadow regions where the tones are most subdued and
so brilliance andcontrast are most needed. The post-war
lkonta and Nettar models have factory-coated lenses. With
older cameras the coating, however, can be undertakel by
retiable optical manufactuiers through photographic dealers.
The fact ihat a lens has been coated can be recognized by
observing in the lens reflections of, let us_say'.a l.TP'which
appear dlstinctly- coloured, as a rule a rather deep blue with
a'dinge of red. In the can of factory-coated lenses, a code
mark] the letter "T" in red, is stamped next to the lens
number.
The treatment and care of lenses is a matter of impoftance.
On account of its chemical composition, oPtical glass of
high quality is susceptible to the influence of moisture, and
foi ttris reison touihing the glass with the fingers should
be avoided. Since complete protection is impossible, the
'cleaned
lens surface should be occasionally with a clean,
soft chamois leather. When removing finler marks from t3
 www.butkus.us

coated lenses, a bit of cotton wool, moistened with

alcohol,
be used; but *ith utmost care. To remove dust or
shou|d
iurfa.. dirt a hnu ."r"1-hair brush gently used is most
--fHI
suitable.
feNS HOOD ls a tube, as a rule made from metal,
olaceJ Protect it from light
o""t ,tr" fionr of the lens to
5;;ft fr"r ou.side the actual pictuie.area. There is no
il;;:;hi;i .;;ld not be improved in clarity and brilliance
[;;t"-;;;';i " t.n, t,o"J. fhe widef r.he aperture of the
iJnt''ri"- tio*-irlortant is the use of the lens hood. The
iilnt ."ting from objects.outside the. actual picture area
wlll touch t-he lens ani reduce the brilliancy of the picture
considerablv. This applies not only to .photographs. taken
against the'light-when the lens hood becomes
andlsPens-
alsd to sunshine in general'
"Ei.-Uu.
The Shutters
A range of difrerent shutters was bullt into the
the
various
models io ."t"i for individual requirements of camera
user.
1125, 1175,
THE VARIO shutter has three instantaneous speeds,
{or time.exDosures'
''i"."i
t/200 sec., and a B setting
iit" ilrtt"iirin'the outsid" mllled ring un-til th-e-Vare mark points
t" tillp""a t"quit"J. ih-u ng-ut"s,-engraved lst 71'-200 fractions
of asecond rJ""n-iii;;;i;t;?;. | 125,-l l7i,and l/20O sec' respectively'
"na ,,..utfU" iensioned b'i.pulling the tensioning.lever on toP
The shutte,
as it will so'
of the shutter in an anti-.lockwise'directio=n as farspeeds of '[/25, l/50'
THE PRONTO shutter has four inti"nt"n"ous.
f rpbbiu.,g for time exposures' and a built-in delayed action
lltifi,-""J
release. arrow head
To set the shutter turn the outside milled rinS until-thes9' 100' 200
Doints to the t;;;; ."qiiii"a' [93n!rav3d frlures ?l'
the shutter pull
5rilffi; ilii,-riso, iiibn; if i. lTigo s&. ro te-nsion
;il;";;i;l"e r"i"'t:.iitri shutter in an anti-clockwise direction
far as it will go. "iit " I
I
-as n'aJ"y"a releas.e (also called self'timer) is bu.ilt.into the Pronto l

sh utter ch
wh p;;;i;;h irotge r+frer to ap ihe
"..?Jn
i
p,eat-il:h u p hotog raph
himself. To usei'nJ "'l
ii.fii",i actioi rLlease, set camera in the usual l
ii'L" i-iigid support, best a tripod. Press down the
i way and mount isthe lever with a .tJ
I

I detayed action,;;; i";;;;f"?h ii will.go.. This

rim.
I 1{ ;;iil; i;;;';;;iil 3n the tower part of thl shutter On pressing
I

I
I
!

i
NETTAR AND TKONTA LENSES AND SHUTTERS (pages t2, a4)

rhe Novar .(obove /eft). is 1 simpre three-component

anasti.gmat lens of g.ood definitioh and medium'speed.
Tl:,sf ightly more elaborate resso r (obove right) i! one
ol the best general purpose lenses of medium to fast
speed, and pin-sharp defihition. When used on a camera
masked for smallei picture size, the lenses cover a
smaller angle of view (below), etiminating unwanted
foreg rou n d.

Ihe Nettor ll is fitted either

with a Vario shutter (3
speeds), rhe Pronto shuttdr
(4 speeds) or the pronror
9-V (8 speeds). The lkonta
ll carries a Synchro-
Compur shutter. Both the
Prontor S-V and the
Synchro Compur are
speed-synchronizbd (page
54).
 www.butkus.us
a delay of approximately
the shutter release, the shutter works after
t+ilF[bfrit"-Tfl *f
u2, Us, t/to, tlzs,"ilio,'l)ioo;;J illo-o i"l' (i1.2* xbujlt-in
3''t' 1n' models
delayed
l7Z5O sec.) and a B setting for time
"la"sdt3!]i'?nE'f#""',d;:'$;eds;1,
" p' 53)'
aition release. Til;";ift;;;;i; i;;i"ir
"*p"t-ui-"t,-"lt)"il-t!
svnchronization'(see
To set tf,u struttJl irrn".nu',juitii" ,'..itt'"i
ring-until thb top of the-
diamond mark I piiiii'i"- ii" ip""a required.-Ttrg l/t5' l/s0' l/100'
glslaved figures
f,2, s, 10,25,50, lfi:;;dilo-;;";'d f* l,itz'tls'tll0'
and l /300 r"..,"riJitl""ri. To. te.nsion'
i'the ie nsioni ng
ittLl' ltiu l' p u l
.";
t
+il 5l i*"'l i6:'l i; ]f, !' F'Jii.T'T'].,i.r{J' i f e d i n t h e
on-t-tt" Pronto SV the synchronizing
same way "'':t"?'
as witn iil';;;": is used'
lever (see p s+) musti;;;;;x.YlL"l the self-timershutters have nine
THE SyNcHnoltdilF'iii;i ioMpun-nnPtD
speeds: t,,12, t/s;-il-d,'iEi,llso, lliob,
iiloo, and l/500 sec., as well
";;;. c,o1n u r- Rap d h utte rs d iffer on lv
ai a B setting for time exPosures'
The sy ch r*c#'ii J;fi p i s
n
in l'rt"i.'ri..t sy nch rinization (see p'. 54)'
tiiuua ring until the arrow head
To set-tott u ,hrtti.l;;;';h;';:q;'iau
pointi tt'e-,pp"o' ;;;;i;;a; f r,': s;1i";jf,lf,T,h: i
ioii, iso 5d0 stand ior-l, I i2, l.l5' ii*, i?133; "t"%
l/500 sec. ""dl."rp"J""ly' 16 tensi6n ih" ttt'tt"t' pull the tensioning
liver on top of tfti'ri,ittuiin " .ioct n iie airection is far as it will go'
sec. ranSe continuouslv
The speeds rro,i"i'i" iilO i'-,;-llis'io ilzso 50 and
and may be set t" iri-be-tweerit;i;;'itt *tting. between
t00 gives ""y iu.. o;;h; other han-d 19 nor intermediate
i;;;.;";'i ;;; between i,lrning
"n "rpoiui"'"i'ilzs
soeeds between
l/l0.and .l/25 between
1i250 and l/soo sei.'.ln-u" ,"t. wh; thb outside milled
a resiitance is felt which is
rinq of the shuttJr"ft.;'i7Z!O tJ-l/500';. and needed to achieve
dud to an additio"i"i';;i;d f".J t.i t1tl i1,utt"tt
this fastest sPeed. described, set the shutter
For timeurporri., with any of the shutters tensioning in the
speed ring to e tfiiliiirii.-T-n" ttrti*-r"qu.ires open' as long ar the
usual wav. o" rl.i;i"g,'lil til'it"r will remain
;;i;" ffi.tJn'ii pi"rrJa down and closes as soon as.the Pressure on
the release i, ,i#"i"-J. iii iJ.tr time exposures the camera must
be mountea on iuctr as.a. tri'pod. lt is usuallv best to
"'i-i.ri-iuip".t
,etease ttr" ,t uttlr ffih;[5-6ii."] "
."Uf" ,61""t" to avoid sh'aking the
release socket of the
camera. rrris reiease-ii r.r"*Ja.ini" tn" cible lock' or' on the lkonta'
shutter in toa"iJi]tiioul aouur" i*o.t*t"
*iirt-u"ai release, into the centre of the same' I
is to remain open for
For long air"-J*poJur"t-rnfi."ru itt" ttrutt"r depressed-a cable
longer than you' ;;ti;;;;;;!entJy.rt""p trtu il1"q1"
1

T_o make .he exPosure

release witn rockirij,-.i"", r'rouif be ehployed.plunger' a1a. tiel11. j11 {
set the shut'ter to B, depress the cable ielehse the fixing screw ls
fixinq screw. rnJslltt"'r will now remain open'until
16 unloEked. c
*
Also fitted were a number of shutters which are now
discontinued. They include:
THE DERVAL shutter. lt is used in the Nettar and Baby lkonta,
1l f* x 2*in.,Zf, x 3f,in.,and2{ x 4tin. lthasspeeds 1i25, l/50, l/100
sec. (l in the case of the Baby lkonta) and T and B settings.
175
To'use the shutter, set the pointer on top of the shutter to one of
i
t- the numbers engraved there-25, 50, 1OO-which stand for fractions of
seconds and should therefore be read as l/25, l/50, l/100 sec. On
pressing the release lever-or the cable release which may be screwed
bn to the cable release nipple below the release lever-the shutter
opens for the time set.
I Short time exposures are obtained by setting the pointer to B. Pressure
i
on the release lever or cable release opens the shutter which closes
i
again as soon as the pressure is removed.
Long time exposures are made by setting the pointer to T. By pressing
the release lever or cable release the shutter opens and remains oPen
t until a second pressure closes it.
THE TELMA shutter. This is used in the Baby lkonta, l$ x 2f, in.,
the 2{ x 2} in., 2[ x 3tin.,2t x 4] in. lkontas and the Nettars. lt
has speeds oI 1125, l/50, l/100 sec., T and B settings, and is fitted with
a buiit-in delayed action release. The latest type of Telma shutter has
also l/ 125 sec.
The shutter is operated in the same manner as the Derval shutter
above. When using the delayed action release (which only works with
the instantaneous speeds l/25 to l/100 sec.), set the shutter speed in
the ordinary wayt then press down the delayed action lever on the
right of the shutter (the lever with a #d dot). Pressing the shutter
release sets the escapement in motion, and after l2 sec. automaticall)t
releases the shutter. The delay allows the photographer to take his
-THE in the picture
place
KLIO shutter is fitted to 2{ x 2} in., 2t x 3i in. and 2[ x 4[in.
lkontas and Nettars and has the speeds l, ll2, l/5, l/10, ,125, 1150,
f /f 00, lll75 (lll50) sec., T and B settings, and also a built-in delayed
action.
It is operated as the Derval (see above) but requires cocking by turning
the cocking lever on top of the shutter anti-clockwise until it engages.
The delayed action release can be used for all instantaneous speeds from
I to l/175 sec. and is manipulated as described for the Telma shutter
(above).
THE COMPUR shutter is used in some Nettar and lkonta models.
The small size Compur 00, as used in l$ x 2i in. and 2[ x 2[ in.
models has the speeds l, | 12, l/5, l/10, | 125, | 150, | 1100, and l/300 sec.,
B and T settings, while the Compur Rapid OOR has l, 112, l15, lll0,
1125, U50, l/100, l/250, l/500 sec., B and T settings. No built-in delayed
action is available in this size Compur shutter.
The large size Compur O, as used in 2f x 3| in. models and larger, .a
has the speeds l, ll2, ll5, lll0, 1i25, 1i50, l/100, l/250 sec., B and T lI
t
i NET-B
$
 www.butkus.us
settints. The older models are without built-in delayed action release,
but laier ones (OS) are fitted with it.
The Compur'nafia OSR has l, a12,l/5, l/10, ll?1,,/50' l/100' l/200'
and l/400 sdc. with B and T settings and built-in de.layed action release.
Th6 handling of this shutter is the same as described for the Synchro-
Compur model (p. l6).

Viewfinders
The present models of the lkonta and the Nettar are fitted with
built-in, direct vision optical viewfinders. Earlier models haveafolding'
type finder which sprihgs automatically into position on opening the
camera.
Alternatively, the front frame should be pulled towards the front of
the camera, when the back sight will spring into position.
In cameras with mask for two picture sizes, the finder also carries
a mask which has to be lifted up io reduce the field of the finder for
pictures of half size.
' Brilliont Finder: Some early models of the Nettar and the lkonta have
also been fitted with a brilliant finder, a reflecting finder fixed to the
shutter holder, which is used at waist level. Looking down into this
finder one sees a brilliant image, upright, but laterally reversed. The
finder can be turned through-9o" ind- can therefore be used also for
the horizontal camera position. The top of the finder shows a square
with a small blocked-out square in each corner. For horizontal photo-
graphs only the horizontal rectangle excluding the blocked-out corners
is uied, while for vertical photogiaphs only the corresponding upright
image counts.
Liter models of the Nettar and lkonta are not fitted with a brilliant
finder but carry a finder support on the top right-han-d side of the lens
holder, into wliich a detachbble reflecting finder may be inserted.
The latest versions of these cameras, with the built-in oPtical finder,
have no provision for a brilliant finder, with the excePtion of the l$ x
2*- in. lkonta.
Atbodo Finder: This is an optical viewfinder built into some earlier
lkonta models, in which the actual field covered by the camera is
indicated by a white boundary line which seems to-be iustas far.away
as the subi6ct. As some part-of the surroundings of the field to be in-
cluded on the negative-outside the boundarf line-remains visible
through the finder] it is possible to keep an eye on these surround.ings
at the- same time. Thii is of particuiar vaiue when photographing
moving subjects.
The-actuil handting of the finder is the same as described previously
for the direct vision finder.
tn cameras with mask for two picture sizes, the finder also carries
a mask which has to be lifted up to reduce the field of the finder for
18 pictures of half-size.
 NETTAR AND IKONTA ACCESSORIES

Rongefinder measures distance by making two images coincide (page 20).

Coble Releose
with locking
device for
Reflecting Finder to
long time ex-
posu res for
view image from low
models fitted
viewpoi nt. Usefu I
for photograPhing with 'tB" set-
chi I d ren.
ting only.
Reflecting Finder fits
on accessory shoe on
top of the camera.

Albado eye - level

finder.

Filters (page 43) im-

prove colour ren-
dering of the picture.
SupplementarY Lenses
(page 49) allow going lenshood (see Page
close to the subiect. | 4).
 www.butkus.us ^l
lE
-t
Rangefinder for Nettar and Ikonta 1

i
As guess work in estimating distances is unsatisfactory, t
particularly with wide apertures, and the use of a taPe .:1

measure is generally quite impracticable, a separate range- i

finder has been made available. This is constructed on the
"coincidence" principle. On one side of the square tube is
the viewing aperture fitted with an eye-cuP. Behind this
(within the tube) is a semi transparent silvered mirror at
an angle of45o, and at the other end ofthe tube a reflecting
prism which can be tilted relatively to the fixed mirror by
means of a cam mechanism attached to the calibrating
focusing disc. Setting the index to infinity (o) and looking
through the viewing aperture one perceives in the middle of
the circular field of view a smaller and lighter circle, and in
this a double image of a near object whose distance from
the camera is to be ascertained. By simply turning the
graduated disc the two images may be made to suPer-
impose so that coincidence is so perfect that only one image,
instead of the previous double image, is visible. By means of
a tinted glass one of the images is coloured; this is a great
help in separating two images and so simplifies the adjust-
ment for coincidence.
 HANDTING
Ioading
Loading of film into the camera is best done in subdued
daylight, i.e. in one's own shadow.
t. Open camera back.
2. Insert empty spool in chamber on winding
key side.
3. Insert rollfilm in other empty chamber.
4. Fix paper end on to empty spool.
5. Wind film transport key two turns.
I 5. Close camera back.
7. Turn film winding key until No. I appears in
I
film window.
, l. Slide the locking latch on top of the camera in the direction of the
arrow, and the camera back will open on its hinge.
12.
I
The empty film spool has to be in the take-up chamber-that is
the one below the film window key-before a film can be inserted.
I The empty spool has a slot at one end, while the other end has a
I round hole. Engage the projecting bar of the film winding key in
the end with the slot, while the other end is received by the peg on
the opposite side of the chamber. The peg is on a spring plate which
has to be pulled slightly outwards to allow the spool to drop into
position.
The procedure with the V.P. film of the Boby lkonto is the same
except that the round end of the spool is first pushed over the spring
stud opposite the winding key. Then push the spool down so
that the bar of the key entages as far as possible into the slot, and
turn the key until it catches the spool with a click and turns it.
3. Place the full roll of film into the chamber opposite the one with
the film key by pulling out the side pin on its spring to allow the
spool core to enter and then replace the pin in the central bore of
the core itself. The pointed end of the backing paper on the spool
must point towards the empty take-up spool.
The procedure with the Baby lkonta is the same, except that the
spool is pressed over the spring stud and pushed down to engage
the opposite end on the second stud of the chamber.
4. Now break the gummed paper slip holding down the backing paper
of the full spool and remove as far as possible. Draw the pointed
end of the backing paper across the film aperture and fit into the
longer slit in the core of the empty spool. The black inner side of the
bac"king paper must face the ca'nr6ra lens. 2l
 www.butkus.us
5. By turning the film winding key twice in a clockwise direction thc
backing paper is pulled taut. The paper has to lie flat between the
flanges of the empty spool and must on no account chafe or rub them.
lf the paper does not lie flat and straight, it must be adjusted.
5. Close the back of the camera and check by trying to pull it open
without touching the catch.
7. Turn the film winding key until No. I appears in the red window on
the camera back. Where the window has a cover this must, of
course, be opened to allow observation. On models with two
windows, it is always the one farthest away from the film wind key
which is used for setting film to No. | (see p. 8).

Shooting
l. Open camera front.
2. Check that film has been transported.
3. Set distance.
4. Set aperture.
5. Set exposure time.
6. View the image.
7. Release.
8. Wind on fllm for next exposure.
9. Close camera.
t. Press the front-opening button to release the camera front, which
will spring into'proper taking position (hence the name "self-
erecting" camera). The camera should be tilted slightly forward
asit is opened. There is no need to retard the quick-opening tnov€-
ment by applying the hand as a brake (as some users do) to Prevent
the film from being sucked forward out of its focal plane. The camera
is fitted with bellows ventilation which prevents the film from being
pulled out of true when the camera is opened.
2. in the modern models with double exposure lock no special check
is required as the shutter cannot be released unless the film has
been wound on. When using an older model without this device it
is advisable to adhere strictl)' to the sequence of operatlons given
(see No.7, above). Then the film is always wound on after exPosure'
thus confusion and uncertainty will be avoided.
3. The distance is set by rotatins-the front cell of the lens, the scale of
focusing distances b6ing eng[ved on the outside of the lens front.
Turn the lens front until-the distance figure-representing the
distance from the back of the camera to the subiect to be photo-
graphed-comes to lie opposite the index mark fixed to the shutter
casing.
22 The distance between camera and subject can be determined
 LOADING THE NETTAR AND THE IKONTA (page 2l)

ilffiilllll

lt

ilffi- @q
Top left: Open the camera back.

Top centre: Place the empty spool in the chamber below the film transport knob.
Pull out the spring for this.

Top right: Insert the full spool in the film chamber.

Centre teft: Thread the paper leader on to the emPty spool.

Centre: Tighten the paper leader.

Centre right: Close the camera.

Bottom left: Wind the film until No. I aPPears in the film window.
 www.butkus.us
HOLDING THE N ETTAR AND THE IKONTA (page 26)
I $ x 2[ in. models .' For hori-
zontal pictures hold the camera
with the right hand from above,
while the thumb of the left hand
rests on the body release. Support
the lower part between thumb
and index finger.

l$ x 2[ in. models; For vertical

pictu res hold the camera with
both hands on either side of the
camera body and press its back
against the nose. The index
fi1ger of the left hand lies on top
of the body release.

2i x 3[ in, models: For vertical

pictures press the camera with
both hands against the nose. The
index finger of the left hand lies
on top of the body release.

2[ x 3[ in. models; For upright

pictures hold the camera with the
right hand from above. The thumb
of the left hand lies against the
body release whilst the camera is
supported from underneath by
the palm of the left hand.
 HOLDING THE NETTAR AND THE tKoNTA (page 26)

2* in. square models: Hotd the

camera firmly against the nose,
the left hand'_gripping the djt:
Tle right handblso.holds the body
with the index finger pressing on
the body release.

Early models without body re/eose:

For upright pictures hold the
camera firmly against the forehead
with the left hand and rest tlie
index finger of the right hand
against the shutter release.

Eorly models without body releose:

Hold the camera against the nose
with the right hand. Place the
index finger of the left hand on the
shutter release, and support the
camera front with the palm of the
left hand.

To avoid camera shake, always

hold your camera steady. When
standing, spread your feet and
lean against a wall or tree or at
least support your elbows. Use a
unipod or camera chain. For
long exposures use a tripod.
 www.butkus.us
either by guess work or meixlurement. lt is preferable to use a
rangefiniei (see p. l9), but as a rough-measure o.ne may. Pace out
the-distance'between' camera and sublect, counting e.ach average
it.o three-Gt- For close-up wori< (i.e. portriits) a piece of
iiiing",with knots every 6 in. ma| be used to get accurate distance
settinS.
4. a;i tfie aperture (stop) by turning the diaphragm lever below
the tens until the indititoi points io the stop. req.uired (scale on
'Ttrp purpose
lower part of the shutterl. of the.diaphragm is.to
ihe effective opening of the.lens. The smaller this.
(i.i. the more the leirs is -stopped-down") the greater the
"dlurt "Pllil'
dePth
lii n"la-t."" p. lOl. However, as less light.can pass through the
irtopp"d-dorin'i fens in any given time-, the eiposure must be
lengiliened accordingly (see. p. 30).
S. Sli.tfre exposure tirii cin th'e shitter of the camera in accordance
with the iistructions given on PP. 14-15.
6. To view the back sighl hold cloi! to the eye or look straight down
on to the waist-level finder (p. l8). Do not attemPt to turn the
i"r"r" to th; right or left, away fr6m the eye, nor must the ey-e fe
moved from the"centre of the eyepiece to find the limitation of the 1

field of view. This "spying round'the corner" is deceptive,* 911),

that section seen in thb-centre of the eyepiece while looking straig-ht
ahead, will appear on the negative. itr'e neta of view is exact for .i
ph;tftraphs tiken at 9 to l2-ft. distan_ce. At infinity,a trifle more
ippeais dn the negatiye than is seen through the finder' and at 3i
to 6 ft. a shade less.
T. iiporu by pressing the body retease, or in earlie-r_mo_dels the release
fever of the shuttEr, yery {ently. Exposur"," o! ll\5,-l/50.and less'
are "instantaneous" and Can be taken from the hand. lt is' however'
advisable to use | 125 as sparingly as possible from the hand, as there
ilt;;;-danger of lerkirig thd camira, and even a slight i."lk'."n: f,
larSed six o-r eighi timel on the print,results in unsatisfactory "1.

a"finiti"n. On th-e other hand, if oni has a steady hand and a chance
of leaning against a wall or-even !9t9er{ suPPorting the carnera
on someihitg firm, not only the l/25 but also l./10 and even l/S-sec. I

exDosure cai, with care, bften 6e given without shaking. T-ime

should be made with the cible release, which screws into A
"riotrr"t
i66 body release socket, or in the case of a model without. body
release,'into the cable release nipple. cam-eras.with double ex-
;;il;'tJck can only be released'ifter the film has actually been
wound on.
lkonta models with body release have a small circular apertlre
beside the release button, ih which a red or white disc appears. The l
white disc indicates that the film has not yet been wound on' ancl
that the shutter cannot be released. Thd red disc, on the other ,]{
h"nd, rhor,"s that the film has been transported and that Pressure
on the shutter release will expose it.
26 g. i.jrn in" nir winding key until first a hand and then a few dots have
4'1

&J
 SHOOTING WITH THE NETTAR AND THE IKONTA (page 22)

Top left: Open the baseboard.

Top right: Turn the lens mount to the set distance.

Centre left: Set the aperture by the aperture lever.

Centre: Set the shutter by turning the speed ring, and tension the shutter.

Centre right: Sight the subject through the finder and press the shutter release to

take the picture.

Bottom left: Wind on the film for the next exposure.

Bottom right: Close the camera.

 www.butkus.us
passed the film window and finally the figure I appears (as explained
under Loading, p. 26, No. 4. To get the film into position for the
second exposure, turn the key until No. 2 appears in the window
and so on until all exposures have been taken.
Winding film in models with two windows: When the 2f x 3f, in.
or 2[ x 4f in. model is used for full size pictures, use only the far
window and ignore the near window (the one nearest to the film
winding key).
lf the two-size cameras are used with the removable mask in the
film gate for 16 exposures of half size, use both windows. This
applies also to the l$ x 2f, in. models with two windows.
Turn the film winding key until first a hand and a few dots pass.
Finally the figure I appears in the window which is farthest away
from the winding key (as instructed under Loading). To get the film
in position for the second exposure turn the film winding key until
the same No. I appears in the second window, or "near window",
i.e. the one nearest the key. For the third exposure the film is
wound until No. 2 is visible in the far window, for the fourth
exposure one has to wind until No. 2 appears in the near window
and so on.
Consequently each No. on the film corresponds to two exposures
(one in the far and the second one in the near window). As the film
has eight numbers there will be sixteen exposures in all.
9. Close the camera by pressing down the upper links of the struts on
either side and then raising the baseboard of the camera until it
engages on the main body.

Unloading
l. Wind ofr paper end.
2. Open camera back.
. 3. Rdmove exposed film.
4. Close camera back or reload with new film.
l. After all exposures have been taken, wind on the film key until
the paper end disappears in the film window on the back of the
. camera, and finally give a further three turns to the key to wind
the paper fully on to the take-up spool.
2. The camera back is opened as described on p.21, No. l.
3. Remove the film by pulling back the spring stud on the bottom of
the camera and lift the film out of its chamber. Keep it firmly
fastened by the gummed label adhering to it and keep it wrapped up
until it is developed. ':
j
j
'^^ 1. Close the cameri back as described on p. 22, No. 6, or reload as t
28 instructed on p. 21. {
 UNLOADING THE NETTAR AND THE tKoNTA (page 28)

Top left; Turn the transport knob to wind off the end of the backing paper.
Top right: Open rhe camera back.

Bottom left: Pull out the spring and remove the roll of film. Seal the film
immediately.

Bottom right; Close the camera or reload with new film (page 2l).
 www.butkus.us
FOCUSING
Depth of Field.
The lens is focused at some definite distance. This means
that its position relative to the.film is ad.ju.sted in such a
way that whatever is exactly at the focused distance will be
,.pr.r.nted by a "sharp" image on the film. Everything
else-everythi'ng nearer to the camera or farther from it-
will be, stiictly-speaking, "unsharp".
In practice the'declin6 of definidion is, of course, $radual.
Thus there is a zone-stretching from somewhere in front
of the focused distance to somewhere behind it-which -1

will appear sufficiently sharp to the human eye. This is

called depth of field.
Now, what should or shoutd not be accepted as sumciently "
sharp ii debatable. Certain standards, however, have been
agreed upon. lt is agreed that any pin-point represented on
-negative-by
r'tg x i1 in. and'Z* *2[ in. a "dot", the
diarieter*of which d6es n6t excee-d ll25 mm., should be
regarded as sharp. The technical term for that dot is circle
of"confusion. (The accepted circle of confusion for 2f, X
t'iil;
iif,?::"::fijf8'lTj .i,..r" or conrusion are reached
more quickly with cei'tain lenses than with some others'
The reiultr ilto vary with the conditions under which one
definite type of lens is used.
Short fl,ius lenses yield more depth of field thon long focus
lenses.
Smatl opertures yield more dgpth of fi.eld thon lorge oPertures.
Far foc'using dislonces yield more depth of field
thon neor'
focusing.

Control of DePth of Field

focused at, the aperture employed and the fo.cal .length of

the lens-has to be ascertained in each individual case.
30 io start with, let us assume that we work with the standard
 DEPTH OF FIELD (pag. 30)

The depth of field indicator shows clearly how much gf tllg subj-ect will be sh.1p
at any given aperture and distance setting. The depth of field itself varies according
to the listance and the aperture. To facilitate accurate indication pairs of aPerture
numbers are engraved facing the distance scale. The figures on the distance scale
opposite any twt similar aperture figures indicate the near and distant limits of
thd depth of field at that aperture. In the example shown, setting the lers to
l5 ft. dsing f 4.5 gives a depth from 12 ft. to 25 ft., at f 16 ffgry 9 ft.^to infilily-.
When the-tens is set to 6 fi. the depth of field ranges from 5| ft. to 8 ft. at f 4.5
and from 4t ft. to | | ft. at f 16. (See also Page 30.)
 www.butkus.us
fens of 7.5 or 8 cm. focal length of a l$ x 2! in. or Zf, in. sq.
lkonta or Nettar.-only. T-here remiains ihe inteiplay dr
"aperture" and "focusing distance". Their effect cari be
read off on the depth of field table on p. 35-36.
Let us assume we are working with f 5.6 and the rens is
set to I ft. We find in the horizontal column f 5.6, above
the bold distance figure g, G-g* and below g-gj.', and so the
rang€.of focu.s strerches from 6ft.9* in. to 9 ft.9! in. When
working with rhe lens set at the sime distance 6f g ft., but
with apertjle f.3.5, the range of sharpness will exrend
only.from 7.ft.2[ in. to 9 fr.0-+ in., whili aperture f g will
produce a sharp area from d ftl +y in. to lO ft. 9 in. Note
how we.can var)r the area of sharpness by playing with the
stop, without changlng the setting of the disiance: the
smaller the.stop the-larger the. depih of field. So the stop
(apertu-re) is one of the variables by which a convenient
zone of sharpness can be obtained.
The other one ir, olt course, the distance setting. Let us
compare the de-pth values for, let us say, aperturei5.6 at a
distance first of l0 ft., then of 20 ft. and iastlv 50 fr. we
learn that in the first case the depth of fierd st'retches from
8 ft. lf; in. to 12ft. ll in. in the s6cond case from 13 ft.9 in.
to 36 ft. ll in.; and in the last case from 2l ft.3 in. to o
(inftnity). So we see confirmed that the depth of field
grows as we set the lens at distances farther'and farther
away from the camera.
. f ncidenyally,
front
we also conclude that the depth of field in
of the focused distance is always more limlted than the
depth gained behind it. With the iens set ar r0 ft. we ser
!* rt. depth in front of the focused distance and almlst
3 ft. behind it. At 20 ft. we ger over 6 ft. in front of the
focused disrance and 17 ft. behlnd it. At 50 ft. we get27 ft.
in front and to co in the rear.
,^With,gf". l?ng9r.foc.a! length lens 10.5 cm. (4$ in.) to
12 cm. (af in.) of the 2* x 3J in. and 2* x 4* inl moders
the.depth of field is somewhar-reduced (s-ee tab-le on p.36).
, The co.mparative shallowness of the depth of field i;
32 front of the focused distance will sometimes make it neces-
 sar)r-e.g. in landscape ph.otography, where the subjea
ma), have to include much foleground-to set the iens
nearer than the main point.of
.interest lies, in order to gain
additional sharpness t6wards the foreglound whire coveiing
the majn.point of interest by the depth of field behind thE
focused distance. This trick, however, must be used with
moderation. lt should be recalled, that the widerv herd
idea that everything.is equally sharp within the depth of
locus area and completely unsharp outside these liririts is
quite wrong. There is a gradual decline of sharpness even
withi.n. the depth of field areas. Critical ..pin-point"
definition can be expected only in the plane actualiy focused.
so care should be taken to plate the focus as near is possible
lg th9 spot on whi_ch. the-greatest sharpness is r6quired.
Thus in the case of distant-landscapes dse shourd not be
made of the hypgrfo.col distonce. (discribed below) if rhe
sharpness is.required in the far distance; focusing af the far
distance will give better results.
When a lens is focused on such a distance that the depth
of freld just reaches the far distance (infinity) then the lbns
1
I is focused on the "infinity-near-point',' 'or hyperfocal
distance. This setting of focus'is adviiable when it fs'desired
{ to secure adequate sharpness from the farthest distance
to as far as possible in the foreground, rather than extreme
sharpness in the far distance only (see table on p. 34).

I Zone Focusing

i ...There are opp.ortunities in a photographer's life which,

like time and tide, wait for no man;'*t'un to bring your
I whole technical armament to bear-rangefinder foiu'sing,
exposure meter and the rest-would be-to let your prey
escape you for ever. such situations are best deait with by
app.lying. a kind of pre-prepared depth focusing which ii
indicated on the camera-by'red dots on both tFe distance
scale and the aperture scale.

On the Nettor ond the lkonto 2[ x 2t in. and some lg x 2* in. models
there is a red dot between f s and f ir on the apertfru tiilu ;"J 33
NET_C
"*;
 www.butkus.us
30 ft. on the distance scale. lf both distance and aperture are set to these
red dots everything from l3 ft. to infinity will be sharp.
On the 2{ x 3i in. ondZt x 4* in. models a red dot will be found on
the aperture scale between f ll and f l6 and on the distance scale at
about 33 ft. lf both distance indicator and stop indicator are set to the
red dots--everything from obout 16 ft. to infinity will be shorp.

Hlryerfocal Distance and Depth of Field Tables

In the depth of field tables (see pp. 35 to 36), the figures on the
left of each group relate to the setting of the lens stop.
The bold (middle) figures in each group Indicate the distance in feet
to which the lens has to be set on the focusing mount.
The corresponding figures above them give the distance of the near
limit (in feet and inches) of the region of depth of field.
The figures below give the corresponding distance of the far limit.

HYPERFOCAT D'STANCES
(For conversion into metric units see page 651
This ls the approximate focusing distance giving the greatest possible
depth of field from the foreground to infinity.

Aperture f Setting of lens Extent of Depth

(o) (b) in ft. to lnfinity from
2.8 3.5 90 45-0
3.5 4.5 70 35-0
4 5.6 60 30-0
4.5 6.3 50 zs4
5.6 8 44 224
6.3 I 35 t7-6
I tl 30 t5-o
9 t2.5 27 | 3-6
tl l6 22 lt-0
t2.5 t8 20 t0-0
l6 22 t5 7-6
t8 25 t4 74
22 32 tl 5-6
The figures in column (o) apply to the l$ x 2f in. and 2t x 2t ln.
Nettar and lkonta, the figures in column (b) apply to the 2{ in. x 3} in.
and 2{ in. x 4* in. models.
NOTE.-The infinity near point (hyperfocal distance) should not be
34 used when maximum sharpness is required in the far distance.
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4
 FITMS AND M,TERS

There is no sqch-thing as "best," film for any or every

kind of picture. Each typE of fitm has certain chaiacteristici,
especially with regard to colour sensitivity, speed, grada-
tion, latitude, and grain.

Colour Sensitivity
The ordinary emulsion is only sensitive to violet and blue
light, and therefore is bound to give an untrue black-and-
whjte rendering..of subjects containing yellow, green and/or
red (as practically all objects do).
An improvement has been made in the orthochromotic
emulsion which is sensitive also to green and yellow, while
the.ponchromotic film has been made sensitiv6 not only to
violet, blue, green and yellow, but also to red. Sbme
particularly fast panchromatic films are over-sensitive to
red and will render this colour too light.
The advantages of having a negative material sensitive to
all colours-violet, blue, green, yellow and red-are so ;
striking that it
was evident that the genuine panchromatic i

film would displace the other typeJ of film- for general

-(green
j

purposes. Still, for subjects not containing red i

landscapes) or when lighting conditions tend to bloi out l

reds too much (lips of portraits taken in incandescent

light), orthochromatic materials come in very useful. i
i

I
-t

Speed .l
1

i
i
The sensitivity of film materials to light in general is !

measured in Scheiner, Hurter ond Driffield, Westbn or Din

and other degrees. Scientists and manufacturers all agree
that none of the methods employed to determine the speed
of films is entirely satisfactory, and continue to give prefer- :

ence to one or the other of them. In any case, although I

:.1
l
speed is a very obvious asset, it is also a guility which mu-st 3Z
i
I
1

") l
 www.butkus.us
be paid for by possible disadvantages of the materlal in some
other respect. To call the fastest film the best would be
Ju1 q.foolish as to select a racing car for daily motoring.
While a scientifically correct conversion of one speed
rating s)rstem to another cannot be made owing to their
different principles, the following list gives some guidance
as to their practical relationship.

CONYERS'ON IABTE OF DIFFERENT SPEED DEGREES

BS & ASA Exposure

Europeon lndex Numbers Weston G.E.
Scheiner (Arithm.) (tog.) Speed Speed D'N H. & D.
t4 1.5 t3 4.2 2 4il0 60
t7 3
, t6 2.5 4 ilo t20
roi r0 2s0
7
20 6 t9 5 8
23 t2 22 t0 t6 r3/t0 500
26 25 25 20 32 r6ir0 t000
29 50 28 40 64 l9lr0 2000
32 100 3l 80 t25 221t0 4000

ln this table each value represents twice as fast a film speed as the one
immediately above it. In some systems this doubling of fiim speed means
p9-r.9asin-g the speed number by 3 each time (Scheiner, BS Log. lndex,
qlN), while in others the film speed itself is'directly proportional to
the speed 1qm-ber, and therefore inversely proportionil to the exposure
required (BS Arith. lndex, Weston, G.E., H. & D.).
SLOW FILMS of less than about 26" Sch. can be usefully employed for
scientific photography, copying, architectural details.' Theii main
advantage is tlgir extremely fihe grain, making special development
to cope widh live
unnecessaD/. Their- disadvantage is their inability-lighting
subjects in other _than exceptionally favourable conditions,
lack of latitude and, in most cases, hard gradation.
MEDIUM FILMS of 26-29" Sch. are the right material for the beginner,
and can be well employed for any of the avtrage subjects. Their-advan.
tages are: reasonably fine grain without the use of too complicated
methods of development, correct tone rendering, good r6solving
power.. Disadvantlges: further loss of speed if fine lrain developmeni
hal!9 be employed and sometimes steep gradation.
FAST PAN FILMS of 31" Sch. and dver are for high-speed shots,
interiors, stage pictures and night photography. Advaniagei: increased
sensitivity_to.red (artificial light), use of smaller apertules (depth of
focus). Disadvantages: graininess which, however, can be improved
aA by special methods of developing (at some cost of speed), and somewhat
JU uneven tone rendering (reds too light). $
I
 PICTURE SIZES FOR NETTARS AND IKONTAS

'6.5x ll cm.; 2ix4*, inches

616 film, I exposures

6x9 cffi;i 2|x3f inches

120 or 20 film, B exposures

6x6 cm.; 2*x2-$'inches

120 or 20 film, l2 expos.ures

Some 2f x 3f in. Nettars and lkontas

allow masking to obtain l6 exposures,
I I x 2| in. on standard | 20 fi | m.

/-
 www.butkus.us
Grain
_ silver g.rainsthemselves form the picture in the emutsion.
To the naked eye.they form a compact, dark mass, but under
the. magnifylng- glass-or microscope the separare crumps of
grains are vis.ible. obviously, if the grain of a negative is
coarse' it will soon become visible in an enlargemEnt, and
the finer the structure of grain, the gre"t"i degree of
magnification will be visible without the-appearance-of any
u.npleasant granular effect in the print. As a idre, it can be sail
that the grain size is in direct relation to the speed of the film
. (p. 38). _The faster the film, rhe coarser the grain and vice
versa. The grain can to a certain extent be influenced by
development- (fi ne-grain developm"ntj, u*p*rr", etc.

Gradation fi
Every film has an ability of its own to reproduce various
'the
i:Sr9es of brightness. on its emulsion. lf ability of a
film is confined go olly a..small number of black-greylyn6ir"
tones' we speak .o.f . "high contrast" or harii negative
material. lf it is. able to reproduce many delicate shaies of ii

grey between black and white, it is kn6wn as a ..low con-

trast" or "soft" film. Generally speaking, low speed films
of fine grain possess a higher co'ntrist thai fast films.

Lratitude
Latitude is the ability of the-film to yield usable negatives,
even with a certain amount of under-'or (more often-) over-
exp.osure. Films praised for particularly wide latitude may
facilitate exposure, but are iikely to have ress "resolvini
power", causing loss of definition,'which in big entargementi
is just as unpleasant as graininess.
.help negative material has a number of additionar
9urtowards properties which
good results. There is a special "proteciive coating",
a hardened gelatine layer on. top of the ictual sensitive layer which
protects aglinst scratches. The base has a coloured backing in order
40 i?"il::l:"i.":ff| g":iL"r'i,t"li;'J'"g through the emursi6n on the

\*-'-,*.,r.".
 CHARACTERSI,CS OF SOME FIUqIS

Speed Field of
in Grada- Applico-
l,/loke TyDe Scheiner Groin tion tion
Agfo:
lsochrom o
lsopan
lsopan
F
ISS
F
P
R
7?:
32o
',:,
mg
n
n
n/s
A
A
B
Dufoy:
Ortho
Pan
Ensign:
o
P I3: IE
n
n
A
A
F. G. Pan P 27" ef n A
Ultrachrome o
Ultrapan
Ferronio:
R 3?: lE,
n
n/s
A
B

Super Pancro R 320 mg n/s B

Ultracromatica o 30" fg n A
Gevaert:
Gevapan 27 P 27" ef
Gevapan 30
n A
P 320 mg n/s B
Gevapan 33 R 330 mg n B
Gevachrome 30 o 30" fg n A
llford:
F.P.3 R 290 ef
H.P.3
n A
R 320 mf n/s B
Selochrome o 29" fg n A
Kodak:
Panatomic X P 27" ef
Plus X
n A
P 3oo fg n A
Super XX P 320 mg n/s B
Verichrome o 29" fg n A
lndex of Abbreviotions in obove Toble
TYPE: O :
ortho^chromatic, p : panchromatic, ft : panchromatic
with increased red sensitivity.
GRAIN: ef : extra fine grain, fg : fine grain, ffig : medium
grain. e- -"'' fine
GRADATION: n : normal, n/s : normal tending to soft.
FIELD APPLICATToN: A : universar materiar for ail average
oF
photograph)r,. B :. materiat for phoiotrapl,t u;e;;'Jnf"-*u'..Ute
conditions, theatricar work and' wheie itl,rt"rt-L-p;;;;"- tight
more essential than finest grain. '' -
times are
4l
 www.butkus.us
Colour Film
F
There are two types of colour films suitable for the lkonta i

and Super lkonta.

One'is represented by Agfocolor, Pakolor, and Kodacolor.
These films produce negativel in colour where the light.parts t
of the subject are dirk and vice versa-as in ordinary
negatives. in addition, the colours are reversed; blues are
yeiiow, reds are btue-green, and greens are red-dish. These F
i

lolour'negatives are-then printld on a similar type of I

material to give colour prints or colour enlargements.

The seconE type of col6urfilm (e.g. Ansco Color,Ektochro.me) f I

produces posidive colour transParencies on the film which

was exposed in the camera. These.transParencies can q
either be viewed against a bright light (e.g. in a viewer) or
proiected on a screen by means of a transParency proiector.
' With both kinds of colour film there are different tyPes'
balanced for either daylight or artificial light photography.
PROCESSING. Most iolour materials can be processed
by the user. The procedure is somewhat more complicated
t6an with black-arid-white film. Special processing kits are
usually available, containing af l the chemicals and solutions
req ui red.
Alternatively, the film can be returned to the makers or
to special colour laboratories for processing.
I
COLOUR F'TMS ON THE MARKET
I

Tvpe Speed in Processing Conversion Speed

Scheiner Filter Sch. with
Conversion T
Filter

Agfacolor Neg. Daylight 23" Maker, user

Agfacolor Neg. Tungsten 23" Maker, user
Ansco Color Daylight 230 Trade, user Ansco l0' 180
Ansco Color Tungsten 23" Trade, user Ansco I lr' '230
Ektachrome Daylight 22" Trade, user
Ferraniacolor Rev. Daylight 25" User
Gevacolor Neg.-Pos. Daylight 230 Maker
Kodacolor Daylight 26" Maker
Kodacolor Photoflood 260 Maker
Pakolor Daylight 230 Maker, user
Pakolor Photofloods 23" Maker, user

,^
i|6 film for use in daylight.
+
I
 The Use of Filters
The photographic film, even when orthochromatic or
panchromatic, fails to render colours in their true black-
and-white tone values, so that the photograph often giu",
qyiq". a false impression of the real icene.-The explanition
of this discrepancy is the following.
s.peaking, to.the human.eye yeilow appears
--scientifically
to be over ten times. as bright as blue, thiee iimes as'bright
as red, and one and a hali times as bright as green. fh"
average. pancf rglnatic film -howevjr,
.(see p-. 3Z), registers
blue with a brilliance of about four-hfths that of y-ellow,
tt green yitt.one-third and red with two-thirds of the'bright-
l

ness of yellow.
It is, therefore, evident that in order to obtain a colour
rendering which shall correspond ro the impression of
'i' colours .as .perceived by qhe eye-(with_ some degree of
accuracy), the relative sensitivit.j of bur film to the various
colours will have to be correcred. This can be achieved by
I
the use of filters.
Filters are employed correct on our negative material
-tg
.various,degrees. of brig.htness of the ictual picture.
th_e
()n the whole they lighten obJects of their own col6ur and
darken those of thericomplemenra.ry. colour (".g. yellow
filter will darken the blue'of the ski). They'miy "b6 used
to obtain a colour rendering in our"picture'whiih corres-
ponds more closely to the i-mpression made upon our- eye
by the object; her6 we speak of ,'correction filiers". -t -

. Fifters
lor
may afso be employed to produce certain effects;
Instance, our pictu.re.can be made to show heavy clouds
against a particularly dark sky, whereas the actuat landscape
only light clouds in a blue sky. Filters employid
I:":il:d
to such ends are termed "effect filterst'.
All filters cut out certain parts of the light and an increase
,j exposure time is.always nece_ssary ilhen using ttrurn.
Exact
.figures can^only be'given for 6ach particulir ;r;;
according to the film used, for the exposure ratio aepenas
not only on the nature of the fitter but also on the cblour 43

rL _ .**id&'. .-,+j.s-,
 www.butkus.us

sensitivit)' of the film and on the colour of the light in which

the photograph has to be taken.
The following list gives a summary of the filters recom-
mended and a short explanation of their use.
YELLOW FILTERS: suitable for orthochromatic and panchromatic
film. They mainly reduce the actinic effect of blue, rendering it
darker and are therefore particularly suitable for landscape photo-
graphy in order to obtain clearly defined cloud effects on a normal
blue sky. ln the case of a ver)' light blue sky, a darker filter should be
used and vice versa.
GREEN FILTERS: suitable for panchromatic films. Their effect is
similar to that of yellow filters, but they also hold back red (render
it darker) to which some panchromatic films are comparatively over-
sensitive (photographing it too light). 1
'ULTRA-VIOLET FILTERS: for orthochromatic and panchromatic
film. The very light ultra-violet filter is only to be used at heights
of 6,500 ft. (2,000 m.) and over to avoid an unduly dark sky, such as ,t
would be obtained by using a yellow filter. At the same time it absorbs
the ultra-violet rays of high altitudes for which the lens is not corrected $r
and which would reduce the definition.
ORANGE FILTERS: are for panchromatic film only. They give &
over-correction and serve therefore as an "effect" filter for drawing
heavy clouds against a dark sky, and they show distant views clearly in
landscapes, eliminating light haze, etc.
RED FILTERS: are for panchromatic film only. Of still stronger
effect than the orange filter, for extreme contrast, creating black sky
with brilliant clouds, faking sunshine into moonlight, effects, etc. !"
BLUE FILTERS: are for panchromatic film in artificial light. They I
b'
absorb part of the red sensitivity. This results in better skin-tones
and darker red (lips). $

l
x

The filter factor is the number by which the exposure

time indicated by an exposure chart or meter should be
multiplied when a particular filter is used in conjunction
with a particular type of film. The factors on p. 45 will be
found sufficientl)t correct for all practical purposes. Other
publications may insist on more exacting values-e.g.
1.4, | .7. Such factors are of little use to the practical worker.
Even if he is a good enough mathematician to play with odd
fractions he will probably find that the shutter speeds so
arrived at do not exist on most cameras. Besides, the effect
44 of a difference of 0.1 or 0.2 in the factor is quite negligible-

f
 consider.ing that photographic exposure and devefopment
are hardl)t ever scientifically controlled processes, even in
the hands of very careful workers.

FILTER FACTORS

Pon. film with Zeiss

_Correct Increosed sensi- Orthochro- Code
Filter Pon. Film tivity for Red matic iilm No.
Doy Art. Day Art. Doy Art.
Light Light Light Light Light Light
Light Yellow t.5 1.5 t.5 t.5 2 t.5 GI
Medium Yellow 2 t.5 2 t.5 2.5 2 G2
Deep Yellow
Orange
3 2 2.5 2 53 G3
5 2 4 2 G4,
Light Red 7 3 4 2 Rt0
Yellow-Green
Green
2 f.5 2.5 t.5 3 2.5 GR55
4 3 4 3 GRsO
Dark Green 5 5 6 6
Light Blue t.5 t.5 840

Polarizing Fitter
There are times when the judicious use of reflections wiil enhance
the. pictoriat effect
9f.tl9 pictgi'.e, but they are arso i;;q;;ili), outiusi"e
and undesirabte. Highty-polished subjeits, foi;r#;1";-;re difficult
to illuminate successfully sb as to obtairi a.true pt otolr'"pii. ,"nJ"ri'g,
since they.will reflect tbo.much right and spoil itre-i'epiod-uction
with
a glare. wh!9h obscures the detail ro overcome this difffur;y ;h;
polarizing filter has been introduced. lt consists-oi'" t"yu. of
hera-
pathite' cemented between
.two. opticar -frat g_lasses. rd suppresses
Ii iil'.' :x! i:: i: ffi ';ii';*i'. fl ',.1'f; il,} Ii,
8l:lss, chtna, enamel, polished wooden surfaces, *ater, vibrate
J :''* i xi{:. - *:*
" to a
.(i.e. it is polarized) and ian,'ti.,ururo.",-ue
large extent, in one. p.iane
almost extinguished byplicing the' polarizi;g-filt;;"in-'ii," correcr
position.over the lens. This filier wili prove p-articularly useful when
taking shop windows, furniture, photoiraphirij ;;;bl'".;s, erc.
I ne frrter has to be rotated to find out its belt position
on the lens.
It is^simply held in-front of the eye, tt"n-il6*li i"t":t"a. Then
Ene fllrer must De stipped over the lens"na in the position selected. As the
polarizing filter is tihted, the exposure time ihould u" incieued.
the
racror oetng aDout three times. 45

-,"**'-
 www.butkus.us
EXPOSIJRE

The correct exposure time depends on:

l. The amount and colour o-f light reflected from the
obiect to be photographed. This, in its turn' depends on
th6 season of lhe yelr,'the time of day, weather, etc.
2. The speed df film, the kind of filter used, and the
aperture employed.
'The correct exposure time can be ascertained with:
EXPOSURE TABLES. These are based on mathematical
calculations and practical experience. They tabulate all
or most of the factors given above, and, if used with dis-
cretion, will give an exfosure figure which lies within the
latitude of tlie film. such an exposure table is given on
p. 47. (f'he Focol Exposure Chort is quick wo,rfilS' uP-to-
te and the mosc
iate comprehensive exPosure table.)
most comprenenslve Laure.,
OPTICAL EXPOSU{E METERS-also called "visual" or
"extinction type" meters. They measure, with the aid of
the eye, the amount of light reflected. Their main advantage
lies ih the fact that they can be used under parcicularly
poor light conditions-indoors, for example. Their accurac),
iuffersjrom the fact that the sensitivity of people's eyes
to light varies consideraUl. ^
pHoro-elEcrRlc EXPoSURE METERS. They are the
most accurate and dependable means available for arriving
at the right exposure time. They consist of a p-hoto-electric
cell whiEh converts light-energy into electricity,. which .in
turn moves an indicat6r over6 table of light values. The
field covered by an electric meter is wider than that covered
by the average camera lens which h-as an angle of around 50".
Tire measureiment should be taken from a point nearer to the
subject than the one at which the camera is actuallysituated.
As any merer measures the light value of dark and light
objecti within its field, it will- be necessar)' !o point the
instrument towards the darkest detail within the area to be
photoqraphed, provided that no deliberate under-exPosure
bf thu-shadows'is intended as may be the case with par-
{6 ticularly contrasty subjects like stage shots, etc.
 ilIllr

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT

Add the respective figures in the Tables 1,2, and 3; the correct
exposure time can be taken from Table 4.
I, Subject ond light volue
Clear Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy
Sun Light Med. Dull
Distant land or seascape without
foreground
light foreground
-with
Open streets, sq uares, light
buildings
Figures, groups in open, near
objects without heavy shade

Average interiors, diffused light t0

2. Month ond time

Moy Nov.
June Aug. Sept. Oct. Dec.
July April Morch Feb. Jon.
ll a.m. to 2 p.m.
9 a.m. to ll a.m.
2 p.m. to 4 p.m.
4 p.m. to 6 p.m.

3. Film speed ond operture

Film Speed Stop Stop Stop Stop Stop Stop Stop
Scheiner fZ f2.8 f4 f s.6 F8 f tl ft6
320
29"
26"

4. | + 2 * 3: "Value"')
Result (sum of Tobles
Value 6 7 I 9 t0 tl ,2 t3 t4
Seconds l/50O I l25O l/100 l/50 | l2S l/10 tl' tlz I
Value 15 16 17 18 19 20 Value 2l 22 23 24
Seconds 2 4 I 16 30 60 Minutes 2 t6 4r

r.*
 www.butkus.us
The Right Negative
The photographer who shoots haphazardly, relying on
the latitude of modern films, just like a snapshotter with a
box camera, does not deserve and will not get better pic-
tures than the man with that instrument.
The employment of some exposure help is strongly
recommended to secure negatives suitable for considerable
enlarging. The negatives must be sharp, have fine grain and
show a well-balanced gradation.
The beginner will be particularly well advised to use the
exact exposure time suggested by his table or meter and
to employ straightforward methods of development; that
is to sa)r, a developer giving fine grain without loss of
emulsion speed. ln this way he will achieve negatives with
the best definition for a reasonable degree of enlargement.
It should be borne in mind that the latitude allowed for
under-exposure by any film is very small indeed, while on
the other hand the old rule rather to over-expose does not
hold good for small negatives, as an over-exposed negative
will as a rule show more grain and poorer definition.
Further, the shutter speed must not be selected solely
to give a well-exposed negative, but should be kept short.
Short shutter speeds are important in counteracting the
danger of camera shake. Even the slightest shake will
result in less crisp definition. Practical experience goes to
show that l/100 sec. is safe, while one has to hold the
camera particularly steady when using l/25 sec. or even
l/50 sec. (see also p. 26). Short shutter speeds are also
desirable to arrest movement of the object.
Bearing in mind that the next bigger aperture (smaller
number) allows one to halve the shutter speed should
make it easy to arrive at a suitable compromise between
a stop yielding sufficient depth of field (see p. 30) and
still short enough a shutter speed to exclude camera shake
and to arrest movement. ll for example, one has found
that the right shutter speed is l/25 sec. at f 8, the corre-
sponding shutter speed at f 5.6 will be l/50 sec. and at
48 f 4.5 U 100 sec.
 CTOSE-I'P WORK
While l$ x 2f in. and 2* x2[ in. Nettar and lkonta
models generally focus down to 3.5 ft. and the larger models
to 7 ft., one can work still closer with the Proxar lenses.
Where the original lenses are not available any photo-
graphic dealer or optician will be in a position to supply a
range of meniscus type lenses of suitable size for the right
sort of filter mount, and which will serve the same purpose
as the original lenses with the same efficiency.
These close-up lenses can be applied to all t)'pes of near
distance photography such as plants, objets d'art, small
creatures, table top work, copying of books, documents, etc.
Mount the camera on the tripod, and approach the subject
until it appears the desired size in the viewfinder field.
According to the distance, place the appropriate Proxar
lens on the lens mount. Then measure accurately the dis-
tance between the front of the Proxar lens and the centre
of your subject and look for this distance In the focusing
table on page 50.
Besides the special Proxar lenses, a range of meniscus
lenses in suitable mounts can equally well be used. The lenses
suggested are *l diopter, +2 diopters, f3 diopters. The
distances obtained with these lenses are:
With +l diopter, from 39f to 20{. in. (100 to 5l cm.).
With +2 diopter, from 20 to l3 in. (50 to 33 cm.).
W,th +3 diopter, from l3 to l0 in. (33 to 25 cm.).
When working with these lenses the distance should be
measured from the front of the supplementary lens to the
subject. No increase in exposure is called for, but it is
advisable to stop down to f 5.6 when using them.
The tables on p. 50 give the distance at which the lens has
to be set, when used with the Proxar lens, to obtain sharp
focus at a given distance of an object.
The depth of field, when working at very short distances,
is rather limited. The table on p. 52 gives a clear indication
of the depth of field to be expected at various working
distances and apertures.
NET_D
 www.butkus.us
CTOSE-UPS WITH 2t x 3* in. IKONIA
ond NETTAR
j (For conversion into metric units see p. 66)
f . Proxor 0.5 or + 0.5 diopter lens

Lens Set Distonce Subject Field

to (Front of LensJbject)
(ft.) (,n.) (,n.)

@ 7e* 43 x 65f
50 68* 37t x stt
25 6ti 33f x slf
t5 s4* 291 x asl
t2 s0* 27[ x att
9 44* 24 x 36t
6 36 tet x Tet
5 32+' t7[ x 26t

2. Proxor I or * I dioPter lens

Lens Set Distonce Subiect Field
to (Front of lens-Object)
(ft.) (,n.) (tn.)
@ 3e+ 2l II X 32*
50 36* 20 X 30*
25 34* t8 X 28lj
l5 32 l7 X 26t
t2 30* t6 X 25
9 28* t5 X 23*
6 2E t3 X 20
5 23 l2 X t8+

3. Proxor 2 or + 2 diopter lens

Lens Set Distonce Subject Field
to (Front of Lens-Object\
(ft.) (tn.) (tn.)
@ tet l0S x l6f
50 t9 l0{ x 16
25 t8* l0* x ls*
t5 t7+ 9tx 15
l2 t7* eix l4i
I t6* 8f x l3f
6 t5 8i x l2i
50 5 t+ 7f x llf
 CLOSE-UPS WITH 2t x2[ in. TKONTA
ond f$ x 2[in. NEffAR
(For conversion into metric units see p. 66)

f. Proxor I or + I diopter lens

lens Set Distonce Subject Field*

to (Front of Lens4bject)
(ft.) (tn.) (tn.)

@ 3e* 30 x30
50 36* zftxzft
25 34* 26f x 261
l5 32 24[ x 24i
t2 30+ 23i x 23[
9 28* ztt x ztt
4 2t* lsf x 15$

2. Proxor 2 or + 2 diopter lens

lens Set Distonce Subject Field*

to (Front of Lens-Object)
(ft.) ('n.) (tn.)

@ te* ls{ x lsf

50 t9 t4t x t4i
25 t8* 14 x14
t5 t7* l3f x 13{
l2 a7 13 x13
9 t6* t2[ x t2[
4 l3* lof x lof

rrhe field size for l$ in. x 2f in. negatives has the same length as
given, but is only two-thirds as *ide. 51

,.*r..-
 www.butkus.us
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 FIASH PHOTOGRAPTTY :

Flash is an efficient light source where no or insufiicient

daylight is available, such as at night, indoors, etc. In the
flash.f ight you carry yo.ur own private "sun" with which you
can.illuminate.your subject or scene at any time and plaie.
The flash bulb is similar to a small electric bulb. However,
yh9n. current passes through it, it lights up in an intense
flash fasting usually about l-125 or l/5b sec.'Each bulb will
flash only once and has to be discarded afterwards. Electronic
flash units give several thousand flashes, each of l/5000 sec.
The flash bulb is inserted in a battery case, and the current
of the battery is used to set offthe buib. A reflecror behind
the bulb makes sure thar all the light is directed towards the
subject.
' The most efi.cie.nt types of flash guns incorporare a
capacitor unit which increases the reliability of firing, even
yh.gn the battery is nearly exhausted. The light of th-e flash
bulb is strong enough to allovr medium to smill apertures to
be used for the exposure. The shutter speed-prbvided it is
slow_er than _l 125-U50 sec.-has no effect on exposure since
the flash is shorter than the exposure time.

How to Use Flash

The shutters of the Nettar and the lkonta models made
since 1950 are internally synchronized for flash. A flash
contact socket protrudes on the flange of the shutter. An
electrical cable from the battery dase (with flash bulb
and reflector) is^connected to theii flash sotket b)' means of
a special plug. on releasing the shutter an electric circuit is
automatically closed through the flash contact when the
shutter is almost fully open,setting offthe flash bulb at this
very moment.
With this internal synchronization shutter speeds up to
li50 and l/l00.sec. can be used if flash bulbs aie empl6yed
which need only a short time to come to the peak of their 53
 www.butkus.us
light output, that is some 4-7 milliseconds. Such bulbs are'
for example, the Speed Midget types. With other bulbs the
delay is generally some 20 millisecgnds (l/50 sec.); they
should be used only at a shutter speed of ll75 sec. to ensure
that the maximum illumination coincides with the full oPen-
ing of the shutter. Electronic flash has no firing delay and can
be used with any speed.
The shutters bf earlier cameras which are not originally
internally synchronized can be converted. A mechanical
synchronizer can be employed, which screws into the cable
r-elease socket of the body release. Pressing the plunger of
this flash release will then simultaneously release the shutter
and fire the flash bulb. However, no mechanical syn-
chronization is entirel)t reliable.

Speed-synchronized Shutters Ou*Kcrs , ;/ S

The shutters of the models supplied since l95l are speed- I
synchronized for using flash bulbs at even the fastest shutter -il
speeds. t
THE SPEED-SYNCHRONIZED PRONTOR SV shutter has
an adjustable flash contact which can close the flash circuit, I

either when the shutter is fully open (X-setting, similar to #Y

the normal synchronization of shutters with flash contact) J
or approximately 20 milliseconds earlier to allow for the I

firing delay of most flash bulbs (M-setting).

For the X-setting move the synchronizing lever to the red
dot (X). The shutter closes the flash circuit at the moment
when the blades are fully open. This setting is suitable for
electronic flash at any speed, and with flash bulbs of the
Speed Midget type up to l/100 sec.
For the M-setting move the synchronizing lever to the
yellow dot, and set the delayed action lever to "M". The
shutter closes the flash circuit 20 milliseconds before the
shutter blades are fully open. This setting is suitable for the E
majority of flash bulbs, at all shutter speeds up to l/30_0 sec.
- This setting will not synchronize electronic flash or Speed #
54 Midget type flash bulbs. l

,.1

,i
.. .,,-. .,- - .. , .--;', /
 For use, connect the flash lead from the flash gun to the
flash socket on the shutter. Set the synchronizing lever and
the delayed action lever (except at the X-setting) to the delay
time required. Set the aperture and shutter speed as usual.
Put a bulb in the flash gun, focus, and release the shutter to
fire the flash and take the picture.
With the M-setting the delayed action lever must be
reset for every exposure. At X no resetting is needed.
With the X-setting you can use the delayed action release
in the usual way if you want to appear in the picture yourself.
At the M-setting the delayed action mechanism is part of the
synchronizing system and thus cannot be used for its original
purpose as "delayed action".
THE SPEED.SYNCHRONIZED SYNCHRO.COMPUR
shutter has two synchronizing settings which are set by
means of a synchronizing lever.
For the X-setting move the synchronizing lever to position
X. The shutter closes the flash circuit at the moment when
rthe shutter blades are fully open. This setting, which is
similar to the normal synchronization of the Compur-
Rapid shutter, is suitable for electronic flash at any speed,
and for flash bulbs at speeds up to l/25 sec.
For the M-setting move the synchronizing lever to position
M. The shutter closes the flash circuit l6-18 milliseconds
before the shutter blades open, to allow for the firing delay
of most average flash bulbs. This setting is suitable for
normal flash bulbs at all shutter speeds up to l/500 sec. The
M-setting will not synchronize electronic flash or Speed
Midget type bulbs which have a firing delay of 5 milliseconds.
For use connect the flash lead from the flash gun to the
flash socket on the shutter. Set the synchronizing lever to
the appropriate position. Set the aperture and shutter
speed as usual. Put a bulb in the flash gun, focus, and release
the shutter to fire the flash and take the picture.
The table on p. 56 summarizes the shutter speeds at which
most flash bulbs on the market can be synchronized with the
various synchro-settings ofthe Prontor SV and the Synchro-
Compur speed-synchronized shutters. S
 www.butkus.us
SUITABLE SHUTIER SPEEDS FOR FI.ASH

C/oss Flosh Synchronizing Sertings

Prontor SV: X p{ M
Synchro-Compur: X M

F G.E., G.E.C., Mazda, West-

inghouse: Speed Midget
(sM).
r- r/ r00 t-t/300

Sylvania: SF.
Philips: PFS.

Osram: FO. r-r/s0 r-r/r00

Osram: Fl, F2. t-t lzs r-r /s0
M Osram: S 2. r-r/r0 t-t las t-t1s00
M G.E., G.E.C., Mazda, West-
inghouse: No. 5, No. ll,
No.22.
Osram: Sl.
Philips: PF 3N, PF 14, PF 25, .-tlzs t-,12s t-t/s00
PF 38, PF 60.
Stella: SF 14, SF 25, SF 60.
Sylvania: Press 25, Press 40,
No.0.
M Sylvania: No. 2. t-t lzs t-t lzs t-t/t00
S G.E.,Westinghouse:No.50. l-l/10 t-t l2s t-t/t00
Philips: PF 100.
Stella: SF 100.
Sylvania: No. 3.

X Electronic flash (most types). l-l/500

F Relay fired electronic flash. l-li 100 l-l/300
trhis F setting is only found on some Prontor SV shutters now dis-
continued.
The speeds given for the X-setting also apply to shutters with built-in
56 flash contact.
The Correct Aperture
Here are the apertures to use for some of the more
common flash bulbs if used in an efficient reflector, in a room
of average brightness and with shutter_speeds uP to l/25 sec.
They are correct for a film of 30"-32o Sch.

APERTURES WITH FLASH BUTBS

Distonce Mazdo Philips Mozdo, Philips: PhiliPs:

G.E., PF 14 G.E., PF 38 PF 50
G.E.C.: G.E.C.: Sylvonio: Mozdo,
SM No. 5. Press 40 G.E.,
Philips: Philips: G.E.: G.E.C.:
PFS ond PF 25 No. I I No. 22
PF 3N Sylvonio: Sylvonia:
Sylvanio: Press 25 No. 2
SF

6 ft. (2 m.) t6 t6
8 ft. (2.5 m.) t2.5 t6
l0 ft. (3 m.) t0 r2.5 ;
l2 ft. (3.6 m.) I tl t6 l6
l5 ft. (a.5 m.) 6.3 9 il t2.5 t6
20 ft. (6 m.) 4.5 6.3 8 l0 t2.5
25 ft. (7.5 m.) 4 5.6 6.3 I tl
30 ft. (9 m.) 3.5 4.5 5.6 6.3 9

ln bright rooms (kitchen, bathroom) or with films faster than 32o

Sch., use next smaller aperture. In very large rooms, at nightoutdoors,
or with slower 27"-29o Sch. film use next larger aPerture.
The Focol Flosh Disc (a celluloid disc to fit the pocket) is a simple and
convenient ready means of reading off the correct aPerture to use for
any flash bulb at any distance, shutter setting and film speed.
The Focol Flosh Chort gives exposures for all types of flash as well
as for flash combined with daylight. lt further contains a list of all
flash bulbs with their use and performance, also information on "colour
and flash" and much additional flash data.
 www.butkus.us
SITBJECTS IN FRONT OF THE CAMERA
In dealing with the various types of photographic subjects
we shall necessarily confine ourselves to those of greatest
interest to the average lkonta or Nettar user. We shall not
discuss photography in general, but devote our attention to
the peculiarities and the suitability of these cameras in .i4

approaching one or the other subject.

Landscapes
To the user of the Nettar or the lkonta who carries his
camera as a constant companion, landscapes will offer a rich
variety of pictorial opportunities. There are, of course'
pitfalls,
- too.
The typical picture postcard view with wide oPen fore_-
grounds and distant background rich in diminutive detail,
is a somewhat thankless subject. When it is reduced to a so
much smaller size than it appears to our eyes, it may drop
altogether beyond the resolving power of the film Par-
ticularly when over-exposed. Much more easy to take are I
small sections of a landscape with a pronounced foreground. :,

The inclusion of foreground will help to start offthe picture a

with an interesting shape to hold the eye and so make the 4

interpretation of distance more easy. it

'.1

Litile subject matter and much characteristic mood will

yield the best landscapes. Sections of landscapes with._a
ioreground, for example, of water, reflecting houses, hills
or ilouds, interesting patterns of foreground shadows,
A
..:

particularly in strong sidelight or against the light, will give

successful plctures. On the other hand, landscapes mainly
consisting of greens, €.8. meadows with woods in the back-
ground
- Winterwill, as a rule, turn out disappointing.
landscapes will only be lively and show uP snow
and hoar frost if taken in sunshine and with strong side
light or against the light. A lens hood is both parasol and
umbrella to the lens, improving the brilliance of the negative
58 in any weather.
ti
 Orthochromatic films are still good for green landscapes.
Medium speed panchromatic film will, however, give better
colour rendering.
A light yello* filter should always be used to. get. true
colouirendering. lf clouds and distance are to be shown
prominently, use a medium yellow filter. An orange filter
lives dramitic sky effect and considerably reduces distant
haze.
When photographing in strong side light and against the
light, for the shadows.
'Youexpose that the best landscape pictures occur when
will find
the sky has that billowing white cloud which often precedes
more 'ominous skies. Th-e cloud breaks uP the glaie of the
sun and casts interesting shadow Patterns.
Don't break up the Picture by having exactly equal areas
of earth and sky.' lf thd sky is devoid of interesting clouds it
is not worth more than the top third of the picture. On
the other hand, a veD/ interesting cloud formation can make
up-but only to a certain extent-for lack of landsfape
interest and-you can let the sky take up two-thirds of the
pictu re.
' lf the foreground to your Picture is vacant it will be boring.
Try to incllde a large object of some kind in the fore-
gr6und-a clump of tftes, a cottage, or a gnarled and twisted
free stump. This provides the bold relief to the otherwise
detailed photograph and helps to suSSest depth. . B.ut have it
always at one side or the other, never in the middle.
Put the camera on a tripod if you want really sharp
pictures. Then you can stop- dowl for depth of field and use
i longer exposure without fear of camera shake.

Portraits
Proper pofrraits should have roundness and have no
disturbing'background detail. This calls for critical.focusing
and widJ apertures. Avoid going too_ close. The most
suitabfe working distance is around 7-5 ft.
--As-uotrt
iiin?iri bacLground-should be carefully S9
"no
 www.butkus.us
controlled, it is often easiest to work indoors In artificial
light. The Nettar or lkonta user who has never tried his
hand at artificial .light photography may suspect that a fair
amount of complications will be involved in this type of
photography. But nothing js simpler and more satiifying
than using these cameras indoors.
Two Photoflood lamps in reflectors are all you need. The
background for portrait work is formed by a'plain-coloured
waJl g. a piece of dalf or.light cloth hung from the picture
rail. The sitter should be kept away fromlhe background as
far as possible-as a rule abdut 3 fd.
. The exposure time with two lamps will be reasonably
short-e.g. with the lamps about 5 ft. from the subject and i
medium pan film of 29" Scheiner, it will be l/25 sei. at f 4.5.
A good way to hold the camera is to straddle a chair,
supporting th9 camera on the chair-back, and so do awa),
with the need for atripod. This position ensures ar the samb
time that the camera is about at the eye-level of the model.
lf the camera looks down on the sitter, the picture would
show a foreshortened skull and diminutive ch'in.
. Full figure portraits can be shown with advantage from a
low angle.
. The use of high s.peed pan filmsof excessive red sensitiviry
is not very advisable, as faces are likely to turn out too pald.
lf you have to use this type of film, usd also a pale blue filter.
Candid portraits outdoors can be obtained most easily by
zone focusing. But wherever possible, focus accurately'ani
!I:e a yvide. aperture. to keep the background unshari. A
blue sky, darkened by a yellow filter, will make a suitable
background; or a plain-coloured house will serve the same
PUrPose.
Avoid direct sunlight; the diffused light of an overcast sun
is better for life-like portraits. The high midday sun is
particularly.bad as it will produce hard-shadows cutring
across the characteristic lines of the face.
- -Apart
from. holiday snapshots of a purely record rype-
Mum and Dad on the pier at Brighton-try to avoid includ-
60 ing half the surroundirig countrys-ide in a p'ortrait. A photo- 'j

{
'*
graph can be a poftralt of a percon or a picture of a landscape
but not both at the same time. So get close enough to
include only your model-your camera permits you to do
that-and ignore everything else.
The background can so easily spoil a portrait. lt may be too
fussy, and detract the eye. Often it is not enough to keep the
background out of focus. Pinpoints of light shining through
foliage will be magnified when they are unsharp, and a
harshly-lit brick or stone wall, even when out of focus, can
still be very obtrusive. So try and find a fairly plain back-
ground.
lf the sun is bright keep your model as farfrom the back-
ground as you can. lf you don't there will be unwelcome
shadows on it which can spoil the picture. Great masses of
black are bad but they are avoidable.
Use a fast shutter speed, especially when taking head-and-
shoulder portraits. You must avoid camera-shake at all costs,
and you can afford to use a large aperture since the depth of
field need be as little as twelve inches. Focus on the eyes,
and don't over-expose.

Children
lf you don't want posed and sentimentally arranged
pictures of children (which after all do not require a
technique different from that applied to normal portraits)
you will have to work inconspicuously. Af low for the child's
attention to be diverted by keeping the camera at some
distance. Let the children play, while you play with the
camera; set the lens to a suitable focusing zone and watch
until)rou are sure that the camera does not attract attention,
then shoot quickly. This not only produces life-like child
studies but also includes some of the surroundings.
Do not worry about using comparatively slow snapshot
speeds (e.g. because of a small aperture needed for depth of
field), as slightly blurred outlines due to sudden movement
wi||notshowunp|easant|ybutactua||yaddtothelive
appearance of the shot. 61
 www.butkus.us
Avoid looking down at chlldren with the camera; it
dwarfs them in a ludicrously unflattering manner. Low
angles are strongly recommended-get right down to the
floor if possible
After a while, children will become used to your presence
and will take no further notice. Sometimes, though, it is
useful to be able to shoot from the waist without looking
through the viewfinder. To do this you need practice in
aiming the camera and in knowing how close to get to
objects of various sizes so that they fill the film.
You can't afford to be too fussy about things like back-
ground and composition. The chances of everything happen-
ing just the way you want it to are Prett), slim. So when you
see the action you want, press the release. You may wait
all day and not have the chance again.
Taking photographs of children indoors need not present
any problems. There is less room forthe child to move about
in, which simplifies the task. Adequate over-all lighting
gives mobility.

Animals
The technique is the same as for children. tC; ;;;;
focusing or pre-focus at some point at which the animal is
likely to be, and shoot when its picture appears in the finder.
When taking animals behind bars or wire netting at the
Zoo, bring the camera lens right up to the barrier, letting
it look unobstructed through it.
Posing animals is not an easy job. A dog will not willingly
permit himself to be dressed up.in a collar and tie nor will he
consent to smoke a pipe unless he is extremely well-trained.
A cat has similar and even more pronounced views on the
matter.
But by simple psychology you can arrange a fair degree of
action.
lf you want a picture of a dog chewing a bone, by way of
simple example, get a dog, get a bone, put them together
62 and there's your picture.
 lf you want a picture of a cat stalking, dangle a. piece of
string out of camera range, and the cat is almost bound to
stal k.

Sports
It is not advisable to attempt photographing the whote
field ol let us say, a football ground from a great distance.
It is more practical to look out for the possibility of get-ting
close-up sections-for example, concentrating on one of the
goals.
- As mostly the very short shutter sptltids are required to
arrest movement, it is hardly ever Possible to stop down
considerably for depth of field. Nor will you, as a rule, have
sufticient time to ihange the setting of distance while the
game is on. Consequently, the camera should be set at some
iiistance where interesting action is likely to occur-in our
example 2 or 3 yards from the goal mouth.
Wiih other siorts the distanie setting is often simplified
as action is confined to some definite point which can be
pre-focused.
' More often than not the success of a sPort photograph
depends solely on pressing the release at the right moment.
Select the most iriterestihg phase of the action, and look
out for "dead points" of hovement, which allow slower
shutter speeds. Such "dead points" occur whenever a
movement changes its direction because at such moments
the action comeJto a standstill for a fraction of a second.
The actual shutter speed required to arrest movement
depends on the speed of the subject, its direction of move-
ment, and its distance from the iamera (see table on p. 64).
The best sports pictures are usually possible onlywhen you
'are
familiar with the game. Then you will be less likely to be
taken unawares by unexpected excitement.
Sometimes there are two speeds of subject movement to
be considered. A cyclist may be travelling at 30 m.p.h., but
his feet are moving iluicker than that. A shutter speed which
will stop his forwird motion will still show his feet blurred.
Use ihe fastest film in the camera and develop in an 63
 www.butkus.us
SHUTTER SPEEDS TO ARREST MOVEMENT

Subject Distonce Eetween Comero ond Object

l0 ft. 17 ft. 25 ft.
42 83 ft.
165 ft. ft.
3 m. 5 m. 7.5 m.
12.5 25 m.
50 m. m.
Swimmer | 160 r/30 | lzs r/rs r/r0 t/5
Wdker f /r00 t 160 t l40 I lzs r/r0 t/s
Runner r/300 tlzw tltzs I l7s t160 | /30
Cyclist r/300 t1200 r/r00 ,l7s .140
Skater | /s00 tl2s0 ,ltzs | 160
Horse galloping f/s00 r/300 t1200 r/ro0 I 17s | 140

,, trottint ... f /300 .1200 tl,2s I l7s | 160 r/30

. ,) walking I ltzs ,l7s r/s0 r/30 r/r5 r/r0
Racehorse t/s00 .l2s0 r/r2s t160
Waves ris00 r/300 !/200 r/r00 .17s tl40
Heavy waves ... r/s00 I i300 r/ rs0 tl7s
Boats making l0 knots f /300 t1200 tltzs ,l7s I t6O | /30
,, ,, 20 knots f /s00 r/300 | l20o r/r00 I l7s tl40
Tramcar f /300 t1200 tttzs | 175 t160 ri3o
Motor car on road r/soo r/300 r/rs0 | 175
Slow train r/300 r/200 I /t00 I l7s tl4o
Fast train r/s00 r/2s0 r/r00
Aeroplane r/s00 r/300 r/200

The values given are for movement across the view of the camera.
For motion at 45 degrees to the view of the camera increase time
100 per cent. In other words, if the motion photographed obliquely
approaches or moyes eway from the camera the exposure time can be
twice as long, say l/50 sec. instead of l/100.
For subjects coming directly towards, or going away from, the
camera, increase the time by 300 per cent. In other words, in such a
case the exposure time can be four times as long-say l/25 sec. instead
6{ of l/100.
energetic developer which needs no extra exposure. For
very bright subjects like winter sports or sailing, slower
film may be used.
Filters are not usually necessary, but if the light is good a
yellow filter will improve the tone rendering of outdoor
shots.

65
 www.butkus.us
CONYERS'ON OF FEET AND INTO METRLC UN'TS
'NC'{ES
British to Metric. Metric to British.

* in. 0.32 cm. 0.5 cm. * in.

* in. 0.64 cm. I cm. t in.
* in. 1.27 cm. 2 cm. i* in.
I in. 2.54 cm. 3 cm. .lf6 in.
2 in. 5.08 cm. 4 cm. l1| in.
3 in. 7.62 cm. 5 cm. ljf in.
I in. 10.2 cm. 6 cm. 28 in.
5 in. ,2.7 cm. 7 cm. 2t in.
. in.
6 15.2 cm. 8 cm. 3* in.
7 in. 17.8 cm. e 9 cm. 3* in.
8 in. 20.3 cm. l0 cm. 3j{ in.
9 in. 22.9 cm. 12 cm. 4t in.
l0 in. 25.4 cm. 15 cm. 5t in.
f f in. 27.9 cm. 20 cm. 7E in.
I ft. 30.5 cm. 25 cm. e{f in.
2 ft. 61.0 cm. 30 cm. I l* in.
3 ft. 91.4 cm. 40 cm. l5i in.
4 ft. 1.22 m. 50 cm. l9* in.
5 ft. 1.52 m. 60 cm. 238 in.
6 ft. 1.83 m. 80 cm. 3l* in.
7 ft. 2.13 m. 100 cm. 39* in.
8 ft. 2.44 m. f m..5 4ft, ll in.
9 ft. 2.74 m, 2 m. 6ft. 7 in.
l0 ft. 3.05 m. 2.5 m. 8 3
ft. in.
15 ft. 4.57 m. 3 m. 9It. l0 in.
20 ft. 6.10 m. 4 m. 13 ft. 2 in.
30 ft. 9.14 m. 5 m. 16 ft. 5 in.
40 ft. 12.20 m. l0 m. 33 ft. 0 in.
50 ft. 15.24 m. f5 m. 49ft, 2 in.
100 ft. 30.48 m. 20 m. 66 ft. 0 in.

.\ony comeros ore-morked only in either the metric or British systern,

while .most of .th9 tobles in this book ore olso given in only one sirstem.
66 The obove toble shows ot o glonce equivolent tenjths.

4
::,
 HOWTO,.. WHAT IS WHERE?

Load the Nettar: 2l Nettar: 4

lkonta: 5
Hold.the Nettar: Lenses: l2
24
Lenshood: l4
Shutter: l4
Shoot with the Nettar: 22 Viewfinder: l8
Loading: 2l
Unload the Nettar: 28
Shooting: 22
Exposing: 26,46
Unloading: 28
Choose the film: 37 Depth of field: 30
Zone focusing: 33
Hyperfocal distance: 34
Focus the Nettar: 30
Depth of field tables: 35, 36
Colour sensitivity: 37
F. Use depth of field: 30 Film speed: 37
Grain: 40
Gradation: 40
Set hyperfocal distance: 34 Latitude: 40
Films:41
Choose the filter: 43
Colour film: 42
Filters: 43
.
Polarizer: 45
Use cofour lilmt 42 Exposure meters: 46
Exposure table: 47
Negative: 48
Expose: 46 Close-ups: 49
Supplementary lenses: 49
Flash photography: 53
Make close-ups:49
Synchronization: 54
Landscapes: 58
Use flash: 53 Portraits: 59
Children: 6l
Animals: 62
Take landscapes: 58 Arresting movement: 64 6Z