DATE of ISSUE

2020-01-24
THEORY PPL(A)/LAPL(A)/ULL(A)
EDITION 1
REVISION

PAGES
1

128
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

REVISION RECORD

Rev. No. Date By Changes

0 2020-10-15 Suhanov New EDITION

1 2021-01-24 Pedre Minor text changes, New Pictures

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

BASIC CONCEPTS, LAWS

AND DEFINITIONS
 Atmosphere

Composition and Structure

- The atmosphere is an envelope of air that surrounds the Earth and rests upon its surface.
- Atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases(argon or helium CO2 etc.). Some of
these elements are heavier than others. The heavier elements, such as oxygen, settle to the surface of the Earth,
while the lighter elements are lifted up to the region of higher altitude.

- The envelope of gases surrounding the Earth changes from the ground up.
- Four distinct layers or spheres of the atmosphere have been identified using thermal characteristics (temperature
changes), chemical composition, movement, and density.
 Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided vertically into four regions

• the troposphere,
• the stratosphere,
• the mesosphere and
• the thermosphere.
Light aircraft flying occurs in the troposphere, although
high flying jets may cruise in the stratosphere. The
boundary between the two regions is known as the
tropopause.
The tropopause occurs at a height of about 20,000 ft.
over the poles, and at about 60,000 ft. over the tropics.
In the ‘average’ ISA it is assumed to occur at 36,000 ft.
Most ‘weather’ occurs in the troposphere.

The vast majority of weather, clouds, storms, and temperature variances occur within the troposphere
although it can sometimes extend up to the stratosphere
 Atmosphere

ICAO ISA
Conditions in the actual atmosphere change from time to time, and place to place.
So to have some kind of ‘Measuring Stick’, an International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) has been defined as :
q A Mean sea Level Pressure of 1013.2 hPa,(29.92 inHg in the US) which decreases by 1 hPa for each 27 ft.
gained.(30 ft. approx.)
q A Mean sea Level temperature of 15° Celsius, that decreases about 2°C for every 1000 ft. of altitude gain. This
decrease in temperature is also known as the lapse rate
E.g.: At 5000ft in ISA conditions, the temperature should be reduced by 10°C and be 5°C.
 Atmosphere

Atmospheric Pressure
The molecules that make up the air move at high speed in random directions and bounce off any surface that they
encounter. The force which they exert on a unit area of that surface is called the atmospheric pressure.
Because of the fewer air molecules at the higher levels and the less weight of molecules pressing down from above,
the atmospheric pressure decreases with height.

An aircraft flying at altitude will therefore experience a

lower pressure than at sea level.

Atmospheric pressure can be measured with either:

q A mercury barometer, where atmospheric pressure at
sea level can support a column of approximately 30
inches of mercury by pushing it into a partial vacuum.

q An aneroid barometer, where a flexible metal chamber

that is partially evacuated is compressed by the
atmospheric pressure. The aneroid is used in aircraft
altimeters to measure the atmospheric pressure and
equate variations in air pressure to changes in
altitude.
 Atmosphere

Pressure always vary from place to place because these places are located at different altitude.
Places having the same pressure (Reduced to Sea level for comparison purposes) are joined on a map with lines.
These Lines are known as Isobars. Some Isobars surround high pressure(H) while some surround low Pressure.(L)

There is usually a tendency for the air to flow from High

Pressure to Low Pressure.
 Basic Definitions

Static Pressure is the pressure at any point in a fluid that acts equally in all direction.
Static pressure caused by the weight of the air acting on a surface; it acts equally in all directions

Dynamic pressure is caused by the energy from motion of the air

Dynamic pressure = ½ p V² (sometimes abbreviated ''q'') = density; V = velocity

Total Pressure is the sum of Static and Dynamic pressure.

Airspeeds :
IAS ( Indicated Airspeed) is the airspeed that is indicated on your instrument.
CAS ( Calibrated Airspeed) is the IAS corrected for instrument (errors caused during manufacturing process) and
predictable pressure errors(Position and orientation of the pitot and static ports relative to the airflow)
EAS (Equivalent Airspeed) is the CAS corrected for compressibility
TAS ( True Airspeed) is the actual speed of the aircraft through the air. It depends on the Density of the air.
 Airflow round the object, subsonics

Air density
Air Density( ρ) is the mass per unit volume of Earth's atmosphere.
Air density, like air pressure, decreases with increasing altitude. It also changes with
variation in atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity.
At ISA, i.e. 1013.25 hPa and 15°C, air has a density of approximately 1.225 kg/m³
 Airflow round the object, subsonics

Streamline
A streamline is the path traced by a particle of air in a steady airflow, and streamlines cannot cross.
• Streamline flow successive molecules of air follow the same steady path (velocity may change from one point
to another but at each fixed point it will not change with time)
• Streamline flow is also known as Laminar flow
• The closer the streamlines are, the faster the flow.
• If a streamline flow of air accelerates, its kinetic energy will increase and its static pressure will decrease.
When air decelerates, the kinetic energy will decrease and the static pressure will increase again.
BASICS ABOUT AIRFLOW
Two dimensional airflow: means that the flow can move only in 2 directions. (L or R ”along the main flow
direction”, Up or Down)
We assume a wing with the same aerofoil section along the entire span with no span wise pressure differential or
flow. We will talk in the beginning about 2 dimension airflow.(.)

As Air flows towards an aerofoil it will be turned towards the lower pressure at the upper surface; this is termed
upwash.
After passing over the aerofoil, the airflow returns to its original position and state; this is termed downwash.

Three dimensional airflow: Three dimensional flow is the true airflow over an aircraft and consists of a
hypothetical two dimensional flow modified by various pressure differentials. Three dimensional airflow will be
examined later.
 Airflow round the object, subsonics

Air resistance and density

Drag/Air Resistance is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a
surrounding fluid.
Friction is the resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving over another. Friction exists between
any two materials that contact each other
The surface of a wing, like any other surface, has a certain roughness at the microscopic level. And therefore will
have some resistance.
 Airflow round the object, subsonics

The boundary layer

The behaviour of the airflow nearest to the surface of the aerofoil is usually referred as the Boundary Layer.
This layer is usually very small (Few mm).Friction between the air flowing around and the surface of the foil slows
down the layers near its surface
Air molecules near the surface of the wing resist motion and may have a relative velocity near zero.

The boundry layer can be a combination of both laminar flow and turbulent flow. The boundry layer can start as
laminar flow and then become turbulent flow.

The point at which it changes from one to another is called the "Transition Point".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence#/media/File:Laminar-turbulent_transition.jpg
 Airflow round the object, subsonics

There are two different types of boundary layer flow: laminar and turbulent flow
Laminar Boundary Layer Flow
The laminar boundary layer is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or eddies. The
laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow but is less stable. Boundary layer flow over a wing
surface begins as a smooth laminar flow. As the flow continues back from the leading edge, the laminar boundary
layer increases in thickness.
Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
At some distance back from the leading edge, the smooth laminar flow breaks down and transitions to a turbulent
flow. From a drag standpoint, it is advisable to have the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as far aft on the
wing as possible or have a large amount of the wing surface within the laminar portion of the boundary layer. The
point where the main airflow breaks away and become turbulent is called the Separation Point
 Airflow round the object, subsonics

Newton’s Basic Laws of Motion

Newton’s First Law: “Every object persists in its state

of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is
compelled to change that state by forces impressed on
it.”

Newton’s Second Law: “Force is equal to the change in Newton’s Third Law: “For every action, there is an
momentum per change in time. For a constant mass, equal and opposite reaction.”
force equals mass times acceleration.”
 Airflow round the object, subsonics

Bernoulli’s principle – Venturi effect

Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, explained how the pressure of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) varies with its speed
of motion.
Bernoulli’s Principle states that as the velocity of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure
within the fluid decreases a.k.a. venturi effect.
The airflow around an aerofoil can be compared to the airflow passing through the venturi.

A fluid in motion has energy :

- Static pressure energy and
- Dynamic pressure energy(due to the motion)

Bernoulli showed that for an ideal fluid, the total energy

will be constant

Pressure energy(static) + kinetic energy(dynamic)

= constant total energy
 Aerofoil Shapes

Aerofoil - A body so shaped as to produce aerodynamic reaction normal to the direction of its motion
through the air without excessive drag.
Chord Line
A straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil.
Chord
The length/distance between the leading and trailing edges measured along the chord line.
Mean Camber Line
A line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces.

Camber is Curvature. It is the distance between the mean

camber line and the chord line.

Thickness of an aerofoil is the greatest distance between the

upper and lover surfaces.
 Aerofoil Shapes

Maximum Camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line. This is one of the
variables determining the aerodynamic characteristics of a wing.
Angle of Incidence
The angle between the wing root chord line and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. (This angle is fixed for the wing,
but may be variable for the tailplane).
Tapered wings: Wing design, that narrows to the tip, it has longer root chord, shorter tip chord.
 Aerofoil Shapes

Angle of attack (AoA): The Angle of Attack is the angle at which relative wind meets an Aerofoil. It is the angle
formed by the Chord of the aerofoil and the direction of the relative wind or the vector representing the relative
motion between the aircraft and the atmosphere.

• At small positive AoA, the pressure over the top of the

surface is slightly lower than that at the bottom when
compared to the normal static pressure.
• This pressure difference is the origin of the total reaction
force ( Lift and Drag)
• The total reaction of the aerodynamic forces can be
considered to be acting through the Centre of Pressure

Total Reaction can be divided into 2 components:

• Lift. It is the component of total reaction acting at right
angles or perpendicular to the relative airflow

• Drag it is the component of total reaction parallel to the

relative airflow and opposing motion
 Aerofoil Shapes (Centre of Pressure)

Using the single aerodynamic force total reaction acting at a single point on the chord line the centre of pressure
(CP).

As the angle of attack is increased in normal flight two important things happen:
1. The lifting ability of the wing (coefficient of lift) increases, allowing the wing to produce the same lift (required to
balance the weight) at a lower airspeed.
2. The centre of pressure moves forward.

At normal cruising speeds (about 4° angle of attack), the centre of

pressure is back towards the centre of the wing. As the angle of attack is
increased and the airspeed decreased, the centre of pressure moves
forward.

Past the stalling angle of attack (about 16° angle of attack), the streamline
flow over the upper surfaces breaks down, and the lower static pressures
on the upper surface are not created. The total reaction (especially the lift
component) is reduced and the centre of pressure moves back along the
chord.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

TWO DIMENSIONAL AIRFLOW

Stagnation Point:
The stagnation point is the point on the leading edge of an airfoil where the airflow separates, with some going over
and some under the surface of the airfoil. It is the point where the full dynamic pressure plus whatever static
pressure is effective at the time will be felt.

At the stagnation point, the streamline is directly perpendicular to the airfoil.

Stagnation point is not fixed, and it will change its position relative to the airfoil based on the current angle of
attack.
As the angle of attack increases from -4°, the leading-edge stagnation point moves from the upper surface around
the leading edge to the lower surface.
Experimentally, it can be shown that the total reaction(lift) depends on:
• Wing shape
• Angle of attack
• Air density
• Freestream velocity
• Wing surface area

We use some factor to cover some variables that can affect the lift(i.e. the profile that the wing presents to the
airflow: AoA,wingshape, etc.)

This factor is given a name : Coefficient of Lift (CL)

 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

TWO DIMENSIONAL AIRFLOW

Coefficient of Lift and Lift Formula:

Coefficient of lift, is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by a lifting body to the fluid density
around the body, the fluid velocity and an associated reference area, it is a function of the angle of the body to
the flow.

This lift force can be defined by the following equation:

For a constant lift force as altitude is increased, a constant mass flow must be maintained. As air density decreases
with altitude, the speed of the wing through the air (the true airspeed (TAS) must be increased.

Each aerofoil shape has its own particular lift curve which relates its AoA to CL
 Lift Formula

The lift formula is given as where

L is the lift force
• p is the air density
• V² is the velocity or true airspeed
• S is the planform (projected) wing area
• CL is the lift coefficient

The only elements in the Lift Formula that you have any direct control over are the :

Angle of Attack - when you pitch the aircraft. This controls your attitude and speed - it is your attitude, (and power),
and not your aptitude that determines your altitude;

Wing Shape on the inboard section - when you extend your flaps, you increase the Camber / Curvature of the
inboard wing section;

Speed - which is determined by a combination of Power (throttle input), and Attitude. Note it is squared, and has a
very significant effect on lift
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

TWO DIMENSIONAL AIRFLOW

The Lift Curve:

The lift curve shows the lift of an aerofoil section, with lift coefficient (CL)
plotted against angle of attack.

The lift curve is a convenient way to illustrate the properties of various

configurations.

Lift coefficient increases with angle of attack up to a maximum (CLmax),

which corresponds to the “Critical” angle of attack. Continuing to
increase the angle of attack beyond this point makes it impossible for the
airflow to maintain its previous smooth flow over the contour of the upper
surface, and lift will reduce. This phenomenon is stall.

As the AoA is increased, the Cp moves forward

At the stalling angle of attack the centre of pressure is at the furthest point forward.
Beyond the stalling angle of attack the centre of pressure moves rearwards.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

DRAG
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

QUIZ

Static pressure in gases acts:

A. only in the direction of the total pressure
B. in all directions
C. only vertically to the flow direction
D. only in the flow direction

Bernoulli's equation for incompressible fluids without friction says:

A total pressure = dynamic pressure - static pressure
B dynamic pressure = total pressure + static so
C total pressure = dynamic pressure + static pressure
D static pressure = total pressure + dynamic pressure

Which statement about the flow around the profile when reducing the angle of attack is true?
A. the stagnation point moves down
B. stagnation point remains in the same place
C. stagnation point moves up
D. The centre of pressure moves backwards
 Drag Formula

The drag coefficient is a number that aerodynamicists use to model all of the complex dependencies of shape,
inclination, and flow conditions on aircraft drag. The drag coefficient expresses the ratio of the drag force to the
force produced by the dynamic pressure times the area.

Coefficient of Drag(CD) will increase as angle of attack of the airfoil also increases.

Drag formula is similar to the one of lift but instead "Coefficient of Drag" is used.
 Drag

Drag is the force that resists movement of an aircraft through the air. There are two basic types: parasite
drag and induced drag.
The first is called parasite because it in no way functions to aid flight, while the second, induced drag, is a
result of an aerofoil developing lift.
We will discuss more about induced drag when we will talk about 3 Dimension flow.
Parasite Drag
Parasite drag is comprised of all the forces that work to slow an aircraft's movement. As the term parasite
implies, it is the drag that is not associated with the production of lift.
This includes the displacement of the air by the aircraft, turbulence generated in the airstream, or a hindrance
of air moving over the surface of the aircraft and aerofoil. There are
three types of parasite drag:
• form drag,
• interference drag,
• skin friction.
 Drag

Form Drag
Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated by the aircraft due to its shape and airflow around it. Examples
include the engine cowlings, antennas, and the aerodynamic shape of other components. When the air has to
separate to move around a moving aircraft and its components, it eventually rejoins after passing the body. How
quickly and smoothly it rejoins is representative of the resistance that it creates which requires additional force to
overcome
Interference Drag
Interference drag comes from the intersection of airstreams that creates eddy currents, turbulence, or restricts
smooth airflow. For example, the intersection of the wing and the fuselage at the wing root has significant
interference drag. Air flowing around the fuselage collides with air flowing over the wing, merging into a current of
air different from the two original currents.
The most interference drag is observed when two surfaces meet at perpendicular
angles. Fairings are used to reduce this tendency.

Skin Friction Drag

Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of moving air with
the surface of an aircraft. Every surface, no matter how apparently smooth, has a
rough, ragged surface when viewed under a microscope. The air molecules, which
come in direct contact with the surface of the wing, are virtually motionless. Each
layer of molecules above the surface moves slightly faster until the molecules are
moving at the velocity of the air moving around the aircraft.
 Drag

Total Drag
The total drag of an aeroplane in flight is the sum of induced drag and parasite drag.

There is a predominance of induced drag at low speed and parasite drag at high speed. Because of the particular
manner in which parasite and induced drags vary with speed, the speed at which total drag is a minimum (Vmd)
occurs when the induced and parasite drags are equal.
 Drag

Lift/Drag Ratio

The lift to drag ratio (L/D)is the amount of lift generated by a wing or aerofoil compared to its drag.
A ratio of L/D indicates aerofoil efficiency. Aircraft with higher L/D ratios are more efficient than those with lower
L/D ratios
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

THREE DIMENSIONAL
AIRFLOW
 Three Dimension Flow

To this point the discussion has centred on the flow across the upper and lower surfaces of an aerofoil.
While most of the lift is produced by these two dimensions, a third dimension, the tip of the aerofoil also has an
aerodynamic effect.

The high pressure area on the bottom of an aerofoil pushes around the tip to the low-pressure area on the top.
This action creates a rotating flow called a tip vortex.

The vortex flows behind the aerofoil creating a downwash that extends back to the trailing edge of the aerofoil. This
downwash results in an overall reduction in lift for the affected portion of the aerofoil.
 Three Dimension Flow

Properties/Definitions
Wing span. The maximum distance from wingtip to wingtip.
Dihedral - The positive acute angle between the lateral axis of an airplane and a line through the centre of a wing
or horizontal stabilizer.
Sweptback - A sweptback wing is one in which the leading edge slopes backward.
Chord - distance from leading edge to trailing.
Aspect ratio - Aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. Thus, a long, narrow wing has a
high aspect ratio, whereas a short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio.
 Drag

Induced Drag
The second basic type of drag is induced drag.
In level flight the aerodynamic properties of a wing or rotor produce a required lift, but this can be obtained only at
the expense of a certain penalty. The name given to this penalty is induced drag. Induced drag is integral
whenever an aerofoil is producing lift and, in fact, this type of drag is inseparable from the production of lift.
Consequently, it is always present if lift is produced.
An aerofoil (wing or rotor blade) produces the lift force by making use of the energy of the free airstream. Whenever
an aerofoil is producing lift, the pressure on the lower surface of it is greater than that on the upper surface
(Bernoulli's Principle).

As a result, the air tends to flow from the high-pressure area below the tip upward
to the low pressure area on the upper surface. In the vicinity of the tips, there is
tendency for these pressures to equalize, resulting in a lateral flow outward from
the underside to the upper surface. This lateral flow imparts a rotational velocity to
the air at the tips, creating vortices, which trail behind the aerofoil.
 Drag

Induced Drag
When the aircraft is viewed from the tail, these vortices circulate counter clockwise about the right tip and clockwise
about the left tip
The lower the airspeed the greater the AOA required to produce lift equal to the aircraft's weight and, therefore, the
greater induced drag.

Parasite Drag varies directly with the square of the Indicated

Airspeed (IAS).
• If IAS is doubled, the Parasite Drag will be four times
greater
• If IAS is halved, the Parasite Drag will be one quarter of
its previous value.

Speed has opposite effect on induced drag, the lower the

speed of the aircraft, the higher its angle of attack, the
higher the induced drag.
 Winglets

Manufacturers have developed different methods to counteract this action. Winglets can be added to the tip of an
aerofoil to reduce this flow. The winglets act as a dam preventing the vortex from forming.

Another method of countering the flow is to taper the aerofoil tip, reducing the pressure differential and
smoothing the airflow around the tip
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THREE DIMENSIONAL AIRFLOW

Wake Turbulence:
All aircraft generate wake turbulence during flight. This disturbance is caused by a pair of counter-rotating vortices
trailing from the wingtips. The vortices from larger aircraft pose problems to encountering aircraft. The wake of
these aircraft can impose rolling moments exceeding the roll-control authority of the encountering aircraft.
Wake turbulence cannot be detected, so it is important for pilots to be aware of the potential distribution and
duration of trailing vortices, plus the effects of surface wind speed and direction.
The characteristics of trailing vortices are determined by the “generating” aircraft’s
• Gross weight: The higher the weight, the stronger the vortices.
• Wingspan: Has an influence upon the proximity of the two trailing vortices.
• Airspeed: The lower the speed, the stronger the vortices.
• Configuration: Vortex strength is greatest with aircraft in a “clean” configuration.
• Attitude: The higher the angle of attack, the stronger the vortices
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

GROUND EFFECT
 Three-dimensional airflow round profile

Ground Effect
Ground Effect is the name given to the positive influence on the lifting characteristics of the horizontal surfaces of
an aircraft wing when it is close to the ground. This effect is a consequence of the distortion of the airflow below
such surfaces attributable to the proximity of the ground. (within half the wingspan)

The direct effect on lift arises because a reduction in both upwash and downwash, as the air beneath a wing is
compressed by ground proximity, creates a cushion effect.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xTUkwP4noGY
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

GROUND EFFECT

Ground Effect:
Entering Ground Effect: The decreased downwash will give an increase in the effective angle of attack, requiring
a smaller wing angle of attack to produce the same lift coefficient. If a constant pitch attitude is maintained as
ground effect is encountered, a “floating” sensation may be experienced due to the increase in CL and the decrease
in CD.
If airspeed is allowed to decay significantly during short finals and the resulting sink-rate arrested by increasing the
angle of attack, upon entering ground effect the wing could stall, resulting in a heavy landing.

Leaving Ground Effect: The CL will reduce and the CD

(thrust requirement) will increase. The aircraft will require
an increase in angle of attack to maintain the same CL.

It is possible to become airborne in ground effect at an

airspeed and angle of attack which would, after leaving
ground effect, cause the aircraft to settle back on to the
runway It is therefore vitally important that correct speeds
are used for take-off.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

STALL
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Basics of a stall:
The CL of an airfoil increases with angle of attack up to a maximum.
Any further increase above this critical angle of attack, will make it
impossible for the airflow to smoothly follow the upper wing contour,
and the flow will separate from the surface, causing CL to decrease
and drag to increase rapidly.

A stall is caused by airflow separation. Separation can occur when

either the boundary layer has insufficient kinetic energy or the adverse
pressure gradient becomes too great.

Further increase in angle of attack makes the separation point move

forward and the wing area that generates a pressure differential
becomes smaller. At angles of attack higher than approximately 16°,
the extremely steep adverse pressure gradient will have caused so
much separation that insufficient lift is generated to balance the
aircraft weight

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFcW5-1NP60.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Basics of a stall:
An airplane can be stalled at any airspeed or flight attitude.

One phenomenon associated with a stall is buffet. Buffet is a kind of vibration caused by aerodynamic
excitation, associated with separated (or turbulent) airflow. As the aircraft approaches stall, the airflow
over the wing becomes turbulent and if it flows across the horizontal stabilizer, buffeting may occur.

At low speeds normally associated with stalling, dynamic pressure is at a very low value and greater
control deflection will be required to achieve the same response; also, the flying controls will feel
unresponsive or “mushy”.

At speeds close to the stall, ailerons must be used with caution.

 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Basics of a stall:
On basic wing planforms, airflow separation will not occur
simultaneously at all spanwise locations.

On a rectangular wing, separation tends to begin at the root and

spreads out towards the tip.

Reduction in lift initially occurs inboard near the aircraft CG, and if
it occurs on one wing before the other, there is little tendency for
the aircraft to roll

Loss of lift is felt ahead of the center of gravity of the aircraft and
the CP moves rearwards, so the nose drops and angle of attack is
reduced.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Basics of a stall:
In straight and level flight the weight of the aircraft is balanced by the lift.
To keep lift constant and maintain flight at a reduced speed, CL must be increased by increasing the angle
of attack.

Any further reduction in speed would need a further increase in angle of attack.
Increased weight will increase the stall speed value.

Forwards CG will also increase stall speed as lift must be increased to compensate the weight and the
tailplane downforce. Aft CG placement reduces stall speed.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Basics of a stall:
Stall speed will be affected by the load factor. As in a turn the airplane
must produce more lift to compensate for the weight of the airplane, and
the resultant of the centrifugal force acted upon during the turn.
The larger the bank angle the greater is the load factor, thus is the stall
speed.

If engine thrust will be used near the stall speed, the stall speed will be
reduced. The vertical component of thrust will assist lift in supporting the
weight of the aircraft. Secondly the dynamic pressure from the propeller
slipstream is added to the airflow over the wings.

When density decreases, TAS must be increased to achieve constant CL,

this also increases the true stall speed at high altitudes under other
constant factors.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Stall Warning:
On some aircraft designs, stall can occur without prior natural warning (low speed buffet) at high AoA,
thus it is paramount to have some kind of stall warning system installed on the aircraft.

Artificial stall warning give generally enough sufficient time for the pilot to react and recover prior the
actual stall occurrence. (usually 5-10% above the corresponding stall speed).

Artificial stall warning on small aircraft is usually given by a buzzer or horn.

The artificial stall warning device used on modern large aircraft is a stick shaker.

An artificial stall warning device can receive its signal from a number of different types of detector
switch, all activated by changes in angle of attack.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Stall Warning:
One of the most common artificial systems is called the flapper switch, As angle of
attack increases, the stagnation point moves downwards and backwards around the
leading edge.

The flapper switch is so located that, at the appropriate angle of attack, the
stagnation point moves to its underside and the increased pressure lifts and closes
the switch.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Stall Strips:
Natural stall warning phenomenon is the buffet. The natural shaking of the aircraft due to airflow over the wing
separating into turbulent flow and hitting the horizontal stabilizer.
Another natural device is a stall strip. A stall strip is a fixed device employed on the leading edge of fixed-wing
aircraft to modify the aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil. Stall strips are used to initiate flow separation
at chosen locations on the wing during high-angle of attack flight, so as to improve the controllability of the
aircraft when it enters stall.

They are typically employed in pairs, symmetrically on both wings

 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Stall Recovery:
To recover from a stall the pilot has to reduce the AoA of the wings below the critical AoA.
One of the common methods of recovering from a stall a low speeds is: Pitch, Power, Bank.

1. Pitch Down to reduce AoA

2. Power to accelerate further
3. Correct the bank if necessary to do so

On straight wing aircraft the rudder should be used to prevent wing drop during stall and recovery.

Pulling too hard could trigger a secondary stall, or worse, could exceed the limit load factor and
damage the aircraft structure.

As angle of attack reduces below the critical angle, the adverse pressure gradient will decrease, airflow
will re-attach, and lift and drag will return to their normal values.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Special Stall Phenomena:

Power-On Stall: Power-on stall happen when the aircraft exceeds the AoA while on full power or close
to full power. Power-on stalls are likely to happen during 3 phases of flight, on takeoff, on go-around, or
in climb.

Excessive pitch in either of the phases can force the aircraft to exceed it AoA.

The pilot must promptly recognize when the stall has occurred and take action to prevent a prolonged
stalled condition. The pilot should recover from the stall by immediately reducing the AOA and applying
as much nose-down control input as required to eliminate the stall warning.

The final step is to return the airplane to the desired flightpath (e.g., straight and level or
departure/climb attitude). With sufficient airspeed and control effectiveness, return the throttle to the
appropriate power setting.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Special Stall Phenomena:

Stall during climbing or descending turns:
As the bank angles increases, the pilot put increase the back pressure on the column as well to increase
the lift, therefore the AoA is steadily increasing as bank angle increasing. Thus there is a risk of exceeding
the critical AoA and enter in a stall in a turn.

The recovery process in this situation is the same in the normal "horizontal" stall, pitch, power, bank.

First apply nose down attitude to reduce the AoA, secondly apply power to accelerate further, and last
recover from the bank.

Recovering the bank first, might lead into a spin.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

THE STALL

Special Stall Phenomena:

Deep Stall: A Deep Stall, sometimes referred to as a Super Stall,
is a particularly dangerous form of stall that results in a substantial
reduction or loss of elevator authority making normal stall recovery
actions ineffective.
In many cases, an aircraft in a Deep Stall might be unrecoverable.
This phenomenon affects certain aircraft designs, most notably
those with a T-tail configuration.

In an aircraft with a T-tail, the turbulent air in the wake of a stalled

wing can affect the horizontal stabilizer, substantially reducing the
effectiveness of the elevators and potentially opposing the ability to
recover from the stall by using pitch controls to reduce the main
plane angle of attack.
 Spin avoidance

A spin is an aggravated stall that typically occurs from a full stall occurring with the
airplane in a yawed state resulting in the airplane following a downward corkscrew
path.
As the airplane rotates around a vertical axis, the outboard wing is less stalled
than the inboard wing, which creates a rolling, yawing, and pitching motion.

Rolling development
All that is required is sufficient yaw rate while an aircraft is stalled
In a spin, one or both wings are in a stalled condition, if both are stalled one wing
will be in a deeper stall condition than the other
The wing that stalls first will drop, increasing its angle of attack and deepening the
stall. Both wings must be stalled for a spin to occur
The other wing will rise, decreasing its angle of attack, and the aircraft will yaw
toward the more deeply-stalled wing. The difference in lift between the two wings
causes the aircraft to roll, and the difference in drag causes the aircraft to yaw
Phases of a Spin:
Incipient Phase:
• The transition from a stall to a full spin is called the incipient phase
• During this phrase, the aerodynamic forces are not balanced and the aircraft is more or less tumbling
Developed Phase:
• The developed phase begins when the aerodynamic forces are in balance
• The spin, although chaotic looking from inside the cockpit, has been established and recovery procedures are
now necessary to break the spin
Recovery Phase:
• During the recovery phase, controls are applied to stop spin, recover from the unusual attitude and maintain
straight and level
 Spin avoidance

Instrument Indications
The Best instrument to use in identifying the direction of the spin is the turn coordinator or turn indicator. The
attitude indicator may have toppled and be useless. The coordination of the ball will be unreliable.
• VSI : High Rate Of Descent
• Altimeter : Altitude decreasing rapidly
• Airspeed indicator : Low Airspeed

Immediate and resolute Spin recovery

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

LIFT
AUGMENTATION
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

QUIZ

How will the parasite drag change approximately if the speed of the approaching air stream
increases?
A. it will double
B. Reduces to a quarter
C. increases by four times
D. reduced by half
Angle of attack is the angle between:
a) The chord line and longitudinal axis of the plane
b) Relative air flow and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
c) chord line and relative air flow
d) wing and fuselage

Which statement about induced drag in horizontal flight is true?

a) induced drag increases with increasing speed
b) induced drag has a minimum value at a certain speed only
c) induced drag decreases with increasing speed
d) induced drag has a maximum value at a certain speed and when the speed increases or decreases from this
value decreases
 Flaps and leading edge flaps

• The Primary Purpose of the flaps is to give higher lift at a lower speed ( Usually during Take off and
Landing)
• Flaps Usually increase the Camber of the wing, therefore increasing lift. But, while doing so, Drag is
also increased.
• Usually, when putting flaps, we will get a nose up pitch(called ballooning) because our Centre of
Pressure has moved aft thereby altering the lift-weight couple.
• Flaps extension also decreases our L/D ratio.
• Flaps extension lowers the stalling angle of attack

The Flaps can be controlled from the cockpit either :

q By an electrical switch (Cessna, Tecnams) or
q By a mechanical Lever (PA28)
 Flaps and leading edge flaps

Various types of flaps exist on light aircraft. These are:

• Simple Flaps (simplest of the four types. It increases the aerofoil camber,
resulting in a significant increase in the coefficient of lift (CL) at a given
AOA.)
§ Split flaps (deflect from the lower surface of the wing. Split flaps produce
slightly more lift than plain flaps, but like simple flaps, they also produce a
lot of drag.

Plain/Simple Flap
 Flaps and leading edge flaps

§ Slotted Flaps
By opening a slot between the wing and the flap, high pressure air from the
bottom of the wing flows through the slot into the upper surface. This adds
energy to the wing's boundary layer, delays airflow separation, and produces less
drag. The result? Lots of additional lift, without the excessive drag

§ Fowler Flaps
Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap. Fowler flaps increase the area of your
wing by extending out on rails or tracks. This flap design not only changes the
camber of the wing, it also increases the wing area. Instead of rotating down on
a hinge, it slides backwards on tracks.
Fowler flaps often have a series of slots to add energy to the airflow as well -
they're called slotted-Fowler flaps.
 Flaps and leading edge flaps

Leading Edge Devices

• At high angles of attack the airflow separates from the upper surface of the
wings and becomes turbulent. This leads to a stalled condition which destroys
much of the lifting ability of the wing.
• Some aircraft have leading edge devices that cause some of the high-energy air
from beneath the wing to flow through a slot and over the upper surface of the
wing, thereby delaying separation and the stall, allowing the aeroplane to fly at
a higher angle of attack and a lower airspeed.
• This can be achieved with slats which form part of the upper leading edge of the
wing in normal flight, but which can be extended forward and/or down to form a
slot.
• Some wings have fixed-slots actually built-in to the wing leading edge but this is
less common because they generate high drag at cruising speeds.
 Flaps and leading edge flaps

Spoilers
• High drag devices called spoilers are deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and
increasing drag.
• Pilots use spoilers to reduce airspeed and/or steepen the path without increasing airspeed
• On gliders, spoilers are most often used to control rate of descent for accurate landings.
• On other aircraft, spoilers are often used for roll control, an advantage of which is the elimination of adverse
yaw.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

AIRFRAME
CONTAMINATION
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRFRAME CONTAMINATION

Ice Contamination:
The airframe may become contaminated by ice, frost or water either whilst it is in flight or when standing on the
ground.

Frost: Frost can form on the surface of the aircraft either when it is standing on the ground when the
temperature falls below 0°C, or in flight, if the aircraft, after flying in a region where the temperature is below
0°C, moves into a warmer layer of air. It consists of a Contamination Ice fairly thin coating of crystalline ice.

Ice: The main forms of icing are clear ice, rime ice and rain ice.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRFRAME CONTAMINATION

Ice Contamination:
The main forms of icing are clear ice, rime ice and rain ice.
• Clear ice (glaze ice) is an airframe translucent layer of ice with a smooth surface, caused by large
supercooled water droplets striking the leading edges of the airframe. As there is some delay in
freezing, there is some flow back along the surface behind the leading edge.

• Rime ice forms when small supercooled water droplets strike the leading edges and freeze almost
immediately so that there is no flow back. It is a white opaque formation.
• Rain ice (Freezing rain) is caused by rain which becomes supercooled by falling from an inversion
into air which is below 0°C. It does not freeze immediately and forms considerable flow back, and it
builds up very quickly.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRFRAME CONTAMINATION

Effects of ice contamination

Some of the effects of icing are:

• Modification of the profile of the airfoil ( Decrease in Lift)
• increase the roughness of the aircraft surface(therefore increasing drag)
• increase the weight of the aircraft

Tailplane stall will result in loss of longitudinal control.

Ice formation on propeller blades can upset the balance of the propeller and cause severe vibration.

Formation of ice on static vents and pitot heads could cause errors in the readings of pressure instruments
and, eventually, failure to show any reading.

Any moveable surface could become jammed by ice forming in the gaps around the control or by pieces of ice
breaking off and becoming jammed in the control gaps. The controls could become difficult to operate or
immovable.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRFRAME CONTAMINATION

Water Contamination:

If the wings are contaminated with water due to heavy rain, the boundary layer may become turbulent
further forward on the wing, particularly if the section is of the laminar flow type.

This will cause increased drag and may disrupt the boundary layer resulting in a significantly higher stall
speed.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

STABILITY
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Precondition:
Stability is the ability of an aircraft to correct for conditions that act on it, like turbulence or flight
control inputs. For aircraft, there are two general types of stability: static and dynamic.

An aircraft must have the following qualities:

• Adequate stability to maintain a uniform flight condition.
• The ability to recover from various disturbing influences.
• Sufficient stability to minimize the workload of the pilot.
Proper response to the controls so that it may achieve its design performance with adequate
manoeuvrability
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Static stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to its original position when it's disturbed.
There are three kinds of static stability:
•Positive exists if an aircraft is disturbed from equilibrium and has the tendency to return to
equilibrium.
•Neutral exists if an aircraft is subject to a disturbance and has neither the tendency to return nor the
tendency to continue in the displacement direction.
•Negative exists if an aircraft has a tendency to continue in the direction of disturbance.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Examples:
Positive Static Stability
An aircraft that has positive static stability tends to return to its original attitude when it's disturbed. Let's say you're flying
an aircraft, you hit some turbulence, and the nose pitches up. Immediately after that happens, the nose lowers and
returns to its original attitude. That's an example positive static stability,
Neutral static stability
An aircraft that has neutral static stability tends to stay in its new attitude when it's disturbed. For example, if you hit
turbulence and your nose pitches up 5 degrees, and then immediately after that it stays at 5 degrees nose up, your
airplane has neutral static stability.
Negative static stability
Finally, an aircraft that has negative static stability tends to continue moving away from its original attitude when it's
disturbed. For example, if you hit turbulence and your nose pitches up, and then immediately continues pitching up,
you're airplane has negative static stability. For most aircraft, this is a very undesirable thing.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Stability in an aircraft affects two areas significantly.

Maneuverability, the quality of an aircraft that permits it to be maneuvered easily and to withstand
the stresses imposed by maneuvers.

Controllability, the capability of an aircraft to respond to the pilot’s control, especially with regard to
flight path and attitude.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time, when disturbed from a given pitch, yaw, or
bank. This type of stability also has three subtypes:
Positive dynamic stability over time, the motion of the displaced object decreases in amplitude and,
because it is positive, the object displaced returns toward the equilibrium state.
Neutral dynamic stability once displaced, the displaced object neither decreases nor increases in
amplitude. A worn automobile shock absorber exhibits this tendency.
Negative dynamic stability over time, the motion of the displaced object increases and becomes
more divergent.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Longitudinal Stability (Pitching):

Longitudinal stability is the quality that makes an aircraft stable about its lateral axis. It involves the
pitching motion as the aircraft’s nose moves up and down in flight.

The aircraft has a tendency to keep a constant angle of attack.

Longitudinal Stability is maintained by the horizontal stabilizer
By correcting nose up or down moment will return the aircraft to level flight

A longitudinally unstable aircraft has a tendency to dive or climb progressively into a very steep dive or
climb, or even a stall.

Static longitudinal stability, or instability in an aircraft, is dependent upon three factors:

• Location of the wing in respect to CG.
• Location of horizontal tail surfaces in respect to CG.
• Area and size of tail surfaces.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Out of CG limits:
As long as the CG is maintained within the allowable limits for its weight, the airplane will have
adequate longitudinal stability and control.
If the CG is too far aft, it will be too near the center of lift and the airplane will be unstable, and difficult
to recover from a stall. If the unstable airplane should ever enter a spin, the spin could become flat and
recovery would be difficult or impossible.
A serious problem, caused by the CG being too far forward, is the lack of sufficient elevator authority.
At slow takeoff speeds, the elevator might not produce enough nose up force to rotate and on landing
there may not be enough elevator force to flare the airplane.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Lateral (Rolling) :
Stability about the aircraft’s longitudinal axis is called lateral stability.

Positive lateral stability helps to stabilize the lateral or “rolling effect” when one wing gets lower than
the wing on the opposite side of the aircraft.

There are four main design factors that make an aircraft laterally stable:
• dihedral,
• sweepback,
• keel effect, and
• weight distribution.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

As the aircraft sideslips, the lower wing, due to its dihedral, will meet
the upcoming relative airflow at a greater angle of attack and will
produce increased lift.

The upper wing will meet the relative airflow at a lower angle of attack
and will therefore produce less lift.

It may also be shielded somewhat by the fuselage, causing an even

lower lift to be generated.

The rolling moment so produced will tend to return the aircraft to its
original wings-level position.

Negative dihedral, or anhedral, where the wing is inclined downward

from the fuselage, has an unstable effect.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Wing Sweepback The wing can add to lateral stability if it has

sweepback. As the aircraft sideslips following a disturbance in roll, the
lower sweptback wing generates more lift than the upper wing. This is
because in the sideslip the lower wing presents more of its span to the
airflow than the upper wing and therefore the lower wing generates
more lift and tends to restore the aeroplane to a wings-level position.

High Keel Surfaces and Low CG In the sideslip that follows a

disturbance in roll, a high sideways drag line caused by high keel
surfaces (high fin, a T-tail high on the fin, high wings, etc.), and a
low CG will give a restoring moment tending to raise the lower wing
and return the aircraft to the original wings-level position.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

Directioncal (Yawing) Stability:

Stability about the aircraft’s vertical axis (the sideways
moment) is called yawing or directional stability. Yawing
or directional stability is the most easily achieved stability
in aircraft design.

The area of the vertical fin and the sides of the fuselage aft
of the CG are the prime contributors that make the aircraft
stable about its vertical axis.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

CONTROL
 Controls

Axes of an aircraft
Three imaginary lines that pass through an aircraft’s centre of gravity. The axes can be considered as imaginary
axles around which the aircraft rotates. The three axes pass through the centre of gravity at 90° angles to each
other.
• Rudder for control in yaw about the normal axis (directional control).
• Elevator for control in pitch about the lateral axis (longitudinal control).
• Ailerons for control in roll about the longitudinal axis (lateral control).
Controls

Primary and Secondary Controls:

Flight control systems are subdivided into what are referred to as primary and secondary flight
controls.

Primary flight controls are required to safely control an aircraft during flight and consist
of ailerons, elevators and rudder.
Secondary flight controls are intended to improve the aircraft performance characteristics or to
relieve excessive control loading, and consist of high lift devices such as slats, flaps , spoilers and trim
systems.

Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces (ailerons, elevator or stabilator, or
rudder), changes the airflow and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT CONTROL

Pitch Control:
Control in pitch is usually obtained by elevators or by an all
moving tailplane called the stabilator, and the controls
must be adequate to balance the aircraft throughout its
speed range at all permitted CG positions and configurations
and to give an adequate rate of pitch for maneuvers.

Suppose that the aircraft is flying in balance at a steady

speed with the elevator neutral. If the elevator is deflected
upwards, the tail will develop a down load which will begin
to pitch the aircraft nose upwards.

The elevator angle required to give balance depends on IAS

and the CG position. At normal cruising speeds and CG
positions.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT CONTROL

Pitch Control:
The elevator is connected to the control column in the flight deck by a series of mechanical
Aft movement of the control column deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up. This is usually
referred to as the up-elevator position.
The overall effect causes the tail of the aircraft to move down and the nose to pitch up. The pitching
moment occurs about the center of gravity (CG)
Stability, power, thrust line, and the position of the horizontal tail surfaces on the empennage are
factors in elevator effectiveness controlling pitch.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT CONTROL

Roll Control:
Control in roll is usually obtained by ailerons or by spoilers, or by a combination of the two.
In steady level flight with the ailerons neutral, the lift on the two wings will be equal.
If the control wheel is turned to the left, the left aileron will move up and the right aileron down.

The ailerons produce a rolling moment by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other.
The increased lift on the up-going wing gives an increase in the induced drag, whereas the reduced lift
on the down-going wing gives a decease in induced drag.

The difference in drag on the two wings produces a yawing

moment which is opposite to the rolling moment, that is, a
roll to the left produces a yawing moment to the right. This
is known as adverse aileron yaw.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT CONTROL

Reducing adverse Yaw:

Differential ailerons: The aileron linkage causes the up-going
aileron to move through a larger angle than the down-going
aileron. This increases the drag on the up aileron and reduces it
on the down aileron, and so reduces the difference in drag
between Controls the two wings.

Frise ailerons: These have an asymmetric leading edge. The

leading edge of the up-going aileron protrudes below the lower
surface of the wing, causing high drag. The leading edge of the
down-going aileron remains shrouded and causes less drag.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT CONTROL

Yaw Control:
Control in yaw is obtained by the rudder. The rudder is required to:

• maintain directional control with asymmetric power.

• correct for crosswinds on take-off and landing.
• correct for adverse yaw.
• recover from a spin.
• correct for changes in propeller torque on single-engine aircraft.

The vertical stabilizer is effectively an airfoil with symmetrical profile, in steady flight it produces
zero lift. In order to yaw the airplane to one of the side, a pressure applied on the rudder pedals
in the cockpit by the pilots, which will deflect the rudder to the desired side.

The deflection of the rudder to either side, changes the AoA of the vertical stabilizer, which in
turn creates a lift force that yaws the aircraft to the desired side.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT CONTROL

Secondary Effects of Controls:

The controls are designed to give a moment around a particular axis but may additionally give a
moment around a second axis. This coupling occurs particularly with the rolling and yawing moments.

A rolling moment is normally produced by deflecting the ailerons, and it has been seen that they can
also produce an adverse yawing moment due to the difference in drag on the two ailerons. Induced
drag is increased on the wing with the down-going aileron, making the aircraft, for instance, roll left
and at the same time, yaw right.

If the aircraft is yawing to the left, the right wing has a higher velocity than the left wing and so will
give more lift. The difference in lift will give a rolling moment to the left.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

TRIM
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

TRIM CONTROL

Trimming :
An airplane is trimmed when it will maintain its attitude and speed without the pilot
having to apply any load to the cockpit controls.
The aircraft may need to be trimmed in pitch as a result of: Changes of power, speed,
CG position of aircraft configuration.

Trimming in yaw will be needed: In case of asymmetric power on a multi-engine

aircraft, or to counteract the torque effect on a single engine aircraft.

Different methods of trimming exist, the most common ones are:

A trim tab is a small adjustable surface set into the trailing edge of a main control
surface.
Its deflection is controlled by a trim wheel or electrical switch in the cockpit.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

TRIM CONTROL

Trim Tab: A trim tab is attached to the trailing edge of an elevator,

and it's operated by moving a small control wheel in the
cockpit. When you move the trim tab up or down, it sticks out into
the free air stream, and deflects the elevator in the opposite
direction. So even though it may seem 'backwards' to move the tab
down to make the nose of the plane go up.

Balance Tab: Balance tabs look like trim tabs, but they have one
major difference, balance tabs are attached to the control surface
linkage, so when the control surface is moved in one direction, the
balance tab moves in the opposite direction.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

TRIM CONTROL

Anti-Servo Tab: Anti servo tabs are similar to balance tabs, but they move in the opposite direction. For
example, when your elevator or stabilator moves up, the anti-servo tab moves in the same direction.
In small aircraft, it increases the control feel, and helps prevent you from over-controlling your aircraft's
pitch. The anti-servo tab serves mainly to make the controls heavier in feel to the pilot and to increase
stability.

Ground Adjustable Tab: Ground adjustable tabs can only be adjusted on the ground. The ground tab is
used to keep your plane flying coordinated in level flight. And since it's a trial and error system, it might
take a few flights of adjusting, flying, and more adjusting.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

MECHANICS
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRPLANE

Steady Flight:
Thrust, drag, lift, and weight are forces that act upon all aircraft in flight.

Thrust—The forward force produced by the powerplant.

Drag— a rearward, retarding force caused by disruption of airflow by the wing, rotor, fuselage, and
other protruding objects.
Lift Is a force that is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the airfoil.(acts through
the Center of Pressure(Cp)
Weight The combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage.
It acts thought a point known as the Center of Gravity(CG)

Drag opposes thrust and lift opposes the weight.

In steady flight, the sum of these opposing forces is always zero.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRPLANE

Steady Flight:
It does not mean the four forces are equal. It means the opposing forces are equal to, and
thereby cancel, the effects of each other.

The sum of all upward components of forces (not just lift) equals the sum of all downward components
of forces (not just weight) .

The sum of all forward components of forces (not just thrust) equals the sum of all backward
components of forces (not just drag).
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRPLANE

Steady Climb:
When the aircraft begins climbing or descending it is necessary for the ratio of these forces to be
temporarily altered as more/less thrust is required.

Climbing requires an increase in the thrust to offset the increased drag associated with the increased
angle of the aircraft (as the aircraft inclines upward a portion of the weight force acts in the same
direction as the drag).

The thrust required for a climb will equal drag plus a percentage of the weight – this is dependent on
the angle of climb.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRPLANE

Steady Descent:
In a descent, thrust acts in conjunction with (rather than against) the component of weight that is
parallel to the flight path. These compounding forces exceed drag, so to establish equilibrium, thrust
must be reduced.

Descent is possible without dipping the nose of the aircraft, effectively ‘sinking’ as long as the
equilibrium between the thrust and weight, which are causing a forward motion are balanced by the lift
and drag (both acting in a rearward direction).

In glides, a portion of the weight vector is directed along the forward flight path and, therefore, acts as
thrust.

By using the aerodynamic forces of thrust, drag, lift, and weight, pilots can fly a controlled, safe flight.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRPLANE

Turns:
Like any moving object, an aircraft requires a sideward force to make it turn.
In a normal turn, this force is supplied by banking the aircraft in order to exert
lift inward, as well as upward. The force of lift is separated into two components
at right angles to each other.
The upward acting lift together with the opposing weight becomes the vertical
lift component.
The horizontally acting lift and its opposing centrifugal force are the horizontal
lift component, or centripetal force. This horizontal lift component is the
sideward force that causes an aircraft to turn.
The equal and opposite reaction to this sideward force is centrifugal force,
which is merely an apparent force as a result of inertia.
The rudder is used to correct any deviation between the straight track of the
nose and tail of the aircraft into the relative wind.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRPLANE

Turns:
Coordinated turn is a turn where the nose and tail of the aircraft track along the same path. If no
rudder is used in a turn, the nose of the aircraft yaws to the outside of the turn.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

OPERATING
LIMITATIONS
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

OPERATING LIMITATIONS

Operating Limitations :
In service an aircraft must observe certain speed limitations. These may be maximum speeds or
minimum speeds, but in each case, they are set to give safe operation in the prevailing conditions.

Limits are set, to either not exceed structural limitations of the aircraft, or to have adequate control
available for the pilot.

The airframe structure must obviously be strong enough to take the loads acting upon it in normal level
flight, that is the forces due to lift, drag, thrust and weight. However, the aircraft is also required to
maneuver and to fly in turbulent air.

The structure should also have sufficient stiffness to ensure that phenomena such as aileron reversal,
flutter and divergence do not occur within the permitted speed range of the aircraft.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

OPERATING LIMITATIONS

Flutter :
The distribution of mass and stiffness in a structure determine certain natural frequencies and modes of
vibration. If the structure is subject to a ‘forcing’ frequency near these natural frequencies, a resonant
condition can result giving an unstable oscillation which can rapidly lead to destruction.

Since the problem is one of high-speed flight, it is generally desirable to have very high natural
frequencies and flutter speeds well above the normal operating speeds.

Any change of stiffness or mass distribution will alter the modes and frequencies and thus allow a
change in the flutter speeds. If the aircraft is not properly maintained and excessive play and flexibility
exist, flutter could occur at flight speeds well below the operational limit speed.

Control surface flutter can develop as a result of an oscillation of the control surface together with an
oscillation in bending or twisting of the wing, tailplane or fin.

Torsional aileron flutter can be prevented either by mass balancing the ailerons with attachment of a
mass ahead of the hinge line to bring the CG onto, or slightly ahead of the hinge line.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

TRIM CONTROL

Mass Balance:

Most control surfaces are mass balanced. The purpose of this is

to prevent control surface flutter.

Flutter may be prevented by adding weight to the control

surface in front of the hinge line.

This brings the center of gravity of the control forward to a

position on, or slightly in front of the hinge. This reduces the
inertia moments about the hinge and prevents flutter
developing.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

OPERATING LIMITATIONS

Flap Limit Speed (VFE):

Flaps are designed to reduce take-off and landing distances and are used
when airspeed is relatively low.

Flaps, operating mechanism and attachment points to the structure are not
designed to withstand the loads which would be applied at high airspeeds.

If flap will be used at speeds higher than VFE, the forces acted upon will
possibly be exceeding the ability of the structure to withstand them, and
the structure could fail.

Some airplanes, have multiple flap positions, and each position might be
extended at maximum speed in order to not exceed the structural limitation
set by the manufacturer.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

OPERATING LIMITATIONS

Structural Speeds VNO and VNE:

VNO or maximum structural cruising speed begins at the yellow arc in the airspeed
indicator, this speed should only be exceeded in exceptional circumstances and in
smooth air.

This is the speed at which exceeding the limit load factor may cause permanent
deformation of the aircraft structure.

Manufacturers publish VNO to provide a safe buffer zone between normal

airspeeds, and airspeeds that could cause a structural failure during high speed
flight.

VNE is Velocity Never Exceed, or "Never Exceed Speed" marked by the red line at
the airspeed indicator.

This speed is the maximum allowed to ensure structural integrity of the aircraft,
exceeding this speed might lead to airframe and aircraft destruction in midair.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

OPERATING LIMITATIONS
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

MANOEUVERING
ENVELOPE
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

MANOEUVERING ENVELOPE

Manoeuvers Affecting Load Factor:

Load factor is the ratio of the lift of an aircraft to its weight and represents a global measure of
the stress ("load") to which the structure of the aircraft is subjected
Pitching up suddenly during a nose-dive will increase the load factor. For example in 2g manoeuver, the
force acting on the airplane will be twice its own weight.

By increasing the load factor we effectivly "increase" the weight of the airplane, thus we increase the
stall speed.

This means that an aircraft with a normal unaccelerated stalling speed of 50 knots can be stalled at 100
knots by inducing a load factor of 4 Gs, this is called the accelerated stall.

Load factor also increase with an increase in bank

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xkwKqD9ylLo&feature=emb_title
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

MANOEUVERING ENVELOPE

Manoeuvers Affecting Load Factor:

 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

MANOEUVERING ENVELOPE

Manoeuvering Load Diagram:

A chart of velocity versus load factor (or
V-n diagram) is another way of showing
limits of aircraft performance. It shows
how much load factor can be safely
achieved at different airspeeds

If the aircraft is flown at a positive load

factor greater than the positive limit load
factor of 4.4, structural damage is
possible.

The limit airspeed (or redline speed) is a

design reference point for the aircraft—this
aircraft is limited to 225 mph. If flight is
attempted beyond the limit airspeed,
structural damage or structural failure may
result from a variety of phenomena.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

MANOEUVERING ENVELOPE

Gust Load Factor:

Strength requirements are prescribed in terms of limit loads (maximum loads expected in service) and
ultimate loads (limit load multiplied by a safety factor)
There is a load factor limit for each aircraft( Note that the load factor limit depends on the type of
aircraft)
There are two types of load factors factored into aircraft design:
The limit load is a force applied to an aircraft that causes a bending of the aircraft structure that does
not return to the original shape.

The ultimate load is the load factor applied to the aircraft beyond the limit load and at which point the
aircraft material experiences structural failure (breakage).

To calculate the ultimate load factor, the limit load factor must be multiplied by 1.5 (safety factor)

The maximum load factors, both positive and negative, applicable to an aircraft are usually specified in
the aircraft flight manual.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

QUIZ

26. Flying at speeds above maximum speed (VNE) may result in:
A. Greater Lift but increased weight
B. reduced drag and increased steering forces
C. flutter and mechanical damage to the wing
D. increased Lift to drag ratio and better glide

1. In which of the following situations is the total drag minimal?

A. induced drag is less than parasite drag
B. induced drag is twice as large as the parasite drag
C. parasite drag is twice as large as induced drag
D. parasite drag equals induced

19. Against which axis does the longitudinal stability indicated?

A. Longitudinal
B. Vertical
C. Lateral
D. Normal
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW AND AERODYNAMICS

PROPELLERS
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

General Properties:

The airplane propeller consists of two or more blades and a central hub to which the blades are attached.
Each blade of an aircraft propeller is essentially a rotating wing.
The propeller blades are like airfoils, and produce forces that create the thrust to pull, or push, the aircraft
through the air.
The propeller transforms the rotary power of the engine into forward thrust.
One surface of the blade is cambered or curved, similar to the upper surface of an aircraft wing, while the
other surface is flat like the bottom surface of a wing.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

General Properties:
The propeller pitch is the distance in inches, which the propeller would screw through the air in one
revolution if there were no slippage.
Angle of attack is the angle a wing makes with the oncoming airflow.
Pitch angle is the angle a propeller blade makes with its plane of rotation. A wing has nearly the same
angle of attack across its entire length. But a propeller blade has a twist, so its pitch angle varies along its
length.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

General Properties:
Geometric pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller should advance in one revolution;
Effective pitch is the distance it actually advances. Thus, geometric or theoretical pitch is based on no
slippage, but actual or effective pitch includes propeller slippage in the air.

Propeller slip is the difference between the geometric pitch of the propeller and its effective pitch.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

The reason a propeller is “twisted” is that the outer parts of the propeller
blades, travel faster than the portions near the hub.

If the blades had the same geometric pitch throughout their lengths,
portions near the hub could have negative AOAs while the propeller tips
would be stalled at cruise speed.

Propeller blades are twisted to change the blade angle in proportion to

the differences in speed of rotation along the length of the propeller,
keeping thrust more nearly equalized along this length.

The angle at which this air (relative wind) strikes the propeller blade is
its AOA. The air deflection produced by this angle causes the dynamic
pressure at the engine side of the propeller blade to be greater than
atmospheric pressure, thus creating thrust.
On a controllable-pitch propeller, the pitch of the entire blade can be
altered during flight to give the best performance at different air speeds.
This is similar to changing gears with a car or bicycle.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

Prop Torque Reaction:

Propeller torque can be one of the most prominent left turning tendencies. It is most pronounced when
the airplane's airspeed is low and the engine is operating at a high power setting.

Because of Newton's Third Law of motion,(for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction),
the force that the engine exerts to rotate the propeller (the torque) is met with a reactive force that is
exerted back on the engine, and therefore the entire airplane.

Since the ground (which absorbs this force before flight) is absent after take-off, this reactive force
presents itself in the form of a left roll/yaw moment in flight

This tendency can be correct with aileron trim tab or offsetting the engine.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

Slipstream Effect:
The high-speed rotation of an aircraft propeller gives a corkscrew or spiraling rotation to the slipstream.

At high propeller speeds and low forward speed, this spiraling rotation exerts a strong sideward force
on the aircraft’s vertical tail surface.

When this spiraling slipstream strikes the vertical fin, it causes a yawing moment about the aircraft’s
vertical axis.

A propeller rotating clockwise as seen from the cockpit will

have an asymmetric flow that will impact on the left of the
fin.

Some aircraft have an off-set fin to help overcome this

effect
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

Assymetrical Blade Effect (P Factor):

P-Factor, which is also called "asymmetric propeller loading", happens when the downward moving propeller
blade takes a bigger "bite" of air than the upward moving blade.

The blade swinging "down" viewed from the cockpit will have a larger angle of attack of its own compared to
the up-swinging blade! This then means that the down-swinging (right) blade exerts a force that pushes the
nose to the left, and vice versa for the up-swinging blade.

P-Factor is most pronounced at high angles of attack.

 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

Gyroscopic Precession
A spinning propeller is essentially a gyroscope, which is a spinning disc.

That means it has the two properties of a gyroscope: 1)rigidity in space and
2)precession.

Precession happens when you apply force to a spinning disc. Here's how it works: you apply a force to one point of
the disc, and the effect of that force (the resultant force) is felt 90 degrees in the direction of rotation of the
disc.
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

Prop Icing:
Ice buildup on operating propeller blades reduces thrust for the same aerodynamic reasons that wings
tend to lose lift and increase drag when ice accumulates on them.
Ice changes the cross section of the propeller, increases drag, reduces thrust produced.

Icing of the propeller generally makes itself known by a slow loss of power and a gradual onset of
engine roughness.

Ice first forms on the spinner or propeller dome and then

spreads to the blades themselves.

Ice generally accumulates unevenly on the blades,

throwing them out of balance.
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

PROPELLERS

Windmilling:
In case of single engine airplane engine failure, the propeller either will stop completely or start to
windmill.
Windmilling is the rotation of the propellor blades due to the opposite force of the air exerted upon them.`
Windmilling propeller creates drag which in case of engine failure will shorted the gliding distance.
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