Module I: TAXONOMY

History of plant taxonomy; Methods of Plant

identification; Taxonomic Keys: Single access and Multi-
access; Field inventory; Collection; Herbaria: Functions
of Herbarium, Preparation of Herbarium; Major systems
of classification: Cronquist (1981); Takhtajan’s System
(1997), APG IV (2016) (merits and demerits). Principles
and rules of Botanical Nomenclature
 Field Inventory
The assessment of the biological diversity of a particular area and to
record ample field information about the collected biological
specimens. Plant inventories have been subject of intense study since
centuries.
Objectives:
 To enrich herbaria with plant specimens
 To collect plant for flora writing
 To assess biodiversity of a particular region
 To introduced plant in botanic gardens/gardens
 To study ecological impact on the wild vegetation
 To explore unexplored areas of a region
 To conduct technology based experiments e.g hybridization,
genecology, cytology, anatomy etc
 To conduct research on a particular genus, species (revision)
 To carry out ethno-botanical studies
 Basic Tools for Field Survey
1. Plastic bags
2. Chopper/Digger
3. Garden trowel/Knife
4. Field Notebook/Small note book & pencil
5. Labels and tags
6. Camera
7. Global Positioning System (GPS)/Altimeter
8. Binocular/Hand lens
9. Drying sheets
10. Plant press
11. Necessary chemicals (formalin, alcohol)
12. Silica Gel (for collection of leaf for DNA sequencing)
 HERBARIUM
• The herbarium is a place where dried and mounted specimens
are stored according to any recognized system of classification
and are available for any reference”. It can also be considered
as “a warehouse of information about plant diversity”.
• All research and educational institutions where science is
taught have their own plant species specimens collected
locally. They may also have thousands of specimens (gradually
accumulated over time) which document the flora of one or
more regions. These collections are preserved in specially
designed cupboards for easy retrieval when needed.
 HERBARIUM
• The herbarium is a place where dried and mounted specimens
are stored according to any recognized system of classification
and are available for any reference”. It can also be considered
as “a warehouse of information about plant diversity”.
• All research and educational institutions where science is
taught have their own plant species specimens collected
locally. They may also have thousands of specimens (gradually
accumulated over time) which document the flora of one or
more regions. These collections are preserved in specially
designed cupboards for easy retrieval when needed.
The concept of Herbaria began early in the sixteenth century in
Italy, when collections of dried plants were sewn on paper.
Luca Ghini (1490 - 1556) invented the herbarium. This art was
disseminated throughout Europe by his students. The
specimens mounted on sheets of paper were often bound into
volumes. This made it possible to move the herbarium
specimens to different places. It also enabled the use of these
specimens as reference material by physicians who prepared
medicines from plants. Linnaeus popularized the current
practice of mounting specimens on single sheets of paper and
storing them in stacks. Herbaria are the permanent repositories
of plant specimens and are sources of information about plants
and vegetation.
 Functions of Herbarium
 Plants specimens are permanently preserved in herbaria, and hence they are the
major sources of information about plant diversity and vegetation.
 A representation of all species of a genus, or all the genera of a family may be
gathered from the herbarium.
 Preserved plant specimens of herbaria are used in almost all types of taxonomic
research programmes of fundamental as well as applied nature.
 The classification of the world’s flora is based mainly on the herbarium specimens.
 A list of the endangered species of any region may be prepared after herbarium
consultation.
 A list of the plant species with their medicinal as well as other ethnobotanical
values may be prepared after herbarium consultation. A herbarium preserves
national plant wealth including type material.
 Limited individual collections are identified only with the help of herbaria.
 Monographs of genera or families are prepared only after the study of herbarium
specimens.
 A herbarium can give knowledge about the distribution and occurrence of plant
species.
 Big herbaria organise training courses for young generation and thus provide job
opportunities to young workers.
 Herbarium material is used in studying the palynology, anatomy and chemical
aspects of desired plants.
 Herbaria provide loan of specimens for study at other institutions.
 Herbaria provide scientific information to the public regarding the plants.
 VIRTUAL HERBARIUM
In botany, a virtual herbarium is a herbarium in a digitized
form. That is, it concerns a collection of digital images of
preserved plants or plant parts. Virtual herbaria often are
established to improve availability of specimens to a wider
audience. However, there are digital herbaria that are not
suitable for internet access because of the high resolution of
scans and resulting large file sizes (several hundred megabytes
per file). Additional information about each specimen, such as
the location, the collector, and the botanical name are
attached to every specimen. Frequently, further details such as
related species and growth requirements are mentioned.
• (http://www.tropicos.org/,
• (http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/nam
es.asp)
• (http://www.algaebase.org/)
• http://symbiota.org/bryophytes/index.php
• http://symbiota.org/nalichens/index.php
• http://mycoportal.org/portal/index.php
 MOUNTING OF SPECIMENS
The process, by which a dry specimen is attached to a mounting paper or a
herbarium sheet, and a label is affixed at the lower right corner of the sheet, is
called mounting. The standard size of a herbarium sheet is 28.75 by 41.25 cm.
Heavy, hand-made cardsheets are used as herbarium sheets. Before mounting, the
dry specimens are dipped in a saturated solution of mercuric chloride in ethyl
alcohol to prevent infection of fungi, insects, etc. In place of mercuric chloride,
lauryl pentachlorophenate is also used, because the former is a virulent poison.
A good quality glue or paste is applied to the back of the specimens for affixing
them onto the herbarium sheets. Common animal glue is used in India for this
purpose. Some of the good quality glues, used in developed countries, include
Wilhold 128, Elmer’s Glue-All, Swifts Z-5032, or Nicobon B. Strips of gummed
paper are used as an additional aid to hold heavy and woody specimens. Loose
parts (e.g. seeds, fruits, flowers, etc.) and dissected parts are placed in a paper
packet and pasted on the same herbarium sheet. Use of cellulose tapes or stiching
of the plant parts with thread should be avoided.