When if starts to get a bit nippy, on goes the heating to warm things up a bit. Heating ie all about the tranofer of energy. Here are a few useful definitions to begin with. 1) When @ substance is heated, its particles gein energy. This energy makes the particles in a ‘gas oF a liguid move around faster. In a solid, the partioles vibrate more rapidly. 2) This energy ie meacured on an absolute geale. (This means it can't go lower than zero, because there's a limit to how slow particles can move.) The unit of heat energy is the joule (J). 1) The hotter something is, the higher its temperature. 2) Temperature is usually measured in °C (degrees Celsius), but there are other temperature soales, like °F (degrees Fahrenheit). Energy fends to flow from hot objects to cooler ones — e.g. warm radiators heat the oold air in your room. And the bigger the temperature differenoe, the faster heat is transferred. Kinda makes sense. 1) If takes more heat energy fo increase the temperature of some materials than others. E.g. you need 4200 J to warm 1 kg of water by 1°C, but only 129 J to warm 1 kg of meroury by 1 °C. 2) Materials which need to gain lots of energy fo warm up also release loads of energy when they cool down again. They can ‘store’ a lot of heat. 8) The measure of how much energy a substance can store is called ite specific heat capacity. 4) Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy needed fo raise the temperature of Lkg of a substance by L°C. Water has a specific heat capacity of 4200 J/kg"C. 5) The specific heat capacity of water is high. Once water's heated, it stores a lot of energy, which makes it good for central heating systems. Also, water's a liquid eo it oan easily be pumped around a building. 6) You'll have to do caloulations involving specific heat capacity. This ie the equation to learn: erect nenu EXAMPLE: How much energy is needed to heat 2 kg of water from 10 °C to 100 °C? ANSWER: Energy needed = 2 x 4200 x 90 = 756 000) If you're not working out the energy, you'll have fo rearrange the equation, so thie formula iriangle will ome in dead handy. ‘You cover up the thing you're trying fo find. The parts of the formula you can still see are what it's equal to. EXAMPLE: An empty 200 g aluminium kettle cools down from 115 °C to 10 °C, losing 19 068 J of heat energy. What is the specific heat capacity of aluminium? Remember — youneed to convert oH Enon 19068 _ ° ‘the mags to kllograms first. ANSWER: SHC = VS Temp Ch 0.2105 908 dkere L a high | So there are iwo reasons why water's used in central heating eysteme — it's a liquid and it has a high | specific heat capacity. This makes water good for cooling eustems too. Water can absorb a lot of energy ond sary Lauay. Welerbased cooling systeme oe wed in ar engines end sore computers: Section One — Heat and EnergyMelting and Boiling Tf you heat up a pan of water on the stove, the water never gets any hotfer than 100 °C. You can carry ‘on heating it up, but the temperature won't rise. How come, you say? It's all to do with latent heat... You Need to Put In Energy to Break Intermolecular Bonds 1) When you heat a liquid, the heat energy makes the particles move faster. Eventually, when enough of the parlioles have enough energy fo overcome their attraction to each other, big bubbles of gas form in the liquid — this is boiling. 2) I's similar when you heat a solid. Heat energy makes the particles vibrate faster until eventually the forces between them are overcome and the particles start to move around — this is melting. 8) When a substance is melting or boiling, you're still putting in energy, but the energy’s used for breaking infermoleoular bonds rather than raising the temperature — there are flat spots on the heating graph. Temperature Heating Temperature Cooling | we ag (solid Time 4) When a substance is condensing or freezing, bonds are forming between particles, which releases 1y. This meane the temperature doesn't go down until all the substance has turned into @ liquid (condensing) or a sold (freezing). § Latent He tl ere eded to Chan fate 1) The specific latent heat of melting is the amount of energy needed to melt Lkg of material without changing its temperature (\.e. the material's got fo be at its melting temperature already). 2) The specific latent heat of boiling ie the energy needed to boil | kg of material without changing its temperature (i.e. the material's got fo be at its boiling temperature already). 8) Specific latont heat ie different for different materials, and it's different for boiling and melting, You don't have to remember what all the numbers are, though. Phew. 4) There's a formula to help you with all he caloulations. And here EXAMPLE: The specific latent heat of water (for melting) is $84 000 J/kg. How much energy is needed to melt an ice cube of mass 7 g at 0 °C? ANSWER: Energy = 0.007 x 884 000 J = 2238 J If you're finding the mass or the specific latent heat you'll need to divide, not multiply — just to make your life a bit easier, here's the formula triangle.” EXAMPLE: The epooific latent heat of water (for boiling) is 2260 000 W/kg. 2 825 000 J of energy is used fo boil dry @ pan of water st 100 °C. What was the mase of wafer in the pan? ANSWER: Mass = Energy + SLH = 2 825 000 + 2260 000 J = 1.25 ke kin nds fel er quite m. es Melting a sold or boiling a liquid meane you've got fo breek bonds between particles. That takes energy. Specific latent heat is just the amount of energy you need per kilogram of stuff. Incidentally, this is how ‘aweating cools you down — your body heat’s used to change liquid sweat into gas. Nice. Section One — Heat and Energynduction a ion Tf you build a house, there are regulations about doing it properly, mainly 60 that it doesn’t fall down, but also so that it keeps the heat in. Eacier caid than done — there are several waye that heat is ‘lost’. is Most Important in Houses lose a lot of heat through their windows even when they're shut. One reason for this is that heat flows from the warm inside face of the window fo the cold outside face by conduction. In a solid, the particles are held tightly together. G0 when one particle vibrates, if bumps into other ppartioles nearby and quickly passes the vibrations on. 2) Particles which vibrate faster than = others pass on their extra kinetio energy (that's movement energy) fo neighbouring particles. These particles then vibrate faster themselves. 8) This process continues throughout the eolid and gradually the extra kinetio energy (or heal) is spread all the way through the solid. ‘This causes a tise in temperature at the other side. 4) Metals are really good conductors of heat — that's why they're used for saucepans. Non-metale are good for inaulating things — e.g. for saucepan handles. bey pric are good conductors 5) Liquide and gases conduct heat more slowly than solide — the particles because roe electrons help carry +t held so tightly together. Go air is @ good ineulator. ‘the heat through che metal Occurs in and 1) When you heat up ‘or gas, the particles move faster, and _Wetor above bested the fluid (liquid or gas) expands, becoming less dense. pienso 2) The warmer, less dense fluid rises above its colder, goo Hest cots denser surroundings, like a hot air balloon does. a Lee 8) As the warm fluid rises, cooler fluid takes its place. As this rae in ws i ith a circulati Water staye cold process continues, you actually end up with a circulation of Water sfoye od fluid (convection currents). This is how immersion heaters work. 44) Radiators in the home rely on convection to make the Se Radiators in the bom rly on con _, Niven ar daplaoes cooler ar} '5) Convection can't happen in solide because the particles = aa ‘can't move — they just vibrate on the spot. sie eras ise 1) redo coat yr rod hn he Sd ing Uae: ™ Clothes, blankets and cavity wall foam insulation all work by trapping pockets of air. The air can't move so the heat has to ‘conduct very slowly through the pookets of air, as well as the material in between. eft by the rising, hea ‘garden spade is left outside in cold weather, the metal bit will always feel colder than the wooden it ian't colder — it just conducts heat away from your hand quicker. The opposite is true if ‘spade is left out in the suns! feel hotter because it conducts heat into your hand quioke Section One — Heat and EnergyThe other way heat can be transferred is by radiation. This is very different 4o conduction and convection. Thermal Involves 1 of | Heat radiation oan also be called infrared radiation, and it consists purely of electromagnetic waves of a certain range of frequencies. It's next to visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum (see p24). 1) All objects continually emit and absorb heet radiation. An object that's hotter than its surroundings emits more radiation than it absorbs (as it cools down). And an object that's gooler than its ‘surroundings abeorbe more radiation than if emits (as it warms up). The hotter an object gets, the more heat r You can fee! this heat radiation if you stand near eomething hot like a fire or if ws you put your hand just above the bonnet of a recently parked oar. (rently parked oa) -~ aur Feo) is How We Get Heat from the 1) Radiation can ocour in a vacuum, space. This is the only way that heat reaches us from the Sun. 2) Heat radiation only passes through substances that are transparent fo infrared radiation glass and water 3) The amount of radiation emitted or absorbed by an objeot depends to @ large extent on its surface colour end fexture. This defintely isn't true for conduction and convection. The Amount of Heat and from the surface of an object. gurface area, the more waves can be emitted from the surface — eo the quioker the tranofer of heat. 8) Thie ie why car and motorbike engines offen have ‘fins' — they increase the surface area so heat is radiated away quicker. So the engine cools quicker. 4) H’c the came with hecting something up — the bigger the surface area Cooling is on engines exposed to the heat radiation, the quicker it'll heat up. lnareaes Sixtove ero 2) ‘peed up cooling. 2) cand | 1) Matt black surfaces are very good absorbers and emitters of radiation. Painting a ‘wood-burning stove matt black means i'll radiate as much heat as possible. 2) Light-coloured, smooth objects are very poor absorbers and emitters of radiation. They effectively refleot heat radiation — e.g. come people put shiny foil behind their radiators 40 reflect radiation back into the room rather than heat up the walle. Another good example is survival blankets for people vg rescued from snowy mountains — their shiny, smooth curface reflects the body heat back inside the blanket, and also minimises heat radiation being emitted by the blanket. Radiate happin and by the fire ‘The most confusing thing about radiation is that those white things on your walls called ‘radiators’ actually transfer most of their heat by con 1 a8 tising warm air. They do radiate some heat too, Section One — Heat and Energy