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1960

Teak propagation and culture

Nitasana Chareonmit
The University of Montana

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 TEAK PROPAGATION AND CULTURE

by

NITASANA CHAREONMIT

B.8 .F* Kasetsart University, College of Forestry,

Thailand, 194&

Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

Master of Forestry

MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY

i960

Approved by:

Ûhairraan, Board of Examiners

Dean, Graduate School

MAY 2 7 1960
Date
 UMI Number: EP36970

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. William R.

Pierce, my major advisor and chairman of my graduate

committee, for his advice and guidance during the course

of my graduate work.

Grateful thanks should go to the other members of

my graduate committee. Dr. Vollrat von Deichman for his

critical review of the manuscript, and Mr. Don Baldwin

for his advice on American nursery techniques.

Material from Turney, James W., ’’Seeding and Plant­

ing in the Practice of Forestry,” is used with permission

of John Wiley and Sons, Inc., publishers.

ii
 TABLE OP CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION^-HISTORICAL........................ 1

A. G e n e r a l ................. 1
B. Distribution..... ........................ ^

C. Composition . . . . . . 5
D. Description ................. . . . . . . 7

E. Site Factors . . . . . . . . . . 9

S o i l ................................ 9
Climate ....................... 10

Natural Succession ................ . 11

II. S I L V I C S .........................................13
A. Leaf Shedding ................... 13

B. Flowering andFruiting . ;................... 13

C. Growth ...................... ll{.

D. Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . 17

E. Tree S e e d .................................. 21

Seed Collection .......... . 22

Transportation and Seed Storage ... 23

Treatmentof S e e d ................... 23

P. N u r s e r y ......... .... . .................2k

TemporaryNurseries ........... 25

PermanentNurseries ................. 25

ill
 Iv

CHAPTER PAGE

G. Preparation of Nursery Seed Beds • • • • • • 26

Preparation of Seed Beds • « • • • • • 26

Sowing • • • • • • • • • 27

Insect Damage • • # 30
Leaf D i s e a s e s .................. 30

III. TEAK C U L T U R E ................................ 3k

A. Preparation of Land . . . . . . . . . 34

F e l l i n g .......................... • • 34
Burning ...............................36

Spacing and S t a k i n g • « • 40

B. P l anting......... 40
Time of P l a n t i n g . 40

Method of P l a n t i n g .......... . . . 42

Direct Seeding • ................ 43

Planting of S t o c k ................ 45
Planting of C u t t i n g s .......... • 46
(1) Size of seedling
for stumping • ............ 46

(2) Shape of stump . .......... 47

(3) Preparation of stump .... 47

(4) Plantation «... 49

C. Tending in Plantations .................... 52

Weeding ................ . . . . . . 52

Closing of O p e n i n g .............. 53

D. Thinning . ......... 54
 V
CHAPTER PACE

E. Injuries and Protection. . . . . . 57

I n s e c t s ........................ 57
The teak cariker-grub............ 58

Fire ...................... 61

Climatic . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
A n i m a l .............. . . 62

G r a z i n g ......................... 63
Parasite and Epiphitlc Plants .... 63

P. Rate of Growth ................ 6if

IV. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION ................ 65

LITERATURE C I T E D .............................. 69

A P P E N D I X ...................................... 73
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

I. Average heights (in meters) of teak

plantations ................... 78
II, Growth rate based on annual r i n g s ............. • 79
III, Number of years at seven-foot girth on
various classes of soil ....................... 80

IV, The general height growth of different girth

classes calculated from the above measurements. , 8l

V, Teak plantations were started in 1883,

Measurements recorded in 1 9 1 0 . , , 82

Vi
 LIST OP FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1. Flower, leaf, fruit and seed of teak tree . . . . l5

2. Teak one year after stump p l a n t i n g ............. 18

3. Teak two years after stump p l a n t i n g ............. 19

Ij., Preparation of seed b e d ............ 28

5. Seed bed with supporting bamboo framework . . . . 29

6. Three-five months old teak s e e d l i n g s ........... 32

7. One year old teak seedlings in the seed bed . . . 33

8. Undergrowth and bamboo are felled f i r s t ......... 35

9. Trees of overstory are felled .......... ....37

10. Burning to clear land and prevent re-growth
of bamboo and undergrowth........................38

11. The unbumed slash is piled and burned

the second time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 9
12. Staking is done by using split bamboo ......... 1^1

13. Stump. Root and shoot cutting ready for plant­

ing ............................................lj.8

12|.. Cleared land being prepared for stump planting. . 50

15. The stumps are planted in the ground

and the young leaf grows up frcoi the bud . . . . 5l

16. The teak canker-grub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 0

17. Teak with temate leaves « Shoots of 1929 with

six well-developed whorls of three leaves each . 85
18. Teak, leaves normal but alternate and spirally
a r r a n g e d ...................................... . 8 6
vii
 viit

FIGURE PAGE

19» Teak, leaves normal but alternate and

blforious........................... 87
20* Teak, leaves mostly noimal, but one or more
pairs fused together .................. 68
21. Teak with four alternate leaves followed
by three whorls of three, and at the top,
two decussate pairs almost on the same level.
The side shoots from the base are normal shoot
of 1929......................................... 89
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION - HISTORICAL

A GENERAL

Teak (Tectona grandis Linn.) Family - Verbena-

ceae. Local name - Kyan (Burmese) * Mal-Sak (Shan) * Sak

(Thailand).
The Portuguese name Teca, Itself derived from the

Greek word Tekton, meaning ”a carpenter," gave rise to

both Tectona and Teak; grandis In Latin means "large."

Teak Is known to occur naturally In Burma, India,

Indo-Chlna, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand.

In Burma, the northern boundary limit of teak Is

about 25 degrees 30 minutes North Latitude. This boundary

passes through the Eachln state, and Is some distance out­

side the Tropics. The southern boundary Is about 15

degrees to 16 degrees North Latitude In the Amherst dis­

trict. On the east, teak occurs through the Shan states

and beyond the boundaries of the Union. In the northwest.

It does not extend beyond the west watershed of the Irra­

waddy and Chlndwln rivers. In the southwest. It occurs on

the west bank of the Irrawaddy, extending Into the

1
 2
foothills of the Arakan Yomas in decreasing abundance to

about 18 degrees to 19 degrees North Latitude (Kermode,

1927).
Teak was declared a ’’royal” tree in 1722 during the

Alaugpaya dynasty. The British Government declared it

state property in l822 and under the current Burma Forest

Act, 1902, it is a ’’reserved” tree; i.e., wherever found,

it may not be felled, cut, girdled or injured by fire or

other means, or be extracted, except under grand license

or special agreement with the Government (Anonymous, 1935).

In Thailand, in its natural habitat, teak is found

extensively all over the north, and extending in inter­

rupted stretches south along the west border into the

provinces of Nakornsawan, Udhaidhani, and Kanburi as far

south as li|. degrees North Latitude, and as far down to the

central part as Phechaboon. In the northeast, it grows in

a few small detached areas in the provinces of Khonkaen

and Nongkai. The whole range may broadly be said to extend

from the extreme western border to the northeastern bound­

ary as far as Nakorn-phanom on the Mekhong river between

Longitude 97 degrees 30 minutes arid IOI4. degrees 30 minutes

East, and from the northernmost boundary (North Latitude

20 degrees 30 minutes) to about North Latitude 16 degrees

30 minutes in the North East. The main teak zone, however,

is confined to the hilly and even mountainous region of

the north in the provinces of Me Hongsorn, Chiengmai,

 3
Chiengria, Lampang, and so on, between Longitude 97

degrees 30 minutes to 101 degrees 20 minutes East and

20 degrees 30 minutes North Latitude to 16 degrees North

Latitude. Its altltudlnal range lies between about 100

meters to about 900 meters above mean sea level.

Teak is the best known, most universally used, and

the most valuable timber tree of Thailand, It is protected

by law and may not be cut without a special permit, regard­

less of the region of its growth.

In Trinidad, teak (Tectona grandis Linn. P.) has

been Introduced into several of the islands of the Carib­

bean. The earliest introductions were made about seventy

years ago and appear to have come from both India and

Burma.

Specimen teak trees exist in botanical gardens

within the Caribbean region, but there are no large planta­

tions except in Trinidad, During the last few years, how­

ever, several tons of Trinidad seed have been exported to

Ecuador and smaller amounts to British Honduras^ St, Vin­

cent, Antigua, Dominica, Jamaica, Grenada, Surinam, Cuba,

Costa Rica, French Guiana, Colombia, Venezuela, Mexico,

Haiti and Puerto Rico (Lamb, 1957)•

In Java and Muna, teak occurs naturally. The teak

forests are found in Central and East part of the country

on the margalite soil of tertiary origin in the lowlands

up to 500 meters above sea level (Alphen De Veer, 1957)#

 1;
In India, teak occurs in the western part, where

its northern limit is in the Western Aravallis at about

2l|. degrees Latitude. In central India, it attains its

northern limit in the Thausi district at about the same

latitude; then the line of the northern limit runs south­

west from the point to the Mahanadi river in the central

provinces (Aung Din, Huberman, and Eaig, 1958).

B DISTRIBUTION

Teak is not continuous throughout the area, as

there are certain soils unsuited for its. growth, such as

the drier parts of the dry zone in central Burma, the

tidal regions of the Delta, and so on.

The distribution of teak plantations in Trinidad

and Tobago is governed by a number of factors, the most

important of which are soil and the demand for land for

food gardens. The rainfall varies from 50 to 120 inches

per annum, which is adequate for teak (Lamb, 1957).

Thailand is essentially a forest country. Out of

the total area of the kingdom of 511,939 square kilometers,

about 63 per cent or 312,289 square kilometers is covered

with at least six different main types of forests; Tropi­

cal Evergreen, Hill Evergreen, Conkferous, Mangrove,

Mixed Deciduous, and Deciduous Dipterocarps.

With regard to the teak forests which generally

occur in the Mixed Deciduous type, teak-bearing areas

 5
cover almost the entire northern region of the country, or

from Latitude 17 l/2 degrees to 20 degrees North ana from

Longitude 97 3 /k degrees to 101 3 /k degrees East, comprising

about 2 1 ,6 2 5 square kilometers in area (BaniJbhatana, 1957),

Teak is fairly generally distributed in the states

of Madras Bombay, Madhya Pradesh and parts of Madhya Bharat

and Vindhya Pradesh* The species is widely distributed in

the western portion of the state in Hoshangabad and Nimar

districts* Except in the localities where conditions are

more favorable for growth, such as in Bori Valley in

Hoshangabad, Melghat and part of Betul, the forests in

the western half of the state are generally of low quality

(height growing below fifty feet) on account of low rain­

fall and poor soil (Takle, 1957).

C COMPOSITION

Teak is found in a number of different types of

forests. It occurs scattered throughout these forests

in mixture with a large number of other species. Although

here and there almost pure patches of several acres in

extent can be found, it cannot be justifiably classed as

gregarious. It is very often possible to relate the

occurrence of these pure patches to the presence of a

village long ago or to taungya cutting operations of

the past (Kerraode, 1957).

 6
Although teak Is widely distributed in Madhya

Pradesh, it occurs mainly in mixture with several other

species; the floristics of the forests being chiefly deter­

mined by climatic, edaphic and biotic factors. The teak

forest of Madhya Pradesh cannot be considered as a uniform

type of association covering a large area. In fact, the

crop changes in quality, density and composition from place

to place and often within short distances. These forests

are in fact mixed forests with varying proportions of teak

and should rightly be termed as mixed teak forests (Takle,

1937).
Teak flourishes in only two of the forest types,

the tropical moist and dry deciduous. The moist deciduous

forests, which occupy alluvial flats and moist slopes

along streams, contain trees of the finest quality with

long strai^t cylindrical bole of good size and length,

though mostly fluted at the base. Other tree species

found typically associated with teak in the upper canopy

are: Xylia dolarbriformis. xylia kerrii and dedrela toona

(Mahaphol, 1933).

Teak is found mainly in the tropical mixed deci­

duous forests on both moist and dry sites and sometimes is

extended in limited quantity to very dry types, such as

found in Dipterocarp forests where it is in association

with species like Dipterocapus tuberculatus and Shores

abtusa. On very moist sites it occurs in the semi­
 7
evergreen forests in mixture with such evergreen species

as Dipterocarpus spp., Cedrela spp., and Michelia cham-

paca.
In Burma, its common associates are Xylia dolahri-

formis and Terminalia termentosa. Teak is a dominant

member of the top canopy. It is closely associated with

bamboos, except on the low alluvial plains (Aung Din,

Huberman, and Haig, 19$8).

In India, the common associates are Xylia xylo-

carpa, Terminalia tomentosum, and Laggerstroemia spp.

In Thailand, forest trees found in close association with

teak are Adina cordifolia, Vitex. spp.. and Xylia kerri.

As elsewhere, bamboos form the main constituent of the

undergrowth and consist of such species as Bambusa poly-

morpha, Dendrocalamus strictus.

Although teak is the key species by virtue of its

superior value, its percentage in the crop composition is

by no means great. Teak forms, on an average, only about

twelve per cent of the growing stock in Burma. In

exceptional cases, in India and Burma, it may be as high

as fifty per cent or more in patches.

D DESCRIPTION

Teak is a lofty, deciduous tree that reaches a

height of 150 feet and a girth of fifteen feet or more at

four and one-half feet above the ground. The pre-war teak
 8
stump at the Burma Forest school j Pyinraana had a girth of

sixteen feet three inches, the tree being I4.O6 years old

(Anonymous, 1935)* In plantations, teak may take from

fifty to eighty years to reach maturity. The bark is light

brown or gray, fibrous with long shallow cracks, peeling

off in long thin flakes. The sapwood is narrow and yellow­

ish white; the heartwood golden yellow to dark grayish

brown but becoming darker with age, oily feeling, and

coarse textured with characteristic scent*

The heartwood is moderately hard and the sapwood

is soft. Annual rings are present, and the rays fairly

numerous, giving a conspicuous handsome silver grain.

The wood is strong, extremely durable and air-

seasons easily and well. It does not warp or split, but

in kiln seasoning, surface oxidation is apt to discolor

the wood. It works and polishes well and is, after

seasoning, exceptionally stable under changes of tempera­

ture and moisture. Its weight at fifteen per cent

moisture is, on the average, forty-three pounds per cubic

foot (Long, 1935).

By virtue of its exceptional natural qualities,

teak wood has become outstanding as an all-purpose timber

since the earliest days of wood utilization. The combina­

tion of the versatility of the soft-wood and the durability

and strength of the hardwood is well blended, making teak

 9
one of the best timbers in the world* As deckings on
ships, its supremacy has never been challenged and there

are no known substitutes that give as satisfactory per­

formance In such use. Teak is extensively used to a wide

variety of purposes, especially doors, windows, flooring,

beams, partition boards, piling, posts, furniture, agri­

cultural implements, carts, wagon wheels and heavy con­

struction.

E SITE FACTOR

Soil
Teak plantations are grown on deep, well drained

alluvium. It does not grow well on the deep, quick drain­

ing red and pink sands. The tree thrives on a great

variety of soils. The most common underlying rock of teak

areas consists of crystalline or sedimentary formations.

We may find the species growing on sandy soil, pure sand­

stone, or on chalky marl. The lime content figures of

soil cannot be directly connected with the quality of teak

growth.

In Burma, teak is found sometimes on flat, low-

lying land (not swamp) which is subject to brief periods of

inundation during the rains. It occurs on better drained

flats where often pure or nearly pure patches occur, in

undulating country, and on steep or even precipitous

slopes (Kermode, 1957).
 10

Climate
Teak is to be found growing naturally from the edges

of the dry zone in Central Burma, with an annual rainfall

of fifty inches or even less, to the semi-evergreen or

evergreen forests of the Chlndwin drainage, and the Kachin

state in the north to the evergreen forests of Moulmein in

the south, where the rainfall may be considerably over

l50 Inches a year. Teak of best timber quality, producing

cylindrical and sound logs, occurs in the zone of the Pegu

Yomas, where the rainfall varies from about fifty to sixty-

five inches per year.

The maximum shade temperatures which teak encounters

in Burma is probably rarely as high as 110 degrees. The

range of maximum temperature is from 98 degrees (Myitkyina)

to. 110 degrees (Dry Zone and neighborhood). Minimum

temperature in the cold weather may be as low as 1^2 degrees

(Kermode, 1957)•

The more or less abrupt transition of the dry season

with the rainy one is an important factor in the develop­

ment of teak forests.

In Thailand, teak is found to thrive best with a

normal rainfall varying from forty to seventy inches, and

a temperature from 65 degrees P, to 110 degrees F,

(Banijbhatama, 1957)* In Burma, it is susceptible to

frost and thus avoids actual frost holes. It thrives best

 11
with a normal rainfall of between eighty and one hundred

inches (Takle, 1957)•

Natural Succession
The poor quality forests in the low rainfall zone,

in which teak forms a very high percentage of the growing

stock, appear to be the result of fires, excessive grazing
and preferential treatment given to it. The tree can hold

its own under the adverse effect of fire and grazing. It

regenerates and establishes with ease, as its seedlings can

survive under moderate shade of bamboos for a considerable

time. When gaps appear in the upper canopy or the canopy

is lifted by a forester, the seedlings shoot up. This

invasive reproduction of the tree is found in many forests

where its colonization is in progress at present. Thus,

teak and bamboo form a fairly stable association in com­

paratively dry areas. Observations in natural forests

supported by stump and stem analyses, indicate that in its

struggle for existence, teak can withstand many years of

suppression and competition, and when freed can recover

and grow vigorously under favorable conditions.

As previously indicated, the successlonal trend of

moist deciduous forest is often toward a still moister

type of semi-evergreen and evergreen climax. During this

process, teak is gradually crowded out by the shade-bear­

ing evergreen species. This trend is further accelerated

i

12

by fire protection, which encourages a rank growth cf

bamboos and other evergreen and shade-bearing deciduous

species in the understory. Annual fires tend to arrest

this change in moist deciduous forest, while repeated

olearcutting and burning in semi-evergreen and evergreen

forests seem to throw it back to the pre-climax deciduous

stage. Fire is thus a very important factor in influ­

encing the ecology of teak forests (Aung Din, and Haig,

1958). In the higher rainfall areas in which teak is

found, it appears that the natural succession is toward

an evergreen or semi-evergreen type of forest from which

teak will gradually disappear. This succession is some­

times attributed to the result of fire protection in the

early days of forest conservation and this may well be

true of some of the younger forests, a]though it can

hardly be so of the older forests. Research is needed

on the phases of natural succession. The influence of

man has been so profound in many places that it is hard

to decide what the natural succession would be (Kermode,

1957).
 CHAPTER II

SILVICS

A LEAP SHEDDING

The leaves are large and strong, one to two feet

long and grow in pairs, each pair being crosswise to the

next. Underneath, they are like soft felt with hard brown

nerves, and above, the texture is that of fine sandpaper.

The leaves are larger in young trees. If the young leaves

are crushed and rubbed between the hands, the palms will

become stained red. The leaves are usually shed in

January, but in dry localities, leaf fall may be a month

earlier. In moist locations and along stream banks the

tree may retain its leaves much longer. The n ew leaves

appear in April, May, or even later, depending on the

locality and climate. The branchlets are furrowed and

quadrangular, and have a quadrangular pith.

B FLOWERING AND FRUITING

Soon after the first flush of new leaves, the

flowers appear by about June or July, interrainai panicles

which open up in small, whitish flowers by July and August,

13
and are borne at the end of the twigs of the crown in

pyrimidal inflorescences. The tree is most handsome wiien

in flower. These masses of white inflorescence in natural

teak forests are quite conspicuous, and easily recogniz­

able when observed from above. Aerial photographs taken ir

teak forests during the flowering season will be of great

benefit in facilitating the location of these trees. Of

the millions of flowers formed, only a few become fertile,

and about September they turn into small Chinese lantern-

like fruit. When the fruit is ripe, in February to March,

they are about one inch across, and the papery and

crumpled bladder encloses a hard round nut with a furry

outer covering. There are two, three, or four seeds in

each fruit. They may retain their viability for two or

more years. (Figure 1)

0 GROWTH

Teak does not usually form a clear bole until it

has attained a girth of four feet, four and one-half feet

above the ground, and it completes its principal height

growth when it has reached a girth of five to six feet.

Large trees with girth ranging from fifteen to twenty feet

and a clear bole of up to 100 feet to the first branch,

have been recorded in all countries where teak is indi­

genous, but trees six to eight feet in girth and eighty

to one hundred feet in height seem to be average for good
 15

A.

Flower

C, Fruit D. Seed

FIGURE 1
FLOWER, LEAP, FRUIT AfTD SEED OP TEAK TREE
 16
sites. Teak needs full light for its best development,

but it can exist for years in the shade of the forest,

either as seedling coppice, getting burnt back year after

year, or as a suppressed, usually misshapen tree of the

understory. It can recover after years of suppression

when given the chance and start to put on rapid growth.

The rate of growth of teak varies according to the

quality of the sites where it grows. In the rich deep

soil with adequate moisture, teak may grow to a consider­

able size, attaining seven feet in girth within the period

of sixty years. But in average localities, it takes about

150 years to grow to the same dimension, and in unfavor­

able conditions, it may even take 250 to 300 years for a

tree to reach this size.

The growth data of teak obtained from the analysis

cf 14-00 stumps occurring in different localities of varying

climate of the North of Thailand give the following rate

of growth;

1 *6 ” (I4.5 . 7 2 cm) girth within the period of 27 years

3* (9 1 .4 4 cm) girth within the period of 45 years

4*6” (1 . 3 7 m) girth within the period of 121 years

6' (1 , 8 3 m) girth within the period of 121 years

7* (2 .1 3 m) girth within the period of 153 years

The girth measured outside bark at breast height above

ground (Banijbhatana, 1957).

 17
Thailand has always been well known for its large

teak trees and teak timber, and it is probable that the

tree attains in northern Thailand as large dimensions as

anywhere in the world, but unhappily, in recent years

these giants are not so easy to find as in the past, but

even now there are a certain number of really big Thai teak

trees, as yet untouched (Borrowes, 1927).

Teak is very hardy and fire resistant, sending up a

strong vigorous terminal shoot capable of pushing its way

through competing brush once conditions are otherwise

favorable» The growth rate of teak is very fast in the

early stages if kept free of overhead domination and given

ample side-space. On most sites, in the first year it may

grow two feet, and it increases its vigor in the second

year, when it may shoot up to eight to ten feet» In the

third year growth is still more rapid, and the side

branches begin to appear. The tree develops a clear,

straight trunk normally free from side branches» Growth

from stumps is faster and often reaches several feet at

the end of the first year» (Figure 2, 3)

D REGENERATION

As in other high tropical forests, early cuttings

were primarily loggers selections in the Asian area.

Though such operations have resulted in maintaining a

satisfactory forest from the standpoing of volume and rate

 «

&
PIüUEE 2

TEAK ONE YEAR AFTER STUMP PLANTING

 19

FIGURE 3

TEAK TWO YEARS AFTER STUMP PLANTING

 20

of growth, they fail, of course, to provide for adequate

control of composition, regeneration of more desirable

species or desirable improvement in stem distribution and

stand normality. In the more accessible areas and in purer

stands, this has taken the form of compensatory plantations

or of complete removal of the original crop and its replace­

ment by pure or almost pure stands of teak. This is some­

times accomplished with natural, but more often by arti­

ficial regeneration, usually "stump" planting, often in

association with agriculture, the so-called taungya system,

in which the new forest crop is started in conjunction

with agricultural crops. Plantation grown teak, often

much more rapid in growth and yield than in natural stands,

is of outstanding importance in the Asian region and as

an exotic in many world areas. The Indian approach to the

natural teak regeneration problem is marked by caution,

the presence of sufficient advance growth being the neces­

sary requisite before fellings can be undertaken. On the

other hand, the Burmese approach to the problem has been

that of clear-felling and thorough burning of more acces­

sible forests, irrespective of whether advance growth is

present or not, as long as seed bearers are present in the

original crop. The remote inaccessible forests, however,

are worked under the system of improvement selection, which

though a temporary expedient, has been reasonably satis­

factory, leading to increased stocking. In Thailand, a

 21
selection system on similar lines to that of B u m s is

universally adopted. In Indonesia, reliance is placed

mainly on artificial methods of regeneration,

E TREE SEED

Teak seeds freely almost every year and normally

each district can arrange for the collection of all seed

required for its own needs. Seed should only be collected

from selected stock; the dominant, mature, tall, well­

shaped and straight trees. Trees growing in the open and

on village lands are generally avoided, unless they show

exceptionally good growth form. Considerable attention

should be paid to the collection of seed, as it is best

to collect from only healthy, good quality forest of medium

age. It has often been the custom to give out contracts

for collection. Unfortunately, these contractors often

collect from trees growing around the paddy fields. "Paddy

field" teak is generally of very poor quality, unsound and

over-branched. This may be due to the poorness of the

site. On the other hand, it is possible that the poor form

and branchy condition may be heritable. There is no need

to take the risk of producing plantation from what may be

unsound stock when plenty of seed is available from per­

fectly sound stock.
 22

Seed Collection
Tree seed is usually collected by forest guards

aided by day laborers, or by villagers on contract under

the supervision of forest guards. To ensure that seed of

the right quality is being collected and that the progress

is satisfactory, collections should be inspected frequently

by responsible officers.
Proper collections of seed demands special knowledge,

skill and attention; therefore, it is advisable to employ

staff and labor well trained and experienced in seed col­

lections, and if such men are not available in sufficient

number, to train them,

A fair crop of seed is usually formed every year,
with fertile seeds being produced at an early age of fif­

teen to twenty years.

Ripeness, or more generally, the stage at which the

fruits should best be collected, is a most important factor;

therefore, the collectors should be able to distinguish

immature from ripe and sound seed. Seed is not usually col­

lected until it has started falling naturally or is ready

to fall, or has obviously changed color, or contracted

into the hard dry stage.

Collecting naturally fallen seed from the ground;

This method generally applies to those species with

large heavy fruits or seed which fall almost intact below

 23
the parent tree, and which can easily be collected from

the ground. To ensure this, the ground below the selected

trees is generally cleaned and swept free of old seed

debris. Teak seed should never be collected directly from

standing or fallen trees.

Transportation and Seed Storage

As teak seed are readily procurable, there is no

necessity for seed storage. Fresh supplies of seeds are

used annually. If it is not sown immediately, seed should

be placed in dry storage in bags and boxes.

Forest tree seed is often collected a great distance

away from the region where it is to be used. It is packed

in little bags by village labor for short distances, or

packed in gunnysacks to be transported by village labor,

pack animals, motor trucks, or rail to the consuming cen­

ters. The gunnysacks are usually double, that is, those

containing seed are enclosed in others of heavier material

in order to insure against damage from leakage.

Treatment of Seed

Treatment has been found to be efficient in hasten­

ing the germination of teak seeds. A sufficient amount of

seeds are available at reasonable cost and the present

nursery practice insures timely and adequate planting

stocks; seed treatment therefore seems neither necessary

 24
nor practical for the large amounts of seeds used in large

scale plantings.

Where the custom is to sow seed direct at stake, no

treatment is done as a rule. Where seed is germinated in

a nursery and the young seedlings transplanted, some form

of treatment is usually done. It should be mentioned that

treatment is not aimed so much at increasing the amount of

germination, but at inducing the seed to germinate earlier

than it normally would.

The simplest treatment consists of soaking the seed
in water from twenty-four to forty-eight hours before sow­

ing; a second method consists of burning the seed just

long enough to break the tough outer covering. Good

results have been obtained by soaking in water twelve

hours, then spreading out to dry for forty-eight hours—

the whole process being repeated five times.

P NURSERY

Seedlings from direct sowings are available for

planting, and are often so used, especially those raised

in burned patches, but they do not possess a well developed

branching fibrous root system unless set out in nursery

beds, and are therefore not so suitable as properly grown

nursery stock; moreover, their digging, packing and trans­

port are comparatively more expensive. Stock required for

 25
transplants and stumps Is best raised in nurseries* Good

forest nurseries are, therefore, absolutely essential for

successful planting operations*

Temporary Nurseries
These are formed close to, actually on, the plant­

ing area. Such nurseries are usually small and are

increased or decreased in number with demand. The nurser­

ies are often advantageously maintained in mountainous

regions, where they afford an opportunity to grow each kind

of stock in the same vegetative zone as the area to be

planted. They are used for two to three years, or at most

for four or five years. They have the advantage of fertile,

fresh forest soil, conditions of climate and soil similar

to the planting area, and due to their short life, less

trouble with weeds, destructive insects and disease. On

good soil, the nursery is used for two years before some

plants are left to grow up as part of the plantation; on

poorer soil, a new nursery is made each year. The nursery

lies within or adjacent to the area to be planted.

Permanent Nurseries

Permanent nurseries are usually located near a

superintendent's residence. A large amount of labor is

required to work in a nursery, particularly for a period

of two or three months in rainy season (spring). The

permanent nurseries for teak have the decided advantage of
 26
effective protection, satisfactory provisions for irriga­

tion and manuring, sure labor supply, close supervision

and adequate arrangement for seed.

A permanent nursery should be situated close to a

forest colony or village, so that close supervision is

possible and sufficient labor accessible. A permanent

source of water supply is essential in most localities.

The actual nursery site should be selected on the

best available soil, and in a sheltered location. It

should be an average site where the soil is neither too

light nor too heavy, too wet nor too dry. The best
nursery site is forest land recently cleared* No overhead

shade is needed.
The first essential is to draw a detailed dimen­

sional layout for the nursery. The shape, whenever

possible, should be rectangular or square, permanently

divided into rectangular or square blocks of suitable size,

depending on the slope and the proposed size of the beds.

Temporary nurseries are prepared because of the lack of

suitable soil or sites for permanent nurseries*

G PREPARATION OP NURSERY SEED BEDS

The soil is dug to a depth of about one foot end

powdered* Another foot to fifteen inches of soil is then

added. The beds measure about three feet wide and may be
 21
of any length, with a space of about one and one-half feet

between them. The nurseries are usually located on a

gentle slope, and the length of the beds is in the direc­

tion of the slope. The soil is porous, and the drainage

perfect. Bamboo is used to construct a supporting frame­

work for the soil. This type of bed provides for easier

planting of seed and easier removal of the root at trans­

planting time. Preparation starts at the beginning of the

rainy season to facilitate easier loosening of the soil.

(Figure l\.» 5)

Sowing
Seeds should be soaked in cold water for twenty-four

hours, then sown touching one another, covering the entire

surface of the prepared bed; the object being to get seed­

lings with slender roots* The seeds are covered with a

layer of soil of the same depth as their diameter, about

three-fourths inches. It takes from two to three weeks

for germination, and they should be sown from the middle of

May to the middle of July. No watering is done during the

rainy season.

The usual practice has been to make four-foot wide

beds in July along the contour and sow the seed thereafter

in rows nine inches apart with four to six inches between

the seeds. The beds are hoed up before sowing and narrow

drains twelve to fifteen inches wide are dug between them.

 m

f: i l -r e 4

PfmPAR; TIOM OF 5EKD dED

 %

FiaURB 5
SEED BED WITH SUPPORTING T-nV.BOC FR/iMEWORK
 30
the excavated soil being filing onto the bed (Lamb, 1957).

The beds are frequently weeded by hand. No other

soil working is done in the nurseries, but the soil remains

always loose, and never cakes. All weeds must be carefully

removed.

Insect Damage

Inse*ct damage is very common from the teak skeleton-

izer and the teak leaf defoliator, making it necessary to

spray with stomach poisons about once a week. If spray is

not available, it is necessary to pick the insects from the

plants and kill them.

Leaf Diseases
The brown spot disease is a fungus which causes

leaves to turn brown. It is caramon on the teak leaf and

has resulted in loss of leaves from nursery stock in

several large nurseries. The disease weakens and sometimes

kills seedlings, especially in very dense stands. Spray­

ing seed beds with Bordeaus mixture or lime-sulphur at

intervals of a few weeks will give control.

If the seedlings grow too thickly, the root will

not develop properly, therefore it is necessary to thin the

beds during the middle of the first-year rainy season,

leaving the seedlings about two or three inches apart.

Careful watch is kept of the young plants to prevent

 31
overgrowth of some and undergrowth of others. The

experienced nursery attendant will retard the growth of

the larger plants by trimming the leaf, thus giving the

smaller plant a better opportunity to develop. This is

usually done when the larger plants reach the size of

one-half inch in diameter at the collar. The seedling

should remain in the nursery bed for ten to twelve months

before transplanting. (Figure 6, 7)

 32

FIGURE 6

T K i ^ - F I V E MONTHS OLD TEAK SEEDLINGS

 ^ c.-> * *-

r.
u>

%
PIGIIHE 7

OWE YEAR OLD TEAK SEEDLDIGS IK THE SEED BED

 CHAPTER III

TEAK CULTURE

A PREPARATION OP LAND

When artificial regeneration has been decided -upon, -

the divisional working plan will give instruction as to the

compartments to be allotted to the new plantation center

and an idea as to the size of the area to be planted each

year. It is then the business of the officer in charge to

prepare what is known as a felling regeneration plan and

put this plan into operation.

Before the plan is drawn up, a detailed stockmap of

the regeneration block has to be made in order to ascertain

which parts are suitable for establishment of plantations.

As a rule, only a relatively small proportion of the whole

block will be suitable. The suitable site has to be mapped

and demarcated.

Felling

Undergrowth and bamboo are felled first. (Figure 8)

Felled bamboo should, if possible, be piled on the remains

of the logging camp. The object of this is to ensure that

there is plenty of material to produce a fierce fire which

31+
1

b’IGUBE G

UNDERGROWTIi AKD 3AMBOO /tRE FELLED FIRST

 36
will completely kill off the root stock of the old clinnps.

If these are not killed, the new shoots will give a lot of

trouble in the plantation and cause a great deal of expense

in cutting back. On top of the bamboo and undergrowth, the

trees of the overstory are felled. By cutting those trees

last, the felled bamboo, etc., is compacted close to the

ground, and so will produce a hotter fire. (Figure 9)

This not only helps in killing off bamboo clumps, but

decreases the amount of slash left after the fire which

would have to be piled and burned again.

Cutting of undergrowth and bamboo should start

before the end of December, and the remaining trees should

be felled by the end of February,

Burning
During April winds are usual for a short time during

some part of the day. Burning is best done at a time of

day when the wind is not likely to be too strong. (Figure

10) Fires should be started from the lee side and con­

tinued around the block on each side until the area is

burning from every direction. It is usually necessary to

have every available subordinate and forest villager on

the spot during burning to prevent the fire from getting

into adjoining protected areas. After the initial burning

the u n burned slash is piled and the area burned a second

time. (Figure 11)

 KjJ

FIGURE 9

TREES 01/ OVERSTORY ARE FELLED

 w
CD

FIGURE 10
BURHING TO CLEAR LAKD i\m) PREVENT
RE-GROWTH OF BAMBOO AND UNDERGROWTH
 FIGURE 11

fHE UNTOÎILD SLASH IS FILED AND OT.NED ‘QIE

SECOÎÎD iIME
 ko

Spacing and Staking

The most commonly used spacing Is 6 x 6 feet, with

plants set In straight lines. Six by six feet Is the

standard practice, though sometimes It Is Increased to

6 1/2 X 6 1/2 feet, or 6 x 9 feet. The spacing of teak
species In Burma, Thailand and India Is 6 x 6 feet square,

or 6 X 9 feet rectangular In areas of excessive weeds and

shrubs.

Staking Is done by using split bamboo stakes about

six feet long which are put Into the ground at a desired

spacing. Staking Is done by the laborers after burning

has been completed In April. (Figure 12)

B PLANTING

The planting stock usually consists of nursery-

raised seedlings and transplants, and sometimes of root

or shoot cuttings. Surplus seedlings from direct sowings,

especially from sowings made on burned patches, are also

used* for planting.

Time of Planting

The most suitable time for planting Is from mid-

June to mid-July, depending on the break of the monsoons.

Wherever the southwest monsoon Is relied upon, planting

should be ordinarily finished within three to four weeks

fPOTi the commencement of good rains, or by the middle of
 kl

FIGURE 12

STAKIRG IS DONE BY USING SPLIT 3AMBC>0

 42
August. The earlier the planting is done the better. Late

monsoon planting is generally unsuccessful.

Method of Planting
There are three methods for planting:

(a) Direct seeding

(b) Planting of stock

(c) Planting of cuttings

The standard method is planting of cuttings; direct

seeding also shows good results but it seems to be imprac­

tical in most areas because of the expense to protect

them, which is much greater than planting of cuttings, and

the risk of losing young plants is also much greater.

Planting of stock is unpopular in plantations

because it is more expensive than the other two methods.

Planting of stock is used mainly in small areas .and for

experimental purposes only.

Direct seeding was the original method used in teak

plantations, but at the present time the planting of cut­

tings (stump method) is preferred. However, direct seeding

is still used to fill in a plantation when there are not

enough stumps ready for planting a given area.

Most of the teak plantations in Thailand, India,

Burma, Indonesia and Trinidad have been established with

stump planting adopted from Nilambur, India and after the

pattern of the taungya system of Burma.

 43
"Taungya" means literally "hill cultivation" and is

the Burmese name given to the practice of shifting cultiva­

tion. It is a term well known now outside of Burma, and

a number of countries have adopted it. It is certainly

more harmonious than "agri-silvicultural method." In its

prittiitive form it consists of clearcutting of forest, burn­

ing all the felled material because there are no marketable

trees to be worked, cropping the land for one year and then

moving on to destroy another area of forest land. This

method of cultivation is widespread throughout the union

of Burma and elsewhere. In its uncontrolled form it is

wasteful and may well be a dangerous practice; wasteful

because the timber on the ground is destroyed, and danger­

ous because it exposes the bare soil on hillsides and may

lead to serious erosion and loss of soil (Kermode, 1 9 5 5 ) *

Direct Seeding

After the land has been prepared for planting and

staking has been completed, the seeds are sown near the

stake. Four or five seeds are placed in each spot notched

into the ground and covered without about three-fourths inch

of soil to prevent land erosion during the heavy rains.

Sowing should be done frcxn the middle of April to

the middle of June, so that the seeds will be well germi­

nated during the rainy season which occurs in July, August

and September. This method is easier and cheaper in the

I
kk
beginning, but as the plants progress during the first year

it becomes increasingly expensive to protect them. It

requires many laborers to control the weeds, particularly

since they grow more rapidly than the trees during this

stage of development. Some of the tree seeds will not

germinate, leaving stakes without plants. These areas must

be replanted to prevent excessive growth of weeds.

Weed growth, if not controlled, will create a fire

hazard during the dry season. The replanting must be made

during the rainy season when the seedlings have germinated

and can easily be transplanted. To replant the area around

a bare stake, one or more seedlings are transplanted from

another stake or from the nurseries. This replanting

helps in weed control by reducing the area in which they

can grow.

Young teak grown by this method become very bushy

Instead of growing a long trunk, thus making it necessary

to prune the trees in order to increase height growth.

In Trinidad, plantations have been made by sowing

at stake and by the use of root and shoot cuttings (stump

plants). Sowing at stake has been tried in an attempt to

keep down the cost of establishment by eliminating nursery

costs. However, it has been found that the crop is much

less regular at the end of the first year, the plants are

mare likely to be damaged by careless gardeners in the

first few months, clearing costs are increased and the

 45
e x tra c o s t o f c u ttin g and p l a c i n g s ta k e s b r in g s th e to ta l

fo r s o w in g t o n e a r ly th e same a m o u n t as f o r e s t a b l is h m e n t

by p la n tin g s tu m p p l a n t s . In re c e n t y e a rs , th e re fo re ,

e f f o r t h a s been c o n c e n tr a te d on a r e d u c t i o n o f n u rs e ry

c o s ts (L a m b , 1 9 $ ? ) .

In B u rm a , s o w in g i s done d i r e c t l y a t s ta k e .

U s u a lly th r e e o f f iv e se e d s a re n o tc h e d in to th e g ro u n d

a ro u n d e a c h s ta k e a t a b o u t s ix in c h e s d is ta n c e fr o m it.

T h is m e th o d is re g a rd e d as b e in g ra th e r b e h in d th e t im e s .

O n ly a fe w d i v i s i o n s e m p lo y i t . The d i v i s i o n s in w h ic h

it is e m p lo y e d do so b e c a u s e th e r a in fa ll is lo w ([|.5 in c h e s

to 6$ i n c h e s ) . A f t e r th e in itia l b re a k o f r a in , th e re a re

lik e ly to be h o t , d ry s p e lls in June, th e p e r io d d u r in g

w h ic h m o s t o f th e t r a n s p la n t i n g o f y o u n g s e e d li n g s fro m

n u r s e r ie s w o u ld be d o n e (K e rm o d e , 1 9 5 5 ) .

Planting of Stock

T h is is s ta n d a rd p r a c t ic e in a num ber o f d iv is io n s .

It is u s u a lly c o m p le te d b y m id - J u n e , The s e e d , h a v i n g

e ith e r been s c a tte re d in n u r s e r y b e d s o r m e r e ly p i l e d and

th e n s p re a k o u t, is le ft to g e r m in a t e . P la n t in g s ta rts as

s o o n as t h e seed c o a t c ra c k s and th e r a d i c l e e m e rg e s b u t

b e fo re o th e r ro o ts a p p e a r. T h e g e r m in a te d seed c a n be

m oved w i t h o u t damage and p l a n t e d in s lig h tly lo o s e n e d s o il

n e a r th e s ta k e . L a te r tr a n s p la n tin g is d on e i n some d i v i - r

s io n s w hen t h e s e e d li n g s h a v e p r o d u c e d tw o p a i r s o f re a l
 i^6
leaves. It Is done by means of a trowel; a ball of earth

is moved with the plant to ensure that the young roots

receive minimum disturbance.

In India and Burma, the direct sowing and stump

planting methods were used. Experiments proved the stump

method to be far superior, and it is now the only method

used. In Thailand also, the stump method of planting is

used on all teak plantations.

Planting of Cuttings
Root and shoot cuttings, otherwise known as stumps,

are sometimes very successful in some broadleaved species

in the temperate forests. There has been a great deal of

experimental work done on stump planting of teak in recent

years so that it is necessary to deal with the subject

more fully.

Size of seedlings for stumping:

Stock for stumps is raised in nurseries. It is

generally larger and older than for entire plants. Healthy

seedlings, usually about one to two years old and about as

thick as the little or forefinger, are used. It has been

an unvarying experience that these small stumps give a full

percentage of success. Larger ones result in very heavy

casualties, and the shoots never develop as well as the

small stumps.
 kl
The theory of the plantation Ranger at Aryankavn is

that the shoots from a fat stump can and do live on the

food contained in the stump for a long period, and there

is no incentive to produce roots during the monsoon.

They are caught napping when the rains end, and the food

supply in the stump is exhausted. Thin stumps, on the

other hand, have but a small stock of food for the new
shoots; roots are produced early, and the plant is well

established before the end of the monsoon (Browne, 1929).

The size of the stump should be measured at the collar with

calipers. The best size is one-half to three-fourths

inches in diameter.

Shape of stump:

The stump is the part beginning at the last pair of

buds just beneath the soil and extending to the end of the

tap root. The shape is much like that of a turnip and has
many hair roots.

Preparation of stump:

S e e d lin g s a re p u lle d out o f th e n u r s e r y .b e d s lik e

c a rro ts . The s te m s a r e c u t w ith a s h a rp k n if e le a v in g one

to tw o in c h e s a b o ve th e c o lla r . The r o o t i s p ru n e d t o a

le n g th o f a b o u t n in e in c h e s , and t h e s m a ll l a t e r a l r o o t s

a re tr im m e d o ff. The c u t t i n g is now re a d y f o r p la n tin g .

(S e e a l s o F ig u r e 13) A s h o r te r r o o t le n g th , a b o u t dow n t o

s ix in c h e s and t h e s te m a b o u t o n e - h a l f i n c h a b o ve th e la s t
 1^8

Root Hair

Stump of Teak

Tap Root

■ Collar

FIGURE 13
STUMP. ROOT AND SHOOT CUTTING READY FOR PLANTING.
 14.9
pair of buds, is sometimes used in climates with favorable

moisture conditions.
S tu m p s a r e t ie d in b u n d le s w ra p p e d i n t h e m o is t

g ra s s o r g re e n le a v e s , p a cke d i n g u n n ysa cks o r b a s k e ts ,

and t r a n s p o r t e d to th e p l a n t in g s it e and p la c e d i n th e

shade. They a re ta k e n o u t f o r p la n t in g as r e q u ir e d .

The s tu m p s m ay be k e p t a l i v e fro m one t o tw o w e e ks

if p la c e d in a c o o l ro o m . T h e y s h o u ld be c a r e f u lly

packed and k e p t m o is t , as e x p o s u r e to th e sun o r w in d is

lik e ly to s p o i l th e m q u i c k l y .

P la n t a t io n :

Land is cleared by burning and prepared for stump

planting by spacing and staking. (Figure II4.) The stumps

are planted during the rainy season under close depart­

ment supervision. A crowbar is used for poking the plant

hole into the soil. The hole is vertical, and dug to a

depth exactly equal to the length of the root. The depth

is measured by inserting the stump. If the collar is

above the soil surface, the hole is deepened, and if it

is below the surface the hole is filled until the exact

depth is obtained. The stump is inserted in the hole,

with the collar of the stump about three-fourths inch

above the soil, (Figure 15) The crowbar is used to tamp

the soil tightly against the stump. It is considered

essential.to success that the soil be absolutely firm all

 o

? \ =^_j

F lfJU H B 14

CLEARÜJj t A r 0 -^11 Q PREPAf-tKD FOR ST^'MP P LA N ’ITIÎG

 ■ 51

FIGURE 15
THE STUMPS ARE PLANTED IN THE GROUND
and t h e y o u n g l e a p g r o w s u p f r o m THE BUD
 52
around the stump, with no air spaces, and that the hole be

exactly as deep as the root is long. The test of proper

planting is to try pulling the stump from the ground by

hand. It is almost impossible to do so if properly planted,
but to get this firm packing requires considerable practice.

The young leaf will begin to grow up from the bud in

one or two weeks. (Figure 15)

C TENDING IN PLANTATIONS

Weeding

Weedings are regularly carried out during the first

year. During the first and second year two weedings are

usually necessary, the first in June-July and the second

in September-October. Whether the first weeding in the

second year of plantation is carried out properly or

improperly will make for the success or failure of the

work. Bamboo, if not killed by fire, needs a lot of atten­

tion. The early vegetation competing with the young plants

is largely coppice shoots from trees having been removed.

These sprouts will form a natural undergrowth, vhich should

be destroyed whenever possible, applying the same method as

to kill the bamboo. Cutting or breaking of the sprouts is

effective. New sprouts will come up later during the rains

which will not interfere with the crop. Intensive cultural

operations consist of cutting back all growth which inter­

feres with the development of valuable species, particularly

I 53
with the new plantation. I.e., advanced growth of teak

and other species, the removal of bamboos, climber cutting

and cleaning in congested patches of teak reproduction.

Closing of Opening
Closing of openings should be done as soon as it is

evident that there have been failures at stakes, A stock

should be kept on hand so that necessary transplanting may

be done during the first year. It is not worthwhile to do

much planting after the end of August. Before this time,

comes up, however, constant inspections should be made and

openings closed up as necessary.

In the second year, no rules can be laid down. The

amount of weeding needed depends upon the growth of the

teak and on the density and vigor of the invading weeds.

Where stump planting has been done and growth has been

satisfactory, one weeding in late June followed by climber

cutting and a light weeding in September may be all that is

needed. With other methods of planting, it is generally

the practice to weed three times during the rains, the

first in late May or early June, the second in July or

August, and the third in September.

The term weeding is rather misleading as it indi­

cates that weeds are pulled out. This is not the case;

’’weeding” is done by crews of workmen moving along the

lines of plants and slashing everything down to nearly

 5k
ground level. It has sometimes been the custom to issue

instructions that no shoots of tree species, whether from

coppice or from broadcast accessory species, should be cut

during weeding.
Closing of openings in the second year is of doubt­

ful value as it is found that the new plants are rarely

able to take their place in the stand. If done, the

replanting should be carried out by means of stumps, which

should be planted before the break of rains.

From the third year on, weeding or cleaning are done

only when necessary. With careful selection of sites and

the various operations properly and duly executed, very

little tending is necessary.

D TEIINNING

In subsequent years, the young plantation can be

considered to be established when it is out of danger from

weeds and fire. If fire occurs at this stage of develop­

ment the damage done is not sufficiently great to necessi­

tate the cutting of sprouts. Usually a plantation can be

considered established a year before the first thinning is

due.

Instructions have been laid down that thinnings

should be done as soon as the crowns start touching each

other. In practice, however, this cannot be strictly

followed due to financial limitations. It is, therefore.

 55
not uncommon that thinnings have been unduly delayed in

many plantations. Besides adverse effects on the growth

and development of the trees, these neglected thinnings

have been found to cause very serious damage to the soil

because of erosion. In such plantations the forest

floors have deficient undergrowth which results in

inadequate cover and protection.

The first thinning in a young teak plantation should

be done when the average height of the crop is twenty-five

to thirty feet and the second when the average height is

thirty-five to forty-five feet. The dates of those early

thinnings depend on the quality of the crop. A really good

plantation may have to be thinned after four growing

seasons while a bad one may wait until seven or eight

years (Kermode, 1 9 5 5 ) .

In Thailand, the first thinning of teak plantation

is at the age of five to seven years, and subsequent thin­

nings at about five-year intervals. It is, however, inad­

visable that any fixed time should be blindly adhered to,

as the growth of teak varies greatly with localities,

method and intensity of tending. On good soil and with the

various operations properly and duly carried out, a planta­

tion may be ripe for the first thinning as early as the

third or fourth year (Mahaphol, 1 9 5 4 ) •

The old practice in thinning was not to touch the

stand until about two-thirds of the stems were pruned

 56
naturally. This was following European practice and has

been definitely shown to be unsuitable for a tropical

species like teak. It resulted not only in loss of

increment but meant that the dense shade prevented the

development of an undergrowth. It was further found that

trees which had been kept too dense failed to respond to

thinning.
It is now the custom to thin young plantations

before sign of stagnation begins to appear. In teak

plantations this is more difficult to decide than in

plantations of some other species, because teak keeps a

remarkably level canopy and it is difficult to decide on

dominations, etc., in the early stages.

In India, these crops are thinned to the spacing

given in the "All India Yield Table for Plantation Teak,"

and the following formula is used for spacing between

stems: D = 3/2 (d + 3) where D = distance in feet between

stems, d = average diameter in inches. Thinning carried

out according to the above formula approximated a C-grade^

thinning. The first thinning is carried out v^en the

height of dominant stems is twenty-five to thirty feet and

the second thinning when they are thirty-five to forty

feet high. The yield table indicates that in the initial

1 C-grade thinning; Planted on average sites at 6 x 6

foot spacing. The first thinning is carried out when the
average tree is eight inches d.b.h.
 57
stages the total height of the tree, up to forty feet, is

independent of site quality (Takle and Mujumdar, 1957).

E INJURIES AND PROTECTION

Insects
Teak is liable to attack by e skeletonizer (Hapalis

Kachaeralis) and a defoliator (Hyblaea puera)♦ Usually

the damage is localized, but occasionally the insect popu­

lation increases to epidemic number and vast areas are

affected. Mixed stands, which harbor predators and para­

sites of teak defoliator and skeletonizer, are favored by

foresters for reasons of biological control of the pests.

Extensive and continuous plantations are avoided and strips

of mixed forest are left standing in plantation areas with

the same object.

Damage caused by the so-called bee-hole borer

(Larva of Duomitus ceramicus) which bores holes in the

living teak trees is considerable. The boring does not

kill the trees but causes holes in the heart-wood, which

can be detected only after the timber is harvested.

Caterpillars defoliating a teak tree can be killed

by spraying or dusting with stomach-poisons, but this

method can never be regarded as a practical measure until

plantations can be reliably patrolled for the detection of

incipient outbreaks, and spraying operations can be carried

out with the celerity of a fire-fighting organization.
 58
unhampered by sanctions and budget restrictions { Beeson,

1934).
Tho u ^ white-anta have been found to attack dead

teak sap-wood, the heart-wood has always been left immune

to this injury. On moist loose soil, a few teak planta­

tions have been found dead due to root destruction by these

insects. It has not been proven whether the ant actually

causes the death or the attack merely leads to death from

other causes.

The Teak Canker-grub (Dihammus cervinus)

One of the disadvantages of pure plantations of

fast growing species in semi-tropical forests appears to

be their liability to the attack by large bores and the

susceptibility to injury by larvae of moths and beetles.

In recent years, it has become evident that teak planta­

tions have to contend against a pest of considerable

importance, a longicom beetle (Dihammus cervinus Hope—

family--Carambycida)•

This species is responsible for the formation of

large spherical swellings at the base of, or a short dis­

tance up the stem of, teak saplings. The swellings are

often heavily fissured or cankered and persist for

several years.

The beetles begin to appear in April with the onset

of the rainy season and feed on the soft bark of saplings,

 59
gnawing shallow irregular patches. They are one-half to

one inch long and of a uniform brown color like several

other allied species. The eggs are laid on the lower part

of the tree trunk. During the growing season the larva

bores into the region of the inner bark and sap-wood. At

first, the tunnels are broad and flattened and are usually

concentrated in an irregular patch, but later they are

carried into the heart-wood and tend to run longitudinally

upwards or downwards. Most of the damage is done near the

ground. Hidden by undergrowth, it often escapes notice,

but a single sapling may have two or more separate cankers,

the highest rarely being above three feet. (%gure l6)

Possible control measures:

Theoretically, the most efficient and cheapest

protective measure is the killing of the early stage larva

by slitting the bark tunnels in the first months of

development, i.e., in July or August, Oviposition on the

lower parts of the trunk may be prevented by deterrents

such as tar, creosote, or carbolineum painted on early in

May. The cost of materials is likely to be prohibitive

but experiments are desirable.

Oviposition may be prevented by a barrier such as

wrapping with grass, shrubs, etc. The undergrowth, which

is usually cut back at the time when the beetles are ovi­

positing, can be stacked upright in sheaves around the

 60

A, Typical cankers on B. Shovfs a teak sapling

yoimg teak sapling broken in two to a

canker

i-’IGlJRE 16

THE TEAK CAllKER-GRUB

I
i 61
trunk of the tree and tied in place with two or three

twists of grass or creeper so as to conceal the bark

entirely from ground level to the lower leaves (Beeson,

1 9 2 5 ).

Fire
Teak in young stages is susceptible to damage by

fire. In the grassy open forests with annual fires there

is hardly any reproduction of the species. Once the seed­

ling is established, it exhibits remarkable vitality by

sprouting after the fire. As the sapling matures into a

tree, it becomes increasingly susceptible to fire. Much

unsoudness in teak timber is due to fires. Lig^t fire

immediately after clearcutting is said to stimulate cop­

pice growth.

A forest fire seems to have a beneficial effect on

teak regeneration by destroying the more sensitive seeds

and killing off the evergreen undergrowth, giving the

more resistant teak seeds and seedlings a better chance to

develop. In the dry forests, though in certain localities

fire may do some good, it does great havoc to teak, killing

off the seedlings in very hot dry areas and causing cankers

and hollows in big trees. Damage caused by fire in such a

forest is considerable both to live and dead fallen trees.

Although the law prohibits setting fire to forests and its

violation results in a maximum penalty of life imprisonment.

 62

no serious and systematic fire protection has been

enforced to any practical advantage. Setting fire to

forests— be It to hunt, to Increase forage growth, to

clear one ^s way In the forest, or just for fun— and burn­

ing of shifting cultivations are common practices done

with little regard as to the possibility of boundless

spread of fire and the Irreparable damage caused.

Climatic
Injuries caused by adverse climatic conditions are

not serious. Teak Is susceptible to frost but has power

of recovery. Except In the northern division of India,

frost Is unknown In the teak zone. Heavy fellings are

avoided In frost localities with a view to providing cover

for the young plants. Windfalls may occasionally occur

but these are rare and not of a serious nature. Drought

may cause some deaths In young unestablished seedlings In

bad years, but this Is again exceptional and the damages

negligible.

Animals

Great damage Is done to the plantations and regener­

ated areas by sambhar (Rusa unlcolor). cheetal (Axis axis)

and bison who peel off the succulent bark of young stems.

Frequently saplings are killed outright but usually the

wounds occlude. These Injuries Influence the rate of

 63
growth. In view of vast areas, artificial fences are out

of the question. Free shooting of cheetal and sambhar near

the regenerated area and plantations is permitted to

minimize the damage.

Grazing
So far, cattle grazing in the forests is not con­

trolled. Some damage caused by tramping does occur, but

not to a serious degree, as the cattle population is

comparatively small in the teak region.

Teak is not so readily browsed as most of its asso­

ciates and resists effects of grazing; however, it may

become harmful in young stands as the tender stems are

easily trampled. Medium grazing is beneficial in that it

reduces grass and subsequent fire damage.

Parasite and Epiphytic Plants

In some localities Ficuses are extremely bad and do

great damage to teak by growing on it, gradually develop­

ing and finally completely binding it, paralyzing its

growth and subjecting it to slow death. All fiscus-

bound teak are earmarked for felling. This may, to some

extent, be regarded as a check on the spread of the pest.

Loranthuses are occasionally found on teak and, in

some exposed and gregarious stands, may locally be quite

serious. On the whole, however, the injuries are negligi­

ble and have not thus far received any serious attention.
 64

F RATE OP GROWTH

In plantation, teak raised from one year old stumps

may attain an average height of about five feet by the end

of the first rain, (Figure 2) In favorable locations,

e.g., on well drained alluvial deposits along stream banks,
individual stems may scale a height of nine to thirteen

feet in the same season, (See Table I)

There is a wide range of diversity in the rates of

growths in different localities due to varying soil,

climatic and other environmental conditions. On deep,

fertile, well drained soil along stream banks, the growth

rate is exceptional as compared to those growing on a hill

side where the soil is less fertile, shallower and drier.

Teak trees have been found growing on rich alluvial

soils, which attained a girth at breast height of seven

feet in sixty years whereas many others of the same girth

have been measured- which took from two hundred fifty to

three hundred years to reach this size.

 CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Production

PRODUCTION OP TEAK REPORTED FOR THE YEAR 1955

Roundwood
Sawn
Logs Poles Fuel

Figures in 1,000 cubic meters

Burma Not available 59.9

India 206 195 69 55.7
Indonesia 575 — 875 10
Thailand 285*

^•Roundwood equivalent of sawn timber♦

In Burma, the sustained yield capacity of teak forest

is estimated to be 250,000 tons of roundwood, and their aim

is to reach this figure•

Owing to the ever-increasing demand for teak wood,

and the limited scope for expansion of teak forests owing

to population pressure, ways and means are being sought in

Indonesia to increase production from the area at present

under teak by reduction of waste and improved silviculture,

65
 66

Measures contemplated are the rehabilitation of degraded

stands, better tending and protection of plantations.

Installation of portable sawnllls near the forest for

profitable conversion Into marketable timber of logs at

present uneconomic to exploit* Further, special research

Is being conducted to evolve new structure designs,

permitting a more rational use of timber.

In Thailand and India, also, portable sawmills are

Installed near the forests to make for fuller exploita­

tion.

Recent inventories carried out in the three north­

ern provinces In Thailand have revealed that there is a

serious deficit In older age classes, and large-scale

Illicit fellings have greatly depleted the middle age

classes. It is Inevitable, therefore, that the output

of teak wood will be greatly reduced In the near future,

and this state of affairs will continue for a considerable

number of years.

Trade

All the teak producing countries except India,

from which exports were negligible, reported exports

for the year 1956 as follows:

 67
Roundwood Sawn wood

In 1,000 cu, meters

Burma 7*6 72.9

Indonesia 8.6 1.2

Ttiailand 12 .]+ 76.5

Laos .6 — —

Total 26.2 150.6

As teak is an important item of export earning

foreign exchange, it is in the interest of the producing

countries of the region to reduce domestic consumption and

encourage its substitution by local non-teak species.

This change would be greatly expedited if cheap preserva­

tion methods for the treatment of non-durable timbers,

likely to be used as substitutes for teak, could be found

and made popular. Research on cheap methods of treatment,

using locally made preservative insofar as feasible, was

therefore considered of high priority.

The shortage of shipping facilities and high

freight rates charged by shipping firms were serious

obstacles to the expansion of trade.

Prices

The prices for teak for all categories have risen

in all producing countries, although the increase was not

appreciable in Indonesia, Œhis upward trend of prices

 68

discernible over the last several years has made possible

the exploitation of teak stands that have so far been

uneconomical to work.
On the other hand, there Is some danger of eventual

substitution of teak If this upward price trend continues

for any length of time. In order to stabilize price at an

economic level, Burma Is attempting reduction In production

cost by Improved extraction methods. Thailand Is trying

modified sale methods by making a proportion of teak logs

available to sawmlllers at a controlled price, as opposed

to competitive price through auction sales.

Export prices, especially, have also increased

sharply in the period under review, mainly because of

higher freight rates charged by shipping firms (Anony­

mous, 1957).
LITERATURE CITED
 LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous, "Teak,” School section, Burmese Forester,

vol. 5f no. 1, 1955» p. 59.
Anonymous, "Report of the second session of the teak
sub-commission” second session, 1957, pp. 19-20.

Alphen DeVeer, P.J., and others, "Teak cultivation in

Java,” FAG. Tropical Sllviculture-Sylviculture
tropicale-Sllviculture tropical, vol. II, 1957,
p. 2l6.
Aung Din, U., Huberman, M, A., and Haig, I. I., FAQ.
Tropical Silviculture, vol. 1, 1958, pp.&9-72.
Banljbhatana Duslt,, "Teak Forest of Thailand," FAQ.
Tropical SiIviculture-Sylviculture tropicale-
Silviculture tropical, vol. II, 1957, PP. 194-204.
Beeson, C, P. G., "The biological control of teak defolia­
tors,” Indian Forester, vol. LX, no. 10, 193^4-,
PP. 627-683.

, "The Teak Canker-Grub, Dihammus Curvinus,"

Indian Forester, vol. LI, no. 5, 1925, pp. 188-191.
Borrowes, Bourke D., "Some miscellaneous notes on big trees
in Siam," Indian Forester, vol. LIII, no. 6, 1927,
pp. 316-319 .
Brooks, R. L., "Notes on pure teak plantations in Trinidad,"
Caribbean Forester, vol. 3, no. 1, I9I4JI, pp. 25-28.
Brovme, R, S., "Report on a tour of inspection of seme teak
plantations in the State of Travaneore,” Indian
Forester, vol. LV, no. 2, 1929, p. 63O.

Champion, H. G., "Teak Abnormalities," Indian Forester,

vol. LVII, no. 3, 1931, pp. lOli-llO.
Coster, Ir. CH., "Burning on areas to be planted with teak,"
Indian Forestep. vol. LVIII, no. 5, 1932, p. 288.
Divekar, M. V., "Early stump planting of teak in Kanara
North Division," Indian Forester, vol. LIX. no. 7.
1933, pp. 584-588.
70
 71
Grlesinger, E., PAO. Tree Planting Practices In Temperate
Asia, Burma, India, Pakistan, no. ll;, 1959, pp.

Hamilton, J. D., "Conclusion based on a geological examina­

tion of teak bearing rock in Burma," Indian Forester.
vol. LIII, no. 2, 1927, pp. 88-90.

, "Teak Bearing Rocks," Indian Forester, vol. LVI,

no, 1930, p. 156.
Howard, L., The Timbers of the World. Teak (Tectona
grandis Linn. F.) India, Burma, Siam, Java, 1951,
pp. 578-581.
Kermode, C. W. D . , "Regeneration with the Aid of Taungya,"
Burmese Forester, vol. V, no. 2 (December, 1955),
pp. 86-9^
_______ , "Teak," FAO. Tropical Sjiviculture-Sylviculture
tropicale-SiIvi culture tropical, vol. 11, 1957,
pp. 186-177.
Lamb, A, F. D . , "Teak," PAO. Tropical SiIviculture-Sylvi­
culture tropicale-Silvicultura tropical, vol. 11,
19^7, pp. 179-l8k.
Long, A., "Burma Teak," Burmese Forester, vol. 5, no. 1,
1955, p. 17.
Mahaphol, S., Teak in Thailand. Royal Forest Department,
Ministry of Agriculture, 195^4, PP* 1-20.
Mohanty, A. P., "Progress of Teak Plantation in Angul,"
Burmese Forester, vol. 82, no. If, 1956, pp. 167-
199.
San Tun Aung, U, M. A., "Regeneration of teak in Burma,"
Burmese Forester, vol. 5, no. 2, 1955, p. 106.

Subramanian, B. A., "Teak plantations in the Andamans,"

Growth and Development of Teak. Indian Forester,
vol. 82, no. if, 1955, p. 192.
Suvamasuddhi Khid., Some Commercial Timber of Thailand.
"Tectona Grandis Linn P.," 1950, pp. jf-if^.
 72
Takle, G. G,, and Muj\amdar, H. B,, "Increasing Growth
and Natural Regeneration of Teak," FAQ, Tropical
Silviculture-Sylviculture troplcale-Silvicultura
tropical, vol. 11 , 1957, p. 238.

Tuggerse, M. S., "Viability of Weathered Teak Seed,"

Indian Forester, vol. LIV, no. 10, 1928, p. 5i|-3#
APPENDIX
 EXPLANATION OP APPENDIX TABLES

The following general rate of growth has been

calculated by measuring and counting annual rings on

14.00 teak stumps situated in many localities, on various

kinds of soil and different altitudes (Table 2, Mahaphol,

1951^).
Table 3 shows the number of years it takes for teak

trees in Northern Thailand to attain seven feet in girth

on various classes of soils as far as has been ascertained

to date (Mahaphol, 19514-)*

The height growths of 609 teak trees, growing under
varying conditions, have been measured with instruments

and the following information is worthy of record.

The tree does not usually form a clear well-defined

bole until it has attained a girth of four feet at breast

height; at this girth the length of the bole averages

slightly above half the total height of the tree. The

tree completes its principal h e i ^ t growth, which averages

about 108 feet, when it has attained a girth at breast

height of five to six feet. The longest bole measured was

found to be ninety-six feet in length (Table I4., Mahaphol,

1951|.) # The following quotation discusses the general

7k
 75
h e i ^ t growth of different girth classes, calculated from
the above measurements:

Teak plantations in Andamans were started in

1883, and continued spasmodically* From I883 to 1889,
teak and padauk were raised in mixture but the former*
soon outgrew and suppressed the latter. The teak has
done well both on padauk soil and on evergreen soil,
but rather better on the former than the latter. The
cultivation of teak promises to be highly successful
and to be more remunerative than that of indigenous
padauk; the growth is nearly, if not absolutely, up
to the average of Burma (Subramaniam, 1955).
(Table 5)

In Burma, the rates of growth of teak in lower

Chindwin division and upper Chindwin division as given in

their respective working plans are as follows:
Lower Chindwin Rainfall Monywa
Division about 30 inches
Patalon Working
Circle
Age to girth 6 *6" 113 years
Age to girth 7*6" 132 years
Upper Chindwin Rainfall Mawlaik
Division about 65 inches
Mawku Reserve

Age to girth 6 *6 " Dry forest 166 years

Moist forest II4.O years

Age to girth 7*6" Dry forest 194 years

Moist forest 170 years
Ahlaw Reserve

Age to girth 6 *6" Dry forest 139 years

Moist forest 159 years

 76
Ahlaw Reserve (cont.)

Age to girth 7*6” Dry forest l68 years

Moist forest l85 years

Teak, instead of growing faster with the increase

in rainfall, becomes slower in growth. Although this is

contrary to our expectation, an explanation is available.

In moist forests with heavier rainfall, the canopy is

very dense. Hence the competition for light being very

keen, the growth of girth is slow as compared with dry

forests where the canopy is more or less open. The

faster growth of teak trees in the moist forest of Mawku

reserve may be due to selecting teak stumps in open areas

and in flats (San Tun Aung, 1955)#

 77

DEFINITIONS

Stumps. A root and shoot cutting. The seedlings

are dug up from the nursery at planting

time. The stem is cut off to leave only

about one inch remaining and the roots

all trimmed off, leaving the tap root

only.

Stumps planting. This method of planting is used on all

teak plantations.

Taungya. The Burmese name given to the practice

of shifting cultivation and literally

hill cultivation.

Taungya system. The new forest crop is started in

conjunction with agricultural crops.

Teak. Normally a medium-sized tree. Deciduous,

elliptical, broad leaves. (Tectona

grandis Linn.)

Tropical. Mean annual temperature over 75° P.;

mean January temperature over 65° P.

Cold season short or absent. Prost

and snow unknown.
 78

TABLE 1

AVERAGE HEIGHTS (IN MEIERS) OP TEAK PLANTATION

Year of Prae Lampang Tak

Forma­ Sivision Division Division
tion Huey Huey Me Ta Me Baud Tfl Chai
Kam Nan Rai Prae Prae Lampang Sawankalok

1931 10.52

1931). 9.78

1937 11.43
191)0 9.71
191)1 15.68

191)2 6*5o 10.76 15.00 13.70

191)3 10.62 14.89 13.69 16.50

191)1) 14.12 16.19

191)5 14.90 12.91 13.35 15.14

191)6 9.87 12.10 9.22

191)7 9.12 11.96

191)8 11.72 11.76

191)9 5.54 10.81 7.98

1950 7.77 7.00 5.80

1951 7.07 5.81 6.48

1952 4.46 4.37 3.10

1953 0.34 2.55 2.20

1951) 0.74

Teak Plantation from Various Regeneration Centers in

North Thailand (measured in November and December, 195i+)
 79

TABLE 2

GROWTH R A ΠBASED ON ANNUAL RINGS

Girth Number Time period from

at breast height of one girth measurement
in feet and inches Years to the next

Feet Inches

0 0 0

27
1 6 27

27
3 0 5i|.

25

h 6 79
k2
6 0 121
32

7 0 153

The rate of growth has been calculated by measuring

and counting annual rings on 1^.00 teak stumps situated in

many localities on various kinds of soil and different

altitudes.
 TABLE 3

NUMBER OF TEARS AT SEVEN-FOOT GIRTH ON VARIOUS CLASSES OF SOIL

Girth at Breast Height Number of Tears Soil of Underlying Rocks

7 feet 85 Well-drained
basin deposit &

7 feet 113 Limestone

7 feet 160 Shale and

sandstone

7 feet 170 Metamorphic

 61

.TABLE I|.

THE GENERAL HEIGHT GROWTH OP DIFFERENT GIRTH

CLASSES CALCULATED PROM THE ABOVE MEASUREMENTS

Girth at Corresponding Length of bole

breast heig&t in height of tree in feet
feet and inches in feet

Feet Inches

1 6 57 -

3 0 79 -

k 6 96 51^
6 0 106 57
7 0 112 57

Th.ese figures must be treated as only provisional

pending more reliable figures from Sample Plots and

Increment Plots which are now being established through­

out the country.
 82

TABLE 5

TEAK PLANTATIONS WERE STARTED IN I883.

MEASUREMENTS RECORDED IN 1910

Year of Age In Mean Girth

Planting Years in Inches

1890 20 32

1889 21 ■ 33

1887 23 33
1663 27 29

MEASUREMENTS FOR THE SAME PLANTATION TAKEN IN 19%]^

Year of Age In Mid-girth

Planting In inches Height
Years

1889 25 28

1887 27 36

1883 21 ko 70*6"
 83

EXPLANATION TEAK AMORMALITIES

Figure 17. Die temate form is by no means uncommon and

might have been expected to occur. The

development of whorls of three leaves in place

of the standard pair is of frequent occurrence
in opposite leaved species in extra vigorous

plants or shoots.

Figure 16, In which the leaves are normal but the

phyllotaxis is changed from opposite decas-

sate to alternate spiral, is of special

interest as an illustration of reversion to

what is believed to have been the original con­

dition, The picture shows that the leaves

are perfectly normal and the stem, though

somewhat zigzag, does not significantly

diverge from the straight.

Figure 19. The normal leaves arranged alternately in two

ranks, differing from Figure l8 only in the

last mentioned feature.

Figure 20, It is very uncommon, in fact only one example

has been found so far. The plant is quite

normal except that one pair of leaves is

replaced by a partially doubled leaf on one

 8i^
side of the stem. It causes some disturbance

of the normal four ranks, but to no great

extent.

Figure 21. With more or less palmately lobed leaves, this

would not call for mention were it not so

unusual for teak to vary in this respect.

Only one example has been met with hitherto.

The plant had been grown from a stump which

produced two shoots on both of which all the

leaves were nearly symmetrical, deeply three-

lobed, the indentations running right to the

midrib, and so giving the central lobe the
appearance of a separate stalked leaflet.
 85

FIGURE 17
TEAK WITH TERHATE LEAVES. SHOOTS OF 1929 WITH SIX

WELL-DEVELOPED WHORLS OF THREE LEAVES EACH

 -*o
('*

/L

FIGURE 18

TEAK, LEAVES NORKAL BUT ALTERNATE AND SPIR AL:.i imR,ANGED

 FIGURE 19
TEAK, LEAVES NORMAL BUT ALTERNATE AND BIFORIOUS
 CD
CD

90

FIGURE 20

TEAK, LEAVES MOSTLY NORMAL, BUT ONE CR MORE PAIRS FUSED TOGETHER
 89

FIGURE 21

TEAK W ITH POUR ALTERNATE LEAVES FOLLOWED BY THREE WHORLS

OF THREE, AND AT THE TO P , TWO DECUSSATE F A IR S ALMOST ON

THE SAME L E V E L . THE S ID E SHOOTS FROM THE BASE ARE NORMAL

SHOOT OF 1929.