a EXPLORING SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 11-14 Mark Levesley, Sue Kearsey, lain Brand, Penny Johnson Pp PearsonHow to use this book 4 7Ce Drugs 50 . 7€e_Drugsand sport 52 Biology 7A Cells, tissues, organs and systems 7D Ecosystems 7Aa_ Doctors past and present 5 7Da_ Exploring the world 53 7Aa_Life processes é 7Da_ Variation 54 7Ab Organs 8 7Da_Charts and graphs (WS) 56 7Ab_ Medical doctors (STEM) 10 7Db Adaptations 58 Ac Tissues R 7Dc_ Effects of the environment 60 7c Microscopes (WS) 14 7Dd_ Effects on the environment 62 7Ad Cells 16 7Dd_ Greener cities (STEM) 64 7Ae Organ systems 18 7De Transfers in food chains 66 7Ae Transplants 20 7De Nomads 68 7B Sexual reproduction in animals Chemistry 7Ba Escaped z00 animals a 7Ba_ The scientific method (WS) 2 cE MeNONes abu seheratiy 7Ba_ Animal sexual reproduction 4 7Ea_ Mixtures and separation co) 7Bb Reproductive organs 26 7Ea_ Forensic science (STEM) 70 7Bc Becoming pregnant 28 7éa_ Mixtures 2 7Bd_ Gestation and birth 30 7Eb Solutions 74 7Bd_ Endandered species (STEM) 32 7Ec Safety when heating (WS) 76 7Be Growing up 34 7c Evaporation 78 7Be The work of zoos 36 7Ed Chromatography 80 7Ee Distillation 82 7 Muscles and bones 7Ee Safe drinking water 84 7a Fitness 37 7Ca_ Muscles and breathing 38 7F Acids and alkalis 7€b Muscles and blood 40 7Fa Chemistry in the home 85 7Cb_ Scientific questions (WS) a2 7Fa_ Hazards 86 7Ce The skeleton 44 7Fa_ Controlling risk (WS) 88 7Cd_ Muscles and moving 46 7Fb Indicators 90 7Cd_ Artificial limbs (STEM) 48 7Fe Acidity and alkalinity 927Fd_ Neutralisation 7Fd_ The chemical industry (STEM) 7Fe Neutralisation in daily life 7Fe Danger at home 7G The particle model 7Ga_ Sorting rubbish 7Ga_ Solids, liquids and gases 7Gb Hypotheses and theories (WS) 7Gb Particles 7Gc Brownian motion 7Gd_ Diffusion 7Ge Air pressure 7Ge Forecasting the weather (STEM) 7Ge Waste 7H Atoms, elements and molecules 7Ha_Our material world 7Ha_ Sorting resource data (WS) 7Ha The airwe breathe 7Hb_ Earth's elements 7He_ Metals and non-metals 7He Obtaining metals (STEM) 7Hd_ Making compounds 7He Chemical reactions 7He Problems with elements Physics 7l Energy 7la Energy and changes Tia Energy from food 7la Fair comparisons and ratios (WS) 7Ib Energy transfers and stores Tle Fuels 7l¢ Transporting goods (STEM) 7id__ Other energy resources Tle Using resources Tle Making changes 04 96 98 100 101 102 104 106 108 10 12 14 116 7 us 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 133 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 7) Current electricity 7Ja Discovering electricity 7Ja__ Switches and current 7b Models in science (WS) 7Jb Models for circuits 7Je Series and parallel circuits 7d Changing the current 7Jd Building robots (STEM) Te Using electricity Ze Aworld without electricity 7K Forces 7Ka_ Forces 7Ka_ Different forces 7Kb Springs 7Kc Friction 7Kd_ Pressure 7Kd_ Slunits (WS) 7Ke Balanced and unbalanced 7Ke Designing structures (STEM) 7ke Safety standards 7L Sound 7La Animal sounds 7La_ Making sounds 7Lb Moving sounds 7Lb Line graphs and scatter graphs (WS) 7c Detecting sounds 7d Using sound 7Ld_ Working with sound (STEM) 7Le Comparing waves Tle Animals and noise Glossary Periodic table Index 149 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 165 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 180 181 182 184 186 188 190 192 194 196 197 205 206You should be able to answer the question at the top of the page by the time you have finished the page. The Key words for the page are in bold. You can look up the meaning of these words in the Glossary, on pages 197-204. HOW TO USE Questions are spread throughout the page so you can answer them as you go along. Ifyou are having trouble finding information about something, use the Index, on pages 206-207. ean ... boxes help you to reflect on what you have learned. Consider each statement carefully and think about how well this applies to you.DOCTORS PAST AZ AND P For thousands of years people have gone to see doctors when they feel unwell. Some of the ways in ‘which doctors examine patients have not changed! For example, 3000 years ago, Ancient Egyptian doctors knew that ifa person's heart was not beating as well as usual that person could be ill. Today, doctors still find out how well your heart is beating, They may also measure temperature and do blood and urine tests to see if there are ‘changes in your body compared to normal, These changes are called symptoms. Different problems ‘cause different symptoms. The symptoms of a cold Include a sore throat and runny nose. Dee ene wee ae Lg Cet am ead) B | Doctors have written instructions for how to l ‘mummies and found that many had heart problems. Bee Ue me We te MU Cees Egyptian carving records the range o instruments — . and medicines that a doctor used to treat patients. A doctor sees if there is a match between a patient's Prue tae symptoms and a known problem. if there is a match, ‘the symptoms are evidence that the person has a certain illness. Luckily, if you need a medicine today it will not ingredient of Ancient Egyptian al A patient has. high temperature, a headache and a stuffy nose. Which word in bold on this page best describes these findings? b| Suggest what illness the patient has. A doctor tells a patient that they have acne. Suggest what evidence the doctor has found to make them think this a| Which of the following best describes the heart: Al anorgan 8] acell C| atissue | a system? b| State one job that the heart does.—— LIFE 7A2APROCESSES WHAT DO ALL LIVING THINGS DO? The Ancient Egyptians believed they had cures for death, including one made from onions. tis doubtful that this worked! When they died, the bodies of important people were treated to stop them rotting - they were mummified. This was done because Ancient Egyptians believed that living things contained a'life force’ called ka, which needed somewhere to live. Today, we have different ideas about what it means to be alive. We look at what things do. If something can do the following life processes, itis a’living thing’ or organism: Amann See oe) = move = grow = need nutrition. leo iscnt= oi ocuoeL « reproduce « respire pharaohs) were placed inside huge stone i Sees = sensethings = excrete waste Copy and complete the table below with the items in the lst ‘Amnemonicis a word or phrase that car, chair, coal, cow, helps you remember a ist. tis usually daffodil, goldfish, Organism Notan organism made using the first letters of the words mouse, octopus, robot, ina lst. What mnemonics spelled out An by the frst letters of the life processes? rock, snake, Sun Movement Reproduction Allliving things can either move from place to place Organisms can make more living things like ‘or move parts of themselves. themselves. We say that they can reproduce. _ Ss eae ue Ue Their flowers turn to follow the Sun during the day. | Offspring are the result of reproduction. FEB) Sezvestone citference between how most FEB] Svagest one thing that many plants do to animals move and how most plants move. reproduce but animals do not do.E | Some types of bamboo can grow 4 cm taller in cond ir Living things use a process called res} nto ‘Organisms produce waste materials, When they get rid release energy for them to use. of these waste materials we say that they excrete them. F | Humans, like many living things, need oxygen and food in order to respire. G | Waste materials include liquids (urine). Describe two ways in which you show sensitivity. Living things require various substances to help carry out other life processes. We say that they need nutrition, Suggest one difference between how trees grow and how humans grow. Suggest one difference between how fish and humans get their oxygen. a| In what ways isa car like an organism? bj Why isa car not an organism? Ce Rey food. However, even plants Deut Pree our rnd PearUK NC, iLS, CEE TAD WHAT DO ORGANS DO? fee Vey Prt aT ec csre blood for respiration, and excrete carbon dioxide Crone Mt os) Cc are aon Prater cd edie ec Tae ced ect a Pr Lr Oen te clean the blood and, eee eet In Ancient Egypt. the heart was thought to be the most important part of a person, When people were mummified, the organs in their bodies were removed but the heart was left in place. The stomach, intestines, lungs and liver were thought to be useful on the person's journey in the afterlife and these organs were preserved. They did not think the brain was important and so it was often thrown away. The heart, stomach, intestines, lungs and liver are organs. Every organ has an important function (job). We now know that the brain is also an organ and has the very important function of controlling the body! Your body’s biggest organ is on the outside. I's your skin. Skin is used for protection and sensing things. Mega ces ed Pat ie PSU removes water fro PE oa) ea Cee yes Ea) eer cng CicloDraw a table to show the functions of ive different organsin your body. Which organ gets bigger as it fills with air? List the organs that help to get nutrition into the body. List the organs that excrete waste materials. List two organs that store solid or liquid wastes. Plant organs Photo D shows some of the main organs in plants. __leaf traps sunlight to make food — for the plant ~~ stem carries substances around the plant and supports the leaves and flowers root holds the plant in place. Roots also take water and small amounts of other substances from the soil. Sau Plants make their own food using a process called photosynthesis. This process occurs in the leaves when there is light. Photosynthesis needs carbon dioxide from the air, and water. Some plants also have storage organs, which they use to store some of the food that they make. Potatoes and carrots are storage organs. Which organ isthe main organ of nutrition in a plant? a What process produces the food stored in plant storage organs? b| Why won't potato grow if the potato plant does not get much light? Which human organ is most similar to a leaf? Explain your reasoning. a | ae eas ern ert) Ren ernest often eat these.MEDICAL ZADDOCTORS STEM stands for sceince, technology, engineering and maths. There are many interesting jobs open to people with skills in these subjects. These include careers Fee ae ee eee a Dene enh AUS EM mare. Rr Ee eesti Telesis Tos OTe oe ne cau Tc a oe ee eer csydredineeendere and allowed doctors to see the bones inside Pees ee eee te cg produced scanners (ike this one) that show = tee UST Rel dere eae ee PU neue Mee ae Reece cae sie cel Crem eRe Meee neha) peed Sm Sn Coee Tt ert Uy {information used to decide if an idea is correct or incorrect). A decision made using evidence iscalleda | 2 | a |When a girl broke her leg, it was put in plaster for 2 months. Suggest how a doctor might oe check to see ifthe twro ends of the broken Doctors think up ideas about what might be wrong bone have now joined together? SE una neue b|Adoctor thinks that a patient has a heart Seed ee Rar ee aku problem, Suggest why the patient is put in an to make a conclusion (called a‘medical diagnosis). ray scanner. Look at photo B. What organs the doc testing? ‘Aman has been getting pains in his chest. His doctor thinks the man may have a heart problem. a | What does the heart do? bb | Suggest two tests the doctor uses to discover ifthe man’s heart is working properly. A patient has yellow skin. The doctor thinks the patient's liver has a problem and is leasing a substance called bilirubin into the blood. A test finds bilirubin in the patient's urine. The doctor says that the patient has liver disease. a | What does the liver do? b |Whatiis the doctor's diagnosis? | What evidence does the doctor use? Cera tos d |Which organ produces urine? e|Which organ stores urine?STEM Tan eee ae eee aE organs. Pathologists use their knowledge of the body and problem-solving skills eee Ren ene ta tee case ee DDE eee es Lesa cen Eo ene aero Uc Ren econ nek Be rae Rea aes ce want to become physiotherapists, nurses or doctors CA Esa east example, usually train at a university for six or seven Ne a a aC Pee ERC eR a Legos Ee neg eos Work with others in your group to think about the different jobs that need a knowledge of the human body and its organs. Write down ‘as many jobs as you can think of. For each job, give a reason why a knowledge of the human body is useful. EY une cesUK NC, iLS, CEE ZACTISSUES WHY ARE TISSUES IMPORTANT? Many good detective stories have a ‘pathologist; who inspects a dead body to look for evidence to help to solve a murder. Pathologists have a long history; dead bodies were examined in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and in Roman times. Pathologists are fully trained doctors. Some pathologists examine dead bodies to try to work out causes of death. Others examine small pieces taken from living people to try to identify diseases. Ne tec RSE mA RL) pieces taken from a body to be examined in great detail What does a microscope do? g z EBB Look at photo 8, Describe what a heart looks like. iy CTE ad A pathologist will look at a heart in detail because it is such an important organ and damage to it often causes death. Its function is to pump blood around the body. The blood carries oxygen and nutrients (from food) for all the different parts of the body to use. The heart has different parts. In photo B, the whiter parts are fat and the reddish parts are muscle, These are tissues. All organs are made up of different tissues. Each tissue in an organ has a certain function. For example, the muscle tissue in the heart is the part that moves, to pump blood. The fat tissue helps to protect the heart.al Name two tissues found in the heart. b| What does each of these tissues do? ‘A pathologist says that the liver in photo D comes from someone with ‘fatty liver disease Compare it with the healthy liver in diagram B on page 8. What evidence supports the pathologist’ conclusion? Your intestines move, so that food is pushed along, What tissue would you expect to find in intestines? Plant tissues Plants also have organs made out of tissues. Many roots, like the one shown in photo E, have hairs on the outside. This is root hair issue and it helps the root to take water out of the soil quickly. Ifyou cut opena plant organ, you can see more tissues. Photo F shows that a carrot contains different tissues. The tissue in the middle of the carrot is called xylem tissue (pronounced zy-lem) Xylem tissue carries water. Ina carrot, the xylem tissue carries water up from the roots, through the carrot and on into the rest of the plant. xylem tissue tae Cae a al What sort of organ is a carrot? | How many tissues does a carrot contain? Explain your reasoning. al Name two tissues you would expect to find in a radish plant root | What does each of these tissues do? Name a plant organ that is above ground and contains xylem tissue. ‘Which life process does xylem tissue help with? octUK NC, iLS, CEE 7ACMICROSCOPES HOW IS A LIGHT MICROSCOPE USED TO EXAMINE A SPECIMEN? To find out what is wrong with an organ, doctors do tests. Some tests involve taking a small piece of tissue {a biopsy) from an organ and looking at it under a light microscope. Microscopes make things appear bigger; they magnify things. The Method below shows how to use a light microscope. Method A| Place the smallest B | Place the slide objective lens (the under the clips lowest magnification) on the stage. over the hole in the stage. Tum the coarse The slide contains the specimen (the thing focusing wheel you want to look at) tomake the gap Then adjust the light between the objective source so that light lens and the stage as goes up through small as possible. the hole. G | Look through the eyepiece lens. Turn the coarse focusing wheel slowly until what you see isin focus (clear and sharp). D | Toseea bigger image, place the next largest objective lens over your specimen. WH MON E | Use the fine focusing wheel toget your image infocus again. Do not use the coarse focusing wheel since you can break the slide and damage the objective lens. If you cannot see your specimen clearly go back toa lower magnification.WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY A microscope has a x10 eyepiece lens and a x15 objective lens. ‘What sits total magnification? Preparing a specimen ‘The specimen on a microscope slide needs to be thin so that light can pass through it. A thin, glass coverslip is put on the specimen to keep it flat, hold it in place and stop it drying out. The Method below shows how to prepare a slide of onion tissue. Wear eye protection when carrying out this method. Slides and coverslips are made of thin Be very careful when using them. Why does a specimen need to be thin? Why do we use coverslips? Suggest the names of two plant and two animal tissues you could examine using alight microscope. Plan an investigation to examine rhubarb stem tissue in detail Jake sets up a microscope but only sees darkness when looking into the eyepiece lens. What might be wrong? Write down as many things as you can think of.re ELL Mummification preserves tissues. In 1825, Dr Augustus Granville tried to work out how a 2500-year-old Egyptian'‘mummy’ had died, His study included using a microscope to examine tissues. His conclusion was ‘cancer’ Technology has now advanced and another examination of the same mummy in 2009 concluded that the person died from a lung disease called tuberculosis (TB). Bled eC ner d Reed eee a Ue e ek ene Tad eT eee ace e NE Dore een Eee a ees Robert Hooke was the first person to study tissues with a microscope. In 1665, he examined the bark of a cork oak tree and saw little box shapes. He thought that they looked like the cells (small rooms) in a monastery and so that’s what he called them. Today we know that cells are the basic units from which all tissues and all living things are made. A tissue is a group of cells of the same type working together. Whatiisa cell? Granville was able to see much more in the ‘mummy tissues than Hooke saw in the cork tissue. Why was this? What do organisms always have that things B | Hooke's drawing of cork cells, published that have never been alive do not? se ec)Animal cells Photo C shows a cell from someone's cheek, viewed using a modern microscope. The photograph has a magnification of x600, which means that itis 600 times bigger in the photo than in real life, The different parts of the cell are labelled. All animal cells have the same basic parts, but cells from different D|Heart muscle cells work together in tissues have different shapes, sizes and functions to help them do eae a a their jobs. The cells are specialised. eee co) cell surface membrane — This is a very thin bag. It keeps the cell together and controls what enters and leaves the cell. {| Look at photo D. What are the dark blobs? b| What do these structures do? —— nucleus ——__ | What other parts would you find This controls the cell ina heart muscle cell? —— cytoplasm ——__* dj What do these parts do? This is a watery jelly. Most of the cell's activities happen here. This includes respiration, which happens in tiny jelly-bean-shaped structures called mitochondria, {| Measure the widest part of the “ animal cell in photo C. Work out its real width, b] Measure the length of the plant Cell in photo €. Work out its real | drawing and microscope image of a cheek cell showing its length. parts (magnification x600) Draw a table to compare the parts that can be found in animal cells Plant cells and plant cells. al What makes some plant cells green? b| Whichare bigger chloroplasts cormitochondria? Explain your evidence. Plant cells have thick cell walls and may have some other features that are not found in animal cells. chloroplasts — These are green discs in the — ‘cytoplasm that contain chlorophyl They make food for the plant, Using photosynthesis. —————_ mcleus ____— cytoplasm “containing mitochondria ___—— vacuole ——_ This is a large storage space, peg es filled with call sap. Seay cell surface membrane water from the s (magnification x30), EBB Drew and tabet a root hair cell cell wall —— This is a box with holes in it — that supports the cell. It is made of cellulose, which is very strong, Eee eS ee een orem ee—— ORGAN 7Ac SYSTEMS HOW DO CELLS, TISSUES AND ORGANS WORK TOGETHER? When cells of the same type are grouped together they forma tissue. Different tissues are found grouped together in an organ. Name three tissues found in the heart, Doctors in Ancient Egypt could see that organs were connected but did not understand how or why. For example, they thought that you breathed air into your lungs and your heart, and all the tubes going to and from your heart. They could only examine the heart and its tubes in dead bodies when these organs were full of air, and so they thought that they always contained air. Today we know that the heart and its tubes carry blood around the body. The tubes are called blood vessels and work with the heart to form an organ system called the circulatory system. ‘An organ system is a group of organs that work together. Other organ systems in humans include the locomotor (muscles and bones), digestive, urinary, nervous and breathing systems. (The last of these is also called the respiratory system.) a Why did Ancient Egyptians think that blood vessels contained air? | Suggest a piece of evidence that we have today that shows this is not conect. whatisan organ sste? PU ee Ee uci Cee Luke eek nd etchant Rn Cn cu Linc carries oxygen and nutrients MM breaks down food and takes (from food) around the body. IM nutrients fromitinto the blood.spinal brain nerves What organs are found in the breathing system? (Hint: You may find page Bhelpful) Draw @ table to show the organs found in each human organ system mentioned on pages 18-19. (Hint: You may find page 8 helpful) TE) Whichte processes do the organ systems in diagrams C, Dand € help with? hiner) Pee Cece ics Inyoururinary system, your kidneys CR ncurca of waste materials produced in Cee dean all of your blood every es Plants also have organs made up of tissues. Plant organs work together in organ systems too. For example, the water transport system takes water from the ground up to the leaves. Water is always flowing through this organ system because leaves constantly lose water (by evaporation). acs GA plant root is made up of different tissue: eee if J root hair call root hair tissue root ‘ylem tse vem call El 2! Wate theorgansinaplentswatertransportsystem? I can... b| Name one tissue you would expect findinallthese organs. 1 identify and recall the main organs in the [Ei] £225 ose water through small holes. How would you examine pplant water transport system, leaf to find out whether more water is lost from its upper or = identify and recall the main organs in the Under side? Plan an investigation, ‘human locomotor, digestive, circulatory, breathing, urinary and nervous systems.7ACTRANS WHAT IS AN ORGAN TRANSPLANT? Doctors today knowa lot about cells, tissues and ‘organs. They also have microscopes and other tools to help investigate problems with our bodies. Ifa doctor thinks there is something wrong with an ‘organ, a biopsy (piece of tissue) might be taken from the organ and examined. This can help to identify the problem and a doctor can plan a treatment. eee te er) Sometimes an organ cannot be treated and doctors may consider doing an organ transplant. This is when an unhealthy organ is replaced with ahealthy organ (usually from a person who has recently died). Ye eae s 7 7 Colelitelme-lee) eg ‘The idea of replacing damaged tissues and organs Pet goes back at least 2700 years to an Indian doctor, called their organs Sushruta. He successfully replaced skin on a part of Peeig someone's body using nearby skin from the same person. transplants if Today doctors can transplant hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys tHE ICSU) and even faces, arms and legs between different people. Te eco) Nel a road FE 2 Dew one call fom biopsy sample x. Label its parts and their functions. b| In some cancer cells the nuclei become very large. Which biopsy sample (X or Y) shows cancerous tissue? ‘People should carry cards only if they Draw a diagram to show how organ systems, Caged Cannas ee ee ud Cet te Leste Neate ety organs, tissues and cells are linked. In your diagram use one example from plants and one from humans.7Ba ‘There are reports of big cats, such as panthers and leopards, living wild in the United Kingdom. One idea is that these cats have escaped from zoos, which often keep rare animals such as large cats to breed them and for visitors to learn about them. Most of the reports are unlikely to be true because people are mistaken about the sizes of the cats they see. However, there is a little evidence that big cats could be living in the UK. The Canadian lynx in photo B was discovered in 1903 in Devon. This is, the only big cat that has ever been found in the UK, dead or alive. There is good evidence that other animals have escaped from zoos and live in the wild. In the 1970s, pair of wallabies escaped from Curraghs Wildlife Park on the Isle of Man and now there are about 100 of them living on the island. eee ei aus Se eeu ee B | This Canadian lynx died in 1903, in countryside in the UK. Why are there now about 100 wallabies on the Isle of Man if only two escaped? Why do you think there are not large numbers of Canadian lynx in Devon, even though one escaped? What evidence supports the conclusion that there are wallabies on the Isle of Man? Suggest why most sightings of big cats in the UK are probably cases of mistaken identity. Wallabies and cats are both mammals. Suggest two ways in which you would expect their reproduction to be similar.UK NC, CEE IN eee od oa PTT eee eek ak Ree What life process do organisms use to increase their numbers? Suggest why people used to think that rotting rubbish produced rats Thisis normally based on an observation eg. why do frogs appear on the mud by riversand ponds at certain times of year), Thissupplies an idea that answersthe question (eq. the process by which frogs are made depends on there being mud) New hypothesis This states what you needed or thinkwill happen in an experiment ifyour hypothesisis correct (ea there sno mud, then nofrogs willy ‘An example might bein an experiment one pond had mud and another had no mud. InJune, therewere frogsnextto both ponds. looks correct WHY Is IT USEFUL? Allorganisms must reproduce to increase their numbers and make sure that their type of organism does not die out (become extinct). Reproduction is obvious in some animals. Mammals (such as humans) give birth to babies and many other animals hatch from large eggs. People did not always know how new animals were made! This was especially true for smaller animals whose reproduction could not be seen easily. For example, when some rivers flood in spring they leave areas of mud, which attract lots of frogs. So, people thought that frogs were produced by mud. Until a few hundred years ago many people thought that rotting rubbish produced rats, that old fruit produced flies and that meat produced maggots. These sorts of ideas were not scientific. People observed maggots in old meat and so they thought that the meat produced maggots, but they did not test this idea. Today, scientists test their ideas using the scientific method! The scientific method is any way of testing that involves collecting information in order to show whether an idea is right or wrong. Diagram B shows how itis often done, First, you use an observation to think up a question that can be answered using experiments. Then you think of an idea to answer your question, which can be tested using experiments. This is called a hypothesis. Next, you say what will happen in a certain experiment if the hypothesis is right. This is called’making a prediction’ The results from an experiment are called data. If the data matches the prediction, this is evidence that the hypothesis is correct.WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY EE (2% tciagrams. al Whatiisa hypothesis? b| What prediction has been made? ¢| Do the results match the prediction? 4| What would the scientist do next? Decide whether each of these statements is a hypothesis, a prediction ora result. ‘A| The seeds at the warmer temperature sprouted fst. 8) The ability of animals to reproduce depends on there being males and females. If people lack vitamin C in their food, then they will geta disease called scurvy. Redi’s experiment In 1668, the Italian scientist Francesco Redi (1626-1697) had an idea that maggots were caused by flies laying tiny eggs on meat. He tested this hypothesis by putting meat into a set of jars. He sealed some of the a| Inthe banana peel experiment, what jars, put gauze over the tops of others and left others question has been asked? open. He put all the jars in an area where there were b| What hypothesis is being tested? flies. Maggots were only found in the open jars. This gl ttecrgnsiea was evidence that his hypothesis was correct. EE al what was reais hypothesis? | Suggesta prediction that Redi might have made. ¢| Explain how Redi’s results provide evidence to support his hypothesis.UK NC, CEE 7Ba HOW DO DIFFERENT ANIMALS REPRODUCE SEXUALLY? Endangered animals are those that are in danger of becoming extinct because there are asia very few left. Many zoos try to stop endangered animals becoming extinct by breeding the animals, itis hoped that the offspring can be released back into the wild, Animals living in zoos do not always mate successfully and sometimes their offspring die for unknown reasons. So it is important that scientists study sexual reproduction in different animals to work out how to help them breed. EIDE GMC Mearns Petes at] only in z00s. Thanks to a breeding programme, there are now ie eee ka te EB wnat are human offspring called? rere west rane Scientists from all over the world work together Sexual reproduction requires two individuals De a una cea Ls to produce new organisms of the same type. Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) to publish a list Usually, two types of specialised cells are CT eg used. These are called sex cells or gametes. There are over 13 000 animals on this list. Males make gametes called sperm cells and females make egg cells (or ova), During fertilisation, a sperm cell enters an egg cell and the two cell nuclei fuse (become one}, Asingle fertilised egg cell or zygote is formed, which can grow into a new organism. Cee Ree Oe Co eater photographed using a light microscope (magnification x600) Ey) hate of reproduction needs males and females? EBB 2! Which are biager in real ite sperm cells or egg cells? b| Usea ruler and photo 8 to calculate the actual sizes of sperm cells and egg cells. EEE tnanimats,whatis the male gamete? b| What happens to this cell during fertilisation?For fertilisation to happen, the sperm cells must reach the egg cells, External fertilisation is when this happens outside the bodies of the animals (e.g. in fish). This usually occurs in water. Other animals use internal fertilisation, in which the male parent places sperm cells inside the female. In external fertilisation, some egg cells do not get fertilised because the sperm cells are ‘washed away. Many animals that use external fertilisation do not protect their fertilised egg cells so alot of cells are eaten by other animals. Animals that use external fertilisation must produce huge numbers of egg cellsto ensure a| Name an animal that uses extemal fertilisation. that some of them get fertilised and survive. a’ ee meen ed See ee eee ce b| Give two reasons why the females of the animal you chose produce many egg cells. Birds and mammals use internal fertilisation. They produce fewer egg cells because sperm cells are more likely to reach the egg cells. These animals also usually care for their fertilised egg cells and offspring. Birds lay their fertilised eggs in nests and protect them. In mammals, the offspring grow inside the mother. Birds and mammals protect their new offspring until they are able to survive on their own. Dee ee iene ee otto) Cee ered eee ate et Nel have fallen by over 80 per cent since 1940. ae ie MCR rs horns, use internal fertilisation. The offspring ve Be ere we the oa te develop inside the mother (internally). animal you chose produce only a few egg cells. Why is external fertilisation unusual for animals that live away from water? ‘Afemale mouthbrooder fish sucks her fertilised eggs into her mouth, where they hatch. Would you expect mouthbrooder females to produce more or fewer egg cells than other fish of the same size? Explain your reasoning,UK NC, CEE Zz 7Bb r WHAT ARE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS LIKE? Scientists are trying to stop some animals from becoming extinct, including helping them to reproduce in zoos and game parks. Methods include artificial insemination, in which male gametes (sperm cells) are placed into a female using a thin tube. Gametes are produced in reproductive organs, which form an organ system called the reproductive system. In mammals, the male gametes are made in the testes. The testes hang outside the body ina bag of skin called the scrotum. Their position helps to keep the sperm cells at the correct temperature to develop properly. After puberty, males produce sperm cells for the rest of their lives (up to 100 million every day). A sperm cell has certain features tohelp it do its job. tis adapted to its function. ‘When sperm cells are released from the testes, they travel through sperm ducts, where fluids are added from glands. The fluids provide a source of energy for the sperm cells. The mixture of sperm cells and fluids is called semen, and it leaves the body through the urethra (which is inside the penis). This tube also carries urine from the bladder, but never at the same time as semen. The head of the penis is sensitive and is protected bya covering of skin (the foreskin). This can be removed in a process called circumcision. bladder (not part of the reproductive system) glands — urethra sperm duct _ go pane testis g ‘streamlined shape of energy for the tal __The top of the head contains substances that attack the outside of the egg cell. This allows the sperm cell to enter. /The tall allows cing ae itto swim, of closely-packed cell surface mitochondria can release lots membrane Which organ is in both the male urinary and the reproductive systems? al Where are sperm cells made? b| Doyou think sperm cells need to be warmer or cooler than the body to develop? Explain your reasoning, Explain how a sperm cells adapted for swimming, The prostate gland (in yellow on diagram C) controls the flow of semen and urine. Itsometimes swells up. Suggest a problem this may cause and explain your reasoning.The female reproductive system In females, each ovary contains small, undeveloped egg cells (ova). After puberty, egg cells start to develop and one is usually released from an ovary every 28-32 days. A woman's ovaries stop releasing egg cells at about the age of 45-55 years - atime known as the menopause. Like sperm cells, egg cells are adapted to their function (as shown in photo €). ‘A woman releases an egg cell every 28 days for 35 years. How many egg cells does she release in total? Show your working. Which organ makes and releases female gametes? Girls are born with about 100 000 Pic eee te aioe with hairs, called cilia, and these sweep egg cells towards the uterus. The uterus is where a baby will develop. It has strong, muscular walls and a soft lining. The lower end of the uterus is made of a ring of muscle called the cervix. The cervix holds the baby in place during pregnancy. The cervix opens into ‘the vagina. Which female reproductive organs contain muscles? How does an egg cell reach the uterus? Explain how a developing fertilised egg cell has a supply of energy. Suggest reasons why a certain woman's ovaries are not releasing egg cells. Think of as many reasons as you can. oviduct, uterus ~ vagina —_ D | the female repr ‘sure that only one ‘sperm cell enters. The cytoplasm contains a ce ay of food to provide energy forthe fertilised egg cell @ygote). nucleus, Bee nr een) ovary cervix Percy)= BECOMING 7BCPREGNANT HOW DOES SEXUAL INTERCOURSE LEAD TO A GROWING FOETUS? In animals that use internal fertilisation, the male must place sperm cells inside the female. Male mammals have penises for this purpose. Before sexual intercourse the man’s penis fills with blood, making it hard (an erection). During sexual intercourse, the penis is inserted into the vagina. The penis is stimulated, which leads to ejaculation (in which semen is left at the top of the vagina). The semen is sucked up through the cervix. Small movements of the uterus wall carry it to the oviducts. From here the sperm cells swim along the oviducts. Ifa sperm cell meets an egg cell, the sperm cell can enter the egg cell and fertilise it. During fertilisation, the nuclei of the cells fuse. Each nucleus contains half the instructions for a new human and so the baby will have features from both its mother and its father. Sperm cells are moved Up through the cervix and uterus, and then bal of els swim down the oviduots (embryo) (fallopian tubes). fertilisation ‘An egg cal is released from an ovary An embryo implants into the lining of| the uterus. These cells start to form the placenta. ‘Semen, containing sperm cells, is left. here during sexual intercourse. ‘Aa human sperm cell entering an egg cell (magnification x450) Eh here does tertsationocurt How is asperm cell adapted to enter an egg cell? (Hint: Look back at page 26.) The fertilised egg cell divides into two. Each of these cells then divides into two again. The cells carry on dividing and form a ball of cells as they travel towards the uterus. In the uterus, the ball of cells (called an embryo) sinks into the soft lining. This is called implantation. The woman is now pregnant. In diagram B, the bal ofcelsis the result of cells dividing a total of four times. How many cells does it contain? Explain your reasoning. COE aur) 1d egg cell two, the cells can separate. They may both grow into new embryos and form identical twins. However, if these cells do not fully Ee eeu Secu parts of their body. They are j rugTe en etn ee Pregnancy After implantation, the embryo continues to grow and becomes surrounded by watery amniotic fluid, to protect it. The fluid is contained within a bag called the amnion. A placenta also grows. This s a plate-shaped organ that is attached to the uterus lining. Inside the placenta, oxygen, water and food from the mother’s blood go into the embryo's blood. Waste materials (like earbson dioxide) go from the embryos blood into the mother's blood. The umbilical cord carries the embryo's blood to and from the placenta. The mother's blood does not mix with the embryo's blood. This is because the mother’s blood is pumped around her body under alot of pressure, which would damage the blood vessels of the delicate embryo. al List three substances the embryo needs to grow. b] Name one substance the embryo excretes Is the placenta made by the embryo or the mother? What is the function of: al the placenta | the umbilical cord | amniotic uid? ‘As an embryo grows, its cells become specialised. Suggest one type of specialised cell that would be in the embryo in photo D and one type that would not. Each of a woman’ ovaries might release an egg at the same time. If both are fertilised, twins are produced. These twins will not be identical. Sometimes, when a fertilised egg cell divides in two, the two new cells get separated. Both of these cells can grow into embryos and produce identical twins. Having more than one baby is called a multiple birth and most types of animal have multiple births. al Which children in photo C are identical? b| Explain what happened in the mother’ body to produce these triplets Phir ee eu ge Tay a tiny heart, pumping blood. Itis about 2.3 om long, NCard uterus lining poe Iocan .. 1 describe how sexual intercourse can lead to the implantation of an embryo * describe how an embryo i protected and cared forin the uterus. 29= GESTATION 7BOAND BIRTH WHAT HAPPENS DURING THE GESTATION PERIOD AND BIRTH? The gestation period is the time from fertilisation until birth. It lasts about 9 months (40 weeks) in humans. The gestation period is very long in some animals, which can make breeding them in zoos difficult. Once an embryo has developed a full set of organs itis called a foetus (pronounced fee-tus’). This takes about 8 weeks in humans. ee ares eee eee ‘About how long does a human spend as a foetus? al What are the parts labelled X and ¥ on photo A? | Explain the importance of these parts for the developing foetus. = This probe ona woman's be Ituses sound wa tomproduce an ims of a developing "=~ baby, on a comp} # screen A pregnant woman needs a healthy diet because she provides the growing and developing foetus with food, including vitamins and minerals. She should also exercise to keep her muscles strong and her circulatory system working well. Most pregnant women go for ultrasound scans, which Ot eee ese os eT UR Che eee Leumi produce images ofthe foetus. Doctors use scansto check Sha eae na RE the stage of development and for any problems. Alcohol, illegal drugs (such as heroin), nicotine from cigarette smoke and some viruses can go through the placenta and harm the foetus (particularly its brain). Doctors also need to be careful about what medicines they give to pregnant women, FEB) 21 Asn shows foetusis7 cm long. What can you say about its age? Explain your reasoning, | Suggest two advantages of having ultrasound scans during pregnancy.The blood of a woman who smokes carries less oxygen than, it should, which means that the foetus may not get enough oxygen. A foetus like this is more likely to be premature (born small and early). Viruses are tiny microorganisms that can cause diseases. The virus that causes rubella can cause a foetus to become deformed. Girls are often vaccinated against rubella. Describe how a foetus can be harmed by substances in cigarette smoke. Birth When a baby is ready to be born, the uterus begins to contract (squeeze). This is the start of labour. The contractions start gently but become more powerful and more frequent. The muscles of the cervix then slowly relax, making it wider. At some stage, the amnion breaks and the amniotic fluid flows out of the vagina. Tea) Dee cont umbilical cord Placenta ~ Once the cervix is about 10 cm wide, the strong contractions of the uterus push the baby through it, usually head first. This is painful and the woman may be given medicine to ease the pain. uterus ~ When the baby is out, its umbilical cord is cut, leaving a short stump. This falls off after about a week and leaves a scar called the navel (or‘belly button’). Within 30 minutes after birth, the placenta detaches and passes out through the vagina. This is called the afterbirth and is the end of labour. Anew baby’s fed on milk from mammary glands in the breasts. This contains nutrients to give the baby energy and help it grow. It also contains antibodies ~ substances that help to prevent diseases caused by microorganisms. After a few months the baby can start eating semi-solid food. List the main stages of labour. Write a caption for photo E. Why does the cervix need to open after contractions start? Explain the actions that a woman can take to care for her foetus. Make notes, perhaps using a table of actions and reasons, before writing a paragraph,ENDANGERED 7B1 SPECIES About 27 000 species (types) of organism are ce endangered, which means they may soon be Se extinct. Scientists count organisms to find out MIC tea ie ete satellites and drones, helps to do this. UO ee a eae ad became very low, due to hunting, So, scientists ’ fee ee reat ey ests) erie ea ™ « si Pe ethic nr akan eee ny . e % ) eek nto St en ee ete eet sea ate PO ea an eur om eet eee decyee siaresrieeonn eee Ee ee Cake SCLC ea ee taken in a z00 while training a computer to recognise animals Wy a Ca pebsantoh ts coat Se ee ee eee similar to the natural habitat where the sends images to the computer. eae) aM Ce pee naa ep tanec EL DE shee eee ened eats into the wild in Oman, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Jordan. The scientists saved Rec i peice insu oe Retna ec Re ee CT gee Tea a RecA ee Diente Deas | Name the animal in photo A. | Suggest why itis difficult to count these animals in areas covered with large bushes. ¢ | Explain how drone technology could make it easier to count the animals. State why Arabian oryx became extinct in the wild. ‘The gestation period of an Arabian oryx is 8 months. What does this mean?STEM Scientists who study animals are zoologists. Some zoologists study animals in their natural habitats (e.g. forests, deserts, the Arctic). Other zoologists help to breed endangered species in 200s, bg a Pro eee Maem see ee uted et er) Ber ineb aie Chet een nese cia Ee Pe hau kh ue ur a cee Ck) SU eee ges ae ae to create similar conditions in the zoo. They start by | listing the natural conditions and the zoo conditions x eeu MA ae Pe ener nara ae) ~— eile eae) eee ee eeu ed match the conditions of the natural tiger habitat cy Zoologists also apply their knowledge of human reproduction to UCN Rg ecu Re rape cu e RCN esha sous Son ee eee sake into oviducts to increase the chances of fertilisation. Zoologists Pt reese en tee cite tte Eu eek Usd Using your knowledge of can adapt processes such as this for endangered animals, Now, humans, suggest how a 200 could sperm cells from a male animal can be transported to a zoo instead rec urs baby animal. Cece ‘Suggest an advantage of transporting sperm cells to a 200 rather than a whole animal, Red pandas are endangered. They live up in the trees in mountain forests in Bhutan, India, Myanmar and China. The temperature range is usually 10-25°C but their thick fur means that the pandas can survive periods of snow. ‘A z00 in your country wants totuman open, grassy area into a home for red pandas. Workin a group to design an Sr ue a) enclosure. Present your ideas was the result of sperm pee eee areata eee icy eenear tema yet Gere ued Oe and Coded design process.UK NC, CEE Anewbor animal needs to grow and go through puberty before it can reproduce. Puberty isa process in which big changes happen in its body, including fast growth and development of the reproductive system. Puberty in humans usually starts between the ages of 10 and 15 years, with girls often starting before boys. During puberty, the testes begin making sperm cells and the ovaries begin releasing egg cells. Puberty is usually finished by the age of 18. Vee eu ama Te ea when they are about 6 years old and ending when they are about 9. Puberty is started by sex hormones, which are substances released by the brain, ovaries and testes. Sex hormones also cause spots (acne) and emotional changes, including becoming more aware of others. The Changes in boys during puberty Changes in girls during puberty shoulders get wider hips get wider hair grows on arms, face and chest underarm hair grows stronger body smell stronger body smell pubic hair grows pubic hair grows testes start to make sperm cells, ovaries start releasing eag cells (ova) time when all these emotional and physical changes occur is called adolescence. al What is puberty? | What chemicals control puberty? | Where ate these chemicals produced in gits? What is adolescence? Suggest three ways in which the changes during puberty are similar for boys and girs Describe the changes that happen to a male ‘mandrill during puberty. Imagine you write a magazine advice column. Somebody asks why they have suddenly got acne. Writea response. voice deepens (or’breaks’) testes and penis get bigger Seu) eee Ce ecetany peer) Peel bacteria feed on. eee Oca ed Pa year) CE) Pau eu em ee aeThe menstrual cycle The menstrual cycles a series of events that occur in the female reproductive system. It starts soon after puberty begins and stops at the menopause. Each cycle takes about 28 days and is controlled by sex hormones. About 14 days after ovulation, if the egg cell Menstruation (‘having a Bi has not been fertilised, the lining of the uterus period’) is when the soft lining of breaks apart again and the cycle restarts with the uterus breaks apart, It another period. If the woman becomes passes out of the vagina along pregnant the cycle stops and the thick uterus with a litle blood and an lining continues to grow to provide the unfertiised egg cell. A period placenta with a good supply of nutrients and oxygen. Cilia sweep the egg cell along the oviduct towards the uterus. Ifit meets a sperm cell it can be fertilised. The lining of the uterus helps to support, feed and protect an embryo, so itis replaced every cycle with fresh material to make sure it is in as good a condition as possible. It continues to thicken for usually lasts for 3-7 days. Immediately after menstruation, an egg cell starts to develop in ‘one of the ovaries. While this happens, the lining of the uterus starts to build up again, and to develop a network of blood vessels. About 14 days after the ‘cycle has started, the egg cell is released, This is ovulation. about a week after ovulation. How long does one complete menstrual cycle usually take? Describe what happens about 14 days after menstruation starts. How might a woman tell that she is pregnant? Why does the lining of the uterus have to become thick? Periods usually occur once every 28-32 days, but this can vary a lot, especially when periods first start. Sanitary towels or tampons are used to absorb the blood. Life cycles The changes in an organism from birth until it can have offspring are called its life cycle. Humans have a long life cycle it takes a long time for offspring to be able to reproduce. Mice have short life cycles ~ baby mice can reproduce in 5 weeks. FE 2 cvt human ite cyte tabetit with information about what happens at the different stages.7Be HOW CAN STUDYING REPRODUCTION HELP ENDANGERED SPECIES? Animals with short life cycles often produce many offspring, which are quickly able to reproduce. This can make it reasonably easy to breed these animals in captivity. On the other hand, animals with long life cycles can be difficult to save from extinction because they take so long to reproduce and only produce small numbers of offspring. For example, a female Sumatran rhinoceros takes 7 years to become sexually mature. She has one calf at a time with a gestation period of 16 months. Scientists in z00s try to help endangered animals like the Sumatran thinoceros reproduce. They care for the animals and their offspring, and help them reproduce successfully by using technology that has been developed for humans. ee ucu ue eee ceca Da tec) SUL cee ace ne Things do not always go to plan. In the 1980s and 1990s, 40 Sumatran rhinoceroses were caught and sent to zoos. By 1997, 36 had died and no live calves had been born. The difficulty was that zoos did not know enough about their diet or reproduction. A solution was found in 2000 and the first calf was born in the USA in 2001, helped by sex hormone treatments. Since then other calves have been born in captivity. ‘What is meant by gestation period’? Suggest one technology developed for humans that is used to help endangered animals breed. Explain how this technology helps. [E2202 Hite cycle forthe Sumatran rhinoceros Label it with as much detail as you can,7Ca FI Being ‘fit means that your body is able to do the activities that your lifestyle demands. This. includes things like being able to run upstairs ‘without getting out of breath or being strong enough to lift things. Fitness therefore means different things to different people, but we can think of fitness being made up of four S-factorss‘suppleness,'strength, ‘speed’ and’stamina! A dancer needs to be supple tobe able to tur their bodies and wave their arms smoothly, a wheelchair athlete needs speed, a bike rider needs stamina to goa long way without getting tired and in judo you need strength. Just being able to do everyday things does not give you any idea of how fit you are. Scientists Use criteria (standards) to work out how fit someone is. For example, how far you can run could be used as a criterion to judge fitness. People exercise to develop different S-factors and keep their organs and organ systems working properly. windpipe (trachea) oesophagus (gullet) stomach breaks up food lungs get oxygen into the blood for respiration and excrete carbon dioxide ‘small intestine breaks up food and absorbs it to produce nutrition for the body large intestine removes water from unwanted food heart pumps blood diaphragm helps breathing liver makes and stores. some substances, and destroys other substances rectum stores faeces (waste materials excreted by the liver ’idneys (one on each side) ed umsrted bon clean the blood and produce urine to excrete wastes bladder stores urine eee Lookat the photos above. Foreach activity write down which factor you thinkis the most important. Explain yourreasoningin each case. Atrange this listin order of size, starting with the smallest: cell, organ, organ system, tissue. The breathing (or gas exchange) system is important for athletes. Name three parts ofthis system. What organ system do each ofthe organs in photo 8 belong to? Use a table to show your answers. A long-distance runners training tolincrease her stamina, Suggest a iterion she could use to judge whether her training programme is. working,=? VIUSCLES AND 7C2 BREATHING HOW DO MUSCLES HELP WITH GAS EXCHANGE? About one-fifth or 20 per cent 5 of the air is oxygen. The athlete cee in photo A is breathing 100 per § cent oxygen. The idea is that this ™ rf makes sure all his cells get all the oxygen they need, to help him recover quickly from an injury. heart You need oxygen for your cells to respire and release energy. Energy is needed for everything your body does. Cells get the ‘oxygen they need from your blood. Oxygen enters your blood in your lungs. Respiration in cells produces eee ace B | Your circulatory system carries carbon dioxide gas, which eames Preeti Nerang enters your blood. In your lungs, alot of carbon dioxide leaves your blood and is removed from Theres alot of tubing in the lungs. There are about 2400 km of your body when you breathe out. Sorte rie euurmt bata iur eel The carbon dioxide is excreted. The gas exchange system In your lungs, oxygen goes into the blood and carbon dioxide leaves the blood. One trachea (windpipe) channels air into and out of the lungs. \ gas is exchanged for the other and so vs this is called gas exchange. The organs jugs hits 668 \f / that help with gas exchange form the exchange occurs breathing or gas exchange system SS diaphragm helps you to breathe FEB wnat does your body need oxygen for? List two organs in the circulatory system. intercostal muscles attached to ribs (mostly between the ribs) help jou to breathe al List two gases that are carried around your body. | How are these gases carried? | What happens to each of these gases inthe lungs? Teese ei culBreathing Breathing is when muscles between the ribs and in the diaphragm change the size ofthe lungs. Muscles contain different types of tissue, including nerve tissue and muscle tissue. Muscle tissue is made of muscle cells, which can change shape. Amuscle cell gets short and fat as it contracts. When it goes back to its original shape and size, it relaxes. Cells in a tissue all work together. So, all the muscle cells in muscle tissue contract and relax together, which means that the whole muscle contracts and relaxes. EER) whyisa muscle an organ? [Ey 2 Whatisthe function of muscle ces? b| How are muscle cells adapted to their function? When the intercostal muscles between your ribs contract, they pull them outwards and upwards. When the muscles in your diaphragm contract, ‘the diaphragm moves downwards and flattens out. These actions happen ‘together and allow your lungs to increase in size. As they increase in size, air lows into them - you inhale. ‘When the rib and diaphragm muscles relax, the opposite happens. Air flows out of your lungs - you exhale. The movement Of air nto and out of your lungs is called ventilation. The number of times you inhale and exhale in one minute is your breathing rate. cell surface uct membrane , wereus tissue covering the muscle , f ~The cytoplasm is packed with long strands that can contract and relax. To make the muscle cell contract, the strands get shorter and fatter — this makes the whole cell shorter and fatter. tissue that wraps many | muscle cells into bundles long strand of many muscle cells, joined end to end Cre) ranched (unlike those in the heart) ‘The muscles between and attached to the ribs contract, __puling the ribs up and out. The muscles relax, and the ribs move down and in. The muscles in the diaphragm contract, moving it downwards, ‘The muscles relax, allowing the diaphragm to rise. inhalation o inspi (breathing in) exhalation or expiration (breathing out) (Omar breathes in and out seven times in 30 seconds. What is his breathing rate? Guillain-Barré syndrome isa disease in which muscles become weak. | Explain why someone with this disease may find it difficult to breathe. b| Explain why people with this disease may not get enough oxygen in their blood. ¢| Suggest how a person with this condition might be helped. The gas exchange systemis also called the breathing, respiratory or ventilation syste. Which ofthese terms do you thinks the least good? Explain your reasoning,muscl heart Sports scientists use machines to measure how well an. athlete's body copes with exercise. The machines record things like breathing rate and pulse rate. The data helps the scientists to see if training programmes are working. Each time your heart pumps blood, it causes a pulse that you can feel in places like your wrist. Your pulse rate is the number of pulse beats you can feel in a minute. Inside the heart there are chambers that fill with blood. When the chambers are full, the muscle tissue in the wall of the heart contracts. This makes the chambers smaller, pumping the blood out of them. Venere met nn artery. Suggest two measurements that are being taken from the athlete in photo A. => al What isa pulse caused by? b| Hattie counts 16 pulses in her wrist in 15 seconds. What is her pulse rate? / After blood has left the heart, what must the je totus. \ ‘muscle tissue do so that the chambers can fill The left side of the The heart muscle rertiiicce seen JY hearthas much tissue contracts, chambers more muscle forcing blood out than the right. of the chambers. Fitter people have lower pulse rates than unfit Perea eet eee ed rate of 60-100 beats per minute. Athletes’ pulse eee eu eee eee ace RU eee Te pote een ened eRe Et Blood vessels nutrients from wastes, such as The heart pumps blood into blood vessels called arteries. The walls are food ‘carbon dioxide thick and strong to withstand the high pressure of the blood from the heart. Arteries lead into tiny blood vessels called capillaries. Capillaries have very thin walls so that nutrients and oxygen can leave the blood and get to the cells in all the tissues in the body, Cells use these substances for respiration and to produce new materials for growth and repair. The blood also picks up waste materials from cells as it travels through capillaries. It then flows into veins, which are wider, thin-walled tubes, carrying blood back to the heart. Since veins are wider and have more flexible walls than arteries, the blood is under less pressure in veins and so flows more slowly.capilaries in lungs. Blood from lungs in a vein| blood to lungs in an artery 7 blood to rest Bor body in an} artery blood from rest, of Body in a vein ffi | The bright red blood is carrying more oxygen than the dark red blood. A circulatory See eet circulatory system, and blood goes through eee wa ney ROP cup cu) Name one waste produced by cells. | What are the functions of arteries, capillaries and veins? b| How are capillaries adapted to their function? Look carefully at diagrams 8 and D. Suggest why the left-hand side of the heart has more muscle tissue. Blood Blood is mainly a liquid called plasma. Nutrients and waste materials are carried by blood dissolved in the plasma. Oxygen is carried in cells called red blood cells. These cells lack nuclei, which allows the cytoplasm to be packed full ofa substance called haemoglobin (hee-mow-glow-bin). The haemoglobin carries the oxygen. The cells have a curved disc shape, which gives them a large ‘surface area. This means that ‘oxygen can quickly get into and out of the cells. eos (magnification x6000) bone marrow tissue Red blood cells are made inside your bones, in a tissue — called bone marrow. Blood contains other cells too. , White blood cells, which are used to fight infections and keep you healthy, are also made in bone marrow. 7 Explain the differences in pressure between blood going away from the heart and returning to the heart. a| List three main parts of the blood. | What does each part do? | Where are blood cells made? | How are red blood cells adapted to their function? A chicken has a double circulatory system. Explain what this means.UK NC, iLS, CEE WHAT ARE SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS? ‘ARoman doctor called Galen (129-200 CE) said that the liver looked. like blood and so blood must be made in the liver. He also thought that the body used up blood and that the heart had to beat in order to ‘attract’ blood into it. Blood in the heart then mixed with oxygen from the lungs and formed a different type of blood that travelled to all the parts of the body, where it was used up. Galen did not know about capillaries because they are too small to see without magnifying ‘them, Galen was so famous that people believed him for another 1500 years! Believing what someone says is one way to gain knowledge but it is not how modern scientists work. Scientists often use the scientific method to gain knowledge (see pages 22-23). They ask questions and come up with ideas (hypotheses). They keep testing those hypotheses to see if they are correct or whether they need changing. Scientists often start by thinking up questions about observations they have made. Galen observed hearts moving and asked Why do hearts beat?” William Harvey (1578-1657) asked the same question but he thought that the heart was a pump. Unlike Galen, he tested his idea. For example, he squashed an animal heart with his hand and made it move some water. This showed that the heart could act asa pump, and that. only pumped liquids in one direction. He then did a famous calculation, shown in the Method opposite. Harvey calculated that so much blood comes out of the heart each day that it would be impossible for the liver to make it all Harvey's work led him to the theory that blood was not used up but flowed away from the heart in arteries and then back towards it in veins. This theory of blood circulation predicted the existence of other tubes connecting arteries to veins. Capillaries were later discovered in 1661 by Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694). Eye a nw ore eerWORKING SCIENTIFICALLY Types of question Arwa's pulse rate i 65 beats per minute. The question Why do hearts beat?'isa scientific Using the information in step Cin the question, However, of the two doctors mentioned here, Method above, work out the volume of only Harvey answered it in a scientific way. A scientific pice eetiee Daal ceo question is one that can be answered again and again peor) Using information from experiments and investigations. What prediction did Harvey make using his ‘theory about circulation? ‘Some scientific questions have not been answered because ‘we donot yet have the right technology or because we have not done enough experiments. For example,What do the newly discovered MSC cells doin the heart?” Thinkupa scientific question about theliver. Inwhat way did Harvey act more scientifically than Galen? Other questions are not scientific because they cannot Syisieeiitieagetnste be answered using investigations or experiments. Sclentifc, non-scientific and/or an ethical These include ethical questions, which are questions question. about what people think is fair or right or wrong. Al Are parts ofa taxi driver's brain bigger than average? Con eet 8] Should Wiliam Harvey have killed animals to use for his experiments? Should we treat NOUR ie oe C| Do older people generally have lower, inseam) beter wenig ees tsar oar Inca Pace y Se a DJ Do roses smell nicer than freesia flowers? E| Does exercise affect your pulse rate? patient's blood pressure so high?People who do sport for a living need to get treatment quickly f they are injured. Big football clubs spend millions ‘on building specialist treatment centres to ensure their players get the best possible treatment. Bones Many people think that bones are not living, but bones are living organs. They grow as you grow and repair themselves if they fracture (break). Bones are hard and strong so that they can stand up to hard knocks and pressure. They are also light so they can be moved easily. circles of bone produced by bone-making cells called osteoblasts cartilage tissue Spongy bone material has many spaces init to keep the whole bone light. <5) compact bone material is © / very hard and strong, but is also heavy. Itis used to form a tube shape, which is a very strong shape. The inside of a bone is filed with bone marrow tissue. ‘This helps to reduce the mass of the bone (and the bone marrow makes blood cells) So eee es ecu a Pee Cat ices Ake tad Cee aa Cee Eee ae ee rune G i Urner od cee Tea lage, tendons and ‘A| Common footballing injuries ei ee re eas a| State two things that osteoblasts need to stay alive. b| What process do osteoblasts need these things for? Explain why a large bone can be both strong and light. How can you tell that the bone in diagram B isan organ? Support The bones in your body form your skeleton, shown in photo C. Your skeleton makes sure that your body keeps its shape and also supports your body. The backbone is made up of smaller bones called vertebrae and is the human body’s main support. Some bones help to support organs. For ‘example, your lungs would collapse without your ribs. EE) wsedo your sits and serum frm? IEE ive one function of the backbone.fixed joints do not move ee collar bone ‘Some bones protect organs in the body. For example, the skull protects the brain. The skull is actually made of eT Sys 22 bones that are connected Bo ) een at) by fixed joints. eeereity Seem ela a Gg The nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord. Your spinal cord is a large bundle ofimportant nerves that runs down your back. Which bones protect: al your brain b| your spinal cord? Scam fier) Pe ane ee 2 Which organsare protected by your ribcage? Sr Sa Ce) Cea eet ed sea cd function is to transfer sound waves into the inner ear. Record ‘Two bones next to each other can form a flexible joint. The bones in a flexible joint are moved by muscles, which are attached to the bones by tendons. Ligaments hold the bones in a flexible joint together. The ends of bones in a flexible joint are often covered ina slippery tissue called artilage, which helps them slide past each other. E | This is an X-ray of a hip, which is a type of Flexible joints can be damaged when playing Pence ree an sports. A sprain occurs when a ligament stretches Giprts Meeker im saben or tears. Sprains can cause dislocations, in which bones in a joint move out of line so that the joint does not work.When people’pull muscles’ eithera | [EM muscle or the tendon that connects the muscle toa bone gets a small tear in a| List three different types of joint. b| Which joint allows the most movement? ¢| What causes the bones to move? EBB Cesciv he stferen functions of bones. upper arm ae / bone muscles [Ey 2! 2X27, what bone forms the'balin | this joint? y oe b| The joint on the right ofthe X-ray is normal. k eo What has happened to the joint on the left? ¢| Suggest how this has occurred. ligament < = >> forearm bones tendon “cartilage Maur eka Skee Ican.. '= describe the functions of different bones in the skeleton, = describe some different types of joint. Cue rc eu haa) nee= MUSCLES 7CIAND MOVING HOW ARE MUSCLES USED IN THE LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM? Skeletons are always changing, and athletes’ training programmes are designed to. change both their muscles and their bones. These changes help the athletes become better at their particular sports. This does not just apply to athletes, though. People who doa lot of manual work develop thicker arm bones than people who work in offices. The thicker bones are needed to B | an X-ray of the forearm support bigger muscles. Deo Sea eee) The muscles and bones in your ‘A| When people train, they change both their Tad body form an organ system Ge CER roe Be Ra called the locomotor system. Itis this system that allows you to move all the parts of your body. The study of how muscles and bones work together is called biomechai A boxer fights in the lightweight class (59-61.2 kg). After a few years of training he then fights in the light welterweight class (61.3-63.5 kg). Suggest why his mass has increased, Look at photo 8. In which hand do you think the tennis player holds the tennis racquet? Explain your reasoning Make a fist and tighten your fingers. al Where are the muscles that let you tighten your fingers? What happens to them when you tighten your fingers? | The force from a muscle or a group Cee Ua ny Antagonistic cet muscles Muscles are organs that can contract. When they contract they get shorter and fatter. So, ifa muscle is attached to a bone, it will pull ‘on the bone when it contracts. The muscle will generate a force that can be measured, in newtons (N).[EJ Xeme two organs in the locomotor system, ‘When a muscle stops contracting, it relaxes. This means that it returns to its original size and shape. Muscles do not generate a force when ‘they relax, which means that muscles cannot push on bones - they can only pull them. Fora bone in a joint to be moved in two different directions, it needs to be pulled by two different muscles. Pairs of muscles like this are called antagonistic pairs. The biceps and triceps are an antagonistic pair of muscles in the upper arm, shown in diagram E. When you lift your arm, the biceps muscle contracts. When you put your arm down, the biceps muscle is stretched. shoulder blade tendons _ biceps muscle , f ‘upper arm / bone triceps 2 muse tendohs When you lift your arm, the When you put your arm down, triceps muscle is stretched. the tricaps muscle contracts. When the biceps muscle contracts, what happens tothe triceps muscle? Why do muscles workin antagonistic pairs? Look at drawing F. It shows some muscles in the body. You do not need to remember all their names! triceps: a biceps wrist extensor biceps femoris, ‘quadriceps shin muscle ‘wrist flexor calf muscle al Write down all the antagonistic pairs you can see. b) Ifyou point your toes to the ground, which muscle contracts? | Ifyou raise your toes, which muscle contracts? 4d] Describe fully what happens just before and during contraction of the biceps femoris muscle. \, Gf D | the bite force of an alligator being m: Muscle control To make a muscle contract, the brain sends electrical messages down the spinal cord into nerves attached to the muscle. These electrical messages are called impulses. Energy needs Muscles have to workhard and so theircellsneed a lotof energy. Respiration releases energy and occurs in tiny structures in cells called mitochondria. So, tisno surprise to find that muscle cells usually contain more mitochondria than other cells do. mitochondria OT ree ko ey Pee) ion x4,400)ARTIFICIAL 7CILIMBS One ene ecto goa Ena a thee-sis). The wooden toe in photo Ais Precast De esa enue arms and legs. These must be Renee een Mente) allow the person to move parts of their PETE ian era ees en) eee oS ees ee Dee esa ese) Rerkeeeonene emu) Peete ard sree Tee Coe me eon os B| 3D printing is making it easier for people Pee ea se OREO aE eae Sa ae invented over 100 years ago but are still common. A Pee eur ee ne eae shoulder backwards to open the gripper. Plastics can Due nea es ae eC electrical switches or computer control can givea Pree as Cea Cu Rana? PSE eee eo eke co by thoughts in a person's brain. Scientists are also developing artificial limbs that let people feel again. cord attached to shoulder a» Teneo)STEM ‘Suggest one way in which a person’ life is Dsus Re et sues Facies ite) (oom HT Same een a eagerness the best type of prosthetic. After taking measurements | Suggest one way in which a big toe (Olu Pua ead eng eceae cent prosthesis helps someone without a big toe. eee bb] Suggest why the toe in photo A was adjusted several times during the person's The prosthetist and patient work out how well the lite, ech otc ek mod score the model points for things it should do (e.g. be listiotr eatrerctaqeedarthcal ie comfortable, allow movement). These things are called ee Ree eae ei) Eqtitentasiigcen teaming again, Once the model is correct, the prosthetic can is opened and closed, PU eu ue LCE ius ee eet cies oh rnc Tae ice nek) Deon ee ee Mote set nO) Piece rea nec eet ie ered ways to do certain actions).To become a prosthetist Note eee eterna ng eee earn Mae eraar ger) teaching hospital to study for a degree in prosthetics. EE 2 Why must the materials used to makea prosthetic leg be strong? | Give two more criteria you would use to DIS eg work out if material was suitable fora leg. Jabletostandst [comfortable whenstanding stil [| |feelsteady wien standingstil [| Jabletowalksiowy [comfortable whenwalkingsiowly | [feel steady wienwalking stowy [|Many professional athletes avoid certain substances because of the effects that they have on their bodies. A drug isa substance that affects the way your body works. Caffeine, nicotine and alcohol are all drugs. Some drugs are medicines, which help people recover from illness or injury. For example: = paracetamol reduces pain « ibuprofen reduces pain and swelling = decongestants in medicines for colds help you breathe more easily. During an asthma attack, the muscles surrounding the tubes carrying air contract hard. This makes it difficult to breathe, but a me 5 Contracted) 7 muscles. narrow the airway. muscles relax. Extra mucus is produced. a| Suggest a sports injury that you might take medicine(s) for. | What medicine(s) would you take and why? Inan asthma attack, why isit hard to breathe? salbutamol like salbutamol are used to treat asthma attac ‘a Whatis the Although many drugs are useful, they can have harmful or unpleasant useful effect of side-effects. For example, paracetamol can damage the liver. Drugs paracetamol? often damage the liver because this organ breaks drugs down. bl Whatisits side- Substance misuse = Some drugs (such as nicotine) can become ad which means that people fee! ‘they cannot manage without them. Addicts often continue using a drug even though they can see the damage its causing. The harmful use of any substance is called substance abuse (or substance misuse), and often causes brain and liver damage,Recreational drugs maT Recreational drugs are drugs taken for ie fu pleasure. Caffeine is a legal recreational (i ae — drug. Others are illegal because of their Ze side-effects. Cannabis can cause memory loss and mental illness. Eestasy can cause mental illness, kidney problems, and even death. Cocaine can cause blocked arteries. Heroin can cause collapsed veins, vomiting and severe headaches. Stimulants Drugs often affect the nervous system, ren which controls your body using electrical the scanner | the man in this adv signals called impulses. Drugs that cause SP EPREN aie Dy Fee eee ec ‘the nervous system to carry impulses eer ee faster are stimulants. They can decrease your resection Sime whichis the ume tt [Zl] "ry0 people continue to abuse cocaine even wien they see takes you to respond to things happening IR eaatattee around you. Caffeine, cocaine and ecstasy are all stimulants. EEE Give the name of one recreational drug in photo A. Depressants Drugs that cause the nervous system to carry impulses more slowly are depressants. Heroin and the solvents found in glues and paints are dangerous depressants. Solvents. can stop the heart and lungs working and cause severe brain damage. Alcohol is a depressant and can change a person's behaviour. Drinking alcohol may make people become loud and aggressive because this drug stops parts of the brain from working, Alcohol may also cause vomiting, and can even cause death, because it stops the brain from sending impulses to the breathing muscles and so breathing stops. Explain why some people feel more awake after drinking coffee Complete a table to describe four drugs of your B Cee CR eae Ee eee ad i resear Ea Secrres was a major ingredient in a cough syrup. al Where are the muscles for breathing found? | Explain how alcohol can stop these muscles working.7Ce HOW DO SOME ATHLETES TRY TO IMPROVE THEIR CHANCES OF WINNING? Sports competitors are regularly tested for drugs to try to stop the use of drugs to improve performance. It can, though, be difficult to decide what is cheating and what is not. In 1964, the Finnish cross-country skier Eero Mantyranta won two. Olympic gold medals. He could ski faster than other competitors because he had more red blood cells than them. His body naturally produced more of a chemical, nicknamed EPO, which causes red blood cell production. In 1989, a drugs company started making Get r OO etic PEen ere esse ban from rugby after salbutamol was found in PARE EI PReepe ene) his body. The ban was lifted after he proved he athleteswere soon using it. ieseailekats eel i =n B| The gymnast Andreea Raducan lost her Olympic eee aceite ocd eae aad CSI Cka Premeren eetes Some athletes take steroids, such as testosterone, to increase muscle growth. Testosterone is a steroid sex hormone made in the testes and ovaries. Some people naturally produce more than others but it can also be made artificially. A side-effect is increased aggression (so-called roid rage’) FE 2) Wov2re steroids clasiied as drugs? | Suggest a disadvantage of developing new steroid medicines. Suggest why salbutamol isa banned drug in sports competitions. Why would using EPO give an athlete an advantage? Bones can develop stress fractures’ during exercise. Why are athletes who misuse testosterone more likely to getstress fractures? | Lance Armstrong won the Tour de France seven times. His medals were taken away from him when etic eerie7Da ‘There are many reasons why people explore our world. Some explorers want to find oil or valuable minerals. Some are interested in searching for undiscovered organisms. Other explorers want to make contact with people to find out about how they live and about their languages. David Good is a biologist and explorer. Unlike most explorers, when he set off in July 2011, to go deep into the Amazon jungle in Venezuela, it was to find his mother. B | These people were discovered living in the Amazon jungle in 2008, near the border between Peru and Brazil. They have probably never had any contact with the outside world. [Ei] {eremam people hunt deer for food. The deer eat forest plants. Draw a food chain to show this. Ed) “2:ttr0m food, suagest something ese that animals need to get from the places in which they live. EE e2tt from clothing jewellery and hairstyles suggest two things that are often different between humans from different parts of the world. FEB] 2! Suagest one reason why exploration of our planetiis a good idea. | Suggest problem that might be caused by Re eo was discovered in 2013 in Ecuador. David's father was an American scientist, who travelled to visit the Yanomami people in the Amazon in the 1970s. He was interested in what the people ate. He ma Yanomami woman called Yarima, and they had three children. The family then moved to America, but Yarima was unhappy and returned to the jungle without her children. That was when David was 5 years old. When he returned he was 19. explorers. ec) PSUK NG, iLS, CEE 7D2 VARIATION WHAT IS VARIATION? The place where an organism lives is called a habitat. The Yanomami people live in a jungle habitat Each habitat has many different types or species of organisms living in it. Variation is the word used to describe the differences between organisms. There is often a lot of variation between different species (inter-specific variation) and less variation between members of the same species (intra-specific variation). ~ wolverine What habitat do you live in? Suggest two habitats in which you might find fish eee mL Describe two features that al the animals in photos A, Band C share, and two ways in which they all differ. OIE ae sd emanate) The zebras in photo C are all the same species. Describe the intra-specific variation. Continuous and discontinuous Humans vary in height. you measure the heights of people in your class, you will find that very few people are exactly the same height. This variation is described as continuous, and it means that your measurements can have any value (within limits).Some people can roll their tongues and others cannot. This variation is described as being discontinuous. This means ‘that there is nota continuous range of measurements that can bemade and measurements must fall nto certain categories. A good way to think about the difference between continuous and discontinuous variati to consider foot length and shoe size. The actual length of your foot (measured in centimetres) is an example of continuous variation. Your shoe size is discontinuous because shoes only come in certain sizes. E | Blood groups are discontinuous. Your Rea eed (A, B, AB or 0) FEB) How can you tel if certain type of variation is continuous? [Ei (0 thelist of features below and say wether each variation is continuous or discontinuous, natural eye colour natural hair colour length of hair having a cold having a scar blood group height having naturally curly hair F | Tongue rolling is discontinuous. Species A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce with one another to produce offspring that can also reproduce. Usually members of two different species cannot reproduce but in rare cases it can happen. The offspring are called hybrids but they cannot reproduce. For example, horses and zebras can produce zebroids but the hybrids cannot reproduce. Olinguitos (see photo A, page 53) had been discovered before 2013 but people thought they were animals called olingos. One linguito, called Ringer, lived in az00 in the 1970s with olingos, The z00 keepers thought that Ringerl would reproduce but this never happened. {| Whydo you think olingos and olinguitos ‘were thought to be the same? Use the term ‘variation‘in your answer. | Why did Ringer! not reproduce? Ligers are hybrids produced by lions and tigers. Ligers cannot reproduce. What does this tell you about lions and tigers?UK NG, iLS, CEE ‘Spacenumbers evenly to make ? ascale ‘bar chart needs human height), what we measure is a ( ii DY aitieto describe variable. A variable is anything that can )- (Eeaoan what it shows. change and be measured. You will meet 3 36] between variables in all parts of science, = each ber ifthe £ 30. independent 9] Use graph or In an investigation, you choose the oo variable is Peed values of the independent variable. 3 i discontinuous. J) and choose You then measure the dependent % 20) T T 1} scales thatallow variable. The values of the dependent B45. | pouty 5 ‘asmuchofthe variable depend on those of the Bol | ees independent variable, Bia ‘Ona chart ora graph, the independent variable goes on the horizontal (x) axis OT Gahtoll ‘Cand and the dependent variable goes on tongue toni The independent Label the axes clearly the vertical (y) axis. variable goes on Chart Ais @ bar chart but itis also B Tpnaue-rofing aki the xan a frequency diagram because the dependent variable is a number of things that have been counted up 4 (a frequency). Grouped data Ifthe dependent variables continuous, we can split the data into groups. We then countup the numbers that are in each group, and plota bar chart but without leaving gaps between the bars. How height varies in 12-year-olds normal distribution 5 a8 (On bar charts of grouped data, the bars often form a ‘bell shape. Th pattern we expect to find when the y-axis shows a number of things that have been counted up. So we call this shape normal distribution. the Number of 12-year-olds se 8 | PPS PP OS eS Se SO ee go Height groups (cm)case we drawa scatter graph. In graph C we can clearly see that there is a pattern in the points. As the width of the top of a tree increases, so does the mass of its leaves, A line of best fit is often drawn through the points, and it ‘can help to make a relationship look more obvious. If there is no link between two variables, then there will be no clear pattern of points (see graph F). What are the dependent and independent variables in chart A? Present the data in table Eas a bar chart GB Blood group A 8 AB ° Number of students in class 7K Table F shows the lengths () and widths (W) of some leaves from rose plants, a] Divide the data into groups, using either the widths or the lengths of the leaves. | Draw a bar chart for the data you have selected in part a Plotpoints with small, neat crosses. Aline of best fit goes through the points so. that about half the points are below theline andhalfare above't, Writeinthe units afteran axislabel, Label the axesto show whatthe MGA rrumbersmean, How the mass of leaves depends on the height of an oak tree 8 ‘Mass of leaves (kg) ko @ s = a Lengths and widths of some rose leaves (mm) witlwitlwielwielw 20 41 | 32 54 | 42 | 50 | 36 | 69 | 53 31 | 39 | 30 51 | 38 | 62 | 47] 71 | 54 37 | 55 | 40 | 56 | 44 | 59 | 45] 73 | 56 37 | 35 | 27 | 79 | 61 | 76 | 58] 56 | 43 62 31 | 22/65 | 50| 80 | 64] 57 | 44 Use the data in table F to find out ifthere is a relationship between rose leaf length and width. Use length as the independent variable. ot 4/45) 5 65 6 65 7 75 Height of tree (im) | There is no relationship between these two eT auc no)UK NG, iLS, CEE 7DD ADAPTATIONS WHY IS THERE VARIATION BETWEEN AND WITHIN SPECIES? ‘The conditions in a habitat are its environment. The conditions are mainly caused by physical environmental factors, such as the amount of light, how wet it is, how windy ‘das physical” ant bird frog fungus light temperature tree wind? ‘Which of the following are physical environmental (abiotic) factors: it is and the temperature. The factors are des or abiotic because they are not alive. i Describe the environment in each Organisms have features that let them survive in the Renew erro aac Can environments where they live. We say that organisms are page 54 adapted for their habitats. For example, fish have gills and fins, which are adaptations for living in water. Their fins will not let them walk on land and their gills will not let them breathe air. Fish are adapted to living in watery habitats but not on land. white fur for camoule ee Pees ena) useful for creeping up on™ to stop it seals Without being seen _losing too much heat Describe your environment at the moment, -" area to absorb as much - water as possible when itrains. This saguaro cactus can absorb a help ke rough soles tonne of water a day, itwarm to grip the : ice large feet to spread out its weight and stop it from sinking in the Sg from animals that might eat it eee ead Cetera) Terese Lc How are polar bears adapted to the cold? Der Wee oer) Why do cacti have spines whereas most other plants, eee have leaves? Pe ea Cue ues o Ves et ne a Peat enced Cruces Suggest the names of the habitats in which polar bears, cacti and jack rabbits live. Look back at page 54. How do you think the length of hair on meerkats and wolverines helps them survive in their habitats?All the animals and plants that live in a habitat make up a community. Members of communities may have similar adaptations to cope with the problems of living in a particular habitat. For example, many organisms that live in fast-flowing rivers have suckers to allow them to attach to rocks and stop them being swept away. The community of organisms and all the physical environmental factors in a habitat form an ecosystem. Draw a design fora plant that could ive in the same habitat as a hogsucker sh Ea) escribe the arctic ecosystem. Inherited variation Many of an organism's features come from its parents. These features are inherited. Variation between these features is inherited variation. ‘There is a great deal of inherited variation between different species, such as polar bears and meerkats. There is also inherited variation between members of the same species (intra-specific variation) because of what happens in sexual reproduction. All gametes So RS SEU ete contain slightly different instructions for features. These Freee el MUI RJ instructions are carried on genes inside the nucleus. A sl het different sperm cell and egg cell are used to produce each offspring, and so each inherits a slightly different mix of features. The exception to this is identical twins, who both develop from the same fertilised egg cell (or zygote). Name three features you have inherited, Look at photo F, which shows a family group. There are four adult women in the picture. Who are their children? Use the labels to identify them, ims mother has blue eyes and blond hai, Kim's father has brown eyes and brown hair. Kim has blue eyes and brown hair. Her brother, Harry, has brown eyes and brown hair. a| From which parent has Kim inherited blue eyes? bj Why are Kim and Harry's features slightly different?UK NC, iLS, CEE q . r sm = if e " diy : 7Dc ENVIRONMENT HOW DO ENVIRONMENTS AFFECT ORGANISMS? In 1534, the French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed to what is now Canada to find gold and look for a way to China. Nearing land, he saw native people and wrote:’They wear their hair tied upon the top of their heads like a handful of twisted hay ....” Cartier was describing an environmental variation of the people. Environmental variation is caused by environmental factors, Hairstyles are caused by an environmental factor called fashion! All organisms show inherited variation and environmental variation. The beech leaves in photo B inherited their leaf Re eter aCe EES shape, but not all the leaves are the same size. The leaves that [i Aaaunemed en soy get more sunlight are smaller than the shaded leaves. The rene environmental factor is light and this causes an environmental variation in leaf size. List three examples of environmental variation in drawing A. Ei for sentences A-C below, identity: al the environmental variation b| the environmental factor causing the variation. A{ Bilal found that the cress seedlings he grew ina dark cupboard were yellow: 8| Jayesh discovered that there were very few leaves on the apple tree after the storm. | Tanya put fertiliser on one sunflower plant. It grew 20 cm taller than the others In what type of soil are the hydrangeas in photo C growing? Cd eee) En ST ace ecuEnvironmental factors affect organisms in other ways too. Organisms inherit features that allow them to change when. environmental factors change. Changes during a day are known as daily changes, and changes during a year are seasonal changes. Organisms are adapted to these changes. Daily changes Many animals are adapted to changes in light during a day (24 hours). Nocturnal animals are only active at night and have adaptations for this. Many mice are nocturnal and have excellent eyesight. Nocturnal owls have superb hearing and eyesight, and fly silently so they can catch nocturnal animals. What change causes dormice to become active? Seashore organisms are adapted to tides. Sea anemones use tentacles to feed but when the tide goes out they pullin their tentacles to stop them drying out. Seasonal changes Inwinter, deciduous (des-id-U-us) trees lose their leaves because there is not much light for photosynthesis and their leaves lose water (which cannot be replaced when the grounds frozen). Evergreen trees have tougher leaves that do not lose much water, sothey keep their leaves all year round. ee eu) REN e aetatd Some plants, such as poppies, die completely in the winter. Their seeds grow into new plants in the spring. In other plants, such as bluebells, only the parts above ground die. They leave bulbs Describe one difference in the community of underground that will grow again in the spring. eT ee eae aeons december. Animals are also adapted to seasonal changes. Rabbits grow longer furto help them keep warm in colder months. A ptarmigan’s feathers change colour Suggest why a ptarmigan’s feathers change colour with the seasons, with the seasons, Explain how these organisms are adapted to surviving winter: Some animals, such as hedgehogs, become inactive eitterscion Sheree when it is cold in winter so that they do not need | paddyfield warbler) poppy. food when there is less food available. This is hibernation. Many birds fly to warmer places for the winter to find food. This is migration lcan.. Paddyfield warblers migrate to the rice fields in ; . - India in October and return to Russia in April. ‘= identify causes of environmental variation "= describe adaptations to daily and seasonal changes. 61UKNG,iLS, CEE 1 Poa Te HOW DO ORGANISMS AFFECT THEIR HABITATS? I To survive and grow, organisms need resources from a habitat. Animals need resources such as ‘oxygen, space, shelter, food, water and mates. Plants need light, air, water, warmth, mineral salts and space. If any of these are missing, the numbers of an organism (its population) will go down. [EB] Ste three resources scientists would need to take into a desert habitat. Island probler Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean was named by the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen. He described it as a land with huge standing statues but no trees. eR a Ay Pee ene tect eas Scientists have found evidence that the island was ‘once covered in trees. Over hundreds of years, the people cut down trees for building materials, to make fires and to build fishing boats. By about 1600, all the ‘trees were gone and the people started to starve. Birds also disappeared from the island at this time, ‘The islanders affected their habitat, which caused many populations to decrease. The Easter Island palm tree died out altogether - it became extinct. We can see what eats what in a habitat by looking at 2a food chain like this: Cera grass > hare lynx Organisms compete with one another forresources. | JW Suagest why fewer plants grow in a desert There is competition between organisms of habitat compared with a jungle habitat the same species (intra-specific competition) and between different species linter-specific competition). The organisms with the best [Ey] het organism caused the Easter island palm to become extinct? adaptations to get the resources are more likely to ga? i ci te aaa population decrease on survive and reproduce. The others may move away Easter Island! ordie. b] Suggest two reasons why birds died out on the island.Food chains can be joined together to form food ‘webs, which show how different animals compete forthe same food (inter-specific competition). In food web C, you can see that goshawks compete with lynxes for hares. Ifthe goshawks geta disease and die, there will be more hares. The population of lynxes may then increase. The organisms in an ecosystem all depend on one another for many things, not just food. We say that they are interdependent. For example, birds use trees for shelter and plants use animal waste to help them grow (the waste contains mineral salts). [Ei] *! Write outthe longest food chain in food web C | Choose one or more of these words for each organism in your food chain: carnivore, consumer, herbivore, ‘omnivore, producer, top predator. Explain your choices. [Ei Why 2tegoshaveks and wolverinesin competition with each other? FEB) 1008 web Cto predict what would happento the vole population if: a] the snowshoe hares all died b| there was no rain fora long time. Populations Populations change depending on how much food is available. In northern Canada, the lynx is 2 predator. Its main prey is the snowshoe hare, When there are alot of hares, the lynxes have lots to eat. They reproduce successfully and their population goes up. When there are fewer hares, the lynx population decreases - some starve (including newborn offspring) and others move toa different area. An activity of an organism that affects another organism (such as competition or predation) is called a biotic factor. Look at graph E. | Which animal is the predator and which is the prey? b] Suggest one reason why the hare population ight increase, | Suggest two biotic factors that could cause the lynx population to decrease. greathomned.on! wolverine wot Tepe a Urreatrta isnot prey) Carnivore (consumer an predator) soho Herbivore, (eatsother organisms) Producer (rmakesits own food) How snowshoe hare and ynx populations changed wit time More. allow Ae the population haves... more ax of hares tosunive. decroases, 10 doos tho population ollyxes. They starve / or wave the are. 0. $900 1905 110 1918 1620 1925 1000 1995 TO40 Year — snowshoe hares yxGREENER 7DICITIES CUT eee ected aac ck many plants and animals. If we do not plan greener cities that include many plants and animals, they will Peer eects mas Cn Eon g Ce eme eee eo a csr air cooler, reducing pollution and making people fee! oes When new city buildings and roads are designed by Renee een a) advise on the resources that plants and animals need, They may suggest changes to a building's design or ate te atc ene Ce eee tne ook Bae Cue Ed turn ona watering system. Engineers then work out Pen creas ad uence georges for humans and other organisms. C | Plants growing on a ‘green wall’ need something to support their roots. Pipes in the Pee rns amount of water and nutrients. aN j ng saa in Se eae ter md reas Ree ue a cee ty Ge ee aS State what you think the term greener city’ means. State two resources that plants need to grow well Explain why increasing the number of different plants in a city can lead to an increase in the ‘number of different animals living therOSC a Mee EMU RES cee eee Tac science or geography. They then do further study, see ee a hn ane Demis? ue Mea LENS nC) exchange ideas about what knowledge could be used to help make city buildings greener. This may include sharing knowledge about the resources that different ‘organisms need. They may also use and develop. models, such as food chains to see how organisms rely teeta regio ee es bo ae particular project. For example, they will think about Ree eee eres Ue aon re eed ene eee Oreste eee trae aaa and come up with suagestions for changes. By only using relevant knowledge, the reasoning for their suggestions is very clear to the architects. Your team of environmental planners are tasked with making a city in your country greener. Work asa group to do the following: + Make alist ofall the knowledge you could se, such as the different plants and animals living in or near that city, resources that plants and animals need, and the climate in the city. Identify the most useful knowledge for a greener 18-storey apartment block in this, city. Draw a design for the tower block. Label it to explain each of your‘green’ suggestions. ninclude plant much ight will each the bulding ev H ‘much waterwilthe trees on aleing need hich plants and animals a os ely to be displaced ne bul about food ses thinking Deen Re ene ee cd ced Suggest what knowledge the other planner in photo D could offer that might be useful. Write down all the knowledge that you think an environmental planner might use to decide which plants and trees should be planted on buildings in a particular city. Carry out research to find examples of changes. designed to encourage more plants and animals. to live in your area.==) TRANSFERS IN Organisms contain energy stored in the substances that make up their bodies. The arrows in food chains and webs show how this energy passes from organism to organism. Normally there are fewer organisms as you go along a food chain because energy is lost at each stage. Fro Crema keep warm, / Pyramids of numbers Energy losses at each stage of the food chain mean that hundreds of lettuce plants feed a much smaller number of rabbits. These rabbits feed an even smaller number of foxes. The numbers of different organisms at each stage (trophic level) of afood chain can be shown using a pyramid of numbers. fox secondary consumer _—— primary consumer producer Pyramids of numbers do not look like pyramids if the organisms have very different sizes. For example, many aphids feedonone rose bush. ‘Alot of energy stored in food is released by respiration to let animals move and Alot of energy is stored in undigested foods, which pass out of animals. Only some of the energy in food becomes stored in new substances in - an animal. Only the energy stored inside the rabbit can be passed on to the fox. ' FEB Wty co organisms respire? [EB] 2! Whatcoes the rec arrow on the left of diagram A show? b| Why does the fox not get all the energy that was in the lettuces eaten by the rabbit? Look at food web C on page 63. a Draw food chain from the food web, starting with grass. b] Sketch a pyramid of numbers for this food chair Look at the food chain below. grass — grasshopper — frog -* grass snake 100000 500 5 1 al Drawa table to show the top predator, the consumers, the producer, the herbivore and the carnivores. b] Sketch a pyramid of numbers for this food cl [Ei epi why clagram D isnot shaped ike a pyramih fleasPesticides are poisons that kill pests (organisms that cause problems). However, these poisons can kill other organisms as well In 1810, Australian explorer Frederick Hasselborough discovered Macquarie Island, which is halfway between New Zealand and Antarctica. It soon became a base for fishermen, who brought in cats, rats and rabbits. The cats ate young birds, the rats ate bird eggs and the rabbits destroyed nesting sites, Various species of bird became extinct. In 2000, scientists removed the last cat but removing cats caused a big increase in the populations of rats and rabbits. In 2010, poison was put down for rats and rabbits, but it killed many birds, including endangered species. The poisoning was stopped and a virus disease was introduced to kill most of the rabbits. This meant that less poison needed to be spread over the island in 2011. Now the island is clear of these pests. Some poisons kill organisms they are not intended for because the poisons are not broken down in nature (they are persistent). This means that they can be passed along food chains. DDT is a persistent pesticide used to kill insects. It was used a lot in the USA and Europe in the 1950s and 1960s but it caused the shells of apex (top) predator birds to be weak and break easily. DDT was banned in many countries in the 1980s. dy &- peregrine falcon blackbird earthworm Pee oP end concentrated further along the food chain. Oe eT Cio E | Poison on Macquarie Island killed giant potrets RO us ue at es Pr cn al What effect did removing cats from Macquarie island have? b| Why did ithave this effect? Suggest what has happened tothe populations of birds on Macquarie Island since 2011. Explain your reasoning, Look at food web C on page 63. Beetles can kill aspen trees. To save the aspens in an area it has been suggested that the beetles be poisoned. al Suggest a problem with Using poison. b| Predict the effects of the poison on the thrush and aspen populations. Explain why the peregrine falcon population in the UK decreased in the 1970s.7De HOW DO SOME HUMANS COMPETE WITH ONE ANOTHER? Nomadic people move from place to place. In Bhutan, the Brokpa people herd yaks. In summer they build camps up in ‘the mountains where the yaks eat grass and shrubs. They protect ‘the yaks from animals like snow leopards. In the winter they move ‘down to warmer areas, selling their products in villages. Nomads in Mongolia herd sheep and goats to high mountain grasslands in summer and then move their animals down to the valleys for the winter, into areas protected from the harsh winds. However, copper has now been found in the mountains and mines are being built. These provide employment and money for titan this very poor country, but the nomads worry that the mines will use up the scarce water supplies. Some Amazon rainforest people were traditionally nomads, moving to new areas as resources started to run ge ‘out. Today this may not happen because farmers move ~~. inand clear land to grow grass for cattle. There are also = problems with illegal logging and mining, The outsiders bring diseases, like colds and measles, which kill the local people. They also destroy the habitats of animals that local people rely on for food. EBB Give the name of one predator on this page, and its prey. [Ei] ®! Describe how seasonal changes affect the Brokpa, | Howisthissimilar tothe effecton some birds, suchas paddyfield warblers? Is having measles an example of continuous or discontinuous variation? Explain your reasoning, a Sketch a pyramid of numbers that links three organisms mentioned on this page. EEE explain one adaptation of yaks to their their habitat b| Label your pyramid of numbers with the names of the trophic levels, | Ahuge area of rainforest in Brazil has been Cee ee eae)