CITATION &

REFERENCING
 Referencing is done to It is an acknowledgement
show respect to the of other people’s work
copyright owners’ of cited or paraphrased
works used in the course while writing your own
of writing. work.
• Citation and referencing go hand in
hand and both are solutions to
plagiarism.
• Plagiarism is the act of copying
someone’s work without
acknowledging it. It is using someone’s
mental endeavour as if it is your own.
• It is stealing someone’s work.
• Citation is an act of quoting. It is citing
someone’s work when it is used by
another.
TYPES OF • Citation made in the body of one’s
CITATION/REFERENCING literary work is called in-text citation,
and any citation outside the body of the
work has a different name but both are
called referencing.
• There are different kinds depending on
the positioning of the reference
• At the bottom, footnote; at the end of
the chapter, endnote and at the end of
the book or dissertation, references.
• There is also a reference page – where
all references cited in a work is recorded
• Bibliography
Why cite sources?

In research writing, document your sources, to…

• Make the style consistent for readers

• Give credit where credit is due

• Enhance credibility as a writer

• Avoid plagiarism
When should I cite sources?

When I borrow ideas from a source by….

• paraphrasing or summarizing parts of it

• lifting key words or phrases from it

• pulling statistics or facts from it, or

• using information in tables, graphs, or diagrams

If you’re unsure, cite the source!

 • Referencing elements consist of
elements such as: the name of the
author(s), publication details
consisting of the year of publication,
city of publication and publisher, the
REFERENCING title of an information material which
can be a book, journal article or web
ELEMENTS page and page number.
• The author is usually written
surname first, followed by the first
and middle name, titles are excluded
e.g. Dr, Mrs., Professor, etc.
Types of
Referencing Styles
• Recognized methods of referencing by
bodies/associations. 7 are here listed.
• Modern Language Association (MLA) referencing style,
• Harvard referencing method
• American Psychological Association (APA)
• Chicago Manual of style
• Council of Science Editors (CSE) referencing style
• Oxford referencing style
• Vancouver referencing style, etc. etc.
• In this presentation, the first three will be discussed.
They are the most widely used referencing styles.
MLA: Instruction on Writing

• The first line of each paragraph is indented one-half of an inch.

• Any quotation exceeding four lines has to be in block text
indented an inch on both sides of the margin of the paper.
• In reference page, the second and following lines of each
reference entry is indented one-half of an inch.
• The reference list has to be arranged in alphabetical order letter-
by-letter not word-by-word.
• Authors’ names must be written in full and complete as they
appear on the text, not initials.
HARVARD REFERENCING METHOD (16TH ED.)

In-text citation
• For in-text citation, a page number is required whether you are paraphrasing,
quoting or summarizing: (Onuoha 2014, p. 12)
• Book: Middleton, V. T. C. & Hawkins, R. 1998, Sustainable Tourism: A
Marketing Perspective. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
• Web page
Madukoma, E. 2008. Mirror on the wall. [online] Available at:
http://www.iahsll.edu.ng [Accessed 9 Jun. 2014].
 • Chapter in a book
HARVARD Marshall, W. A. 1975, ‘The child as a
REFERENCING mirror of his brain’s development’. In:
Sants, J & Butcher, H. J. (eds).
METHOD (16TH Development Psychology. Aylesbury,
Bucks: Hazell Watson & Viney Ltd.
ED.) Contd. • Journal article (print)
Unegbu, V. E. and Onuoha, U. D. 2013,
‘Library and information science
training for professional recognition
and development in Nigeria’,
International Journal of Business and
Social Science, 4(10), pp.267 - 271.
APA Format

APA (American Psychological Association) Format

• Some disciplines that use APA:
• Social Sciences:
• Psychology
• Sociology
• Linguistics
• Economics
• Criminology
• Business
• Nursing
 • All papers are double spaced in Times
New Roman 12-point font with one
inch margins all around.

The Basics • All papers should have a title page.

• For every parenthetical citation, there

should be an accompanying reference
on the Reference page.
Formatting: The Title page

• Running Head and Page Number

• Only the first page will contain
the words “running head”
• Every subsequent page will
have the actual running head
(the title in capital letters)
• In order to have a different
cover page, select “different
first page” when creating your
header
• Title of the paper
• Your Name
• Sponsor/Association
Formatting: The
Abstract

• The abstract is a brief (150-250

word) description of what your
paper will address.

• Mention any keywords that will

appear throughout your paper.
Formatting: The Body

• Optional Heading Style

• Headings should be, for example,
Centered, Bolded, and Should Use Uppercase and Lowercase

• Sub-headings should be, for example,

Flush Left, Bolded, and Should Use Uppercase and Lowercase

• Essential In-text Citations

 • All APA in-text citations must somehow
include the following:
• Name of the author(s)
• Year of the publication
• Page or paragraph number

In-text • In-text citation:

Citations: • Rumbaugh (1995) reported that
"Kanzi's comprehension of over
600 novel sentences of request
direct was very comparable to Alia's" (p.
722).

quotes • Entry on the References page:

• Rumbaugh, D. (1995). Primate
language and cognition:
Common ground. Social
Research, 62, 711-730.
In-text citations:
Indirect Quotes

• Even if the information is not a direct quotation, you must cite information, data, and
findings that are not your own

• Must still include the name of the author(s) and the year of publication

• Not necessary to include page numbers if stating the theme or general idea of a whole
article or study

• Example:
• Though feminist studies focus solely on women's experiences, they err by
collectively perpetuating the masculine-centered impressions (Fussell, 1975).
In-text • When referring to two or more authors
within your text, write out the word
citations: and. For example,
• Research by Alton and Davies

Two or (1990) supported…

more • For the parenthetical citation, use an

ampersand (&) instead of and. For
example,

authors • …(Alton & Davies, 1990, p.

567).
In-text citations:
More than two authors
• When referring to a study with three to five authors…
• Name all the authors the first time
• Use “et al.” all subsequent times
• …(Smith et al., 1994)

• When referring to a study with six or more authors…

• Use the first author’s name followed by “et al.”
• …(Dents et al., 1984)
In-text citations:
Unknown Author
When referring to a study whose author is unknown, give as much
information as you can.

• One Method
• Use the source’s full title in the signal phrase.
• Include the year of publication in parentheses
• According to “Indiana Joins Federal Accountability System” (2008),
…

• Alternative Method
• In parentheses, include the first word of the title and year of
publication.
• (“Indiana,” 2008)
In-text Citations:
Online sources
For online sources, follow similar format used for print media:
• For indirect quotation
• (Butler, 2000)
• For direct quotation
• (Butler, 2000, p. 5)

For online sources that contain no page number, use heading, paragraph
number, or both:
• (Butler, 2000, para. 2)
• (Butler, 2000, “Labels Ended,” para. 2)
In-text citations:
Long quotes
When quoting 40 or more words, create block quotations by…

• Indenting five spaces from left margin (or one-half inch)

• Typing the rest of the quotation on the new margin

• Double spacing throughout

• Omitting quotation marks

• Placing the parenthetical citation after the closing punctuation mark

 Desmond (2000) described how Washoe
tried signing to the other apes when the
Gardners returned her to an ape colony in
Oklahoma:
In-text One particularly memorable day, a snake
spread terror through the castaways on the
citations: ape island, and all but one fled in panic. This
male sat absorbed, staring intently
Long at the serpent. Then Washoe was seen
running over signing to him "come, hurry
up.” (p. 42)
quotes This shows that Washoe truly understood the
concept of sign language as a means of
communication.
In-text citations:
secondary sources
• Sometimes, your source will cite someone else’s work.

• When you want to use that secondhand information, you must give credit
to both sources.

• Use the phrase “as cited in.”

• Example: McClelland’s investigation (as cited in Toner, 1998) found that
chimps…
• This in-text citation means that you learned about McClelland’s
investigation indirectly, using Toner’s text.
Altering a quotation
• You may want to add information to provide extra context or background
for your quotation.

• This is fine as long as you don’t alter the meaning of the quote.

• Use square brackets to denote what information you add to the quotation.

• Example:
• Seyfarth (2001) noted that "Premack [a scientist at the University of
Pennsylvania] taught a seven-year-old chimpanzee, Sarah, that the
word for 'apple' was a small, plastic triangle" (p. 13).
Altering a • You may want to omit unnecessary or
extraneous information from a quotation.

quotation • Make sure that this omission will not alter

the original meaning of the text.

• Use an ellipsis to show where you’ve left

out words from the original text.

• Example:
• In a recent New York Times article,
Eckholm (2004) argued that "a 4
year-old pygmy chimpanzee . . . has
demonstrated what scientists say are
the most human-like linguistic skills
ever documented in another animal"
(p. A1).
References Page:
Formatting
• “References” centered at the top of the
page (no bolding or italics)

• Authors listed in alphabetical order by last

name of the first author in the study

• First line of the reference is flush against

left margin
• Its subsequent lines are indented
(hanging indent)

• Double-spaced throughout
Referencing • Include the following information in
this order:
Books 1) Author Last Name, First Initial.
2) (Date of Publication).
3) Title and subtitle: Capitalize
the first letter.
4) City, ST of Publication:
5) Publisher.

Example:
Highmore, B. (2001). Everyday life and
cultural theory. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Referencing articles

• For an article, include:

1) Author Last Name, First Initial.
2) (Date of Publication).
3) Title of article is not italicized and is without quotation marks.
4) Name of Periodical Capitalized and Italicized, volume(issue),
5) Page-Page.
6) DOI (doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx) or http://url.com.

Example:
Hoxby, C. M. (2002). The power of peers. Education Next, 2(2), 57-63.
Referencing online sources
• For a webpage, include:
1) Author Last Name, First Initial. or Organization.
2) (Date of Publication).
3) Title of document is written like this.
4) Retrieved from http://url.com.

Example:
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). Reference list: Electronic sources. Retrieved
from
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatti
ng_and_style_guide/reference_list_electronic_sources.html.
Journal article
Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D.,
DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and the
Hollywood connection. Journal of Film Writing, 44(3),
213–245.

Article by DOI

Slifka, M. K., &Whitton, J. L. (2000) Clinical

implications of dysregulated cytokine production.
Journal of Molecular Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s001090000086

Book

Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to

preparing manuscripts for journal publication.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
 Book chapter

• O’Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men’s and

women’s gender role journeys: Metaphor for
healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R.
Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle
(pp. 107–123). New York: Springer.

Online document

• Abou-Allaban, Y., Dell, M. L., Greenberg, W.,

Lomax, J., Peteet, J., Torres, M., & Cowell, V.
(2006).Religious/spiritual commitments and
psychiatric practice.Resource document.American
Psychiatric Association.
http://www.psych.org/edu/other_res/lib_archives/ar
chives/200604.pdf. Accessed 25 June 2007.
Journal names and book titles should be italicized.
 • Why is it important to incorporate
sources effectively?
• It builds credibility with the reader.
• It provides the paper or argument
with necessary support that helps
prove your thesis.
• It provides a factual basis for your
argument.
Integrating • It demonstrates a certain level of
effort and scholarship from the
Sources writer.
 • Step 1: Understanding the source’s
strengths and limitations.
• Multi-step process:
• Read your assignment
carefully so that you
understand what you are
being asked to do.
• Select appropriate sources for
your argument.
Steps to • Think about what role your
sources will play in your
Incorporating argument/assignment. (Ex:
Does the source serve as an
Sources authoritative voice in support
of your claim?)
• Decide whether to
summarize, paraphrase, or
quote the source.
Steps to Incorporating Sources
• Step 1: Continued
• Tips for choosing a source
• When selecting and using sources, do not forget that this is
your paper, not the source's paper.
• When selecting sources, do not merely read the abstract and
decide to use the source.
• Do not ignore a source because it disproves your argument!
• Questions to ask when evaluating online sources
• Who wrote the source? Is the author listed, and if so, do they
have credibility problems?
 • Step 2: Integrating the source into your
writing
• Framing:
• Framing a source is introducing the
source in your own words and
giving a brief analysis.
• This gives the reader an idea of the
purpose of the source in your
Steps to paper, and a transition from your
ideas to the support provided by
Incorporating the source.
• This should occur throughout the
Sources document, starting with the topic
sentence.
• Example: Mandelbum's
historiography of Major
League Baseball can prove
useful to the creation and
utilization of symbolic capital
in the National Basketball
Association.
Steps to Incorporating Sources
• Step 2: Continued
• Signal Phrases:
• Signal Phrases are introductory clauses that signals to the
reader a shift in point of view from you to your source.
• They are like transitions for sources! Think of them like turn
signals for sources: they are marking when you want to make a
transition from the scholars’ viewpoints to your own.
• Example Sentence: Celeste Jones notes the apparent
contradictions in the existing literature.
• Example Signal Phrases: Argues, Notes, Observes,
Acknowledges, Suggests. Addresses, Asserts, Believes,
Claims, Comments, Compares, Confirms, Contends,
Declares, Denies, Disputes, Emphasizes, Notes, Observes,
Refutes
Steps to Incorporating Sources
• Step 2: Continued
• Quoting and Paraphrasing:
• Quoting: Using or coping words from a source such as a book, with
acknowledgment of the source
• Paraphrasing: A restatement of a text or passage in another form or
other words, with acknowledgement of the source
• Quoting or paraphrasing without citing the source is plagiarism!
• Why paraphrase?
• It is better than quoting information from an undistinguished
passage.
• It helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
• The mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps
you to grasp the full meaning of the original.
APA Style Examples
• One Author (Book) • Chapter in a Book
Nwogu, J. A. (2005). Role of library Olusegun, K. A. (2013). Child-
and information centres in disaster parent relationships, peer
management. Ibadan: Emaphine relationships, and peer-group
Publishers. pressure. In Okorie, E. C. &
Nwachukwu, A. B.(Eds.), Book of
Up to 7 or More Authors: Ayande, relationships pressure and groups
A., Okorie, V. C., Amaefule, E. N., (pp. 55-57). Owerri: Alao Printing
Unegbu, C. C.,Amadi, Y. O., John, J. Press.
J.,…. Ijaw, N. A. (2014). AIDS is
punishment for disobedient human • Journal Article
beings created in the image of God. Haliso, Y. & Onuoha, U. D. (2010).
Owerri: Agu and Sons Printers Perceived influence of academic
More than seven, then list the first qualifications, gender, religious
six names, put ellipsis and write affiliation and ethnic sentiment on
the last author. mentoring practices among
librarians in selected university
libraries in Nigeria. African
Research and Documentation, 114
(4), 33-46.
 • Magazine & Newspaper • Author: Last, F. M.
APA Style Mathews, J., Berrett, D.,
(Year, Month, Date).
Entry Name [Def.
Examples & Brillman, D. (2005,
May 16). Other winning
Number]. In F. M. Last
(Ed.) & F. M. Last
Contd. equations. Newsweek,
145(20), 58-59.
(Trans.), Website Title.
Retrieved Month
• Odinkalu, C. (2014, June Date, Year, from URL
12). This crisis must not
• Hemorrhage [Def. 1].
be wasted. The
(n.d.). Merriam-
Guardian: Conscience,
Webster Online. In
Nurtured by truth.p.17.
Merriam-Webster.
Retrieved January 2,
2013, from
http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionar
y/citation.
APA: Encyclopedia from Database
• Holmes, H. (2003). • Bunson, M. R. (2012). Historical
Advertising of food. In S. H. overview. In Encyclopedia on
Katz (Ed.), "Advertising of Ancient Egypt. (3rd ed., pp. Xii-
Food" Encyclopedia of Food Xv). New York, NY: Infobase
and Culture. Vol. 1, pp. 16-20). Publishing. Retrieved January 3,
New York, NY: Scribner’s. 2013, from
Retrieved July 2, 2010, from http://www.infobasepublishing
http://www.gale.cengage.com .com