Natural Science

Grade 8

Teacher's Guide

This textbook is a derivative work of the Grade 8 Natural Sciences Teacher's Guides originally produced and
published by Siyavula Education with the help of volunteers, academics and students. The original workbooks are
available under a CC-BY 3.0 license at https://www.siyavula.com and www.mstworkbooks.co.za.

The content of this textbook was formatted to combine the two original workbook volumes into a single textbook

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 Natural Science Grade 8 Teacher's Guide
First published in 2017
© 2017. Copyright in the work is vested in the publisher.
Copyright in the text remains with the contributors.

This project is funded as an ongoing project of the Sasol Inzalo Foundation, and has been developed with the
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ISBN: 978-0-620-75168-1

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Contents
STRAND Life and Living

Unit 1 Photosynthesis and respiration

Unit 2 Interactions and interdependence within the environment
Unit 3 Micro-organisms
Glossary Life and Living

STRAND Matter and Materials

Unit 4 Atoms
Unit 5 Particle model of matter
Unit 6 Chemical reactions
Glossary Matter and Materials

STRAND Energy and Change

Unit 7 Static electricity

Unit 8 Energy transfer in electrical systems
Unit 9 Series and parallel circuits
Unit 10 Visible light
Glossary Matter and Materials

STRAND Planet Earth and Beyond

Unit 11 The solar system

Unit 12 Beyond the solar system
Unit 13 Looking into space
Glossary Earth and Beyond
 1 Photosynthesis and respiration
Chapter overview
2 weeks
This chapter provides learners with an introduction to, and revision of, the concepts in photosynthesis and
respiration in preparation for a study of the ecosystem. Learners have already looked at photosynthesis
and respiration in previous grades. They know that respiration is one of the seven life processes of living
things. They have also been introduced to photosynthesis in the context of green plants and food chains in
Gr. 5 and 6. The emphasis in this chapter is on the use of energy and on how radiant (light) energy is
transferred to chemical potential energy and later released during respiration. This concept is developed
within the scope of the CAPS prescriptions and will be used as a scaffold to explain the transfer of energy in
the ecosystem in the subsequent chapter. As an introduction, teachers may want to watch or show the
following video to the class: 1 bit.ly/17z96Vc
These tables and how to use them are explained in the Teachers' Guide Overview at the front of the book.
We have also explained how to use the bit.ly links to websites and videos in the front of the book.

1.1 Photosynthesis (3.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: The seven life Remembering, describing, Optional (Revision)
processes writing
Activity: Requirements and Summarising, describing, CAPS suggested
products of photosynthesis writing
Investigation: Which leaves Hypothesising, investigating, CAPS suggested
photosynthesise? (Test for the observing, measuring,
presence of starch) analysing, writing, group work
Investigation: Why do bananas Hypothesising, investigating, Optional
become sweeter as they ripen? observing, measuring,
recording, analysing, writing,
group work

1.2 Respiration (2.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Does our breath Investigating, observing, CAPS suggested
contain carbon dioxide? (Test measuring, recording,
for the presence of carbon analysing, writing, group work
dioxide using limewater)
Activity: Requirements and Describing, writing CAPS suggested
products of respiration

1
 Key questions
l What drives life on Earth and in ecosystems?
l How do green plants photosynthesise when no other organism can make its own food?
l What do plants do with the food that they produce?
l Why do we need to eat food? What does it provide us with?
l We know respiration is one of the seven life processes, but what happens during respiration in
organisms?

1.1 Photosynthesis
This website has many interesting articles about science and science related jobs. They have been classified
according to topics and also provide tips on how to incorporate the articles into your classroom. If you are
interested in incorporating real world science into your classroom, this is one website to start looking at:
bit.ly/16zEuUf

ACTIVITY: The seven life processes (LB page 2)

The seven life processes are: movement (moving), reproduction (reproducing), sense the environment
(sensing), growth (growing), respiration, excretion (excreting), nutrition (feeding).
Ask your learners this as a revision of what they did in previous grades Some objects with kinetic energy
are a moving car, a bouncing ball, a leaf blowing, a fan blowing, etc. Some objects with potential energy are
a book on the table (it has gravitational potential energy as it can fall down to the ground), a bouncing ball
when it is at the top of its bounce as it can also fall back down, a batteries, fossil fuels have and food have
potential energy.

ACTIVITY: Requirements and products of photosynthesis (LB page 4)

The learner's diagram should look as follows:

Discuss this with your learners. The glucose is produced continuously during the day when the Sun is out
and is not all used at once by the plant. The plant cannot have large amounts of glucose accumulating as
this affects the water potential within the leaves, and so some is converted to starch to be stored until it is
needed.
Discuss this as a class in the lead up to the investigation

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Learners could suggest that they taste the substance to see if it is a starch or glucose. It is important that
learners be made aware that we do not taste-test unknown substances due to the potential for poisoning.
This specific point was included to allow teachers to reinforce this rule with learners and that we only ever
do a taste test if we are sure that a substance is in fact edible.
Although this can be used as a fairly simple, physical test, it has several problems. For example, the
temperature of the water will affect the rate at which it dissolves, as will the quantities used, etc. In
discussing these points facilitate the discussion and lead learners to conclude it is not a very accurate test,
although a simple physical one that can give a fairly good indication. This is a good opportunity to discuss
kinetic energy and temperature of a solution
This is included as an introduction to the subsequent investigation. Teachers should let learners explore
the possible ways in which to use this to test for starch.
Please emphasise to learners that they should refer to iodine solution, and not just iodine (which is a bluish
black solid).

INVESTIGATION: Which leaves photosynthesise? (LB page 6)

You will need variegated and normal leaves for this investigation. Variegated leaves have white patterns
(areas lacking chlorophyll) on them. There are many examples of South African plants that have variegated
leaves, such as some geraniums, African violets, ivy, etc. You can also take a walk around your school
property and surrounds to see if you can find any variegated leaves. Get learners to look at the leaves and
discuss the investigation first. They can also do this in groups. This investigation can be done over 2
lessons. You should place one set of pot plants in the cupboard the day before you want to do part 1 of the
investigation. After you have done part 1, you can do part 2 in the following lesson. In part 2, learners will
need to write up an experimental report.
If you do not have time to do both parts of the investigation, a suggestion is to get your learners to read
through Part 1, and then to conduct Part 2, where they have to write up their own report.
Possible answers include: 'To determine whether leaves photosynthesise in the dark or the light', or 'To
investigate whether Light is necessary for Photosynthesis'.
The leaves in the light will test positive for starch as they photosynthesised, whereas the leaves in the dark
will not photosynthesise and will test negative for starch.
Before starting this investigation, all plants must be placed in a dark cupboard for up to 48 hours prior to
starting the investigation in order to ensure that the plants do not have starch in the leaves before the
process begins.
Instead of a saucepan with water and a beaker with alcohol, teachers may use a beaker with water and a
test tube with meths or alcohol. As long as the container holding the alcohol is safely contained within the
water to prevent it from being directly heated or coming into contact with the flame. Teachers may also
feel safer if they demonstrate this experiment.
Warning: The alcohol needs to be heated as well but it cannot be heated directly because it is extremely
flammable. It therefore needs to be heated in a water bath.
The amount of iodine solution required to observe a result depends on the leaf tested. Some leaves may
need to be flooded with iodine solution. Place the leave in a petri dish and cover the leaf with iodine.
A really good demonstration of the various experiments in this and subsequent sections is found at 2
3
bit.ly/177Z3ay. It starts off with carbon dioxide through limewater test and then demonstrates the starch
test.
Learners must draw their own tables to record their observations. This being the first investigation that
they will perform in high school, this activity will allow teachers to gauge their level of proficiency and
abilities in this regard.
The hot water removes the waxy cuticle and the alcohol dissolves the chlorophyll, releasing the green
colour of the leaf. After the leaves are taken from the ethyl alcohol they should be white. The chlorophyll
needs to be removed from the leaf so it does not mask the colour change we expect with the iodine
solution. When iodine is dropped on the leaf it turns blue-black in the presence of starch. This is an
indicator to show that the leaf was photosynthesizing and producing glucose that was turned into starch.
1. This was done to allow some plants to photosynthesise and the others not. Those that were able to
photosynthesise could produce starch and those that didn't only had small amounts of starch or no
starch.
2. If the iodine changes from brownish-orange to dark blue-black that indicates that the leaf or other part
of the plant contains starch and must have photosynthesised. If the iodine solution does not change
colour, the leaf or other part of the plant does not contain starch and did not photosynthesise.
Learners need to apply what they have learnt in Part 1 to plan their own experiment in part 2 and write up
an experimental report.
Geranium leaves are an excellent option for this investigation. The ivy has a very thick cuticle and the
iodine can't penetrate the leaf easily. Variegated mint-leaf is also very good for this investigation, and is a
plant found commonly in KwaZulu-Natal.
This activity may be done in groups or individually. Up until now learners have been provided with a
framework in which to write up their results. For this investigation, they need to compile their own reports.
Some examples of what learners might produce are included here:
Aim: To find out which parts of variegated leaves photosynthesise and store starch.
Hypothesis: The green parts of variegated leaves will turn blue-black in iodine solution indicating that they
photosynthesise and store starch, whereas the white parts will not turn blue-black (will stay brown).
Materials and apparatus: This should be a similar list to what was used in Part 1. Learners must record the
items in a bulleted list and take note of measurements.
Method: This should also be similar to Part 1. The steps in the method must be numbered. They must be
written in full sentences. Learners must take note of what measurements they used.
Results: Learners should draw a table to record their results. They should provide headings for the columns
and rows and also a heading for the table. Learners must make drawings of their leaves at the start of the
experiment, indicating the different coloured regions as boiling in alcohol will remove the colour. They can
then indicate the results on the drawings.
Discussion: Assess learners ability to explain their results. They should also make reference to the fact that
the white parts of the leaves do not contain chlorophyll and therefore they do not photosynthesise. This
also shows that chlorophyll is crucial for photosynthesis. Learners should explain anything that they might
have improved on in their results.
Conclusion: This should be a short statement in which they answer their aim or investigative question.

4
INVESTIGATION: Why do bananas become sweeter as they ripen? (LB page 8)

It is not crucial to do this investigation if you do not have time. This is an optional extension of the starch
test.
1. Learner-dependent answer
An example of a possible answer is: To investigate the presence of starch in ripe and unripe bananas; To
investigate why bananas becomes sweeter as they ripen; etc.
1. If the unripe banana does not taste so sweet compared to the very sweet tasting ripe banana then
perhaps it contains more starch, and less glucose. The starch test might show that the unripe banana
contains more starch.
Learner-dependent answer
Learners should be able to describe the taste and texture of each banana: the ripe one being soft and
sweet, and the unripe one being firm and not too sweet. Learners might say that the unripe banana
contains more starch and less glucose as it is not as sweet as the ripe banana. But, this is not a very
accurate test. The learners might also experience the tastes differently, making the results unreliable.
Learners should be able to quite easily see this based on the speed with which the iodine changes colour in
the unripe banana.
1. Learner-dependent answer
Allow learners the freedom to tabulate their results in any way they choose as long as it is easy to interpret
and understand. Use this as a teaching opportunity to help those who cannot do this and when everyone is
done compare the different methods used in the class.
1. Learner-dependent answer.
You should use this comparison to help learners understand that reliability of an experiment rests on the
fact that although different people perform the same test they should all reach very similar results.
2. The conclusion is that unripe bananas contain more starch than ripe bananas. This question was
specifically included to introduce learners to the concept of validity and teachers are encouraged to
allow learners to debate this issue in the class
3. As the bananas ripen, the starch is converted into glucose.

1.2 Respiration
The term respiration can refer to two distinct processes. In physiology, respiration refers to the transport
of oxygen from the outside air to the cells and the transport of carbon dioxide out of the tissues and into
the air. This is often confused with breathing, which is the movement of air in and out of the breathing
organs, such as lungs or gills, and does not take place in all organisms, whereas respiration does. At a
biochemical level, respiration refers to cellular respiration. This is the metabolic process in all organisms
where oxygen is combined with glucose to release water and carbon dioxide and energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). Cellular respiration takes place in individual cells within the organism whereas
physiological respiration involves the bulk transport of gases and other compounds between the organism
and the outside air.
In this section, we will be looking specifically at cellular respiration as we will be looking at the chemical
reactions which release the energy in food. However, learners have not yet learnt about cells and so we

5
will just refer to this as respiration. Should you wish to do so, you can make this distinction to your learners
and introduce the term cellular respiration, however, it will only be clear once they have done cells in Gr. 9.
They will study physiological respiration in Gr. 9 when they do body systems and also cover the circulatory
and respiratory systems in detail.
An idea as introduction and/or conclusion to this section on Respiration is to let learners watch the
YouTube video of a song about cell respiration: 3 bit.ly/1eupZUz. The initial explanation is simple and
appropriate for this grade level but it might show some of the more inquisitive learners what actually
happens during the 3 stages of respiration.
Photosynthesis requires sunlight and can only take place during daylight hours. Learners may get confused
and think that because photosynthesis occurs during the day, that respiration only occurs during the night.
Ensure that learners understand that respiration occurs constantly, during the day and night.
They are glucose (food) and oxygen. Next term in Matter and Materials, we will look at chemical reactions
and define the 'ingredients' as reactants. You can also link back to this example of a chemical reaction
(actually a series of reactions), when introducing the topic next term.
We also know that respiration releases energy. This energy is contained in the chemical bonds of ATP
molecules. ATP is not energy itself, but instead it stores energy. The ATP molecules have chemical potential
energy in their bonds.
When the ATP molecules are broken down they release the energy in order for other processes to take
place.
Unlike photosynthesis, where we place sunlight energy above the arrow and not as one of the reactants in
the equation, in respiration, we place energy here as a product. This is because the energy is actually
contained within the molecules produced (ATP). However, at this level learners do not need to know this
term, and we will only use the word energy in the equation. However, since this has the potential to cause
misconceptions later, a note was included about the energy being contained within ATP molecules.
Ask your learners this question to see if they understand the concept. The by-products are carbon dioxide
and water.

ACTIVITY: Does our breath contain carbon dioxide? (LB page 11)

You will need to prepare limewater prior to this activity. Here are instructions on how to do this:
1. Place a few tablespoons of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, in a clear 500 ml reagent bottle and fill with
water. Shake or stir to make a cloudy suspension.
2. Leave the suspension to settle for a few days. The clear liquid above the solid Ca(OH)2 is a saturated
solution of Ca(OH)2, also known as clear limewater.
3. Carefully decant as much of this as you need, without stirring up the solid Ca(OH)2 sludge at the
bottom.
4. To make more, simply add more water, shake it up and let it settle again. When the sludge dissolves
completely, add more solid Ca(OH)2.
For health reasons, there should be one straw or rubber tube per learner.
Pharmacies are generally quite helpful and will assist schools in purchasing low cost syringes. Technology
teachers at your school might also have syringes for their syringe mechanics lessons. An alternative to a
large syringe is to use a bicycle pump or balloon blower. Safety warning: remove the needles from the
syringes, if there are any, before you hand out the syringes in class.
6
1. The clear limewater turned cloudy white. This means our breath contains carbon dioxide from
respiration.
2. The clear limewater did not change and remained clear. Some might notice a very slight change, which
indicates that there is a small amount of carbon dioxide present in atmospheric air
3. As air contains such a small percentage of carbon dioxide, there is not enough to cause a noticeable
difference in the limewater. Discuss with your learners why they think that the limewater turned
cloudy with your breath but not with the air, even though air does contain carbon dioxide. Point out
that air from your lungs contains a much higher percentage of carbon dioxide from respiration and this
can turn the limewater cloudy in a shorter time than atmospheric air will.
4. a) Glucose and oxygen.
b) Energy, carbon dioxide and water

ACTIVITY: Requirements and products of Respiration (LB page 12)

This is what the learner's diagrams should look like.

Throughout this year, we are going to develop the skill of designing and making concept maps in Natural
Sciences. The "Key concepts" listed above is a summary written out in full sentences. A concept map
provides another way of representing information (ideas and concepts) in a more visual way. The benefits
of a concept map are that it allows one to show the links between different concepts. Often a concept map
has a "focus question" from which the other concepts radiate. In these books, the focus question will be
the main topic for the chapter. The relationships between different concepts are shown using arrows with
linking phrases, such as "results in", "includes", "can be", "used to", "depends on", etc.
As this year progresses, learners will have to start filling in more parts of the concept maps themselves,
and then hopefully draw their own ones by the end of the year. This teacher's guide contains the full
version of each concept map. Encourage your learners to study the concept maps and make sense of them
at the end of each chapter before doing the revision questions. Help your learners to understand and
"read" the concept maps by constructing sentences from them. For example in this case you could read:
"Respiration takes place in all organisms, releases energy from food".
Learners need to learn how to learn! This is one skill which might help them later in their school career
where they have a lot more information to ingest and learn and make sense of. Concept mapping is one
tool for summarising information and understanding how different concepts link together. Real
understanding and knowledge comes from grappling with the subject matter, and not just memorizing
facts.

7
Below is the complete concept map with the answers filled in. Make sure your learners understand what a
concept map is and that they have filled in the correct concepts into the empty spaces. Learners might
battle to do this, especially to fill in "Potential energy" as the type of energy in food. Help them by
reminding them of the two types of energy, namely kinetic energy and potential energy. You can ask them
questions such as, "What do plants get from the Sun which is used for photosynthesis?" (Solar energy),
"What do plants get from the soil that they use for photosynthesis?" (water), etc. "Knowledge is real
knowledge only when it is acquired by the efforts of your intellect, not by memory." – Henry David
Thoreau

Revision
1 a) Depending on what he planted the beans in, he might have noticed a root and first leaves forming.
b) The young bean plants would have formed small leaves but the plants would slowly start to die.
c) The bean plants would die as the leaves would not have enough radiant energy to allow them to
photosynthesise and produce glucose for the plants to use to grow and develop.
d) He should have put the plants in a place where they would get enough radiant energy (sunlight) to
allow them to photosynthesise.
2. Carbon dioxide, sunlight and water
3 a) The plant converts the glucose to starch as it is easier to store. Therefore, the leaves will indicate a
high starch content.
b) The chlorophyll must be removed by first dipping the leaf into boiling water for 1-2 minutes to
remove the waxy top layer. Then the leaf must be placed in alcohol and this is heated over water
to remove the chlorophyll. The leaf is then removed and dipped into hot water to soften it as the
ethanol will make the leaf brittle. Iodine solution is dripped on it. Iodine changes from
orange-brown to dark blue-black in the presence of starch and when it is dripped onto the leaf it
changes to dark blue/black indicating that starch is present
4. Plants only photosynthesise during the day, and not at night. This is because they need sunlight energy
to photosynthesise. Plants respire all day and all night. All living organisms need to undergo respiration
to release energy from chemical potential energy and perform the seven life processes.
5
a) The learners wanted to collect any gas that formed from the solution in Test Tube A and bubble it
through the limewater. If the limewater changed from clear to cloudy white then this would
indicate the presence of carbon dioxide. (This question tests the learner's ability to follow the logic
of the experiment and to link the theory learnt and the practical application of it.)
b) The learners did not want to lose any of the gas that might potentially form before it had time to
bubble through the limewater. It is also important to make sure that the only thing affecting the
limewater was the gas released in the experiment, and not carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
(This question tests the practical understanding of the process that was undertaken.)
c) It is test tube B as it contained clear limewater to start which has gone milky. It is from Setup 2 as
there is yeast and sugar in test tube A in set-up 2 so the yeast ferments the sugar and releases
carbon dioxide which turns the limewater milky.
d) The yeast needs to act on the sugar to form the carbon dioxide. When the sugar was not available
it could not react and could not produce carbon dioxide

8
6.

7. An example of a table is given here. (Take not that learners have not yet started to call the starting
ingredients reactants)

Table of differences between photosynthesis and respiration

Characteristic Photosynthesis Respiration
Starting ingredients/ Carbon dioxide, sunlight energy Glucose and oxygen
requirements (reactants) and water
End products/what the process Glucose and oxygen Energy, carbon dioxide and
produces water
Organisms in which this process Green plants All living organisms
takes place
When this process takes place During the daytime/when there All the time as organisms
is sunlight continuously respire

Assessment Rubric 4 can be used to mark this table if you would like a more in-depth assessment.

9
2 Interactions and interdependence
Chapter overview
5 weeks
Learners are introduced to the basic concepts of ecology and the four levels in which ecological
interactions are grouped for research and studying purposes. This is made explicit in the text in this
introductory section and learners are given short activities to allow for meaningful engagement with these
concepts. Visit 1 slidesha.re/19dpf9k. The slides contain an overview of the concepts introduced in this
section.

2.1 What is ecology? (0.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: What is a population? Identifying, observing, Optional
analysing, describing, writing
Activity: Check your Describing, writing, recalling CAPS suggested
understanding

2.2 Ecosystems (4 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Abiotic components in Identifying, listing, describing, CAPS suggested
a grassland ecosystem writing
Activity: Studying an ecosystem Investigating, observing, taking CAPS suggested
measurements, describing,
analysing, writing, working in
groups
Activity: Identify the type of Identifying, writing Optional
interaction between organisms

2.3 Feeding relationships (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Different types of Identifying, describing, writing CAPS suggested
consumers
Activity: Different decomposers Identifying, describing, writing CAPS suggested

2.4 Energy flow: food chains and food webs (3 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Energy transfer in an Classifying, identifying, CAPS suggested
ecosystem evaluating, describing, writing
Activity: Studying energy Constructing, describing, CAPS suggested
pyramids writing
Activity: Identifying food chains Identifying, describing, writing CAPS suggested
and food webs

10
2.5 Balance in an ecosystem (2 hours)
Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: The critically Identifying, describing, writing CAPS suggested
endangered Riverine Rabbit
Activity: Assessing the impacts Describing, writing CAPS suggested
of a natural disaster
Activity: Poaching in Southern Reading, interpreting, writing CAPS suggested
Africa
Activity: Assess your impact on Identifying, interpreting, writing Optional
the environment

2.6 Adaptations (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Distinguish between Reading, identifying, describing, Optional (CAPS suggested)
types of adaptations writing
Activity: Why do animals Identifying, describing, writing Optional (CAPS suggested)
migrate?
Activity: Living stones Describing, writing, drawing, CAPS Suggested
labelling

2.7 Conservation of the ecosystem (1.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Why should we care? Group work, research, public CAPS suggested
speaking, debating
Activity: Finding solutions to Writing, reflecting CAPS suggested
environmental problems
Activity: Individuals who make a Research, describing, writing Optional (Extension)
difference

Key questions
l What is ecology?
l We talk about the population of people in South Africa, but do other animals live in populations?
l What makes up an ecosystem? Are we part of an ecosystem?
l How are organisms linked by their feeding relationship to make food webs?
l Why do we need many more producers and fewer carnivores in a food web?
l How does an ecosystem remain balanced so that it can support all of the organisms that live there?
l We know that natural disasters can have a huge impact on ecosystems, but what are we as humans
doing that upsets the fine balance in ecosystems?
l What does it mean if an organism is adapted to its environment?
l Why have some organisms become extinct?
l During the course of Earth's history, many organisms have become extinct, so what is different and
worrying about the decreasing numbers of rhinos and elephants?
l How can we make a difference to conserve our own environments?

11
2.1 What is ecology?
Learners have already studied the biosphere in detail in Gr. 7. They have also looked at the concept of an
ecosystem in the younger grades. We will now put these different levels together in a hierarchical
organisation representing the study of ecology.
The website link provided in the visit box for our 'Breathing Earth' provides a very interesting simulation of
how the population of the Earth, and also individual countries changes every second. If you have Internet
access in your classroom and a projector, you could put this website up when you first introduce
population and then leave it running during the lesson. At the end of the lesson, bring it up again to see
how much the Earth's population has increased in just a short time such as your lesson.

ACTIVITY: What is a population? (LB page 18 and 19)

Discuss this with your class first and get their opinions. They should note that all the animals in a
population are the same species and they can interact as they live in a specific area.

Learners may not know the answers to these questions as we have not yet given the definition of a
population, but this is meant as a discussion and for them to come to the conclusion of what defines a
population without stating the definition up front.
1. All the animals are of the same species in a population. They are different ages, there are males and
females.
2. No, they are not from the same population. Individuals in a population all live in a specific area and
they can interact and breed with each other. They are not able to interbreed if they live in different
areas.
3. A population does not have a specific size. Rather, it is defined by the area that you are talking about
and whether the individuals can interact.

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4. A population consists of organisms that live in the same space and at the same time. Individuals in a
population interact with each other and are able to interbreed. Since the seals lived at different times,
they cannot be part of the same population.
5. The number of hippos in the population would decrease. They might not necessarily all die, but the
numbers would decline. The decline may be due to some individuals of the population migrating to
other areas. The population would decrease because the environment cannot support the hippos
anymore as there is not enough water in their habitat. (We will look more at balance in an ecosystem
later in the chapter.)
6. Some possible reasons include: there are perhaps fewer predators and so fewer of the zebras are being
eaten. There might perhaps be an increase in the number of females that are born and so more are
reproducing. There might be an increase in the amount of food available, perhaps other populations of
herbivores have decreased or there might have been particularly rainy seasons so there is lots of food
(green grass). Disease may have decreased so fewer animals are dying, or the amount of hunting or
poaching by humans may have decreased.
Discuss this with your learners and see what they come up with. They have looked at feeding relationships
and ecosystems in previous grades and so this also links back to what they have studied before and
requires them to apply what they already know to new situations.
Extension question to ask your learners: Another group of scientists wants to compare the population of
penguins at Boulders Beach in Cape Town with another population in Antarctica. What are some aspects of
each population that they could compare?
Discuss this with your learners. You can help them come to the answers by asking leading questions, such
as, how would the scientists compare the habitats of the two populations? How would they compare how
well the penguins are doing in each population?
Answer: Some aspects that they could compare between the populations are: growth rate of the
population, the number of deaths and births in a given time frame, what the penguins in each population
eat, what are the natural enemies/ predators of each population of penguins, which other species do the
populations of penguins interact with in their environment, how many times per year do they reproduce,
do they build shelters, is there any human impact on the penguins etc.
This is a possible extension activity if you would like to do it with your learners. This has only been included
in the Teachers Guide as many learners might not be familiar with an underwater environment.
1. Different fish populations, turtles, seaweed, corals, sponges, plankton.
2. Some other examples include: crustaceans such as crabs or crayfish, jellyfish, octopus, other fish
species, perhaps a reef shark.
3. It is a coral reef.
4. Some types of fish could eat other types of fish, the fish can eat the seaweed, the turtles eat the
seaweed, the sponges filter the water for plankton.

ACTIVITY: Check your understanding (LB page 20)

This can be done as a short revision task in class or as homework to check what learners understand so far,
or you can ask learners the questions orally in class.

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Suggested answers have been given, but learners must be encouraged to use their own words.
1. The particular branch of science that studies how organisms interact with other organisms and their
environment.
2. The process of interacting/influencing each other.
3. An individual life form, either a plant, animal, fungus, protist or bacteria.
4. A group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area at a specific point in time and they
can interbreed with each other.
5. All the populations of organisms that interact in a certain area.
6. The different living things interact with the non-living things in their environment to make up an
ecosystem.
7. All the ecosystems on Earth combined make up the biosphere.

2.2 Ecosystems
The article in the visit box is about scientists working in 'Green science', particularly studying the
interactions between plants and their environment. A possible enrichment activity, or homework task is to
get learners to read the article, and then this webpage has questions that you can ask your learners in an
informal discussion: 2 bit.ly/15QvStw

ACTIVITY: Abiotic components in a grassland ecosystem (LB page 21)

1. Soil, rocks, water, wind/air, sunlight/temperature, clouds.

a) The eagle uses the wind and air to soar and glide while hunting.
b) The trees and grass are rooted in the soil so that they do not blow over and they can get water and
use sunlight and carbon dioxide to make food.
c) The mouse creates its home in the ground/dead stick/grass, it can store seeds and food in the soil
and hide from predators.
d) The worm and insect live in the soil.
3. The blue arrows describe the water cycle.
You can revise the water cycle here, namely: The water in the pond/dam evaporates as it changes from a
liquid to a gas. The water vapour then condenses to form clouds as fine droplets of water. When the water
droplets become big enough, they precipitate as rain. The water runs down the slopes and collects in the
lower regions such as the pond.
4. The time of day will affect the temperature as this will affect how much heat energy the ecosystem
receives from the Sun depending on the Earth's position. The time of year will also affect the
temperature as the ecosystems distance from the sun changes. Weather conditions will also affect
the temperature, for example if there are clouds, wind, or it is raining. The direction the area faces will
also affect the temperature, for example if it is on a slope.
5. This grassland ecosystem has a sloped surface. There is a hill on the right hand side and the ground
slopes downwards towards the pond. This shape and slope enables the water to run down when it
rains and collect in the pond, thereby providing a collection of water for the ecosystem.
The arrow starting on the right above the buck should read 'Carbon dioxide released during respiration in
plants and animals.' The arrow ending on the right below the buck should read 'Oxygen used by plants and
animals during respiration.'

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ACTIVITY: Studying an ecosystem (LB page 22)

This activity may be given to learners as a project. Learners will mark off parts of an ecosystem and must
ideally be able to return to it regularly. You as the teacher must pre-visit the area and find a suitable area
for marking off and studying, preferably near a stream or shore. Ensure that there is enough space for
several classes to study the same area without damaging it. Identify organisms and find possible
relationships between them. Show learners before the visit how to use equipment correctly and how to
keep records. If you have microscopes, teach them how to use these to study soil samples and small
organisms. During the visit, you will have to circulate and check on the groups of learners.
As many of the measurements taken will be new concepts and practices, you should explain the reasons
for measuring different environmental conditions in the ecosystem. During the investigations it is also
important to walk between groups to ensure that they are applying the newly learnt skills appropriately
and taking accurate measurements.
The leaf litter and soil samples may be studied in the field but could also be studied in the class. If teachers
have taught learners to use basic light microscopes they should encourage them to study these with the
use of a microscope too.
Optional materials are: rain gauge, wire ring, binoculars, field guides.
Learner-dependent answer. If you can find moss or lichen, point out this interaction to learners which
shows how a plant grows on a rock (interaction between biotic and abiotic). Similarly, plants (biotic)
interact with the soil (abiotic) when they draw mineral salts and water from the soil.
Learner-dependent answer. Perhaps there are ants building a nest – point out these interactions to
learners.
Learner-dependent answer. Lookout for any interactions between animals and with their abiotic
environment and point these out to learners.
If you are able to take the temperature several times over the course of a day, use this information to plot
a graph to show how the temperature changes over the course of the day.
Learners might have learned about soil types in previous grades in Earth and Beyond. This acts as a revision
of what they have learned.
Learner-dependent answer. You can easily make your own rain gauges by cutting the top off a 2 litre
plastic bottle and inverting the top half into the bottom half to form a tunnel. You can use a marker pen to
write measurements on the side of the plastic bottle. See this link: 3 bit.ly/1cfqC8Q
1. Learner-dependent answer. They may describe the habitats/ecosystem as aquatic, terrestrial, or even
a pond, grass, forest, etc.
2. Learner-dependent answer. Learners should take note of the water resources in their square, the slope
of the land, and the type of soil and how this affects the organisms.
3. Learner-dependent answer. Learners should take note of any feeding relationships that may exist. We
will be studying this in more detail next,
4. Learner-dependent answer. Perhaps there is litter which is blocking a stream, or that animals can eat
and choke on. Perhaps there is a path that humans walk on, resulting in them trampling the plants so
that nothing grows there. Learners could suggest putting some rubbish bins nearby, or perhaps mark
off the area so that people have to walk around, etc.

15
5. Learner-dependent answer. Learners may observe that insects or other small animals scurried away
from them when they approached their quadrant. or perhaps insects were drawn to the stakes and
rope that was used to demarcate their area.
You may choose to use this practical activity for learners to submit a written account/ report of their work
and to present their findings to the class in the form of a powerpoint presentation. Possible areas to
evaluate might include:
l Title and purpose
l Procedures followed by the group (as awarded from observations by the teacher)
l Comparative data similarities to other groups in the class that measured in similar areas.
l Answer to the questions above.
l Oral presentation of their research as presented in their powerpoint slideshow to the class. They could
include the different activities that will be conducted throughout this chapter, such as their work on
the different food chains and the food web that exists in their marked off ecosystem and work on
conservation of their marked off ecosystem.

2.3 Feeding relationships

Learners should have learned about food chains and food webs in previous grades. Therefore, some of this
content is revision, but the concepts have also been extended to make it more engaging at this level.
Plants need water from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and sunlight energy from the sun.

ACTIVITY: Different types of consumers (LB page 26)

This activity is intended to build on previous knowledge of herbivores, omnivores and carnivores, and
introduces concepts of insectivores and scavengers, which learners might have incidental knowledge of but
might not have defined themselves. The activity requires that they engage with their existing knowledge
and use this to define the terms. Teachers should walk between groups and ensure that they use scientific
vocabulary as taught in this and previous sections as well as the New Word List, in their definitions.
1. A herbivore is an animal which feeds on plant material. Examples of herbivores are: elephant, duck,
horse, buffalo, squirrel, grasshopper, rhino, zebra, cow, mouse, etc.
2. A carnivore is an animal which eats other animals (living or dead). Examples of carnivores are: lion,
jackal, dolphin, crocodile, shark, leopard, mosquito, vulture, crab, seal, etc.
3. Buck, zebra, buffalo.
4. Vulture, jackal, crab.
5. The learners can research the eating habits of the chameleon, bat, praying mantis and swallow in groups,
and report their findings to the rest of the class.
6. These animals all eat insects and other small invertebrates. They are called insectivores.
7. An animal which eats both plants and other animals is an omnivore. Examples are: pig, flamingo,
mouse/rat.
8. Humans are omnivores.
9. An earthworm is a decomposer.
10. a) Learner-dependent answer.
b) Learner-dependent answer.
c) Learner-dependent answer.
d) Learner-dependent answer. They might have seen earthworms or fungi.

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ACTIVITY: Different decomposers (LB page 29)

1. They are mushrooms, so they are part of the Fungi kingdom.

2. The mushrooms are mostly growing on dead plant matter, such as dead tree logs and humus
3. We can call them decomposers.
4. Decomposers break down the matter in dead organisms to release the nutrients such as water and
carbon, back into the ecosystem. These nutrients are therefore recycled and made available for other
organisms to use. They also help to keep an ecosystem 'clean' as they make sure that dead and
decaying material is not left lying around in an ecosystem for an extended period.

2.4 Energy flow: Food. chains and food webs

ACTIVITY: Energy transfer in an ecosystem (LB page 30)

1. It is called a food chain.

2. The grass.
3. Consumers are the grasshopper, the mouse and the owl.
4. The grasshopper is the herbivore and the mouse and the owl are the carnivores.
5. The rat is an omnivore as it eats both plants and animals.
6. The arrows show the transfer of energy from one organism to the next. 7 Yes, it does make a
difference. The arrows show the direction in which the energy is transferred as one organism eats the
other one, always from the producers to the consumers.
7. Learner-dependent answer. Learner's food chains must start with a green plant (producer), or part of a
green plant, such as a fruit or wheat. Make sure they have used the arrows in the correct direction,
and that they have three levels of consumers.
8. Learner-dependent answer. They could say that decomposers would come at the end of the food chain
as they break down the bodies of the dead organisms. Or they are often put at the side, with many
arrows from all levels of the food chain as they break down all the dead organisms at every level.

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Encourage learners to write the levels into the diagram. The grasshopper is the primary consumer, the rat
is the secondary consumer and the owl is the tertiary consumer.

ACTIVITY: Studying energy pyramids (LB page 31)

1. The phytoplankton in the marine ecosystem and the trees in the savanna ecosystem.
2. The crustaceans in the marine ecosystem and the giraffe in the savanna ecosystem.
3. The organisms in each level use most of the energy (90%) to sustain their own life processes (such as
breathing, moving, reproducing etc).
Therefore, only 10% is available to the next level which feeds on them. Learners might need help with this
question, so ask them leading questions such as, what do the organisms in each level need energy for?
4. Energy flow in an ecosystem is very inefficient and only 10% of the energy from a trophic level is
passed to the next level. Therefore, to provide enough energy for the subsequent trophic levels,
there needs to be many plants as primary producers.
5. There are 5 in the marine and 3 in the savanna ecosystem.
6. Since only 10% of the energy produced by the consumers is passed on to the next level, the primary
consumers need to eat a large amount of producers to get enough energy to live. In the same way,
each level needs to be supported by a larger population that it feeds on as only 10% of energy is
passed on to each level.
7. Learner-dependent answer

ACTIVITY: Identifying food chains and food webs (LB page 34)

1. A marine ecosystem.
2. There are several answers. Some examples include: phytoplankton krill fish penguin leopard seal
phytoplankton zooplankton fish sea gull leopard seal phytoplankton krill blue whale seaweed crab
squid penguin leopard seal seaweed crab squid elephant seal killer whale. It shows how the
different food chains are connected.
3. Phytoplankton and seaweed
4. Krill, zooplankton and crab.
5. Killer whale and blue whale.

2.5 Balance in an ecosystem

Use this as an entry point into this section. The resources that organisms depend on are food, shelter and
water. Ask learners questions such as, what would happen if there was a drought and all the grass died, or
there was a fire that swept through and burned all the plants, or what happened if all the zebra got a
disease and died? The ecosystem would become imbalanced in some way.
In Gr. 7 Life and Living, learners studied Biodiversity and Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms, (including
sections on pollination). If there is time, show learners this brief video about the mysterious disappearance
of honeybees that has many people worried and alarmed! 4 bit.ly/147WFgZ Afterwards, lead a class
discussion in which you ask the learners what effect the loss of honey bees would have on the ecosystem.

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ACTIVITY: The critically endangered Riverine Rabbit (LB page 35)

Teachers should if possible download the poster about the Riverine Rabbits and the information leaflet at 5
bit.ly/16CawB4 to discuss in class.
l Habitat destruction is one of the main reasons, due to farming, fire and livestock (which may also
cause erosion)
l Other animal species compete for their food.
l Floods kill their young and destroy their habitat.
l Natural predators kill them.
l They are killed in the road and by 4x4 vehicles in river beds.
l Hunters accidentally kill them, thinking they are eating crops.

ACTIVITY: Assessing the impacts of a natural disaster (LB page 36)

1. Drought is water shortage, when there is no rain for a long time.

2. A famine is a scarcity of food when there is starvation.
3. Drought makes plants die, so animals that eat them also die. This decreases food for humans, as crops
and farm animals die as well.
4. Hungry and malnourished animals and humans are too weak to fight off disease.
5. It is usually reversible, but ecosystems can take a very long time to recover from severe droughts.
Perhaps discuss this with your learners before they write their answer down. Ecosystems are fairly robust
and can cope with fluctuations in climate over the year. However, an imbalance results if the climate
changes very suddenly or else changes and remains like that for a long period of time.

ACTIVITY: Poaching in Southern Africa (LB page 37)

1. Any meat obtained from wild animals that were trapped / snared/ poached, often illegally.
2. The San only took what they needed, their traps were well set and their numbers were small. Today's
people set traps badly, so the wrong animals are killed and then often not eaten. There are also a lot
more people doing it now.
3. Many people are poor and cannot afford to buy the more expensive meat in stores so rather buy much
cheaper meat from illegal traders.
4. Learner-dependent answer. Note: Encourage learners to express their opinion about this and have a
debate in class. Some will feel it's wrong to exclude people from traditional food sources, others feel
it's more important to protect the animals and find other ways of helping people. Ask for suggestions
to solve the problem: quotas / education programmes / help people to grow food or keep animals etc.
5. The illegal hunting of wild animals in areas for food or money.
6. When animals are poached, they are killed at a faster rate than their population can grow. They may
become extinct.
7. The rhino is poached for its horn, elephants are poached for their tusks.
8. The natural predators of abalone have too little food so other species are eaten instead. this affects
other populations too. Note: Local people who use Perlemoen as food for their families are also
stopped from removing

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9. The secondary consumers that eat them will have less food, so they eat more of other animals, which
also become endangered. Secondary consumers that eat only these worms may become extinct
directly.

ACTIVITY: Assess your impact on the environment (LB page 39)

1. You can also start this first part of the activity as a class discussion. Ask learners what types of water
resources are polluted and how. What pollutes the air? Where does our waste from our homes go?
Below are some points for the discussion.
l Land pollution: In spite of recycling, much rubbish still goes to landfill sites, where chemicals seep
into soil water and poison food chains.
l Water pollution: Can be caused by car oil, people washing in rivers or using rivers as toilets. Some
municipalities allow raw sewage into rivers / sea, others treat sewage first but still spill chemicals
into rivers. Farmers spray crops to kill pests, but this also washes into rivers and damages
ecosystems.
l Air pollution: Comes from chemicals burnt by factories, coal stoves, car exhausts, insecticide sprays
and burning old tyres, etc.
2. Learner-dependent answer.
3. Learner-dependent answer.
4. This links to the last section on conservation of ecosystems. Note: Some answers include that the first
poster is trying to convince us to think twice before throwing something away. We should rather
recycle it or think of how it can be reused. We can also buy things with the minimum packaging and
reduce the number of plastic bags we use. The second poster is playing on the words of having a 'plan
B'. In this case however, we have no plan B for planet Earth – there is no second Earth or any other
planet that we can live on. We only have this planet and we need to look after it.

2.6 Adaptations
A very important note about this section is to point out the misconception that organisms adapt. This is
incorrect as individual organisms do not adapt, it is the populations or species which adapt over time.
Individual organisms have adaptations which make them better suited to their environment. The points in
CAPS are a misconception and should be reworded as follows:
l Adaptation is the change in structural, functional and behavioural characteristics of organisms in a
species. Adaptation usually takes place over many generations.
l Adaptation, over time, allows a species to survive in response to changing conditions in the
environment
l Species that are unable to adapt to changes within the environment die out (become extinct)
Be sure to make it clear that it is species or populations of organisms that adapt, and not individual
organisms.

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ACTIVITY: Distinguish between types of adaptations (LB page 41)

1.
How is the species adapted to life in its habitat? Body adapted to dig and reach into nests to get
prey; little hair as lives in hot climate; has
shovel-like claws and powerful short limbs, long
sticky tongue to pick up and eat the ants.
What type(s) of adaptation is this? Structural: longer snout and tongue; thick skin to
protect it from termite and ant bites; powerful
limbs to dig in any soil Behavioural: nocturnal –
hunts at night when cool; hides in tunnels from
predators
2.
How is the species adapted to life in its habitat? Body adapted with grooves and ridges to channel
tiny droplets to the mouth; the hind legs are
longer and stronger to keep the beetle in this
position for a long time.
What type(s) of adaptation is this? Structural: grooves on body form channels to
mouth; strong hind legs Behavioural: nocturnal
habits, it stands in the specific position all night
while water droplets condense on its body
3.
How is the species adapted to life in its habitat? Body colour pattern helps it to blend into
surroundings; also lighter colouring can face the
fiercest angles from the sun if no shade; can
extract water from plants that it eats
What type(s) of adaptation is this? Structural: body colouring Functional: extract all
available water from plants it eats; does not lose
much water or energy as it does not sweat
Behavioural: seeks shade during hottest hours of
the day; turns the lightest part of its body to the
sun if no shade is available; can change eating
patterns if normal diet of grass is not available
4.
How is the species adapted to life in its habitat? Ostriches have a long toe and claw to fight
predators and escape; eggs remain dormant until
heat of breeding male and female's bodies starts
their development. Male and female share nesting
duties. Their bodies are specially camouflaged:
male has black feathers to be camouflaged at
night when it is on the nest; female has speckled
dusty coloured feathers to be camouflaged during
the day when she is on the nest.

21
What type(s) of adaptation is this? Structural: strong toe and leg muscles help it to
run fast; male beak turns red to signal female that
it is ready to breed. Behavioural: male sits on nest
at night and female on nest during day as they
take turns to nest; ostriches eat pebbles to help
digestion as they do not have teeth; female lays
just enough eggs to cover with body
5.
How is it adapted to life in its habitat? Body adapted to mimic leaf or stick; moves very
slowly to seem like a branch or leaf moving;
nocturnal to avoid being seen in daylight by
predators; stick insects can reproduce without
male insects
What type(s) of adaptation is this? Structural: body structured to resemble leaf or
stick Behavioural: nocturnal as it feeds under
cover of darkness; moves slowly to not attract
predators

ACTIVITY: Why do animals migrate? (LB page 43)

The more exposure to sunlight, the higher the rate of photosynthesis. Encourage your learners to take
notes when you discuss topics in class.

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The slippery surface also helps prevent monkeys and other small animals from climbing up and eating its
leaves and fruit!
The fruit bats come to feed on the flowers and the nectar and in turn they pollinate the baobab flowers.

ACTIVITY: Living stones (LB page 44)

1. This is because they are plants, but they are camouflaged to look like stones or pebbles.
2. The Lithops plants are camouflaged to look like stones and blend in with their rocky soil that they grow
in. The patterns look like different rocks/pebbles. They are therefore not usually seen by herbivores
which might eat them. This adaptation protects them from being eaten.
3. Succulents are plants which are adapted to live in hot, arid environments and they have thickened,
fleshy leaves and stems to store water.
4. The fact that the leaves are mostly underground helps the plant to conserve water because as little as
possible is exposed to the hot environment so this reduces water loss. During drought, the leaves
shrink even further underground to try to conserve water even more.
5. Most of the leaf and hence the green chlorophyll is located on the underneath side of the plant
underground.
6. Learner-dependent answer
7. The upper part of the leaves acts as window and lets light through. As the interior of the leaves is
transparent, the sunlight can travel through to the bottom parts of the leaves which are underground
and contain the chlorophyll in order to photosynthesise. This allows the plant to have a coloured,
patterned upper surface to camouflage it from herbivores, but still allows that sunlight to travel
through for photosynthesis.

2.7 Conservation of the ecosystem

ACTIVITY: Why should we care? (LB page 47)

This is an optional, extension activity.

Learner-dependent answer.
Below is some extra information on the types of individuals who are actively involved in conservation, if
you wish to discuss this further with your learners:
l Park rangers and conservationists work to save the environment. Research scientists inform park
managers about conservation and investigate how climate change affects populations.
l Economists and scientists are trying to work out the 'costs' of big cities on the environment and how to
sustain healthy ecosystems so that we and all living things can enjoy the benefits of healthy food, clean
water and air.
l Other groups remove alien plants or track down poachers, especially regarding cycad and rhino
poaching, which is escalating. You can help!
l Some people run campaigns to raise awareness about different environmental concerns, for example
the poaching of endangered animals, or the drive to recycle cans, paper, bottles and plastic. Get
involved!
l Climate change activists inform the public about global warming and the damages we are causing to
our world by deforestation and pollution.

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ACTIVITY: Individuals who make a difference (LB page 47)

This is an optional, extension activity to create awareness about what other individuals have done. If you do not
have time to do it in class, learners could do it as a homework exercise.

Teacher's version
Remember that concept maps are different to mind maps in that concept maps have a hierarchical
structure and show how concepts link together using arrows and linking words. Whereas mindmaps
generally contain a central topic and individual branches coming out which do not necessarily link
together.
Mindmaps can also be a useful way of summarising information and studying, however, we are using
concept maps as they help to show linkages, which is very important in science. Help your learners to
'read' the concept map by showing them that the arrows show the direction in which concepts progress
and are linked to each other. Learners might battle to find the other 2 levels in which we study ecology –
help them by reminding them of the 4 levels, namely; populations, communities, ecosystems and the
biosphere.

Revision
1. 1 – C
2–F
3–A
4–B
5–H
6–G
7–I
8–E
9–D
2. Abiotic factors are the non-living elements in the environment that have never and will never live. This
includes gases, rocks and soil, water, temperature and weather conditions. Biotic factors are those
factors that have once lived or that are living today. This includes past and present plants and plant
materials, animals and microorganisms.
3. Population: the individuals of the same species that live in the same space and time and breed with
each other form a population. Community: different populations of different species within the same
area at the same time form a community.
4.
l Competition: when organisms from different species compete for the same limited resource
l Feeding relationships: there are many different types of feeding relationships between different
organisms in an ecosystem, such as herbivory, predation, scavenging.
l Symbiosis: when two (or more) organisms' actions have a positive, negative or neutral effect on
other organisms from a different. The way in which they interact and the influence this has on the
other species leads us to identify:
l mutualism
l parasitism
l commensalism.
5. Producers: are organisms / plants that are able to produce their own energy from sunlight, water and
carbon dioxide and do not need to consume other organisms to get energy.

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 Primary Consumers: need to consume plants in order to get energy. Secondary Consumers: need to
consume primary consumers to get energy. Tertiary Consumers: consumers secondary consumers to
get energy.
The trophic levels can be represented as a pyramid as there need to be more organisms in the bottom
layer than in the layer above it. This is because only about 10% of the energy in each trophic level is
available to the next level. The rest is used by the organisms for their own processes.
6. An insectivore eats insects and small invertebrates and is therefore a carnivore, as it eats other
animals. The statement is therefore correct because carnivores get their energy from eating other
animals and not plants.
7. a) Producers:
b) Primary consumers:
c) Secondary consumers:
d) Scavengers:
e) Decomposers:
f) trees, shrubs, grasses
g) zebra, elephant, termites
h) cheetah, hyena
i) vultures, hyenas
j) bacteria, fungi
8. The zebra are primary consumers and use about 90% of the energy that they get from the grass,
transferring about 10% to the cheetah to consume. There therefore need to be more zebras than
cheetahs in order to make sure the cheetahs are supported in terms of food supply, and also that they
do not eat all the zebras, causing the zebra population to die out.
9. The producers capture the energy from the sunlight and convert it to chemical potential energy in the
form of glucose through the process of photosynthesis. In this way they place energy into the
ecosystem which animals cannot do.
10. Learners should be able to identify the lack of dead animal carcases and manure, which indicates that
the decomposers are working efficiently.
11. If all the zebra died, the ecosystem would become unbalanced. Firstly, the cheetah would not have a
food source anymore and they would also in turn suffer and starve. The hyena would also have a
depleted food source.
There might perhaps be less dung for the dung beetle to use to lay its eggs. The grazing of the zebra
also has an effect on the plants and so if the zebra all die out, the grass growth will increase.
12. In the short term, many of the animals would battle as the zebra and the elephant would have a
reduced food source, especially the zebra which eat grass. Some of them might die. This in turn will
affect the other predators. Many of the smaller organisms would also be burned. However, in the long
term, this imbalance will normally be restored as the landscape recovers and the plants start to grow
again after the first rains.
13. There are multiple food chains here.
Organism Adaptations
A leopard. The leopard is camouflaged due its colouring and
spots. This helps it to hide away from prey so that
it can get as close as possible before chasing. The
leopard is adapted to run fast over short periods in
order to catch its prey. It has a light, streamlined
body with strong legs. It has a tail for balance to

25
 turn sharp corners while chasing.
A whale. The whale is a mammal, so it does not have gills,
but it can hold its breath for a long time
underwater so that is can dive down and also
catch prey/filter feed. It has a blowhole on top of
its head for breathing. The blubber keeps it warm
as it insulates it and also provides energy when
diving and swimming in very cold seas. It has a
strong tail, stream lined body and its forelimbs are
flippers for swimming.
A Venus Flytrap. This plant has adapted as it is carnivorous. It
catches flies and has adapted to digest them. The
red colouring inside the 'catchers' attracts the flies
as it looks like meat. As soon as the flies land on
the surface, the plant is triggered and the catchers
clamp shut, catching the fly. The catchers are
adapted with the spikes on the end to form a cage
around the fly and keep it there while it is
digested. The plant can also photosynthesise as it
is green and contains chlorophyll
A dung beetle. A dung beetle has adapted to its environment by
using the dung from other big herbivores as a food
source and to lay their eggs. They have adapted by
being able to collect the dung and roll it into balls
so that they can transport it to where it is needed.
This also creates a warm, safe chamber in which to
lay their eggs, feed the young and protect them.
The dung beetles have strong front legs so that
they can do the rolling. Their back legs have fine
control of the dung ball.

15. The quiver tree has thick bloated branches and succulent leaves so that it can store water for the dry
months. Its branches are covered in white powder to reflect heat away from plant which helps to
reduce water loss. The leaves have few pores to also minimise loss of water. The tree can amputate
leaves and branches if water is scarce.
16. Learners need to display the following:
l recognition of the importance of valuing each species and their specific niche in their ecosystem
l recognition that each species fill a specific place in the food chain and if one is removed it affects
all the other species in that food chain / web / pyramid
l each organism needs to be protected in order to preserve the entire ecosystem
l the importance of preserving our diversity to ecotourism and for future generations to enjoy (we
have not INHERITED the earth from our parents, we are CUSTODIANS of the earth for our
children!).

26
 3 Micro-organisms
Chapter overview
2 weeks
As an introduction, refer learners to the classification of living organisms that they would have done in Gr.
7 Life and Living. They should be familiar with the range of living organisms classified into the five
kingdoms, namely plants, animals, bacteria, protists and fungi. Ask learners to explain what they
understand about bacteria, protists and fungi. In previous chapters and grades, we have dealt extensively
with organisms from the two kingdoms plants and animals. However, those that are not seen at a
macroscopic level have not yet been studied in much detail. A more in-depth look at microorganisms is the
focus of this chapter. In addition, we will look at which of these are harmful and which are useful. Learners
have not yet been introduced to cells (which will follow in Gr. 9) so the classification should not go to
cellular level. An excellent resource for teachers to use is: 1 bit.ly/13Q3DrA where Interactive Whiteboard
lessons, videos, worksheets, etc. on microorganisms are available.
Note: Although CAPS spells 'micro-organisms' with a hyphen, which is accepted, it is not the most
commonly used spelling. We have therefore used the spelling without the hyphen, namely 'microorganism'
as this is what learners will mostly encounter in other resources, especially online.

3.1 Types of microorganisms (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: What does Observing, describing, writing CAPS suggested
'microscopic' mean?
Activity: Classifying organisms Classifying, writing Optional (revision)
Activity: Calculating the size of Examining, analysing, CAPS suggested
an organism using a scale bar calculating

3.2 Harmful microorganisms (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Where are pathogens Identifying, writing Optional
found?
Activity: How easily do viruses Group work, analysing, Optional
spread? discussing
Activity: HIV Research Researching, discussing CAPS suggested
Activity: Preventing the spread Researching, writing Optional (Extension)
of diseases
Activity: Typhoid Mary Researching, writing, discussing Optional (Extension)
Activity: Research an infectious Researching, writing CAPS suggested
disease

3.3 Useful microorganisms (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Investigation: Investigating the Hypothesising, investigating, CAPS suggested
growth of yeast observing, measuring,
recording, analysing, writing,
group work
Activity: Careers as a natural Researching, discussing CAPS suggested
scientist
27
 Key questions
l What are microorganisms?
l Why do we need microorganisms on Earth?
l Are there microorganisms living in my body?
l How do we study microorganisms?
l What causes your body to get sick?
l Are microorganisms of any use to us?

3.1 Types of microorganisms

ACTIVITY: What does 'microscopic' mean? (LB page 53)

The intention of this short activity is to familiarise learners with the idea of microscopic objects and what
this means. To be microscopic means that they need to be viewed under a microscope. The purpose is to
show learners that many objects can be viewed under a microscope to see the detail, and there are many
objects which can only be viewed under a microscope in order to be seen at all.
Provide learners with a range of different objects with fine detail, for example, newspaper, a cloth to view
the individual threads, and if possible, grow some bread mould by leaving out a damp piece of bread in an
enclosed container for a couple days prior to starting this activity.
The use of corrective glasses or contact lenses still constitutes 'naked eye' as it merely corrects vision to
normal human accuracy. Make sure that learners requiring corrective glasses or contact lenses understand
that they may keep their glasses on and it will still constitute a 'naked eye' observation.
1. It means viewing something using only your eyes; with nothing in front of your eyes to help you view
something.
2. Learners should note that they were able to view more detail when viewing something using a hand
lens and that things looked bigger.
3. A Microscopic Macroscopic
B Macroscopic Microscopic
C Macroscopic Microscopic
D Microscopic Macroscopic

ACTIVITY: Classifying organisms (LB page 55)

This is optional revision of what learners have already covered in Gr. 7 on Biodiversity, and briefly
mentioned in Chapter 2 this term.
1. Kingdoms.
2. Bacteria, Fungi and Protists
3. They are living. They perform all seven life processes (moving, respiring, sensing, growing, reproducing,
excreting, feeding).
As discussed in this chapter, viruses are also microorganisms. There is much debate as to whether viruses
are living or non-living. Viruses do not perform all seven life processes so they are not included in one of
the five kingdoms.

28
ACTIVITY: Calculating the size of an organism using a scale bar (LB page 57)

1. Learner-dependent answer.
Note: The answer will depend on the format in which the image is viewed (printed, photocopied,
online, etc.) and the exact point that learners choose for the start and end of the organism. A small
amount of variability is expected.
2. Learner-dependent answer
Note: This will depend on the format in which the image is viewed (printed, photocopied, online, etc.)
3. The answer should be approximately 3.
Note: The ratio should be constant no matter what size the image was printed! This is the power of
using a scale bar. Encourage learners to round-off their answers to one decimal point in order to make
their calculations easier. You can discuss with the class why learners may have slightly different
answers.
4. The length of the organism is approximately 150_m.
Note: teachers should accept any answers that are within the range of 120-180 _m. Learner's answers
may differ. You may use this opportunity to discuss with learners why they think there is variation in
their answers. Ask them to compare the length they measured to the length of their friends. Maybe
some learners measured from the tips of the cilia and have a larger answer than others who chose not
to include the cilia in their measurements.
5. There are 1000 _m in 1 mm.
6 Approximately 6.67 Oxytricha trifallax could lie end to end.
Note: The answer is arrived at by dividing 1 000 by the size of one Oxytricha trifallax. Teachers should
accept answers between 6 and 8.
7. a) Approximately 110 m
Note: Accept answers between 100 and 120 m.
b) Approximately 57 _m (0.057 mm)
Note: Accept answers between 50-60 m

3.2 Harmful microorganisms

ACTIVITY: Where are pathogens found? (LB page 58)

1. Microorganisms that cause disease are found on many surfaces which come into contact with humans
regularly, such as handrails, public keypads, etc.
They are also found in places which are unclean. Learners should be able to see that disease-causing
microorganisms are found almost everywhere.
2. Learners need to come up with their own answers here based on the discussion about where
pathogens are mostly found. They could conclude that they spread by humans coming into contact
with surfaces and objects which have the pathogens on them.
3. To sterilise something means to make something very clean so that any microorganisms on the surface
of an object or in a fluid are removed or killed.
29
ACTIVITY: How easily do viruses spread? (LB page 59)

This is an optional activity, but it is suggested if you have time in class.

This activity develops from the previous text about the spread of diseases. We will be looking at how
viruses spread, and in particular sexually transmitted diseases (STD's). The aim of this activity is to open up
discussion about choices of protection to prevent STD's, and importantly the freedom to say "no" and
mean "no". Once the activity is completed it is very important to have a detailed discussion about the
wider issues involved and the importance of learners having a clear concept of what they want before
embarking in sexual activity. It provides the opportunity to discuss the issues and realities of both STD's
and preventing unwanted pregnancies.
Birth control or contraception are methods or devices used to prevent pregnancy. However, some
contraceptives (pills) may not prevent STDs, whereas some (condoms) may also PROTECT individuals from
contracting STDs.
You are using acid to track the spread of STD's – the acid represents a microorganism that causes an STD.
One person will be passing acid in the form of vinegar, as the children share their water. The water should
be shared by pouring water into each other's cups, not by drinking! If they have been acidified they will
pass the acid on to whoever they share their water with. By the end of the activity only those who do not
accept from others will remain "disease free". This can either be related to abstinence, or could equally
represent people who had safe sex and used protection to prevent the exchange of bodily fluids that may
contain the microorganisms which cause STDs.
If possible, use a universal indicator
Instructions for the activity:
1. Divide the class into three groups: A, B and C. Each group will be given different instructions to carry
out.
2. Brief each of the groups in private as follows (the other groups must not be able to hear the
instructions given):
a) Group A: Instruct them that no matter who offers to share their water with them, they must be
very firm and polite but say "No". However, they should offer their water to people they want to
give some to.
b) They must NOT let anyone give them water.
c) Group B: Instruct them they can share their water with whoever they want and they can choose if
they wish to receive water from other members of the class. They can say yes or no.
d) Group C: Instruct them that if anybody offers them water they should say "Yes". They must also try
very hard to give a little of their water to as many people as they can. They must try to convince
those that say no they should have some. (They are not allowed to give water if the person is
definite about "no".)
e) All groups should be encouraged to try to share a little water with as many people as they can but
if someone is very firm about "no" they have to respect this.
3. You (the teacher) must also take part in the activity. Your cup must have acidified water (vinegar) in it.
Make sure you get as many pupils as possible to have some, or target pupils you know have strong
persuasive skills.
4. Once everyone has their instructions and a cup of water, go outside or in an open space to perform the
activity.
5. Allow everyone to sensibly walk round, mingling all groups, offering to share their water.
6. After about 10 minutes ask the groups to gather into their designated groups A, B or C again. Place the
cups in groups (A, B, C) on a table keeping the groups separate.
30
Now carefully add a few drops of indicator to every person's cup.
8. Get your class to observe patterns in colour and discuss what each group's secret instructions were.
9. What you should find is all those in group A should turn green if you used universal indicator. (If
someone was persuaded to share you may have the odd red cup, this is really useful because it shows
even more clearly the power of NO). Group B will have a mix of red and green liquid in cups depending
if they said yes to some or no to everybody. All of group C should be red, i.e. contaminated with acid.
At this point, discuss what the different colours mean. You can use the following questions to guide the
discussion, or else learners can answer them by themselves or in small groups.
Point out that only one person had the disease to start with but now everyone who has red liquid in their
cup has it. Encourage discussion about how even your best friend may have slept with someone else and
thus could pass the disease on to you. Therefore, the only safe way to prevent getting an STD is to abstain
from sexual intercourse or from the use of male condoms and female condoms. It is useful to stress that
girls have as much, if not even more right, to protect themselves from disease and pregnancy, and that it
should be their choice as well, which must be equally respected.
You will get a lot of laughter, but it is a really dynamic way to generate discussion around this very
important topic. Stress the importance of each person's right to choose whether they do or don't want to
take part in sex at school age. Stress the benefits of waiting but also balance it with the sensible option of
protected sex not just to prevent pregnancy. It is also important to stress that even if a girl is on
contraception pills, these will not provide protection against STD's – only a condom will do this.
1. Group C should have the most red cups. This means that they were contaminated. They did not say
'No'.
2. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
Note: Learners must not say AIDS here. AIDS is not a virus- it is a syndrome that can result from
infection with HIV.
3. HIV spreads by sexual intercourse without protection or by coming into contact with an infected
person's blood through an open wound. In the activity this was represented by mixing water with
someone else.
Note: HIV can also be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy.
4. The virus can be prevented from spreading by abstinence (saying "No") or by using male or female
condoms.

ACTIVITY: HIV research (LB page 60)

This can be done as a homework activity and then learners can report back to the class. A suggestion is to
get different learners to research the different questions and then report back to the class and have a class
discussion.
You must warn your learners to be sensitive about this topic. Encourage the use of scientific terms, great
sensitivity to each other, and they must not laugh at what anyone says.

31
ACTIVITY: Preventing the spread of diseases (LB page 61)

1. There are various ways to prevent malaria. Several different medicines are available which can be taken
before going to a high-risk area, which prevents someone from contracting the disease. One way to
prevent the spread is to also minimise the bites that you are likely to get by using mosquito repellents
and sleeping underneath mosquito nets at night.
Another method is to actually eradicate the infected mosquitoes, for example by spraying breeding
grounds. You can also regularly empty out containers that could could collect rain water and allow
mosquitoes to breed.
2. The symptoms of these diseases include coughing and sneezing. So, when an infected person coughs or
speaks, they spray out drops which can carry the microorganisms and spread them to another person.
the infected person could wipe their mouth or eyes and then wipe another surface, thus also spreading
the disease. Ways to prevent the spread are to cover your mouth when coughing or sneezing, washing
your hands, and there are also various vaccinations available to prevent one from getting these
diseases.

ACTIVITY: Typhoid Mary (LB page 61)

This can be done as an extension activity if you have time or else as a homework task.
1. They were showing how each time she made a meal she was transmitting typhoid to the family and
people who would eat the food, and could potentially die from the disease.
2. She might not have washed her hands after going to the toilet and might in this way have spread the
disease to the food she was preparing. The people eating the food would then have contracted the
illness.
3. Learner-dependent answer but could include: No, she did not show any symptoms so she probably
thought that they were accusing her of something that was not true. Yes, she did because she saw so
many people getting sick around her but she was afraid to admit it.
4. If she did not believe the accusations then she probably thought that they were on a witchhunt and
wanted to make her look guilty, so she refused. If she thought that she was in fact making people sick
she might have been really scared that the truth would come out and she would have caused all the
people to be sick. Either way she knew that they would use the results to take action against her,
banishing her to a quarantine colony.
5. Yes and no. Yes they could have taken more care in explaining the dangers and getting her to
understand the problem of her 'carrier status' (she carried the disease without getting sick), and No,
she was infecting many others and making them sick so they were right to protect these people.
The authorities had to weigh up Mary's basic right to privacy against those of all the other people who
could potentially be harmed by her.
6. Learner-dependent answer.
Note: This question was included to allow learners to think how they would have managed the
situation differently and requires them to think about the ethical issues of the case.
7. Learner-dependent answer.

32
ACTIVITY: Research an infectious disease (LB page 63)

To make sure that all learners do not research the same diseases, a suggestion is to put everyone's names
in a hat and then draw them out and assign the names to the various diseases as you go down the list.
Learners can either prepare a written report, a poster or an oral presentation for this task. Learners may
work in groups of 2-3 for this task.
Note that pneumonia appears in both the viral and bacterial column as the infection can be caused either
by virus or bacterial infections.

3.3 Useful microorganisms

Decomposers break down dead, organic matter so that it does not clutter up an ecosystem and cause
diseases, and in the process they recycle (return) nutrients to the ecosystem.
It is a mutualistic symbiotic relationship as both organisms benefit from the relationship. This links back to
what learners covered in Chapter 2 and acts as a revision. Learners must be encouraged to take notes in
class for these kinds of discussions.

INVESTIGATION: Investigating the growth of yeast (LB page 65)

Learners will investigate the conditions necessary for optimal yeast growth or fermentation. As learners
have been exposed to similar investigations in this strand it is less guided as previous investigations.
l This investigation should run over two periods. There should be at least 2 / 3 days between these
periods.
l The investigation will be done according to the scientific method
l The activity works well with packets of dry yeast that are readily available from supermarkets.
l The first part of the investigation will determine the sugar concentration needed for the yeast to grow
and learners will receive more guidance.
l The second part will require learners to plan and execute their own investigation to determine the
optimal temperature at which the yeast will grow.
l Teachers may therefore choose to use this for an informal practical assessment mark.
l This lesson may be used for a cooperative learning task where the two pairs of learners within the
team of 4 could be tasked to work independently to complete different tasks and complete the mass
and volume measurements. Teachers should if possible encourage this as it also minimises the use of
apparatus and scales.
l If overflow pans are not available you can also use cake pans or foil pans that are readily available from
supermarkets.
Before the investigation it may help learners to watchhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PLG_bsJseCU or
http://bit.ly/11OzWcR to see what happens when yeast and sugar are mixed.
Which concentration of sugar is best for yeast growth?
Learners should be able to explain that the yeast will use the sugar as a food source and produce carbon
dioxide.
It would be an excellent data management activity to have learners record the different groups' data on
the board in order to determine the mean (class average) for the class's balloon mass and volumes.
1. The answer would depend on the results from the investigation, but learners should be able to say that

33
 the balloons filled up and became bigger (some more than others).
2. The answer would depend on the results from the investigation but they should be able to observe
that the balloons with the small amount of sugar only increased a little bit but the ones with more
sugar in increased more in size.
3. The answer would depend on the results from the investigation but learners should be able to say that
the balloons with a greater concentration sugar were able to ferment more quickly or for a longer time
than the ones with a smaller concentration of sugar.
4. Learner-dependent answer. Learners might indicate that they thought the balloons would just
continue blowing up / increasing in size, or they may have hypothesised that once the sugar was used
up the balloons would stay the same size (or even decrease).
5. The answer would depend on the results from the investigation but in most cases the balloons should
have decreased in size.
6. The answer would depend on the results from the investigation but learners should be able to
conclude that the sugar in the solution has all been used, so no new carbon dioxide was being made,
and the carbon dioxide in the balloons slowly began to escape through the walls of the balloon.
7. The answer would depend on the results from the investigation but learners should be able to describe
the light brown fizzy contents that has a distinct sour smell and flavour.
Learners may conclude that the more sugar was added the more gas was produced.
A simplified version of this investigation can also be done:
l Provide learners with 4 bottles.
l Dissolve half a packet of instant yeast into each of the 4 bottles.
l Mark the bottles A – D.
l Bottle A should have normal tap water with only the yeast dissolved in it. Stretch a balloon over the
top of the bottle.
l Bottle B should have the yeast dissolved in lukewarm water (not too hot). Stretch a balloon over the
top.
l Bottle C should have normal tap water with 10 ml of sugar dissolved with the 7 g (half a packet) of
yeast. Stretch a balloon over the top.
l Bottle D should have 40°C water with 10 ml of sugar dissolved with the 7 g (half a packet) of yeast.
Stretch a balloon over the top.
l The balloons will, of course, fill with carbon dioxide – with Bottle D filling the fastest as the conditions
are most perfect for this in that bottle.

ACTIVITY: Careers as a natural scientist (LB page 69)

This is a suggested CAPS activity, but it is not for assessment purposes. Learners should start to learn about
and explore various careers within the Natural Sciences. A variety of career options are suggested by this
activity. Ideally all of the careers in the list should be represented by at least one student. This is a good
chance for learners to explore their interests, so those who already have well-developed passions and
interests should be encouraged to explore them further with this activity. If a learner has a career not on
this list that is related to Natural Sciences they may talk about their choice instead.
1. Learner-dependent answer
2. Learner-dependent answer
3. Learner-dependent answer
4. Learner-dependent answer
5. Learner-dependent answer
6. Learner-dependent answer
34
 Revision
1. Microorganisms cannot be seen with the naked eye and they have to be viewed through a microscope.
2. Bacteria, viruses and protists.
3. Fungi.
4. Some examples are bread, yoghurt, cheese, wine and beer.
5. Learner-dependent answer.
Note: Learners should be able to show that the person might breathe in the virus/bacteria after
someone has coughed without a hand or tissue in front of their mouths; touch another or touch an
object where the bacteria is on; drink water that has not been sterilised; eat food that contains the
virus / bacteria or have a mosquito or other insect bite the person.
6. People are indoors with windows and doors closed, and are more likely to huddle together, thus if
someone sneezes it travels within the small confines of the room and fresh breezes do not come in
from the windows and doors and blow the tiny droplets containing viruses away.
7. Either they would drink the water from a contaminated source without sterilising the water first, or
they would eat fruit or vegetables that has been sprayed with this water and they might not wash it
first before eating it and thus they get contaminated.
8. People in poverty cannot often get the medical help because they cannot afford to visit the doctor, live
far away from clinics, have no transport or cannot travel fast enough to the hospitals to get their
children treated in developing countries. The malaria in developing countries might be worsened by
malnutrition and poor hygiene which might make the child too weak to survive. People living in
developing countries might not be able to afford the preventative sprays that prevent the mosquitoes
from biting them, and the soaps to wash away or kill bacteria. In poor communities, there is a huge
lack in proper sanitation and sewage systems. This makes it much easier for disease-causing pathogens
to travel in contaminated water and cause diarrhoea. Stagnant water areas are more common in third
world countries which are ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
9. You can wash your hands, sterilise or boil all utensils, don't leave food like meat and chicken out / in
areas where bacteria can grow, take preventative measures such as using a condom during sex, having
vaccinations.
Note: Teachers can use their discretion and accept any other relevant measures that learners may
mention.
10. Correct sugar solution, correct temperature: (fairly warm).

35
 4 Atoms
Chapter overview
2 weeks
This chapter introduces the fundamental building blocks of matter and some of the important classification
schemes scientists use to communicate about matter. One of the main challenges of this introduction (and
this is true at all levels) is that learners are easily confused by the terminology. 'Atom' is often confused
with 'molecule' and the distinction between element and compound is also one that learners find difficult
to make. For this reason, these concepts and their explanations are repeated very often throughout the
chapter. We have also included many diagrams of what the different classes of matter would look like at
the atomic/molecular scale. Since these atoms and molecules are too small to see even with a microscope,
science educationists use the adjective 'sub-microscopic' to refer to diagrams that depict entities on this
scale. The ability to imagine chemical events as they would happen on the sub-microscopic scale lies at the
heart of understanding chemistry and the importance of developing this skill cannot be overstated.
It is equally important for learners to be able to interpret and draw sub-microscopic diagrams. We have
also built in activities where learners have to construct molecules using plasticine or play dough, to
reinforce the skill. Play dough is easy and cheap to make; a recipe follows.

Play-dough recipe
Ingredients
l 1 cup flour
l 2 cups warm water
l 1 cup salt
l 2 tablespoons vegetable oil
l 1 tablespoon cream of tartar (optional for improved elasticity)
l food colouring in different colours
Method
1. Mix all of the ingredients together and stir over low heat. The dough will begin to thicken until it
resembles mashed potatoes.
2. When the dough pulls away from the sides and clumps in the centre of the pan, remove the pan from
the heat and allow the dough to cool enough to handle. Note: If the dough is still sticky, it simply needs
to be cooked longer.
3. Turn the dough out onto a clean surface and knead vigorously until smooth. Divide the dough into balls
for colouring.
4. Make a small depression in the centre of the ball and pour a little food colouring into it. Work the
colour through the dough, adding more if you wish to increase the intensity of the colour.

4.1 The building blocks of matter (1 hour)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: A quick revision of the Accessing and recalling Suggested (optional revision)
Periodic Table of Elements information, sorting and
classifying, writing

36
4.2 Sub-atomic particles (1.5 hours)
Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Make your own model Reading, interpreting, accessing CAPS suggested
of an atom and recalling, making, drawing,
labelling, communicating

4.3 Pure substances (3 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Studying Accessing and recalling CAPS suggested
representations of atoms and information, interpreting,
elements reading, writing
Activity: Atoms and molecules Accessing and recalling CAPS suggested
information, revising
Activity: Writing and Accessing and recalling CAPS suggested
understanding simple chemical information, interpreting,
formulae sorting and classifying, reading,
writing, making, drawing,
communicating
Activity: Imagining the Accessing and recalling Optional
decomposition of water at the information, interpreting,
scale of molecules sorting and classifying, making,
writing,
Investigation: The Observing, recording CAPS suggested
decomposition of copper information, interpreting,
chloride

4.4 Mixtures of elements and compounds (0.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Distinguishing between Sorting and classifying, CAPS suggested
elements, compounds and
mixtures

Key questions
l What is matter made up of, at the most basic level?
l What do elements look like at an atomic level?
l How are the atoms of one element different from the atoms of another element?
l Which table summarises all the elements known to humankind according to their chemical properties?
l Are atoms the smallest particles making up matter, or are they themselves made up of even smaller
particles?
l What do scientists know about the 'inside' of the atom?
l Why do we say atoms are 'neutral'?
l When is a substance 'pure'?
l How is a compound different from an element?
l How is a molecule different from an atom?
l What holds molecules together?
l What happens to atoms and molecules during a chemical reaction?
l How is a mixture of elements different from a compound?
37
4.1 The building blocks of matter
This is synonymous with an element where all the atoms are identical (they are of the same kind).
Get learners to discuss this in class for a few minutes. You could steer the discussion with the following
questions:
l Do you believe in vampires? (or fairies, zombies, the Easter Bunny, Thokoloshe, etc.)
l Do you think they really exist?
l When do we know something really exists? (When we have hard evidence for its existence.)
l Could it be that scientists did not believe in the existence of atoms because they could find no hard
evidence for their existence?
l Why do you think scientists could not find evidence for the existence of atoms?
l Could it be because atoms are so incredibly small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye?

ACTIVITY: A quick revision of the Periodic Table of Elements (LB page 77)

This will help revise some of the concepts taught in Gr. 7 about elements and the Periodic Table.
1. This is an open-ended question for learners to show what they understand at this point about the
Periodic Table, They may write explanations such as:
l The Periodic Table lists all the elements that we know about on earth.
l The Periodic Table classifies all the elements on earth.
l The Periodic Table gives us information about the elements, such as their names, symbols and
atomic numbers.
l We can see patterns in the Periodic Table in terms of chemical and physical properties
2. Metals are found on the left and non-metals are found on the right
3. These are the semi-metals and they are found in between the metals and non-metals in a jagged line.
4. Any of the metals on the left hand side of the table, such as Li, Na, K, Ca, Mg, etc. and any of the
non-metals on the right hand side, such as C, N, O, Cl, I, He, S, etc.
5. atomic number
6. Hydrogen is 1 and Carbon is 6.
7.
Name Symbol Metal or non-metal?
Hydrogen H Non-metal
Lithium Li Metal
Sodium Na Metal
Carbon C Non-metal
Silicon Si Semi-metal
Magnesium Mg Metal
Oxygen O Non-metal
Chlorine Cl Non-metal
Potassium K Metal
Boron B Semi-metal
Copper Cu Metal

38
 Here we mention that atoms cannot be destroyed in chemical reactions. This refers to the
conservation of mass during a chemical reaction. Atoms can however, be 'smashed' apart or split into
smaller parts when enough kinetic energy is present, for example, in an atomic bomb. Although the
name 'atom' is derived from the Greek word meaning 'indivisible', they are not truly indivisible
Get the learners to discuss this in class. Guide them towards the following ideas: Ask them to look at
the map of Earth and work out what is exactly on the other side of the Earth from South Africa. If it
was possible to make a tunnel through the centre of the Earth, where would the exit of the tunnel be?
This is very difficult to do with a map, but with a globe one can easily see which part of the world lies
opposite South Africa on the other side of the Earth.
Here are some things to help learners think about:
l A globe can show us the positions of the continents relative to each other much more realistically
than any map ever could.
l a globe is more accurate than a flat map in terms of relative sizes of countries.
l A globe can also teach us about the movement of the Earth, how it spins on its own axis to create
night and day.
l A globe can also show how the Earth moves around the Sun to create the seasons.
l We can also learn about latitude and longitude from a globe.

The 'Build an atom' link takes you to a website that draws a representative image of the atom, starting
with hydrogen, the first element on the Periodic Table, and allows you to click through all the elements, or
jump to a specific element. You could show it to the learners to introduce the next section on sub-atomic
particles and then return again later to wrap up the section and reinforce all the new information.

4.2 Sub-atomic particles

In response to the "Did you know" margin box, the Higgs boson or Higgs particle was discovered in 2012. It
was a huge scientific discovery. In short, the Higgs boson is a fundamental particle which plays a role in
giving other particles its mass. The existence of the particle was first proposed in 1964 by a group of 6
physicists, one being Peter Higgs. Scientists searched for evidence of its existence for 50 years and
eventually in July 2012 with the use of the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, they identified a particle which
they thought was the Higgs boson, and have since confirmed this. Here are two sites if you would like to
explore this further, either for your own interest or with your class: 1 bit.ly/163XeMI and 2 bit.ly/142RCzg .
Regarding the "take note": it is important to note that the elements are arranged by the order of
increasing atomic number and NOT the increasing atomic mass number(even though the general trend is
evident). Learners might infer that with each additional proton, elements further down the Periodic Table
are heavier than those higher up, or towards the left. Atomic number and atomic mass number (not on
their Periodic Tables) are only really dealt with in Gr. 10 so it is difficult to explain the difference. You could
point out exceptions, disproving their assumption, for example, Argon – Potassium, Cobalt – Nickel,
Tellerium – Iodine.

ACTIVITY: Make your own model of an atom (LB page 81)

You can use many different materials for this activity, such as playdough balls, beads, dried lentils or peas,
pasta shells, etc. Assign learners different elements so that they will have different numbers of protons,
neutrons and electrons to work with. They should choose one colour or type of object to represent each of
the three types of sub-atomic particles. They must show the same number of each sub-atomic particle as
they are dealing with neutral atoms (ie. the number of electrons equals the number of protons), and not
39
with isotopes which have different numbers of neutrons.
Do you remember Dalton's 3 postulates from the beginning of the chapter? They are:
1. Each element consists of indivisible, minute particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical.
3. Atoms of different elements have different masses.
So, each element on the Periodic Table has its own type of atom. The atoms of different elements are
different as they have different numbers of protons. Do you remember that we said the atomic number of
an element is the number of protons in an atom of that element?
1. 7 protons
2. 16 protons
Learners should also be encouraged to take into account the size of the particles. So the objects they use
for the protons and neutrons should be of a similar size, and the objects they use for electrons should be
smaller.
Here are some photos to assist you in guiding the learners to construct their models. This example shows a
boron atom as there are 3 protons.

1. Learner-dependent answer.
2. Learner-dependent answer.
3. Learner-dependent answer. This must be the same as the atomic number.
5. Learners must label the element they are doing, as well as the electrons, protons, neutrons and the
nucleus.
Here is some general information on how to use simulations in the classroom: 3 bit.ly/14nA5RI . And this
pdf contains more specific information for the teacher about the 'Build an atom' simulation 4 bit.ly/142dSct
The 'Just how small is an atom?' video is a nice animation that attempts to put the size of an atom and its
sub-atomic particles into perspective by comparing it to real life objects like fruit, houses and cars. It is
fast-paced and uses many metaphors, so could potentially be confusing and too abstract. You may want to
watch it first and decide whether your learners would benefit from it.

40
4.3 Pure substances
Important note: In the previous section we used coloured circles/beads/balls/beans, etc to represent the
different sub-atomic particles and to show how they are arranged in atoms. However, in this section as
well as in the last chapter on chemical reactions, we will be using coloured circles/beads/balls/beans to
represent whole atoms and the different colours and sizes will show different atoms in compounds and
elements. It is important that learners realise at what scale you are working at when you draw different
diagrams on the board or talk about the diagrams in this workbook.

ACTIVITY: Studying representations of atoms and elements (LB page 83)

1. Silver lies below copper on the Periodic Table, which means the atoms of silver are bigger than those
of copper.
2. a) Learners may say they see pairs of atoms stuck together.
b) They are relatively far apart.
c) The substance is a gas.
d) It is a pure substance because all the molecules look the same.
e) Yes, they are.
f) The elements.
g) The substance is an element because it is made of only kind of atom. Note: This actually represents
the diatomic elements, such as oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen (H2), which exist as diatomic
(two atoms) molecules at room temperature.
h) Yes, they can.
It is not important that learners answer this; it is meant to introduce the notion that both elements AND
compounds can exist as molecules, but that the molecules of elements are fundamentally different from
the molecules of compounds.
Learners must draw two circles joint to each other that are of the same size and colour. A suggestion is to
get learners to create some of the diatomic molecules using the beads, playdough balls, etc. make sure
that they know that the beads now represent whole atoms, and not sub-atomic particles.

ACTIVITY: Atoms and molecules (LB page 84)

This is a quick revision of what learners have just covered about atoms and molecules and being able to
differentiate between the two.

41
1.

2. a) 24 atoms.
b) 3 different types of atoms make up this molecule.
c) There are chemical bonds between the atoms.
As you are going through this content, get learners to make their own molecules using beads or play dough
on the desk in front of them.
These bonds are known as covalent bonds but learners are not required to know this yet. You could also
remind learners at this point that diagrams of molecules are just representations and we use different
colours to distinguish between atoms of different elements. Oxygen atoms are not really red.
It tells us that one carbon (C) atom is bonded to two oxygen (O) atoms in CO2. At this point, a suggestion is
to write some chemical formulae up on the board and get learners to explain to you what they each tell
you. Get learners to take notes in the side margins of their workbooks as you are discussing this in class.
This will serve as an introduction to the next activity. For example, you can also write:
l H2 for hydrogen gas, meaning there are two hydrogen atoms bonded together. It is a diatomic
molecule.
l NaCl for sodium chloride (table salt), meaning one sodium atom is bonded to one chlorine atom.
l KMnO4 is potassium permanganate. This could be slightly more challenging, but highlights that a
molecule can consist of more than two different elements. Here one potassium, one manganese, one
nitrogen and four oxygen atoms bonded together forming one molecule.

42
ACTIVITY: Writing and understanding simple chemical formulae (LB page 85)

At this stage it is not important that learners get the exact angles between the atoms correct, such as the
angle between the hydrogen atoms in the water molecule, as they will only learn about what influences
this later in Gr. 10-12.

43
1. Hydrogen, H2
Oxygen, O2
Chlorine, Cl2
Nitrogen, N2
2. Water, H2O
Carbon dioxide, CO2
Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Sodium chloride, NaCl
Hydrogen sulphide, H2S
Ammonia, NH3
Learners may say that magnets stick together because they attract each other. Point out to them that
magnets will indeed attract each other if they are lined up correctly. Magnets can also repel each other if
they are lined up differently. Learners will look more at magnetic forces in Gr. 9 in Energy and Change.
Two bonds. If you want to stretch the learners beyond curriculum requirements at this point, you could
give a brief explanation of electron sharing. The details of this will only be explored in Gr. 10. These strong
chemical bonds, called covalent bonds, are formed when atoms share their electrons. It explains why, after
a decomposition reaction, atoms immediately re-form into something else: the electron sharing
requirement that resulted in the original bond is still there; they just share electrons with a different atom.
If we had enough energy to break the O–H bonds, we would be able to separate the atoms from each
other.

ACTIVITY: Imagining the decomposition of water at the scale of molecules (LB page 89)

This is an optional extension. Learners will look more at chemical reactions later in the term.
1. Four H atoms.
2. Two O atoms. 4
3. Two hydrogen molecules (H2) could be made from four H atoms.
4. One oxygen molecule (O2) could be made from two O atoms.
5. 2 H2O = 2 H2 + O2
6. Chemical equations will be properly introduced in the final chapter of Gr. 8 Matter and Materials, but
this may be a good place to start sensitising the learners to it. You could explain that when there is just
one molecule of a certain kind (the O2 in the above example) we do not write a number in front of it in
the chemical reaction. Balancing equations is not a requirement at this stage.
7. a) C + O2 = CO2
b) The bond between the two oxygen atoms breaks.
c) Two new carbon-oxygen bonds form when carbon dioxide is made.

INVESTIGATION: The decomposition of copper chloride (LB page 90)

We suggest doing this as a demonstration, or else setting up a few experiments around the class which
different groups of learners can observe. The video in the visit box contains a simple demonstration of
electrolysis using copper sulphate, instead of copper chloride. However, the observations will be the same
– namely that copper metals coats the cathode, and you can observe the bubbles of gas at the anode (in
the video this is oxygen gas, and not chlorine gas as in the investigation here in the workbook.
Instead of graphite electrodes you can also obtain carbon electrodes from used torch cells.
44
Wire lengths with crocodile clips at both ends are ideal. You will need these to construct an electrical
circuit. Including a switch in the circuit is optional.
Copper chloride solution can be made by dissolving two teaspoons of copper(II) chloride in a cup of tap
water.
1. Blue.
2. Dark grey or black.
3. The one electrode is covered in small bubbles, and the other is turning brown.
4. The solution is still blue.
If you have saved some of the original solution, the learners could compare the solution before and after
the experiment. They may notice that the 'after' solution is not as blue as the 'before' solution. Get the
learners to speculate why this might be. This is due to two reasons:
l The copper ions are coming out of solution as they accept electrons and become solid copper which
precipitates as a reddish-brown substance on the cathode. (Learners don't know about ions or electron
sharing yet so they might guess that copper atoms/particles come out of solution and accumulate on
the electrode.)
l Chloride ions form chlorine gas, Cl2, at the anode. (Learners can observe that gas bubbles form on the
other electrode and possibly infer that this is chloride coming out of solution as chlorine gas.)
l Therefore, the concentration of the copper chloride solution is becoming weaker, causing it to become
slightly less blue.
l One electrode is still dark grey or black. The other electrode is covered in a reddish-brown layer.
l You could point out that the electrode that remained grey-black was the one that had bubbles on it
earlier. Get some of the learners to smell this electrode. They may be able to smell 'bleach', which is
the smell of chlorine gas, Cl2, forming. Ask learners to compare the colour of the layer with that of a
copper coin. Could the deposit on the second electrode be copper?
l Yes, it is.
l Learners do not need to understand what is happening in the solution on an ionic level. The emphasis
here is on demonstrating that a compound can be broken down into elements. However, an
explanation of the electrolysis of copper(II) chloride solution is provided here for background, if you
would like to extend your learners knowledge:
l When the electrodes are attached to a power supply, the electrons move causing the electrode
attached to the positive end of the battery to become positive. This is called the anode. The
negatively charged chloride ions in solution are then attracted to the positive anode. The chloride
ions give up their electrons and form chlorine gas, which is observed as bubbles.
l The electrode that is attached to the negative end of the battery becomes negative. It is called the
cathode. At the cathode, the positively charged copper ions in solution are attracted to the
negative electrode. At the cathode, the copper ions gain electrons forming copper metal which
deposits on the cathode. This is the brown coating which is observed.

45
 (You can get learners to draw in the positive and negative signs and label the electrodes on the
diagrams in their workbooks as an extension.)
The copper chloride Electrode 1 (called the Electrode 2 (called the
solution anode) cathode)
Before the experiment The solution had an Dark grey surface. Dark grey surface.
intense blue colour.
After the experiment The solution was still Dark grey surface but Reddish-brown
blue, but the colour with a faint smell of coating on the surface.
was less intense. bleach. During the
reaction bubbles were
observed.

1. The copper chloride that was dissolved in it.

2. The copper chloride solution became less blue. That tells us that some of the copper chloride turned
into something else.
3. Bubbles mean that a gas formed on the surface of the electrode. It smelled like bleach. Chlorine gas
also smells like bleach, so it is possible that the gas we saw forming at the electrode may have been
chlorine gas.
Note: Chlorine is actually the active ingredient in bleach.
4. It is possible that the reddish-brown coating is copper.
5. The atoms in copper chloride were rearranged to make different materials: copper (Cu) and chlorine
(Cl2).
Conclusion
1. Learners' conclusions should contain at least two of the following:
l It is possible to decompose copper chloride solution using electrical energy.
l The compound copper chloride will decompose into copper metal (Cu) and chlorine gas (Cl2).
l Both new materials are

4.4 Mixtures of elements and compounds

Diatomic molecules

ACTIVITY: Distinguishing between elements, compounds and mixtures (LB page 93)

The classifications are as follows:

a) B
b) C
c) E
d) D
e) A
f) B
g) A
h) E
i) C
46
 j) E
k) B
l) D
m) D
n) D
o) D

Revision
1. Protons, neutrons and electrons.
2. Learners' diagrams must show the protons and neutrons clustered in the centre of the atom. These
must be annotated separately (proton; neutron) as well as collectively (nucleus). The electrons should
be annotated, placed outside the nucleus and the area represented by the 'electron cloud' should be
large compared the to that represented by the nucleus. The atom should not have a distinct boundary.
At this stage, we have only looked at neutral atoms (and not ions) and so the number of electrons
should equal the number of protons.
3. a) Only SOME elements consist of molecules. Those which do not consist of molecules consist of
atoms.
b) Silver, Ag; Gold, Au; Iron, Fe
Note: All the elements on the Periodic Table with the exception of those mentioned in the answer to
question 3b fall into this category. Strictly speaking, S and P also form molecules (S8 and P4), but this is
not examinable at this level.
c) Oxygen, O2, Hydrogen, H2, Nitrogen, N2
Other examples are Cl2, I2, Br2, and F2. The colours are not important, but identical atoms such as
the two N-atoms in N2 should have the same colour.
4. Water, H2O
Carbon dioxide, CO2, Ammonia, NH3
Note: Any other valid examples are permissible, but the examples learners are most likely to come up
with are the ones contained in this chapter.
Once again, the colours are not important, but identical atoms such as the two O-atoms in CO2 should
have the same colour.
5. The molecules of an element consist of one kind of atom, such as the molecules of N2, for instance. N2
molecules are made up of only nitrogen (N) atoms.
Any suitable example is permissible.
The molecules of a compound, on the other hand, consist of two or more different kinds of atoms, like
CO2, for example. CO2 consists of carbon (C) and oxygen (O) atoms.
6. a) A, D and I
b) C
c) B, E, F, G and H
d) A, C, D and I
e) I
7. Mixtures can be separated by physical means (such as sieving, filtering, distillation, and so on),
whereas compounds have to be separated by chemical means in a chemical reaction (such as
electrolysis).
47
 5 Particle model of matter
Chapter overview
5 weeks
This chapter builds on the introduction to the arrangement of particles in materials that was covered in the
chapter 'Solids, Liquids and Gases' of the Gr. 6 Matter and Materials curriculum. In Gr. 6, no distinction was
made between atoms and molecules. These were grouped, and the generic term 'particle' was used to
refer to these fundamental building blocks of matter. This was the first introduction to the concept of
matter particles. The behaviour of particles in each of the three different states of matter was used to
explain the macroscopic properties of each state. In this chapter these ideas are further expanded, using
the particle model of matter. Important links are made to new concepts such as diffusion, changes of state,
density, expansion, contraction and gas pressure. The particle model of matter will be a strong theme
throughout the rest of the Physical Sciences curriculum, especially if learners continue through to Gr.
10–12.

5.1 What is the particle model of matter? (1 hour)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Changes of state Accessing and recalling CAPS suggested (revision)
revision information, revising

5.2 Solids, liquids and gases (3 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Comparing solids, Accessing and recalling CAPS suggested
liquids and gases information, comparing
Investigation: Comparing the Hypothesising, observing, CAPS suggested
diffusion of particles in a gas identifying variables, recording
and in a liquid information, comparing,
interpreting information

5.3 Change of state (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Changes of state Crossword puzzle, reading and Optional revision
writing, sorting and classifying
Investigation: What happens Predicting, hypothesising, CAPS suggested
when we heat and then cool planning investigation, drawing
candle wax? and labelling, observing,
recording, analysing
information
Activity: Hot water balloon Observing, recording Optional extension
information

5.4 Density, mass and volume (1 hour)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Which material is Doing investigation, observing, CAPS suggested
more dense? comparing, communicating and
group discussion

48
5.5 Density and states of matter (1 hour)
Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Which has the highest Comparing, interpreting CAPS suggested
density: a solid, a liquid or a
gas?

5.6 Density of different materials (3 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Investigation: Comparing the Hypothesising, identifying CAPS suggested
densities of sand, flour, water variables, planning
and air investigation, doing
investigation, observing,
recording information,
interpreting information
Activity: Rainbow density Demonstrating densities, CAPS suggested
column comparing, observing, drawing,
comparing
Activity: Some density Problem-solving, calculations Optional extension
calculations

5.7 Expansion and contraction of materials (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: How much longer? Drawing graphs, interpreting CAPS suggested
information, predicting,
demonstrating
Activity: How does a Revision, comparing, identifying CAPS suggested
thermometer work?

5.8 Pressure (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Understanding gas Following instructions, CAPS suggested
pressure observing, interpreting
information

Key questions
l What is the particle model of matter?
l How small are atoms and molecules?
l How does the particle model of matter describe solids, liquids and gases?
l How does the particle model of matter help us understand the process of diffusion?
l How can materials be made to change their state?
l How does the particle model of matter help us to understand changes of state in materials, such as
melting, evaporation, condensation and freezing?
l How are density, mass and volume related to each other?
l How do the densities of solids, liquids and gases compare?
l Which aspects of the particles in a given material influence the density of that material?
l Why does oil float on water? Is this related to density?
l How can the particle model of matter help us to understand expansion and contraction?
49
l How does a gas exert pressure?
l Is the pressure a gas exerts related to the number of gas particles? If so, how?
l What happens to pressure when we change its volume and temperature?
Solids, liquids and gases
Get learners to discuss this briefly in small groups and draw a table on the board to summarise learners'
ideas. Out of the class, three groups could be chosen randomly, and each group could say what they know
about one of the states.
Some of the properties that learners should already be familiar with are listed in the following table:
Gases Liquids Solids
l Gases spread out and will l Liquids can flow to fill the l Solids keep their shape.
escape if they are not in a container.
closed container.
l Gases can be compressed. l They cannot be compressed l They cannot be compressed.
easily.
l The particles are far apart l The particles are close l The particles are closely
and can move freely. together, but they can move packed and cannot move
around. from their positions.

5.1 What is the particle model of matter?

This links back to Gr. 6 Energy and Change where the topics of stored energy and movement energy were
covered. In Term 3, Energy and Change, these concepts will be defined more formally as kinetic energy
(movement energy) and potential energy (stored energy).
It is very important to note the misconception here that there is 'air' in between the particles. This is NOT
true. The spaces between the particles are empty – called a vacuum. Take note to make sure you do not
introduce this misconception.

ACTIVITY: Changes of state revision (LB page 100)

1. The process is called melting.

2. Freezing.
3. We can put it in a warm spot, or heat it in some other way.
4. It must first melt to become a liquid and then evaporate to become a gas.
5. Condensation.
6. Heating is adding energy
7. They vibrate or move faster.
This is because they now have more kinetic energy. This introduces the next topic and how we explain the
changes of state using the particle model of matter.

5.2 Solids, liquids and gases

Sodium chloride is NaCl. Ask learners why they think the chloride atoms are the bigger purple atoms and
the sodium atoms are the smaller yellow ones in the submicroscopic view in the table. The colour does not
make a difference, as long as all the same atoms are the same colour. However, the sizes show that
chloride atoms are bigger than sodium atoms as can be seen from their arrangement on the Periodic Table.
Point this out to learners if you have a Periodic Table stuck up in the class or they can turn to the front of
50
their books to look at the table there.
This is a good demonstration for learners to try. Syringes are cheap and available at most pharmacies. Give
each learner three syringes. Let them fill on with sand, one with water and one with air. They then close
the nozzle of each syringe tightly with rubber or their finger and squeeze the plunger. Let them observe
and try to explain their observations.
The answer is that the air is compressed so that a lot more air fits into the tank than if the air were not
compressed. The scuba diver therefore has enough air to last up to an hour.

ACTIVITY: Comparing solids, liquids and gases (LB page 104)

These are extension questions to make sure learners can use what they have learnt about the particle
model of matter to explain the observable properties of solids, liquids and gases
1. Solids have a fixed shape as their particles are arranged in a regular, fixed arrangement and they have
strong forces holding them together, so the shape of the solid remains fixed. The particles in a gas do
not have any particular arrangement and there are very, very weak forces between them. So, the
particles in a gas can easily move around and fill the shape of the container they are in, meaning they
have no fixed shape.
2. The particles in a gas have very large spaces between them, so the particles can be 'squashed' closer together, meaning the
gas can easily be compressed to take up a smaller volume. Liquids have very small spaces between the particles and so it is
much harder to 'squash' them together, so they are not easily compressed.
3. The cake flour is not a liquid, but a solid. Flour, and all powders, are solids made of very fine grains
which are able to flow freely when they container is tilted or shaken. But these grains are solid.
This is a tricky question and you should discuss it in class. A common misconception among learners is that
powders are liquids as you can 'pour' them and they take the shape of the container they are in. They are
NOT liquids. Point out to learners that you cannot evaporate a powder, as you can with a liquid, the
powder does not make your fingers wet when you touch it.
Get learners to briefly discuss what stink bombs are for. They may say a stink bomb can be used to play a

51
prank on someone. The smelly particles mix with the air and when we breathe the air, we smell them.

INVESTIGATION: Comparing the diffusion of particles in a gas and in a liquid (LB page
105)

At this level, it is sufficient to compare the diffusion rates of liquids and gases qualitatively. We will not
perform a controlled quantitative comparison of the diffusion rates. It would be possible to turn the
investigation into a controlled experiment, if one used identical containers for comparing the rates of
diffusion, and compared gases and liquids that have particles of similar size. It would also be necessary
then to choose a gas that is coloured (e.g. bromine gas) so that learners can see the diffusion process
inside the container as it progresses. It is important to note that bromine is a hazardous gas and is not
freely available. It would only be advisable to use this example if you have the facilities and training to
work safely with bromine. An alternative substance which will effectively demonstrate the diffusion of
gases is hydrogen sulphide (H2S). A few drops of hydrochloric acid on iron sulphide or sodium sulphide in a
conical flask will produce H2S. This can be used instead of the vanilla essence. It is important to note that
H2S has a very strong, pungent odour (characteristic rotten egg smell). It is not toxic at low concentrations,
but it is important to make sure the room is well ventilated and that the windows are open. It may not be
ideal to use H2S as an example if the classroom is very small or crowded. You could also light a 'smoke
bomb' (available from toy shops) outside the classroom if this is permitted at your school. The smoke
mixing with air is an effective analogy of gases mixing, even though the smoke actually contains fine solid
soot particles and is not strictly a gas.
If there is time it is recommended that you repeat the experiment in which gases are mixed (using vanilla
essence in a saucer), but on a different day. During the repeat experiments, learners should be allowed to
wave the odour particles towards the back of the classroom with their arms. Do this on a different day, to
allow the vanilla smell to escape from the classroom, and from learners sensory receptors, between
experiments.
Liquids mix relatively slowly when they are not stirred. It is quite possible that the liquids will not be fully
mixed by the end of the lesson, and then learners should note this as an observation. Remind them to
check again the following day to see if the colour has spread uniformly through the water.
Instruct the learners to smell the air and as soon as they can smell the vanilla essence they should quietly
put up their hand (without waving it about). Ask the learners beforehand why they should not move while
the vanilla essence particles are moving around the classroom. Answer: that would be the same as stirring
the mixture, which would make it mix more quickly. It would therefore not be a fair test.
One learner could be tasked with writing the times on the board.
This is an opportunity for learners to see how the mixing time is influenced when they actively mix the air
and vanilla essence particles. Get them to predict whether or not the smell will travel faster or more slowly
and to discuss possible reasons for this.
1. Learners should write down what they see. These are possible observations:
l It takes a long time for the two liquids to mix;
l It looks as if the food colouring swirls around in the water.
l At first, some parts of the water are more intensely coloured than others.
2. If the liquids are not fully mixed by the end of the lesson learners should note this as an observation.
3. Learner/class dependent answers.
4. Learner/class dependent answers.

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5. An example of the type of table that learners could draw is given below.
Table to show the observations to smell vanilla essence with and without mixing the air
Event Time measured without Time measured with mixing
mixing (minutes) (minutes)
The first learner smelled the
vanilla
Approximately half the class
smelled the vanilla
Learners at the back of the class
smelled the vanilla.

Learners should be able to conclude that gases diffuse more quickly than liquids, and that if you mix or stir
the air or liquid, then you speed up the rate of diffusion.
Get learners to discuss this briefly in small groups. Remind them of their observations when the food
colouring was mixed with the water. Some ideas to mention are:
l When substances mix their particles intermingle.
l The process is not immediate but it takes time, because the particles have to travel from one point to
another. (Ask learners if they think particles will travel in a straight line. What will happen if a gas
particle collides with an air 'particle'?)
The mixture will have the same colour throughout. The last photo is almost like this, but not quite. Here is
what the final drawing should look like. Note that there should be 10 yellow particles in the final container.
They should be spread more or less evenly amongst the colourless particles.
No, it is not possible to predict how the food colouring/coloured liquid will swirl
Here we have to be careful not to use words that will leave learners with the impression that the particle
has 'will' or moves 'with purpose'. Particles move randomly. If there was just one particle, it might actually
follow a random path right out the window! It is because there are so many particles, moving in all
directions, that some of them will reach our nose, or the other end of the classroom, over time
You can do a practical demonstration of this in class with your learners. Get a group of learners to stand in
the middle of an open space. First let them simulate the particles in a liquid, so they should be fairly close
together, but still moving around. Then get other learners to move through the crowd of learners in the
middle. Get a couple of learners to do this so everyone has a chance.
Then get the learners in the middle to simulate the particles in a gas by spreading much further apart and
moving around a lot more. They can also bump into each other. The other learners must now also move
through the crowd, which should now be much easier and quicker for them to do.

5.3 Changes of state

ACTIVITY: Changes of state (LB page 109)

This is an optional revision activity of what learners should have covered in previous grades.

53
Get the learners to come up with some ideas in class. You should eventually guide them to realise that all
changes of state involve changes in energy.
In the figure above, ask learners what they think the little lines around the particles represent. The lines
get bigger and further apart as the particles go from solid to liquid to gas. This represent the amount of
movement in the particles, as we will discuss in the following content. The kinetic energy of the particles
increases as you add energy, and decreases as you remove energy.
A suggestion is to bring some ice to class and let it melt in a dish for learners to observe. Once the ice has
melted, you can then leave the dish out in a hot place so that the next state change can take place and the
water evaporates.
A suggestion is to do this quick and simple demonstration with your learners. Get groups to stand and hold
hands. They can start off by swaying and moving their feet. Then they can start jumping. Then they can
start jumping higher and swinging and twisting their bodies until they cannot hold each other's hands
anymore. These kinds of fun, interactive learning activities make class more engaging and help concepts to
stick in learners' minds. When they are standing in one spot but swaying and slightly moving their bodies
while holding hands, this represents the solid state. When they are no longer holding hands and are able to
move around, this represents the liquid state. Finally, to show evaporation: learners start running/moving
around, one at a time. Let them run faster and faster, then break off from the swaying/jumping/moving
learners in the central group – this represents a particle that has evaporated and is now in the gaseous
state.
Discuss this with your class. They may simply answer that the sunshine dries the laundry faster, but ask
them why they think this happens. It is because the heat from the Sun warms the molecules of the water
that is in the wet clothing.
When the water molecules are heated, the molecules gain enough energy to escape from their liquid state
and the water evaporates. This evaporation will happen much faster outside, in the sunshine, than inside.
Encourage them to take down notes as you discuss things in class.
100°C
Learners may say that the bubbles are full of gas. Ask them to say which gas. The bubbles are filled with

54
water molecules in the vapour (or gaseous) state. Learners often believe that the water molecules break
up into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas when water boils. This is a very common misconception. This section
presents an opportunity for learners to recognise that changes of state are physical changes. The
molecules (particles) of a substance do not change their composition (that would represent a chemical
change) during changes of state. The particles before and after the change of state are exactly the same,
they are just in a different state.

INVESTIGATION: What happens when we heat and then cool candle wax? (LB page
112)

This is a relatively short investigation to do in class. Learners should be able to predict what will happen.
The skills to focus on here are writing a method for an investigation and recording observations.
This can also be done as a demonstration in front of the class and they must observe the changes of state
and record their observations. Learners must write the method themselves. They can either do this in
groups and plan how they are going to do the investigation, or if you perform it as a demonstration in front
of the class, then they can write the method for themselves afterwards.
You can also use ice in this investigation.
To observe and record the changes of state when candle wax is heated and when it is cooled.
A possible hypothesis is: The candle wax will melt when it is heated, and solidify when it is cooled again.
1. A possible method which learners might come up with, and which you can follow in class, is as follows:
(The steps in a method must be numbered)
l Place a piece of candle wax in the tin/foil dish
l Place the wire gauze on the tripod stand with the tin/foil dish in top of the gauze.
l Place the bunsen burner/spirit lamp underneath the tripod stand.
l Light the bunsen burner and allow the tin to heat up.
l Observe the change in state at the candle wax heats up.
l Turn of the bunsen burner and allow the wax to cool down again.
l Record the change of state
2. Learners must draw neat diagrams and label all the equipment used. The label lines must be parallel
and drawn with a ruler
3. It is a solid at room temperature.
4. It melted.
5. It solidified.
6. The melting point of wax is higher than room temperature as it is a solid at room temperature and
needs to be heated in order to melt.
A possible conclusion is: When candle wax is heated, energy is added and the particles start to vibrate
faster and faster until they break free of their fixed positions in the solid state and enter the liquid state,
resulting in the wax melting. When the wax is cooled again, energy is removed and the particles slow down
and move slower and slower until the forces between them are strong enough to fix the particles into fixed
positions in the solid state and the wax solidifies.

55
ACTIVITY: Hot-water balloon (LB page 113)

This is an optional activity. You need to be aware of the safety precautions and the fact that learners are
working with hot, boiling materials. For this activity you would need access to a microwave oven. If you do
not have one at school or at home, learners could do this activity as a homework assignment if they have
microwave ovens at home. An alternative would be to place the balloon in a pot with boiling water for a
few minutes.
1. The balloon expands.
2. It sounds as if it is raining inside the balloon.
3. The balloon shrinks
1. No, the balloon did not have any air inside it because all the air was squeezed out before we started to
heat it.
2. The balloon expanded because the water inside evaporated, filling it with vapour (gas).
3. Water vapour or steam.
Note: Here is another opportunity to address the misconception that water decomposes into hydrogen
and oxygen gas when it boils.
4. It sounded as if it was raining inside the balloon
5. Water droplets falling inside the balloon.
6. The water vapour condensed inside the balloon to form droplets of liquid water.
7. It shrank back to its original size
8. Evaporation and condensation

5.4 Density, mass and volume

Do this calculation on the board. Learners need to be able to interchange between the units. 1000 x 1000 =
1 000 000 milligrams in a kilogram. You can also do some more examples, such as ask how many grams in
1.25 kg (1250 g), how many milligrams in 12.5 grams (12 500 mg)?
This is fundamentally different to weight, which is dependent on gravity, so the weight of an object will
change when we are on Earth or on the Moon. Everyday language confuses the terms mass and weight,
especially when talking about body 'weight'.
250 g = 0.25 kg.
Milk is 1 litre and juice is 1.5 litres.

ACTIVITY: Which material is more dense? (LB page 114)

This activity is included now to first introduce the concept of density. We will also look again at the
densities of different materials. Learners will have to conduct their own investigation so going through this
kind of activity will help them in thinking about the design for the investigation in the section on 'Densities
of different materials.'
If you battle to find objects that are the same size, you can start off with some containers that are of equal
volume and fill them with different substances. For example, you can use matchboxes (which will all have
the same volume), and fill them with different substances such as sand, flour, sugar, cotton wool, etc.

56
If you do have access to a triple beam balance, do step 3 below and actually measure the mass of each
object after arranging them in order of increasing density. This will help to consolidate the relationship
between mass and density.
Encourage the learners to discuss the following: Why is sponge so light? Are there any similarities between
the way sponge looks, and the way bread looks on the inside? Could this explain why a loaf of bread would
be much lighter than a brick of the same size? Learners should be encouraged to notice similarities in the
texture of substances of similar density. For instance, bread and sponge have holes or air pockets within
the solid material. This means these substances would have less mass per unit volume than materials
without holes.
You could bring a brick and a loaf of bread to class so learners can test this out for themselves by handling
the two objects.
1. If they are the same size, it means they have the same volume.
2. The brick has more mass.
3. The brick would have the greater density. If we compare two objects of the same size, the one that is
heavier (has more mass) has the greater density.
Here are some tips for teachers for the density simulation 1 bit.ly/1csJiSt

5.5 Density and.states of matter

ACTIVITY: Which has the highest density: a solid, a liquid or a gas? (LB page 118)

This activity is used to explain the general property that solids are more dense than liquids which are more
dense than gases. It is mentioned that the boxes contain the 'same material', which is important. Water, is
specifically not mentioned in this activity, as it is an exception which will be discussed later. Water does not
behave as other materials as the solid phase is actually less dense than the liquid phase in water. Make
sure to not refer to water when going through this activity.
1. Container A contains the most particles and C the least.
Note: If learners are unsure, they can do a rough count or estimate of the number of particles in the
containers. They must keep in mind that in reality, the number of particles would be impossible to count. It
is important that they realise that the density of a gas is significantly lower than the densities of the other
two phases.
2. The container with the most particles would contain the greatest mass; therefore A contains the
greatest mass and C the smallest.
3. The solid has the highest density because it has the greatest mass. The gas has the lowest density
because it has the smallest mass in the same volume.
If possible, play the video 'Light ice, heavy water' by Steve Spangler Science for your learners and ask them
why the ice cube floats and the water sinks after watching the video. You can read about the explanation
here:2 www.stevespanglerscience.com/experiment/light-ice-cube-heavy-water 3 bit.ly/1cxOpA4
You could do the demonstration in the video yourself, in class. Do not tell the learners that
When the water freezes the particles have larger spaces between them. (Remind them this is a unique and
unusual property of ice, that does not extend to all solids.) Once frozen, the same mass of water now
occupies more volume. Water (liquid) is more dense than ice. The particles in water are packed closer
together. This means more of them will fit into a given volume.

57
5.6 Density of different materials
The SI unit for density is kg/m3. If you chose to do the density calculations in this section, we will mostly be
using g/mL and kg/L as the units of measurement for density as the learners will be working with volumes
that they measure in millilitres and litres. These are also accepted units of measurement for density.

INVESTIGATION: Comparing the densities of sand, flour, water and air (LB page 120)

Learners must design this investigation themselves. They can work in groups to do this. They should first
discuss how they are going to do the investigation and write down their method in their notebook or on
scrap paper. After completing the investigation they should then write up the method in the space
provided here.
The list of materials should provide some guidance in terms of a possible procedure. Since density is mass
divided by volume, learners could measure the mass of identical cups filled with sand, water and air, and
calculate the approximate densities of each material. If you do not have access to a scale, then learners can
just compare the densities of each material by holding the cups in their hands
1. If a fixed volume (same size cup) of each material is used, then volume is the constant or fixed variable.
The cups must all be made of the same material so that they have the same masses.
2. The independent variable is the type of material.
3. Mass is measured and used to calculate density.
Learners must write the steps for their investigation in a numbered sequence. If you have access to a scale
or triple beam balance, then they must measure the mass of each cup and use this to calculate the density.
They will need to know the volume of the cups to do this. The volume might be written on the cups, but if
not, ask them how they are going to determine the volume. A suggestion is to fill the cup with water, then
pour this water into a container which has measurement (such as a beaker or measuring cylinder) and then
record what the volume is.
If learners were able to measure the masses of the cups containing different materials, then they must
calculate the densities using the equationD = m/V . An example of a calculation might look like this:
Mass of cup of flour = 150 g Volume of cup = 250 mL
D = m/V
= 150/250
= 0,6 g/mL
1. Learner-dependent answer
2. Learner-dependent answer.
3. Learner-dependent answer. They should include something about using the same cup for each
measurement
This investigation should show that equal volumes of these different materials have different masses and
therefore different densities. You can also point out that they also compared materials in different states,
and they also compared two solids, namely sand and flour.

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Bring cooking oil to class and demonstrate this by pouring some oil into a glass of water. Stir it to 'mix' the
oil and the water and then allow them to separate out again into the different layers. The simulation link
given in the visit box is quite fun for learners to experiment with and see what happens on a particle level
when you mix oil, water and foam, and they can watch them separate out again.
The layer which is less dense will float on top of the layer that is more dense.

ACTIVITY: Rainbow density column (LB page 122)

This activity can be done as a fun demonstration for of the class. It gives a very clear illustration of the
differences in density of different liquids. You do not have to use all of the items in the list of materials
given below, as long as you have a few of different densities. Watch this Steve Spangler Science video in
the visit box before doing this demonstration in class to get a good idea of how to demonstrate it correctly
If you have equal volumes of each liquid, the mass and density will be related and the heaviest liquids will
be the most dense. Draw a table on the board to record the masses of each liquid.
If you are using the suggested liquids in the list given, the order to pour them in is as follows: honey,
golden syrup, milk, dish washing liquid, water, vegetable oil, rubbing alcohol..
1. – 2. The honey is the most dense as it is at the bottom; the rubbing alcohol is the least dense as it floats
on top of the other layers.
3. Yes, there is a relationship. In equal volumes of the liquids, the liquid that is the heaviest is the most
dense.
Note: This introduces the idea of equations to explain scientific phenomena (density = mass/volume).
If the volume remains the same and the mass increases, then the density must also increase. Learners
do not need to do calculations at this level, but if you would like to extend the exercise, you could work
out the densities of each liquid using the measured mass and the volume for each liquid.
4. Dependent on objects used. If the suggested ones are used, the order would be: bolt, popcorn kernel,
cherry tomato, beads, ping pong ball. The most dense objects will be at the bottom and the least dense
at the top.
5. The objects drop to the different levels depending on their densities. The metal bolt is more dense
than any of the liquids so it sinks to the bottom. The other objects will sink to the layer at which their
density is equal to that of the liquid.
Note: Learners might battle with this, but you can give them an example. For example, the plastic
beads are less dense than water and the liquids below that, but they are more dense than the
vegetable oil and the liquids above that. So, the beads will float on top of the water layer.
6. Depending on the objects used, but from the suggested list, those less dense than water are the ping
pong ball and plastic beads, those more dense than water are the cherry tomato, popcorn kernels and
bolt.

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ACTIVITY: Some density calculations (LB page 122)

This is an optional extension activity if you would like to do some density calculations. Calculations will
become an important part of physical sciences in Gr. 10-12 , so it is helpful if learners start using some of
the simpler equations now.
1. D = m/V
= 500/555
= 0.9 g/mL
2. Chalk is more dense.
3. Density of glass = 2.6 g/mL. D = m/V
V = m/D
= 50/2.6
= 19.2 mL
4. Density of glass = 2.6 g/mL. D = m/V
V = m/D
= 50/2.6
= 19.2 mL
The learner's sketch should show 10 particles, spread out evenly to fill the larger container. Note that the
particles should have the same size as before.

Get learners to discuss this question. They have learnt that particles move faster at higher temperatures.
How would this affect the spaces between particles?
Most solids and liquids tend to become less dense as they warm up. The learners do not need to come to
any conclusions at this point. The question will, however, help to introduce the concepts of contraction
and expansion.

5.7 Expansion and contraction of materials

Get learners to question the possibility of new atoms forming inside the material as an explanation for the
phenomenon of expansion. Guide them to the law of conservation of mass: matter cannot be created or
destroyed. Materials expand and contract due to particles moving further apart or closer together, not
because the number of particles increases or decreases
The road was built in segments, with small gaps between segments to allow for Expansion

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ACTIVITY: How much longer? (LB page 126)

1. Brass
2. Ovenproof glass
3. Steel. It expands the same amount as concrete.
4. From the graph and the data in the table, we can see that brass expands much more than ordinary
glass. When the weather is really hot, the brass expands so much that the window glass does not fit
properly anymore and falls out.
You could advise the owner to try the following:
l Replace the brass frames with steel. Steels expands by the same amount as glass so the glass should
stay in place.
l Replace the large windows with smaller windows. Smaller items expand less because there is less
matter that can expand.
Note: In addition to the type of material, the amount of expansion also depends on how much material
there is. This is why expansion is difficult to see in relatively small items. e.g. cooking pots. A key will still fit
in a lock, even if the key has been lying in the hot sun, because expansion is not that noticeable in small
items.
5. The ball does not fit through the ring when the ball has been heated. Note: This is a great way to
demonstrate contraction and expansion if you have one of these at your school.
If you are doing a practical demonstration, get the learners to make a prediction before continuing with
the demonstration. You can heat the ball in the flame of a Bunsen burner.
6. No, the brass ball cannot have a greater mass because it has not gained any mass.
The ball will contract to the same size as before because it has not gained or lost any mass.
Note: If doing the practical demonstration, get the learners to make a prediction in the time that it takes
for the ball to cool down.
7. The ball will contract to the same size as before because it has not gained or lost any mass.
Note: If doing the practical demonstration, get the learners to make a prediction in the time that it takes
for the ball to cool down.
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Get learners to discuss this for a few minutes. Guide the discussion with the following questions: What are
we adding to matter when we heat it? (Energy.) What do particles do when they are given more energy?
(They move faster.) What happens to the spaces between the particles when they start to move faster and
bump against each other with more force? (The spaces get bigger as the particles start moving apart.)
Learners should be encouraged to take notes in discussions
Get learners to discuss this for a few minutes. Guide the discussion with the following questions: What are
we taking away from matter when we cool it? (Energy.) What happens to particles when they lose energy?
(They move more slowly.) What happens to the spaces between the particles when they start to move
more slowly? (The spaces get smaller as the particles start moving closer together.)

ACTIVITY: How does a thermometer work? (LB page 127)

In Gr. 7 Matter and Materials, learners were introduced to the bulb thermometer and the idea that
materials expand and contract due to changes in kinetic energy of the particles (the size and number of
particles remains the same, only the spaces between the particles increase or decrease). If you have access
to a Gr. 7 workbook, you can look at what they did. You can also download the PDFs of these books from
the website and view the content online. In this activity these ideas are revisited and expanded upon, with
the particle model as frame. Important links are established between expansion and contraction and their
effects on the properties volume and density.
1. 20°C
2. The temperature reading on the thermometer on the right is 10°C.
3. Circle A is the correct one. The lower temperature has made the liquid inside the thermometer
contract, so the particles are closer together. Note: This question provides an opportunity to identify
learner misconceptions about expansion and contraction:
l Answer B is incorrect because the particles are further apart than in the diagram on the left. The
learner may be confusing the two concepts expansion and contraction.
l Answer C is incorrect because the particles in the diagram appear to have grown larger. This is not
possible since particles cannot gain mass (matter cannot be created or destroyed), nor can they
gain volume. Their mass and volume are fixed, and expansion means they move further apart; the
spaces between them get bigger.
l Answer D is incorrect because the particles in the diagram appear to have grown smaller. For the
same reasons as just mentioned, this is a misconception. The spaces between particles get smaller
when a material contracts
4. No, the material cannot have less mass because it still has the same number of atoms as before and
their mass is constant.
Note: This is a good time to remind learners that matter cannot be created or destroyed.
5. Answer B would now represent the thermometer at a higher temperature of 30°C as the particles have
gained more energy and therefore moving at greater speeds so they move further apart and the liquid
expands.
6. The volume of the material increases, because the particles move further apart. The material expands.
7. The mass does not change but the volume increases, therefore the density must decrease.
Note: It may help to refer back to the formula: density = mass/volume.
Most likely, the learners were unable to measure the mass of the air. If they managed to do so, it would
probably have required quite a complicated process. They should be reminded that the air is not without
mass, but that the mass of the air inside the cup is so small. (It is actually not possible to measure the mass
62
of air when it is surrounded by more air. One way to measure the weight of air would be to do so in a
vacuum. But this is beyond the scope of this discussion here for the learners.)The purpose of this short
discussion is to prepare learners for the section about pressure. Measuring the pressure of a gas is one way
to 'measure' how much gas we have.

5.8 Pressure

ACTIVITY: Understanding gas pressure (LB page 130)

One of the learners could bring their bicycle and pump to class to demonstrate the final activity.
1. It is easier to blow into the bag when it is 'empty', or when there is not much air in it and becomes
increasingly more difficult to blow into as it fills with air.
Note: If the bag is strong it may not be possible to pop it by blowing into it, because humans cannot
blow with much force. A 'weak' bag may come apart at the seams or start to leak when the learners
continue to force air into it beyond its capacity. Ask them to think about why this happens.
2. The balloon is difficult to blow into at first. Thereafter it becomes more easy to blow air into the
balloon. When the balloon becomes stretched 'to capacity' with air, it becomes more and more difficult
to blow more air into it.
Note: The balloon is difficult to blow into at first because the material (rubber) that the balloon is
made of is still very tight. It can be relaxed somewhat by stretching the balloon before blowing into it,
but the first one or two 'blows' will require some effort.
Note: After one week the balloon has become wrinkled and it is smaller than it was originally
3. b) It is impossible to blow up the balloon
c) The balloon swells up and fills the inside of the bottle. 4a
4. b) At first it is easy to pump air into the tyre but, the more you pump, the more difficult it becomes.

1. Air particles are forced into the bag, balloon or tyre. The more you blow, the more particles are pushed
into the bag, balloon or tyre. If there are more particles, there will be more collisions, and that means
the pressure will be greater
2. When the bag contains as many particles as it possibly can and we try to force even more particles into
the bag, the force of the collisions of the breaks
3. When the balloon contains as many particles as it possibly can, it will be stretched to its maximum size.
If we try to force even more particles into the balloon, the force of the collisions of the particles against
the inside of the balloon becomes too much and the balloon pops.
Note: Actually, the polymer strands of the balloon tear apart as a result of the applied force
4. Air particles escaped through tiny openings in the material of the balloon. There are now fewer
particles inside the balloon so there are fewer collisions against the inside. The force pushing against
the inside of the balloon is smaller, therefore the pressure inside the balloon is smaller.
Note: Learners may answer that the air inside the balloon has contracted and while this may be part of
the explanation, there is another factor that contributes much more significantly to the shrinkage over
time: air particles will slowly escape from the balloon over a period of time because the balloon
polymer has tiny holes. These holes are much too small to see with the naked eye, but they are large
enough for the air molecules to escape through.
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5. The balloon does not inflate much because the bottle is already filled with air. There is no room for the
balloon to expand inside the bottle. The air particles inside the bottle push back against the air
particles inside the balloon. When the bottle has a hole in it, the air particles inside the bottle can be
pushed out through the hole, as the balloon fills the space inside the bottle.
6. The more you pump, the more particles are pushed into the tyre. If there are more particles, there will
be more collisions, and that means the pressure will be greater. The tyre will stretch to accommodate
more air particles, but it will become more and more difficult (require more and more force) to stretch
the tyre material.
The following two paragraphs are not required by CAPS but may be included as enrichment. This
introduces some concepts to be dealt with in the later grades.
The gas will expand, filling the larger container
The density has decreased because the volume increased.

Revision
1. Use this question to see what learners understand by the model. They should mention something such
as: The particle model of matter is a scientific theory which is used to explain how all matter (solids,
liquids and gases) are made up of particles and how they behave in the different states. Learners could
also mention something about the size of the particles, and that there are empty spaces between the
particles.
2. Water is unusual in that the solid state is actually less dense than the liquid state and so ice floats on
liquid water. This is because there are large spaces between the particles in the solid state, making the
ice less dense.
3.
Change of state Explanation
Melting When heat is added and a solid changes to a liquid
Condensing When heat is removed and a gas changes to a
liquid
Evaporating When heat is added and the particles at the
surface of a liquid change to the gas state
Solidifying When heat is removed and a liquid changes to a
solid

4. When heat is added, the particles start to vibrate faster and faster (as they gain kinetic energy), until
they move fast enough to overcome the forces holding them together in fixed positions in the solid.
The particles are then able to move and slide past each other as they are not held in an orderly
arrangement anymore in the solid, and the solid becomes a liquid.
5. During expansion, the spaces between the particles get bigger, and during contraction, the spaces
between the particles get smaller.
6. When the metal expands (because it is heated) the particles will move further apart. The piece of
metal will get bigger, but it will still have the same number of particles and so it will still have the same
mass. The density of the metal has decreased.
7. Oil is less dense than water, so it floats on top of water.
8. Learner's picture should show random movement of the perfume particle, with many changes of
direction
9. The petrol fumes around the petrol station are in the gas (or vapour) state. The particles in the gas can

64
 move freely and diffuse into the air around the pumps. If you light a match close to the pumps, the
petrol gas can be ignited and this can cause a fire or explosion.
Note: Usually the underground fuel tanks are safeguarded against explosions and fires. Some people
say that small sparks (caused by static charges) from cell phones can also cause ignition of the petrol
fumes, but scientists generally do not agree.
10. Air is a gas and water is a liquid. Gas particles have large spaces between them and that means they
are easy to compress, or squeeze together. The spaces between liquid particles are so small that
liquids cannot be compressed. That is why the plunger moves when there is air in the bicycle pump,
but does not move much when the pump contains water.
11.
Diagram showing how the particles are arranged
State of matter Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of the Very closely packed. Close together, but Far apart and
particles Regular arrangement disordered. disordered.
Spaces between Very small spaces Small spaces. Very large
particles
Forces of attraction Strong Strong but weaker than Very weak
between particles in solids
Movement of Vibration only Sliding movement, Fast and random
particles random. movement
Shape Fixed shape No fixed shape. No fixed shape
Depends on the
container
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume
Depends on the
container
Compressibility Cannot be compressed Slight compression is Very compressible
sometimes possible
Diffusion Does not diffuse Diffuses slowly Diffuses quickly
Density compared to Highest density (except Almost as dense as the Lowest density
the other states in the case of ice) solid

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 6 Chemical reactions
Chapter overview
1 week
This chapter builds on the brief introduction to chemical reactions that was covered in Chapter 1 (Atoms)
of Gr. 8 Matter and Materials, specifically the paragraph Pure Substances. The important message of this
chapter is that atoms are rearranged during a chemical reaction. The atoms do not change, but how they
are arranged in relation to each other does change. That means that the molecules change, even though
the number of each kind of atom present at the start of the reaction, stays the same throughout. To help
learners make this important conceptual connection, particle diagrams are used to represent some of the
reactions in this chapter. Learners will also be given an opportunity to draw such diagrams themselves in
the activities and review questions of this chapter.
The activity 'Can we use a chemical reaction to see inside an egg?' takes a few days. It is suggested that you
start with it during the first lesson of this chapter. It will help to show learners that chemical change is
usually observable on the macroscopic scale and that macroscopic observations provide evidence of
activity on the level of particles.
It is also a good idea to make the limewater needed for the investigation 'Can clear limewater be used to
detect carbon dioxide?'before you start this chapter. To make clear limewater follow the instructions
below:
Instructions for making clear limewater
l Place a few tablespoons of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, in a clear 500 ml reagent bottle and fill with
water. Shake or stir to make a cloudy suspension.
l Leave the suspension to settle for a few days. The clear liquid above the solid Ca(OH)2 is a saturated
solution of Ca(OH)2, also known as clear limewater.
l Carefully decant as much of this as you need, without stirring up the solid Ca(OH)2 sludge at the
bottom.
l To make more, simply add more water, shake it up and let it settle again. When the sludge dissolves
completely, simply add more solid Ca(OH)2.

6.1 How do we know a chemical reaction has taken place? (1.5 hours)
Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: The difference Accessing and recalling CAPS suggested
between physical and chemical information, sorting and
changes classifying,
Activity: Can we use a chemical Observing, recording CAPS suggested
reaction to see inside an egg? information, drawing and
labelling, interpreting

6.2 Reactants and products (1.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Analysing the eggshell Interpreting, explaining CAPS Suggested
experiment chemical reaction
Activity: Studying the Accessing and recalling Optional
fermentation reaction information, interpreting
Activity: Some chemical Reinforcement, recalling CAPS suggested
reactions from Life and Living information

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 Activity: Careers in chemistry Accessing and recalling Optional
information, researching,
reading and writing,
communicating

Key questions
l What is a chemical reaction?
l What happens to atoms and the bonds between them during a chemical reaction?
l How can we identify the reactants and products of a reaction?
l What examples of chemical reactions are there in indigenous practices?

6.1 How do we know a chemical reaction has taken place?

Learners may remember that the rusting of iron is a chemical reaction, or they may cite some of the
reactions from Chapter 1 as examples. Learners may also cite 'change of state' as a reaction. However, this
is NOT a chemical reaction or change. Explain to your learners that it is only a physical change taking place
not a chemical change.
Get learners to discuss this in small groups for a few minutes. Make a list on the board of all their
suggestions which may include:
l The mixture may change and appear different. (In what way? There may be a colour change and
bubbles or 'crystals' may form.)
l There may be an explosion.
l The mixture may change temperature, heating up or cooling down. This is NOT to be confused with
physical changes during heating and cooling
l when a substance melts or solidifies for example.
Most practical manuals for introductory chemistry list only the three visual cues above as signs that a
reaction has taken place. However, the non-visual signs below are also worth including here

ACTIVITY: The difference between physical and chemical changes (LB page 138)

This is a short activity to make sure that learners understand the difference between chemical and physical
changes and uses examples from everyday life.
Here are the answers. Learners only need to state physical or chemical – some explanations have been
provided as background for the teacher and if you wish to explain the changes further to your learners.
Change Is it a physical or chemical change?
Cutting up potatoes into cubes Physical
Boiling water in a pot on the stove Physical
Frying eggs in a pan Chemical (the egg proteins undergo a chemical
change and crosslink to form a network)
Whipping egg whites Physical (air is forced into the liquid, but no new
substance is made)
Dissolving sugar in water Physical (the sugar grains are dispersed within the
water, but the individual sugar molecules are
unchanged)
Burning gas in a gas cooker Chemical (water vapour and carbon dioxide form)

67
 Your ice cream melts in the sun Physical
Milk turning sour Chemical (lactic acid is produced)
An iron gate outside rusts Chemical (iron oxide forms – this will be discussed
in more detail in Gr. 9)

ACTIVITY: Can we use a chemical reaction to see inside an egg (LB page 138)

Start with this activity as soon as possible, because it takes a few days for the eggshell to dissolve
completely. It is probably worthwhile to do the reaction in duplicate in case something goes wrong with
the experiment. The egg is very delicate without its shell and may break and then it would be good to have
a 'backup' egg.
1. a) The eggshell gradually becomes covered in bubbles.
b) The bubbles are a sign of a chemical reaction taking place.
2. Note: It may be necessary to top up the vinegar if the reaction starts to slow down. Remember to
return to the activity at the end of the week, when the eggshell has dissolved completely.
3. There is a foamy, brown layer floating on the vinegar.
4. The egg feels soft and wobbly. The shell disappeared because it has dissolved. In its place is a powdery
coating.
5. The egg has lost its shell and we can see the egg white and the yolk inside.
6. The learners must draw pictures of the experiment at the beginning and at the end. The first picture
should show an intact egg in a glass, covered with clear liquid vinegar. The second picture should show
a transparent egg, with the white and the yolk clearly annotated, submerged in clear liquid vinegar
with a brown layer floating on top.
7. The egg looks different. We also saw bubbles on the eggshell and afterwards there was a foamy,
scummy layer floating on top of the vinegar.
8. The learner's paragraph should contain at least the following ideas:
l The eggshell reacted with the vinegar and was 'eaten away'.
l The eggshell dissolved in the vinegar.
l The materials in the eggshell underwent a chemical change. They have changed into different
materials.

6.2 Reactants. and products

A compound is a material that consists of atoms of two or more elements that are chemically bonded
together in a fixed ratio. Encourage your learners to make a note of this in the margin of their workbook.
Learner dependent answer. H2O, CO2, NaCl, etc

ACTIVITY: Analysing the eggshell experiment (LB page 139)

1. The eggshell (calcium carbonate) and vinegar (acetic acid).

2. They are calcium acetate, carbon dioxide and water.
3. Water is H2O and carbon dioxide is CO2
4. The eggshell (calcium carbonate) and vinegar (acetic acid).
5. Use this to assess learner's understanding so far. They should mention that the reactants are used to
make the products.
6. They are calcium acetate, carbon dioxide and water

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Teacher's guide for the PhET simulation in the visit box. 1 bit.ly/14AHLE9 Simulations are a powerful tool
and we encourage you to use them if you have access to the Internet or encourage your learners to
experiment with them outside of class. Learners can also access the site over their mobile phones by typing
the bit.ly link into their address bar.
Get your learners to do these reactions themselves on their desks in front of them using
beads/peas/lentils/balls and rearrange the atoms to make the products.
Oxygen and hydrogen.
Water.
This links back to what learners covered in Chapter 1 about diatomic molecules. These elements exist as
diatomic molecules so they have two atoms joined together.
Acids taste sour.
The video on how fermentation works (5:39) is short and fun. The first two minutes give a brief description.
During the rest of the video, the presenter demonstrates how to make your own ginger beer.

ACTIVITY: Studying the fermentation reaction (LB page 141)

Glucose is the reactant and alcohol and carbon dioxide are the products.
Learners must write glucose on the left and alcohol and then carbon dioxide on the right.
Learners would have first encountered bacteria in Gr. 7 Life and Living when studying biodiversity and the
classification of organisms. They will look at microorganisms in more detail in Gr. 9 Life and Living.
This is an extension activity and can be performed if you have time in class. It may also be done as a
project. We will also look at fermentation again in Matter and Materials next term. In fermentation, the
glucose is incompletely broken down, so it yields less energy (in the form of ATP) than respiration.
Fermentation is also anaerobic meaning it does not require oxygen, whereas respiration requires oxygen.
Alcohol is produced during fermentation. However, ginger beer is non-alcoholic. Although it is called
'beer', it is not alcoholic because it is not fermented for long enough.
A recipe for ginger beer is provided here. Learner must also research their own recipe in groups and write
out the best recipe that they have. You can then either choose one of their recipes to use, or use this one,
or you can test different recipes to see which one works best.
A step-by-step guide on making ginger beer. bit.ly/13teuIj
Materials
l 6 – 8 medium sized lemons
l grated rind of 2 lemons
l 250 ml (1 cup) of freshly squeezed lemon juice (from about 6 lemons)
l 2 thumb-sized pieces of fresh ginger
l 2 teaspoons of dried powder ginger
l 6 raisins
l 750 ml (3 cups) white sugar
l 5 litres of water
l 1 x 10 g sachet of instant (active dry) yeast
l grater
69
l lemon squeezer
l container or bucket
l wooden spoon
l large bottle
l several smaller bottles with lids
l balloons
l rubber bands
Instructions
1. Grate the lemon rind from 2 lemons into a large container or bucket.
2. Grate the fresh ginger as well using the coarse teeth of the grater.
3. Squeeze out the juice from about 6 lemons. You will need 250 ml. Add the juice to the mixture.
4. Add the dried ginger, raisins and sugar.
5. Add 1 litre of hot water (not boiling) and stir for about 3 minutes until the sugar has completely
dissolved.
6. Add another 4 litres of warm water. Make sure the water is cool enough for you to hold a finger in it
comfortably (otherwise the yeast will die!).
7. Sprinkle the sachet of dried yeast over the top of the water and leave it for a few minutes.
8. Stir everything with a wooden spoon.
9. Pour the liquid into a large bottle and attach a balloon over the neck of the bottle. Secure the balloon
to the neck with a thick rubber band.
10. Place the bottle in a warm place but not in direct sunlight.
11. Let it stand for approximately 4 – 5 hours.
12. When the raisins float to the top the ginger beer is ready to drink.
13. Strain the liquid through a sieve. Make sure you work over a basin or similar area.
14. Pour the ginger beer into clean clear glass bottles and add a raisin to each bottle. Make sure that you
do not fill the bottles completely but leave at least 7 – 10 cm between the liquid and the top of the
bottle's neck.
15. Attach a balloon to the necks of half of the bottles and secure these with rubber bands.
16. Screw the lids onto the other half of the bottles.
17. Store the bottles away from heat or sunlight. (They do not need to be in a warm place.)
18 Leave it to stand overnight for at least 8 hours.
19. Gentle unscrew the caps. The gas inside will want to escape so do this slowly and carefully.
1. The chemical reaction occurs between sugar and fermenting fruit and the yeast. So the reactants are
the sugar and fruit (ginger and raisins)..
2. The product is carbon dioxide (and a very small amount of alcohol).
3. It is the carbon dioxide gas that is was trapped in the liquid.
4. It is a result of the chemical reaction between the yeast, the sugar and the fermenting fruit.
5. The reactants are the wood and oxygen, and the products are the carbon dioxide and water.

ACTIVITY: Some chemical reactions from Life and Living (LB page 143)

This activity reinforces some concepts learned in the beginning of the year in Life and Living about
respiration and photosynthesis. CAPS suggests doing the experiment again where you blow bubbles
through lime water. We did this in Chapter 1 this year as an activity, but you can repeat it briefly here to
show the results again if learners do not remember it well.
1. It turned a milky white colour.
2. The reactants are limewater (calcium hydroxide) and carbon dioxide and the products are calcium
70
 carbonate and water
3. glucose + oxygen ! energy + carbon dioxide + water
4. The reactants are glucose and oxygen. The products are energy, carbon dioxide and water.
5. The reactants are carbon dioxide and water, the products are glucose and oxygen.
This section is not for assessment purposes, and you may be inclined to leave it out. However, we strongly
encourage you to give your learners the opportunity to discover the applications of what they are learning
in class in the world around them, even if it as a homework exercise. It is very important for learners to
realise that what they learn in class extends far beyond the walls of your classroom. Encourage them to be
curious!
Many learners might wonder, what is the difference between a chemist and a chemical engineer?
A chemist studies the composition and properties of matter. They use the knowledge they gain to develop
new compounds, products and processes to improve our daily lives. A chemist requires an extensive
knowledge of chemistry and must be competent in a laboratory. Chemists often research chemical
reactions to be able to produce new materials and compounds. These could be new medicines, innovative
building materials, new fuels that do not harm the environment, and many others. Researching new
chemical reactions is complicated. The work is often researched in teams with other scientists and
engineers.
A chemical engineer is usually involved in developing ways to produce the new compounds developed by
the chemist on a large scale or to find ways of lowering the cost of producing those compounds. A
chemical engineer needs a general knowledge of chemistry but also needs to know a lot about processes
and what drives them.
A researcher works to discover something new, or a new way of doing things, while an engineer optimises
a known process or figures out the best way to make a known compound.
Invite a chemist/engineer: Do you know someone who is a chemist or a chemical engineer? Perhaps you
live near a university? If you do, you could invite a chemist or engineer to come to your school and talk to
your class about the work that chemists do. Alternatively, you could visit the chemist or engineer at their
workplace and ask them to show you around. You could get your learners to prepare a few questions
beforehand: you could ask them about their work, their training and what they think are the qualities
needed if one wanted to become a chemist. Just remember to make an appointment first! This activity
could be turned into a small group project. Learners could be required to write a short report on the
information they have gathered. It is not for assessment purposes

Revision
1. Learner's answer should contain all of the ideas below:
We know a chemical reaction has taken place when one or more of the following occurs:
l There has been a colour change inside the reaction flask.
l A gas has formed. Usually we know a gas has formed when we can see bubbles.
l A solid has formed. Usually we know that some solid material has formed when we can see a
sludgy or cloudy deposit, or crystals forming.
l Non-visual signs that help us to say whether or not there was a chemical reaction include:
l Sometimes chemical changes can be smelled, for instance when a new
l material is formed that has a strong smell.
l Other chemical changes can be felt, for instance when the reaction causes heat to be released.
l Some chemical changes can be heard, for instance when an explosion takes place.
2. Learners should mention that the reactants are those substances that are present before a chemical
71
 reaction has taken place. They react to form the products.
3. Learners should mention that the products are the substances that form during a chemical reaction.
They are present at the end of a chemical reaction.
4. Chemical bonds break between atoms in the reactants and new bonds form between atoms in the
products.
5. a)
Name of compound Formula
Methane CH4
Oxygen gas O2
Carbon dioxide CO2
Water H2O

b) Methane (CH4) and oxygen (O2)

c) Water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
d) The equation should read as follows: methane + oxygen + carbon dioxide + water.
6. a) The colours shown here are just a suggestion; what is important is that atoms of the same type
should be the same size and colour, and the relative sizes of the atoms should reflect the fact that an H
atom is smaller than an N atom.

Name of compound Diagram of one molecule of the compound

Hydrogen gas, H2

Nitrogen gas, N2

Ammonia, N3

b) An example of what learners should produce.

c) Hydrogen and nitrogen
d) Ammonia.
7. Carbon dioxide.
8. Limewater (calcium hydroxide) and carbon dioxide

72
 7 Static electricity
Chapter overview
1 week
In previous grades the learners investigated circuits and current electricity. In this chapter they are
introduced to static electricity. It explains how static electricity is caused by friction between objects and
that charged objects are either positively or negatively charged. There are several activities in this chapter
which illustrate the effects of static electricity.
An interesting article on how to encourage learners to pursue STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics) careers:1 spectrum.ieee.org/at-work/education/the-stem-crisis-is-a-myth 2 bit.ly/19Bpoip

7.1 Friction and static electricity (3 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Sticky balloons Observing, working in pairs CAPS suggested
Activity: Turning the wheel Observing, recording CAPS suggested
Activity: Research the practical Researching, writing, Optional
applications of static electricity summarising
Activity: Making a simple Carrying out instructions,
electroscope observing, predicting,
explaining Optional

Key questions
l What is static electricity?
l What is friction?
l Why does my hair stand on end and crackle when I pull a jersey off over my head?
l What is lightning?
l What does it mean to 'earth' an object?
l What does it mean when we say 'opposites attract'?

7.1 Friction and static electricity

ACTIVITY: Sticky balloons (LB page 151)

You can also do this activity using a plastic comb rather than balloons. Or else you can use pieces of paper
instead of a learner's hair as not all hair will behave in the following way if it has product in it. You can then
rather rub the balloon on a jersey and pick up pieces of paper.
1. – 3. Nothing happens
4. – 5. The hair should "rise" and stick to the balloon, or the pieces of paper will stick to the balloon
6. Rubbed it vigorously with the balloon.
7. The electrons are arranged in the space around the nucleus.
8. Positive charge.
9. Negative charge..
10. Neutrons are not charged. They are neutral.
11. The hair.
73
12. It has more positive charges.
13. The comb.
14. It has more negative charges.

ACTIVITY: Turning the wheel (LB page 154)

This is a fun demonstration of how like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. If
you have enough materials, allow the learners to try this themselves. If you don't have enough materials,
do this as a demonstration but give the learners a chance to play a bit.
Practise this activity a few times first to make sure that you have the method right. Remember that it is
quite easy to accidentally earth the rods so work with care. This will work best on a dry day. This will be
dependent on the area which you live in.
At a brainstorming workshop with volunteer teachers and academics at the beginning of 2013, we filmed a
quick demonstration of this task when the group was discussing it. You can view this short clip here: 3
bit.ly/1fFbbbJ
1. The rods now have opposite charges and so the second rod should be seen to 'pull' the other rod
around in a circle
2. The learners should be able to pick up the pieces of paper with the charged rod.
3. When the rods are the same (i.e. both perspex) then the first rod should move away from the second
and the top watch glass will turn in a circle.
4. When the two different materials are used then the first rod should move towards the plastic rod and
the watch glass will turn in a circle towards the plastic rod
5. The pieces of paper were attracted to the plastic rod.
6. A positive charge.
7. A negative charge
8. When rubbing hair with the balloon, electrons are transferred from the hair to the balloon. The balloon
now has a negative charge and the hair has a positive charge. They have opposite charges and so when
the balloon is brought close to the hair again, they attract each other. Since the hair strands each have
positive charges, like charges repel and the hair strands repel each other, also causing them to rise up.
The video in the Visit box shows how static electricity from the flowing petrol causes a spark which ignites
the petrol fumes and leads to a large fire. It is an illustration of one of the dangers of static electricity.
The discharge of electrons from charged objects happens much more easily when the air is dry, which is
why you are more likely to experience electrostatic sparks or shocks in dry weather. This is because when
the weather is humid, the moisture in the air can collect on the surface of objects, and prevent the
build-up of electrical charge. The charge dissipates through the moisture, which is a better conductor than
air.

ACTIVITY: Research the practical applications of static electricity (LB page 156)

There are many different useful and damaging effects of static electricity. Here are some examples.
l useful: air filters remove smoke particles; spray painting; photocopying
l problems: dust on TV and computer screens; damage to electronic Equipment
If you do not have a Van de Graaff generator then you can use some of the videos provided here which
show and explain how the generator works. If you do have a generator then allowing the learners to "play"
74
with it will give them a good insight into the effects of static electricity. Allow learners to perform different
activities, such as having their hair stand on end.
Let the learners hold onto the dome and then run the generator until their hair stands on end.
Tear up small pieces of paper and place them on the top of the uncharged dome, run the generator and
the pieces will become charged and then fly off the generator. This is a good example of the pieces of
paper becoming charged and then, because they all have the same charge, repelling each other.
When you touch the positively charged dome, electrons are transferred from you to the dome to discharge
it. This causes you and your hair to become positively charged. The individual hair strands are then
positively charged so they repel each other and stand on end.
They move apart as they now both have a positive charge and positive charges repel.

ACTIVITY: Making a simple electroscope (LB page 157)

If you cannot find glass jars with lids, it is possible to make lids. Use old plastic tub lids and cut out a circle
the same size as the opening of the glass jar. Then use electrical tape (or even masking tape) to hold the
plastic lid in place over the jar opening.
The copper does not have to be 14-gauge, but the thicker the piece, the better it holds its shape.
Detailed instructions and videos can be found on the Internet. Try video in the Visit box for an excellent
description of the method
1. The two pieces of aluminium foil moved apart.
2. The aluminium foil pieces move back together.
This next question is a test of the learners' understanding of the fact that positive charges do not move
to cause charging, only electrons can move. But, a positively charged object can move. Learners often
get confused with this.
Give them a chance to reason out the answer themselves. Allow them to bring a positively charged
object close to the electroscope to observe what happens and then try to figure out why the effect is
seemingly the same. Rubbing a glass rod with the wool cloth will cause a positive charge to develop on
the glass rod.
3. When a positively charged object is brought close to the electroscope the negative electrons are
attracted towards the positively charged object and move up through the copper wire. This means that
the pieces of aluminium have lost some electrons and so have an overall positive charge. Both pieces
of aluminium foil are then positively charged. Like charges repel each other and so the pieces of
aluminium foil move apart from each other.

Revision
1. An object which has a negative charge is said to have more electrons than protons.
2. An object which has a positive charge is said to have fewer electrons than protons.
3. Answer a.
4. Answer d.

75
5. 3 marks for each of the scenarios, 1 mark is awarded to the drawing and 2 marks to the explanation.
Charged spheres Draw how they will move Explanation

Learners must draw the spheres moving towards each other. The spheres have opposite charges,
which attract, so they move towards each other.
Learners must then draw the spheres moving away from each other. The spheres have the same
positive charge and like charges repel, so they move away from each other.
6. 3 marks for each of the objects, 1 mark is awarded to the calculation and 2 marks to the explanation.
Object Overall charge Why is it positive, negative or
neutral?

Charge = 4 + (–4) = 0
It is neutral as there are equal numbers of positive and negative charges.
Charge = 3 + (–6) = -3
It is negatively charged as there are 3 more negative than positive charges.
Charge = 7 + (–3) = 4
It is positively charged as there are 4 more positive charges than negative charges.
7. Rubbing the ruler with a cloth transfers electrons from the cloth to the ruler so the ruler now has an
excess of electrons and it is negatively charged.
The pieces of paper are neutral. When the negatively charged ruler is brought near to the paper
pieces, they are attracted to the ruler as the the electrons move around on the paper because of the
large charge on the ruler. Electrons will move away from the ruler leaving a positive charge on the
paper near the ruler, so they are attracted.
8. Friction between the floor and the trolley wheels causes a build-up of charge on the trolley. The charge
is earthed by your body, causing the shock.
9. When you pull the jersey over your head the friction causes the jersey and your hair to become
charged. The movement of electrons from your hair to the jersey releases energy in the form of light
and sound.
10. When the truck is driving the movement of the petrol in the tank causes a build-up of charge which
could cause a dangerous spark when the fuel is off-loaded. The chain earths the tank. The excess
charge on the tank is allowed to dissipate to the road.
11. The girls are touching the hollow dome of a Van de Graaff generator. The dome is positively charged so
electrons are transferred from their bodies to the dome to discharge it. This causes their bodies and
hair to become positively charged. Their hair strands now repel each other as they are all positive (like
charges repel) and they rise up.

76
 8 Energy transfer in electrical systems
Chapter overview
3 weeks
This chapter builds on the work done in Grade 7. In Grade 7, learners investigated basic circuits, as well as
energy transfers within a system. In Grade 8, learners will practice drawing electrical circuits using the
correct circuit symbols. This was first introduced in primary school, so learners should be familiar with the
circuit diagram symbols, however, some revision might be necessary. It is important to remind learners
that circuit diagrams are just schematics of a circuit. When building a real circuit from a diagram, the real
circuit will not look exactly the same as the diagram.
A common misconception which develops in circuit building is that black wires carry negative current and
red wires carry positive current. This happens because of the colour coding often used on electrical meters
to indicate polarity. In order to avoid this misconception, sometimes red wires can be used to connect the
negative side of the battery to the negative side of the meters, or sometimes only use one colour of wire.
This shows that the colour coding is arbitrary.
If you do not have sufficient equipment to allow all the learners to make all the circuits or you want to
experiment with simulations, you can use the PhET simulation for building an electric circuit. You can use
the PhET simulation software which can be downloaded from 1 bit.ly/GzA9d5 . You can then run an offline
version on your computers. Alternatively, if you have an Internet connection, or if learners wish to use
their mobile phones, these simulations will run directly within your browser from our website,2
www.curious.org.za 3 www.curious.org.za
Before allowing your students to use the PhET simulations there are several things you should familiarise
yourself with regarding the software. Make sure you know how to:
l Add components to a circuit. You need to click, hold down and drag the components from the side of
the screen to where you want them.
l Connect components with wires. You can place a wire onto the screen and then drag the ends till they
meet up with the component. Make sure that you are careful when connecting light bulbs. The system
will create a short circuit if they are not connected correctly. This will require some practice.
l Delete wires or components or add parts. You can't just add after the circuit is built, just as in a real
circuit you need to disconnect components to make space for new ones. Right-click with the mouse on
the junction between two components and it will give you the option to disconnect. Right-click on the
component itself, and you will be given the option to remove the entire component.
l Use the voltmeter and ammeter. The non-contact ammeter is very useful but the other one is more
realistic.
l Clear the image to start something else. Your learners can save their circuits for future use if your
lesson is interrupted and then load them again when you need them. If they need a blank screen in
order to start again, then click on the "reset all" button.
l Reset the resistance of a resistor or light bulb or to change the potential difference of a battery.
Right-click on the component and you will be given the option to adjust the settings.
If you teach only Natural Sciences, it is a good idea to check with the Technology teachers to see how these
two curriculums complement each other, especially with regard to electricity. Some of the concepts which
might be introduced for the first time in Natural Sciences, have already been covered in the Technology
curriculum. Knowing what learners have already covered and been introduced to will help make your
classes more efficient and more stimulating for learners.

77
8.1 Circuits and current electricity (1 hour)
Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: A simple circuit Recalling, identifying, CAPS suggested
interpreting, explaining

8.2 Components of a circuit (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Components in an Recalling, identifying, drawing CAPS suggested
electric circuit
Activity: Recycling of batteries Research, working in groups, CAPS suggested
explaining, writing
Activity: Resistance in a light Identifying, reasoning, CAPS suggested
bulb interpreting, explaining

8.3 Effects of an electric current (6 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Heating a wire in a Following instructions, CAPS Suggested
circuit observing, interpreting,
explaining
Activity: Melting metal? Following instructions, CAPS suggested
observing, interpreting,
explaining
Activity: How are fuses used in Research, explaining, writing CAPS suggested
everyday circuits?
Activity: Playing with plotting Drawing, describing, CAPS suggested
compasses interpreting
Activity: Magnetic field around Following instructions, CAPS suggested
a conductor drawing, describing,
interpreting, explaining

Tasks Skills Recommendation

Activity: Making an Following instructions, CAPS suggested
electromagnet interpreting, describing
Activity: Research the use of Research, working in groups, CAPS suggested
electromagnets summarising, writing
Activity: Electrolysis Observing, interpreting, CAPS suggested
describing, explaining

Key questions
l What is an electric current?
l What is an electric circuit?
l Where does the energy come from in a circuit?
l What are components?
l How do we draw electric circuits?
l What effects can an electric current produce?
l Why does the element in a light bulb glow and the element in a kettle become hot?
l What is an electromagnet and are they useful to us?
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l How do you plate metal rings and earrings in gold to produce jewellery?

8.1 Circuits and current electricity

There is no need at this level to discuss the idea of conventional current. The idea of conventional current
(the movement of positive charges) was developed prior to the discovery of electron movement. It was
adopted as a convention so that all scientists working with electricity could communicate and compare
research with ease. The mathematical models of electricity are also simpler when considering conventional
current. The idea of conventional current and SI units and their importance will only be discussed in Grade
9.

ACTIVITY: A simple circuit (LB page 163)

Some of these questions are revision of what learners should have covered in Gr 7 CAPS about energy
transfers within a system. This acts as a revision exercise and to links back to prior knowledge to reinforce
learning.
1. They are the battery, conducting wires, light bulb and switch.
2. It is closed as the switch is closed so it is a complete, unbroken pathway.
3. The battery.
4. The wires, made of metal.
5. Chemical potential energy.
6. Potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy of the electrons.
7. The bulb lights up, so it is light (and also heat).
8. The wasted energy is heat.

8.2 Components of a circuit

ACTIVITY: Components in an electric circuit (LB page 164)

Component Function Symbol

Cell Energy source for a circuit.

Torch bulb Provides a light source.

Open switch An open switch breaks the

circuit and prevents current
from moving in the circuit.

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Closed switch A closed switch completes the
circuit and allows current to
move in the circuit.

Electrical wire Conducts electricity in the

circuit. Provides a pathway.

Resistor A component that opposes or

inhibits electrical current in a
circuit. It can also convert
electrical energy to heat or Or
light.

Variable resistor A resistor whose resistance can

be adjusted higher or lower.

4. There are 3 cells, 3 bulbs and 2 switches.

5. The one cell is in the wrong position as the two negative terminals are facing each other, instead of the
negative terminal of one cell being connected to the positive terminal of the next cell
6. A switch provides an easy way of opening or closing the circuit and therefore controlling the electric
circuit.
7. This is because metals are good conductors of electricity.

ACTIVITY: Recycling of batteries (LB page 165)

1. This activity is a good opportunity for both group work and individual work. The learners can do the
research in a group but then write their paragraphs individually. Different learners in the same group
may have different recycling centres closest to where they live. You can assess both the quality of their
written response as well as the accuracy of their information.
2. Batteries contain toxic chemicals which can leak into the soil and contaminate the environment.
Different batteries contain different substances. Lead-acid batteries, used in motor cars and other
vehicles, are particularly damaging to the environment.
3. This answer will depend entirely on where the learner lives. Some areas will have little to no access to
specialised collection points but most Pick 'n Pay, Spar and Woolworths stores now have battery
recycling collection bins and there are various companies in the country which also offer this service.
Most municipal dumps also recycle batteries separately.
Some materials which do not conduct electricity are plastics, glass and ceramics.
This is because plastic is an electrical insulator and therefore insulates the wire.
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Bring a kettle to school so that the learners can see the element inside the kettle. Also use a large,
incandescent light bulb to show them the filament wire in the bulb as examples of resistors.

ACTIVITY: Resistance in a light bulb (LB page 166)

Try to have some incandescent light bulbs for the learners to hold and to look at. For extension you could
ask the learners to research the use of argon gas rather than normal air for the gas inside the light bulb.
Argon is used because it is an inert gas and will prevent oxidation of the filament, therefore lengthening
the lifespan of the filament.
The questions in this activity would be discussed and answered as you go through it in class. Learners may
not know the answers, but after discussing how a light bulb works with them, they should then write their
own answers.
1. Electrical energy is transferred to heat and light.
2. Light is the useful output and heat is the wasted output.
3. Note: This is an extension question as learners will only cover factors affecting resistance later so
discuss this as a class. This is to fit a longer length of tungsten within a small space to increase the
resistance, and therefore brightness of the bulb.
4. Glass is an electrical insulator, so it will not conduct electricity and all the current will pass through the
filament.
5. This is so that the electrical current can pass in through the electrical contact at number 10 and then
through to the wire at number 7, which is touching the inside of the metal insulating cap.
The link in the Visit box is an interactive tutorial and set of activities and quizzes to revise electric circuits
and circuit diagrams.
If you want to revise some of the concepts from previous years, you can discover more online at4
www.curious.org.za 5 www.curious.org.za
Learner's diagram should look as follows:

8.3 Effects of an electric current

A useful video on heat for extra, background information 6 bit.ly/18K0Aov

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ACTIVITY: Heating a wire in a circuit (LB page 168)

This activity is to demonstrate that an electric current travelling through a resistor will cause the resistor's
temperature to increase.
Nichrome wire can be bought at any hardware store. Do not leave the circuit on for too long. You want the
learners to feel the warmth from the wire, not to burn themselves. This experiment can also be performed
with the graphite from a pencil which will emit light as well as heat.
3. The wire should be cold
6. The wire should be hotter than when they first touched it.
These questions can be used to assess whether learners have grasped the concept. They can be completed
after the activity, or the next day in the following lesson as a revision of what was done, or as a homework
task.
1. When the circuit is complete, there is a flow of charge (electric current). The electrons moving through
the wire transferred energy to the wire in the form of heat. The particles in the wire therefore have
more kinetic energy and so the temperature increases.
2. Examples include: iron, kettle, heater, geyser, toaster.
3. Iron: The metal part of the iron has a high resistance and so it gets hot. This allows us to smooth out
the creases in material.
Kettle: The element of the kettle has a high resistance and so it gets hot enough to boil the water.
Heater: The element in a heater has a very high resistance and so it gets very hot. The element heats
the air around the heater.
4. The electric current passes through the toaster and the element has a high resistance. Energy is
transferred to the particles in the element so that they gain kinetic energy and the temperature of the
wire increases. Some of the energy is also transferred as light to the surroundings and the wire glows

ACTIVITY: Melting metal (LB page 169)

Fuses are a practical application of the heating effect of an electric current. In this activity the learners will
see that an electric current can melt a metal, not just warm it up. If you have enough equipment you could
allow small groups of learners to complete this activity. Otherwise, use it as a demonstration.
The light bulb is included to show that the current is flowing while the steel wool is in place but not flowing
when the steel wool melts. The variable resistor is used to show that when the resistance is high, the
current is low enough that the fuse warms up but doesn't melt. When the resistance is lowered, the
current increases until it melts the steel wool.
If you are demonstrating and you want to make the activity more exciting, you can use a small ball of steel
wool instead of a wire. This should make the steel wool spark and burn. This should be done behind a
screen as the sparks could land on a learner.
If you do not have a variable resistor then leave it out of the circuit and rather explain the concept. An
ammeter is also not crucial in doing this activity as the light bulb can be used to indicate whether there is
current or not.
2. This must not be very thick. Just a few strands will do.
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5. The light bulb should glow and the steel wool should warm up but not melt
9. The steel wool melts/burns and breaks up and the light bulb stops glowing
2. The light bulb is a good indicator of whether or not there is a current in the circuit. If the light bulb
glows it means there is electric current. If the light does not glow it means that there is no current (or
there is a very small current).
Note: Sometimes though there might still be a very small electric current, but it does not provide
enough energy to cause the light bulb to glow. This is why the light bulb gives a good indication, but an
ammeter will provide the most definitive indication of whether there is a current or not.
3. The current increases when the resistance decreased. The ammeter reading increases.
4. The current stops because the circuit has been broken. There is no longer a complete pathway for the
electrons to move.
Either switch off the toaster and then unhook the toast (safest idea!) or use an insulator (plastic) utensil to
unhook the toast.

ACTIVITY: How are fuses used in everyday circuits? (LB page 170)

This activity is an opportunity for individual research. There will be other opportunities for group research.
It is important that each learner is able to do basic research so that they are able to contribute effectively
to a group research task. The learner should write a short paragraph detailing their research. There are
many different household appliances which use fuses.
Learners may choose any of them. Remember to make sure that all learners include references for any
research they do. They need to learn from an early age to credit sources of information.
This answer will depend on the appliance chosen. Ensure that the paragraph doesn't only describe the
appliance but also explains why the fuse is necessary to prevent accidents.

ACTIVITY: Playing with plotting compasses and magnets (LB page 171)

This activity allows the learners to see that a plotting compass will respond to a magnetic field. It will allow
them to visualise the lines of the magnetic field around a bar magnet. Once the learners are convinced that
the plotting compass can model a magnetic field, you can use the compasses to show them that there is a
magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.
3. Do not assess drawing skills but make sure that the drawing clearly shows that the plotting compass
needles have "lined" up and make a discernable pattern. It is not necessary at this stage to explain the
pattern. It is just important that the learners realise that a plotting compass will respond to a magnetic
field.
4. Learners should describe how they see the iron filings clump together into long lines indicating the
magnetic field at each point.
As an extension to indicate to learners how two like poles repel each other, but two opposite poles attract
each other, place two bar magnets on a surface with two like poles facing each other and sprinkle iron
filings over the piece of paper. You should observe something similar to the photo below.

83
Magnetic field of bar magnets repelling.

Next, turn one magnet around so that opposite poles are now facing each other and sprinkle the filings
over the paper again. You should observe a pattern similar to the photo below.

Magnetic field of bar magnets attracting.

ACTIVITY: Magnetic field around a conductor (LB page 172)

This activity will show the learners that the plotting compasses align with a magnetic field around a
current-carrying conductor. It is important to make sure that the learners realise that it is a 3D magnetic
field and that it surrounds the conducting wire. Learners often assume that the magnetic field only exists
where the plotting compasses are placed.
3. The needles should point to magnetic north.
5. The drawing does not need to be assessed according to the learners drawing skills. What is important is that they see that
the compass needles are aligned in a circle when the switch is closed
6. That there is a magnetic field around the wire.

ACTIVITY: Making an electromagnet (LB page 173)

If the learners' electromagnets are not strong enough to pick up the paperclips, suggest they use more
batteries or add more coils of wire to the nail. Make sure that their coils are tightly packed, all in the same
direction and do not overlap anywhere.
1. The paper clips should be attracted to the nail.
2. The electrical current in the coiled wire caused a magnetic field to form. The magnetic field attracted
the metal in the paper clips.

84
3. The disconnected nail didn't attract the paper clips because there was no current in the wire and so
there was no magnetic field.

ACTIVITY: Research the use of electromagnets (LB page 173)

Assign different applications to different groups so that you cover a range in the class.
Here is a general description of each application.
Speakers:
The voice coil of a speaker is an electromagnet. The power to the electromagnet is switched on and off in
the same sequence as the incoming sound wave signal. This causes the magnetic field to switch on and off.
When the magnetic field switches on and off the electromagnet moves backwards and forwards. This
movement moves the diaphragm of the speaker and causes the air in front of the speaker to vibrate,
causing a sound wave.
Electric bells:
The electric bell uses an electromagnet to move the striker backwards and forwards onto the bell itself. As
the striker hits the bell the circuit is broken and the electromagnet switches off, a spring pulls the striker
back into position, completing the circuit. When the circuit is complete the electromagnet switches back
on and is attracted to the other magnet on the bell. The striker is then pulled to the bell. This process is
completed until the bell is switched off.
Telephones:
The input sound from the person speaking is converted into an electrical signal which travels to the
listener's device. The electrical signal has the same fluctuations and frequency as the speaker's voice. This
current flows through a solenoid and causes an electromagnet to switch on and off. This causes the
diaphragm to move in and out which causes a sound wave.
Magnetic trains (MAGLEV):
MAGLEV trains use the fact that magnets repel each other to power the trains. There are magnets on the
track and on the bottom of the train. By alternating the current in the rails the train can be pulled forward
by attraction between unlike poles and propelled forward by the repulsion of like poles. This website
provides a good description: 7 bit.ly/1dTQQuM
Industrial lifters and separators :
Electromagnets can be used to separate ferromagnetic materials from non-magnetic materials. When the
electromagnets are switched on they attract the magnetic materials but leave the non-magnetic materials
behind. When the electromagnet is switched off, it releases the magnetic materials.

ACTIVITY: Electrolysis (LB page 174)

This activity will demonstrate the chemical effect of electricity. There is no need to explain the mechanism
of the chemical reactions which occur. You might have already done this as a demonstration in Matter and
Materials in Chapter 1 (Atoms). If you want to revise what you did then, you can explain why copper forms
on the negative electrode and chlorine gas forms at the positive electrode.
If you don't have carbon electrodes then you can strip the wood from an HB pencil. Do this carefully so
that the carbon rod in the centre doesn't break. You don't have to strip all the wood off the pencil. Strip off
some from the bottom to allow it to make contact with the copper sulphate solution and enough wood off

85
the top to allow the crocodile clip to grip the carbon. The pencil carbon is not pure and so won't work quite
as effectively as pure carbon electrodes.
To make a copper chloride solution, dissolve 15 g of copper chloride in 100 ml of warm water.
This torch bulb is not strictly necessary. It is just to show that there is a current in the circuit and that there
is still a complete pathway.
Nothing is happening at either electrode. This is because the current is not Flowing
1. Yes.
NOTE: If the torch bulb does not glow then there is no current in the circuit. Make sure that the electrodes
are not touching each other and neither are the crocodile clips. The crocodile clips must not be touching
the solution either.
2. One of the electrodes should be developing a layer of copper and there should be bubbles developing
at the other electrode.
3. Learners should be able to smell the chlorine gas.
4. The copper chloride solution is being chemically separated into pure, solid copper and chlorine gas.
5. Bubbles are no longer forming at the electrode because the reaction has stopped.
6. The electric current is separating the copper chloride.
7. It would cause a short circuit. The electrical current will then not move through the copper chloride
and no separation will occur

Revision
1. An electric circuit is a closed, complete electric pathway or system for transferring electrical energy.
2. It has potential energy.
3. An electric current is the movement of charge/electrons. It is possible in metals as the electrons are
delocalised, meaning they are not associated with an atom and are free to move through the wire.
4. There are many different materials which conduct electricity, any 3 can be listed, such as various
metals.
5. There are many different materials which are insulators, any 3 can be listed, such as plastics, glass,
ceramics.
6. This diagram should have the components connected in series with each other. There should be a gap
in the circuit which can be filled by the different materials to be tested. A possible diagram is given
here:
7.
A cell A light bulb

A conducting wire An open switch

A resistor A variable resistor

86
8.
Circuit Glow/Not Glow Explanation
Will not glow. The switch is open so the
circuit is broken.

Will glow. The switch is closed and there

is a complete circuit.

Will not glow. There is a closed circuit but the

two negative terminals of the
cells are connected, rather than
a negative connected to a
positive terminal.

Will glow. There is a complete

circuit with an energy source.

Will not glow. There is a complete circuit but

no energy source.

9. Setup B is the correct connection as there is one electrical contact point in the tip of the bulb and the

87
 other point of contact is the metal casing.
10.
Image Circuit diagram

11. A fuse is a safety device to prevent overheating in the circuit. A normal wire would not melt if
overheated and so would not prevent damage or fires. You should not let him.
12. The aluminium foil can conduct electricity. This means that a short circuit has been created. The short
circuit caused a large current which would have melted a fuse and broken the electric circuit. This
would have caused the electricity to switch off.
13. A circuit breaker is advantageous to use over a fuse as a fuse needs to be replaced once the metal wire
melts, whereas a circuit breaker automatically detects the fault in the circuit, breaks it, and can then be
reset to start operating again, either manually or automatically once the fault has been repaired.
14. Note: 1 mark is for labelling the filament and 3 marks for the explanation. When an electric current
passes through the tungsten filament, it experiences resistance as the tungsten has a high resistance.
The tungsten wire therefore heats up as energy is transferred from the moving electrons to the wire.
The wire heats up and also emits light.
15. a) Yes, there is.
b) We know this because when there is current in an electric wire, it generates a magnetic field
around it. The plotting compasses respond to the magnetic field as the arrows are all pointing
around in a circle and not all the same way as they would do if there was no current.
16. To prevent corrosion and enhance its value.

88
 9 Series and parallel circuits
Chapter overview
2 weeks
This chapter builds on the Gr 6 and 7 electric circuits work, and the previous chapter of this book. Up until
now, we have only been looking at simple circuits. We will now examine the concept of series and parallel
circuits. We will look at the difference between these two set-ups in circuits, specifically looking at the
effects of adding resistors in series or in parallel and observing the change in brightness of bulbs. The use
of ammeters has also been included in this chapter. However, if you do not have these instruments, you
can simply do a qualitative study, using the brightness of the bulbs.
You can also use the PhET simulations where learners can build their own circuits and test them out,
observing the effects when they add or remove various components. These simulations will run directly
within your browser from our website, 1 www.curious.org.za . Here is a link to a guide (in pdf format)
written by PhET in the use of some of the electric circuit simulations:
phet.colorado.edu/files/teachers-guide/circuit-construction-kit-dc-guide.pdf

9.1 Series circuits (2.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Investigation: What happens Investigating, hypothesising, CAPS suggested
when we add more resistors in following instructions,
series? observing, interpreting,
recording, analysing, writing,
working in groups
Investigation: How does adding Investigating, hypothesising, CAPS suggested
more cells in series affect the following instructions,
current? observing, interpreting,
recording, analysing, writing,
working in groups
Investigation: Testing the Investigating, hypothesising, CAPS suggested
current strength following instructions,
observing, interpreting,
recording, analysing, writing,
working in groups

9.2 Parallel circuits (3 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Series or parallel? Identifying, describing CAPS suggested
Investigation: How does adding Investigating, hypothesising, CAPS suggested
resistors in parallel affect the following instructions,
current strength? observing, interpreting,
recording, analysing, writing,
working in groups
Investigation: What happens to Investigating, hypothesising, CAPS suggested
the current strength when cells following instructions,
are connected in parallel? observing, interpreting,
recording, analysing, writing,
working in groups
89
 Investigation: Testing the Investigating, following CAPS suggested
current strength instructions, observing,
interpreting, recording,
analysing, writing, working in
groups
Activity: Which metals offer Following instructions, CAPS suggested
the most resistance? observing, interpreting,
working in groups

9.3 Other output devices (0.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Sankey diagrams Drawing, explaining CAPS suggested
Activity: History of electricity Research, summarising, working CAPS suggested (can be done as
production in groups, writing homework task)
Activity: Careers Research, writing Optional

Key questions
l Are there different types of electric circuits?
l If all the light bulbs in a house are part of the same circuit, how can you switch one light off without
the rest also turning off?
l What is a series circuit?
l What is a parallel circuit?
l What happens when you connect more components in series or in parallel?

9.1 Series circuits

Ammeters have an extremely low resistance because they must not alter the current they are measuring in
any way.

INVESTIGATION: What happens when we add more resistors in series? (LB page 181)

The aim of this investigation is to show the learners that adding more resistors in series causes the overall
resistance of the circuit to increase and that this reduces the current strength.
This is a good opportunity for group work if you have enough equipment, but make sure that each learner
is able to connect an ammeter correctly and is able to read the ammeter scale accurately. If you do not
have sufficient equipment for all the learners, you can do this experiment as a demonstration. Perhaps give
several learners an opportunity to come up to the front and help to connect the ammeters. If you do not
have any ammeters then you can use the brightness of the bulbs to indicate current strength. The larger
the current, the brighter the bulb will glow. This means that if the bulb glows brightly, it must have a large
current moving through it. If the bulb is dimmer, it means that there is a smaller current flowing through it.
If you do not have the physical apparatus for this investigation but you do have Internet access, use the
PhET simulations found here: 2 bit.ly/17vBMBX
90
The simulations are also useful because the ammeters (and voltmeters) commonly used in school
laboratories are often not calibrated correctly or not serviced regularly and so often give slightly inaccurate
results.
This is a learner-dependent answer. The hypothesis should relate the dependent and independent
variables and make a prediction. The dependent variable will change as the independent variable is
changed. Here is an example of a possible answer:
As the number of resistors increases, the current strength decreases.
It is important that the torch bulbs have the same resistance and are not randomly selected. The switch is
not an essential part of this investigation. It can be left out of the circuit.
The brightness of the bulbs is a qualitative comparison. Learners should use "bright, brighter, brightest" as
a way to describe the glowing bulbs. The graph should show the quantitative data of the ammeter reading
and the number of bulbs. If you do not have an ammeter to take readings, either do not draw a graph, or
change the graph to a bar graph which has bright, brighter, brightest as the values on the y-axis. This is not
a particularly useful graph but will give the learners a chance to practice drawing a bar graph and give them
a visual representation of the decrease in current strength as the number of bulbs increases.
These results are an example of possible results. The actual results obtained by the learners will differ but
the trend should be similar. As the number of bulbs in series increases, both the ammeter reading and bulb
brightness should decrease.
Number of bulbs in series Brightness of bulbs Reading on ammeter (A)
1 brightest 0,15
2 bright 0,07
3 dimmest 0,05

Using standard ammeters may not give perfect results and if the bulbs are allowed to heat up too much in
between adding more bulbs, their resistance will be higher. It is important that the learners see a
downward trend
1. The bulbs became dimmer as more bulbs were added.
2. The bulbs glowed with the same brightness.
3. The bulbs glowed with the same brightness.
4. If all the bulbs glow the same, it means that they all experience the same current. This means that the
current is the same everywhere in a series circuit.
5. The ammeter reading decreased.
1. As more bulbs were added, the current decreased.
2. This answer will depend on the hypothesis written by the learner at the start of the investigation

INVESTIGATION: How does adding more cells in series affect the current? (LB page 182)

This investigation will show that adding more cells in series increases the current strength. Be careful with
this activity because if you do not have enough resistance in your circuit, you can damage the torch light
bulbs. Use at least two torch light bulbs or a torch light bulb and a resistor in order to keep the resistance
high enough. If you have ammeters, you can use quantitative data to show that adding more cells in series
increases the current strength. If you do not have ammeters, then use the brightness of the bulbs as
qualitative data. Use terms such as dim, bright, brightest. The learners will not be able to draw effective
graphs with the qualitative data, but you could give them the example data in the teacher's guide and ask
91
them to draw a line graph if they need practice.
This answer is learner-dependant. They must mention how the dependent variable will be affected by the
independent variable. Remember that the hypothesis does not need to be factually correct. They will
prove or disprove it by completing the investigation. Here is an example of a possible hypothesis: As the
number of cells connected in series increases, the current strength increases.
These results are example results. The actual results obtained by the learners will differ but the trend
should be similar. As the number of cells increases, both the ammeter reading and the bulb brightness
should increase.
Number of cells in series Brightness of bulbs Reading on ammeter (A)
1 dimmest 0.07
2 bright 0.15
3 brightest 0.2

1. As the number of cells connected in series increases, so does the current strength.
2. This answer depends on the learner's original hypothesis

9.2 Parallel circuits

ACTIVITY: Series or parallel? (LB page 184)

Series Parallel

Parallel Series

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INVESTIGATION: How does adding resistors in parallel affect the current strength? (LB
page 184)

This investigation will show the learners that increasing the number of resistors in parallel to each other,
causes the overall resistance of the circuit to decrease and the current strength to increase. There is no
need to discuss how to calculate the effective resistance of a parallel circuit. The learners just need a
qualitative understanding.
If you do not have physical apparatus for this investigation but you do have Internet access, use the PhET
simulations found here: 3 bit.ly/17vBMBX
This is a learner dependant answer. Learners need to mention the independent and dependent variables.
The dependent variable will change as the independent variable is changed.
Here are two examples of an acceptable hypothesis:
l As more bulbs are added in parallel, the current strength will decrease OR
l As more bulbs are added in parallel, the current strength will increase.
It is important that the torch bulbs are the same resistance and not randomly selected. The switch and
ammeter are not strictly necessary for this experiment. They can be left out if you don't have enough
switches or ammeters
The brightness of the bulbs is a qualitative description. The learners should use "bright, brighter, brightest"
in order to describe the glowing bulbs
The graph will show the relationship between the main current (reading on the ammeter) and the number
of bulbs connected in parallel. As more bulbs are connected in parallel, the current strength should
increase because the overall resistance of the circuit decreases. This means that the graph should be a
straight line with an increasing trend. Standard ammeters may not be accurate enough to produce a
perfectly straight line. This is not as important as seeing the upward trend.
These results are just an example. The actual results will depend on the circuit set up by the learner.
Number of bulbs in parallel Brightness of bulbs Reading on ammeter (A)
1 dimmest 0.15
2 brighter 0.3
3 brightest 0.45

1. The bulbs became brighter as more bulbs were added.

2. The bulbs glowed with the same brightness.
3. The bulbs glowed with the same brightness.
4. As all the bulbs are identical, if they all glow the same brightness, then they all experience the same
current. This means that the current is the same in each branch.
5. The ammeter reading increased.
1. As more bulbs were added, the current increased.
2. This answer will depend on the hypothesis written by the learner at the start of the investigation.

INVESTIGATION: What happens to the current strength when cells are connected in par-
allel? (LB page 186)

93
This is a learner-dependent answer. Learners need to identify the independent and dependent variables.
The dependent variable will change as the independent variable is changed.
Here are two examples of an acceptable hypothesis:
l As more cells are added in parallel, the current strength will decrease OR
l As more cells are added in parallel, the current strength will increase.
The ammeter is not essential to the experiment. The brightness of the bulb can serve as a qualitative
measure.
The brightness of the bulbs is a qualitative description. The learners should use "bright, brighter, brightest"
in order to describe the glowing bulbs. The ammeter readings should stay the same.
1. The brightness of the bulbs should not change.
2. The ammeter readings are the same.
3. Adding cells in parallel does not change the overall current strength.

ACTIVITY: Which metals offer the most resistance? (LB page 187)

This activity only compares the effect of the type of material on resistance. The other factors that affect
resistance will be covered in the Grade 9 Energy and Change syllabus.
Each metal will have a particular resistance based on the resistivity. You do not need to measure the
resistance of each metal, all that is required is a qualitative description of the light bulb. The brighter the
light bulb, the higher the current. If there is a high current it means that there is little resistance. So the
brighter the bulb glows, the less resistance offered by the metal wire. The learners may make small
mistakes if the brightness of the bulbs is difficult to distinguish.
Use whichever metal wires you have available. Try to get copper and nickel. You could twist aluminium foil
into a wire (just make sure it is the same length and approximate thickness as the other metals).
Aluminium wire will often ignite if placed in a circuit so test it beforehand and make sure that it does not
get too hot. If you use the materials listed below, then nichrome will have the highest resistance, followed
by zinc, then aluminium and copper has the lowest resistance of the four.
The actual length of wire that you use is not important, but they should all be the same length and
thickness. If you cannot find these metals, any other combination of metals can be successfully used.
1. An example circuit diagram with the break in the circuit where metals are to be tested shown on the
left.
2. High resistance opposes the movement of electrons, decreasing the current so there is less energy for
the light bulb. The higher resistance wire will cause the bulb to be dimmer than the lower resistance
wire.
3. Copper, aluminium, zinc and nichrome.
4. Copper has an extremely low resistance, and so has a minimal effect on the overall resistance of the
circuit. Other materials would add to the overall resistance of the circuit, decreasing the maximum
possible current in that circuit.

9.3 Other output devices

ACTIVITY: Sankey diagrams (LB page 188)

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Sankey diagrams were first introduced in the Gr 7 CAPS workbook as a way of representing the transfers of
energy within a system, specifically focusing on the transfer of input energy to useful and wasted output
energy. They provide a very clear illustration of the process. This links back to the previous chapter to
reinforce learning
The LED bulb is more efficient as more of the input energy is transferred to useful output (light) than is
wasted as heat. In the filament light bulb, much more energy is wasted as heat.
Some are: motors, buzzers, beepers

ACTIVITY: History of electricity production (LB page 188)

The timeline does not need to be too specific. We want learners to realise that this was not an overnight
discovery, but involved many people over a significant time. Here are some pertinent facts. This list is not
complete and not all of the dates are necessary. Another useful resource is available here:
http://bit.ly/1hmPfxF
l 600 BC – Discovery that amber, rubbed with silk, would attract light objects such as feathers
l 1600 AD – William Gerbert coined the term electricity. He was the first to make a link between
magnetism and electricity
l 1700s – Wimshurst machine, used to generate static electricity
l 1752 – Benjamin Franklin proved that lightning was a form of electricity
l 1800s – Sir Humphrey Davey discovered electrolysis; Volta created the first simple cell
l 1831 – Michael Faraday demonstrated electromagnetic induction
l 1825 – Ampère published his theories on electricity and magnetism. The unit of current, the ampere, is
named after him.
l 1827 – George Ohm published his study of electricity. The unit of resistance, the ohm, is named after
him
l 1831 – Charles Wheatstone and William Fothergill created the telegraph machine
l 1870 – Thomas Edison built a DC generator
l 1876 – Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone which uses electricity to transfer speech
l 1878 – Joseph Swan demonstrated an electric light bulb
l 1880s – Nikola Tesla developed an AC generator
l 1881 – The first British public electricity generator was built in Surrey
l 1883 – Magnus Volk built the first electric train line
l 1896 – Nikola Tesla established hydroelectric power plants in America
l 1905 – Albert Einstein demonstrated the photoelectric effect which led to the production of
photovoltaic cells

ACTIVITY: Careers (LB page 188)

1. The Eskom website has information regarding various careers and the Internet has many different
sources.

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 Revision
1.

Series Parallel Series

Parallel Series Parallel

2. Brightest, bright, dim

3. The first circuit has the brightest bulb because it has the least resistance and so it has the highest
current. The third circuit has the highest resistance because it has two resistors connected in series
with the light bulb. The more resistors connected in series, the higher the resistance and the lower the
current.
4. Dimmest, bright, brightest
5. The third circuit will have the brightest bulb because adding resistors in parallel lowers the overall
resistance in the circuit. The current is therefore greater and the bulb shines brighter. The first circuit is
the dimmest because it has no parallel branches, and so offers the highest resistance.
6. a) This circuit has both series components (the cell and bulb A are in series) and a parallel branch
consisting of bulb B and C.
b) Bulb A is the brightest, Bulbs B and C would have the same brightness as each other.
c) If switch S is opened, then bulb C will not glow. Bulbs A and B would now have equal brightness
but they would be dimmer than when the switch was closed. A and B would now be in series with
each other and there is no parallel branch. The overall resistance of the circuit would therefore be
higher, resulting in a smaller current.
7. a) A1 = A4. The total current flows through the circuit at both of these points.
b) A1 = A2 + A3. The current splits between parallel branches in a circuit.

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 10 Visible light
Chapter overview
3 weeks
This chapter focuses on the visible light spectrum and how we see and interpret light. The concepts of
absorption, reflection and refraction of light will be covered. Some of these concepts were first introduced
in Gr 7 Energy and Change when talking about heat (the transfer of energy). This also links to what learners
would have covered in Gr 7 Planet Earth and Beyond on solar energy, the seasons and life on Earth.

10.1 Radiation of light (1 hour)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Making a pinhole Following instructions, CAPS suggested
camera observing, describing

10.2 Spectrum of visible light (1 hour)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Splitting white light Following instructions, CAPS suggested
observing, describing,
explaining
Activity: Colour spinning Follow instructions, measuring, Optional
wheels observing, describing

10.3 Opaque and transparent objects (1 hour)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Shadow play Following instructions, CAPS suggested
observing, describing,
comparing, explaining

10.4 Absorption of light (1 hour)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Why do objects look Observing, explaining CAPS suggested
red under red light?

10.5 Reflection of light (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Investigation: Is there a Investigating, comparing, CAPS suggested Activity: Light
relationship between the measuring, observing, reflection off aluminium foil
angles of incidence and describing, explaining
reflection?

10.6 Seeing light (1 hour)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Seeing colours Interpreting, drawing CAPS suggested

10.7 Refraction of light (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Investigation: Does light change Investigating, comparing, CAPS suggested

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 direction when it passes measuring, analysing,
through a glass block? describing, explaining
Activity: Magic coin trick Observing, describing, CAPS suggested
explaining
Activity: Diverging and Observing, describing, CAPS suggested
converging light with lenses comparing, explaining
Activity: Research careers in Researching, working in Optional
optics groups, writing

Note: An additional investigation has been included only in the Teacher's Guide in this section:
l Investigation: The refraction of light as it enters water (PhET simulation)
l This can be performed if you have an Internet connection, and is an alternative to the suggested
investigation above.

Key questions
l Where does light come from?
l How does light travel?
l How do we see?
l Why do leaves look green?
l How do mirrors work?
l Why do my legs look crooked underwater?

10.1 Radiation of light

An exciting way to introduce this section is to turn your classroom into a camera obscura. Use black paper
to cover all the windows and tape to block out any light coming in from under any doors. On one window,
leave a small area of the window uncovered. Hang a white sheet in the centre of the room opposite to the
exposed window. The view from outside should be projected onto the sheet. The image will be upside
down. This is an inexpensive way to give the learners an opportunity to understand the rectilinear
propagation of light.

ACTIVITY: Make a pinhole camera (LB page 192)

This activity allows the learners to produce images on a screen. The images formed by a pinhole camera
can be used to explain and demonstrate that light travels in straight lines.
The Pringles chip can is the perfect shape for this activity. You could use any cardboard tube. Instead of the
lid from the Pringles can you can use a piece of wax paper as the screen. This pinhole camera is essentially
a miniature camera obscura.
If you are struggling with time, you could make one of these and demonstrate it to the learners instead of
having each learner produce one.
You can also use black paper if you do not have aluminium foil. The foil is useful because it molds to the
shape of the tube and helps prevent ambient light from entering.
You can also use black paper if you do not have aluminium foil. The foil is useful because it molds to the
shape of the tube and helps prevent ambient light from entering.
1. Learners should see an image on the "screen". The lid/wax paper is the screen. The learners should
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 notice that the image is upside down.
2. When you move closer to the object, the image appears bigger than when you move further away.

10.2 Spectrum of visible light

ACTIVITY: Splitting white light (LB page 195)

This activity is very simple and usually gives clear results. Try to darken the room as much as possible in
order to get clear spectra. A ray box and power source are not essential for this activity. You can make your
own simple ray box by using a piece of cardboard with a small slit cut into it. Hold the cardboard in front of
a light bulb and the light will shine through the slit in a single beam of light. Use a table lamp or set up a
circuit with a high wattage light bulb as a source of light.
1. Remember that if you do not have a ray box then you can use a light bulb with a cardboard screen to
produce a coherent beam of light.
3. Make sure that the learners rotate the prism until they get it at the right angle to refract the light and
see the colours.
1. The drawing should show the beam of white light entering the prism, passing through and emerging on
the other side as the 7 colours of the visible spectrum. This is a typical image, which learners will see
later in the chapter when we discuss refraction of light. They must note the relative bending of red
versus violet light.
2. The white light enters the prism, passes through it and emerges on the other side as a beam of seven
colours (a rainbow).
3. Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
4. No, the order is always the same.
5. They tell us that white light is a mixture/blend/combination of the 7 colours of the visible spectrum.

ACTIVITY: Colour spinning wheels (LB page 196)

This is a very simple, fun activity to show that the 7 colours combine to make white light. You can either
get learners to each make their own, or else make a couple before class yourself and hand them out for
learners to experiment with.
To do this accurately, find the centre of the circle and mark a dot there. Then draw a straight line from the
centre to the edge of the circle. Next, align the straight edge of a protractor with the line you just drew,
placing the end of the protractor right on the center of your circle. Look for 52 degrees and make a dot to
mark this angle. Draw a line from the centre dot to this dot on the edge. The angle you drew is 1/7 of the
circle. Repeat this until you have measured and drawn all segments. A complete rotation is 360 degrees
and 360/7 = 51.4 which is why each segment you draw should be about 52 degrees. The correct angle for 6
segments would be 60 degrees.
Learners should observe that the colours appear to 'mix'. Depending on the quality of the pens or pencils
used, you should see a light grey. The goal is to see white, but this might take some more experimenting

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10.3 Opaque and transparent substances

ACTIVITY: Shadow play (LB page 198)

This activity will show learners that opaque objects cast shadows. You can give them specific shapes to cut
out from cardboard or allow them to be creative with their designs. Have them cut out various shapes of
different sizes from cardboard. This will allow them to see that larger objects cast larger shadows. The
learners can use a white piece of paper as a screen or use the wall of the classroom. If they hold the shape
on the desk then the shadow would be cast on the desk but a screen would be more useful. The classroom
should not be brightly lit when doing this activity as overhead lights may affect the shadows
4. The shadow forms on the side of the shape which is furthest from the light. It is a dark colour.
6. The shadow is formed on the side furthest from the light source. It is dark in colour and larger than the
first shadow.
11. No shadow is formed by the clear plastic shape. There may be a slight outline of the shape as a
shadow. This sometimes happens if the cut edges of the shape have curled over, the double thickness
reduces the transparency. If any of the learners notice this you should explain it to them.
12. The shadow that forms is on the side opposite the light source but it is significantly lighter than the
cardboard shadows. It has a darker outline and a lighter centre.
1. No, light did not pass through as it forms a shadow on the opposite wall.
2. It is opaque.
3. The larger the shape, the larger the shadow.
4. This is an example of the type of diagram the learners may draw. They need to show the opaque object
between the light source and a screen. They need to show rays of light leaving the light source and
moving in straight lines on either side of the shape.
5. The answer calls for learners to predict something they have not tested. The shadow should become
larger if the object is closer to the light source and smaller if the object is further from the light source.
6. This answer is learner dependant because it depends on their prediction for question 5. Learners
should describe seeing that the size of the shadow decreased as the distance increased or that the size
of the shadow increased as the distance decreased.
7. The clear plastic is transparent.
8. No
9. Light travels in straight lines. It cannot bend around an object. Light cannot pass through the cardboard
and so a shadow is formed. Light can pass through the clear plastic and so the area behind the plastic is
bright.
10. It is neither completely transparent or completely opaque. The shopping bag is translucent or
semi-transparent.
11. Some of the light can pass through the translucent plastic but not all of it, this means that the shadow
is not as dark.

10.4 Absorption of light

The absorption of the different colours of light links back to Grade 7 Energy and Change. Learners will have
learnt that matt black surfaces absorb heat from the Sun and that white and silver objects reflect the heat
from the Sun. The energy which is reflected from surfaces can be seen as different colours. This is because
each colour has its own frequency which is determined by the amount of energy of the released photons.
White objects do not absorb any of the colours but reflect all of them together and so the object appear
white to our eyes.
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ACTIVITY: Why do objects look red under red light? (LB page 201)

Try to use a dimly lit classroom for this activity so that the main source of light is the torch or light bulb.
1. White.
2. The normal light contains all 7 colours of the visible spectrum mixed together. All the colours are
reflected from the page and enter our eyes. We see a white page.
3. The page looked red instead of white.
4. The red plastic only allowed red light to pass through it. Red light was reflected off the paper and so
that is the only colour that reached the eye. The paper appears to be red.

10.5 Reflection of light

The photograph of the bridge in Italy is upside down.

INVESTIGATION: Is there a relationship between the angles of incidence and reflec-

tions? (LB page 203)

Learners will see that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
Learners must save some of the sheets for the next activity where you will use a piece of crumpled
aluminium foil instead of the mirror. Another way to do this investigation is to use a sheet of corrugated
cardboard instead of paper. Learners can then stick pins into the cardboard along the light ray and then
draw in the lines later.
Learners will have their own versions. An example of an appropriate question would be: 'How is the angle
of reflection related to the angle of incidence of the incident ray?' It is important that the question relates
the two angles in some way.
A laser pointer also works very well instead of a ray box
The answers in the table will depend on the angles of incidence which the learners use for their
investigation. It is important that they see that the angles of incidence and reflection are equal to each
other in each repetition.
1. This answer would be learner-dependent as it would depend on the investigative question they chose.
2. This answer is learner dependent. An example of an improvement could be to use a protractor printed
on the page already in order to measure the angles accurately
In reflection, the angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence

ACTIVITY: Light reflection off aluminium foil (LB page 206)

1. Learners should note that the reflected ray off the aluminium foil is scattered and does not provide
one clear ray, as the mirror does.
2. This is because the aluminium foil is crinkled and provides a rough surface whereas the mirror is a
smooth surface.

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Here are the answers for what learners should draw.
Specular diffusion from a smooth surface Diffuse reflection from a rough surface.

10.6 How do we see light?

ACTIVITY: Seeing colours (LB page 209)

Light striking the yellow

petals. Light striking the black centre.

The white light that strikes the sunflower has all the colours. The yellow petals absorb all the colours of the
spectrum except yellow which is reflected into our eyes. The black centre absorbs all of the colours of the
spectrum and does not reflect any light into our eyes, hence our brain interprets a lack of light/colour as
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black.

Light striking the blue car.

White light from the Sun hits the car. All of the colours of light, except blue, are absorbed by the surface of
the car. Only blue light is reflected from the surface of the car and enters our eyes. Our brain can only see
the blue light and so we perceive that the car is blue.

10.7 Refraction of light

You should do this in front of the class, or else put a glass of water in front of each learner. It is a really easy
demonstration. All you need is a glass of water and a straw. If you do not have a straw, a pencil works
really well.

INVESTIGATION: What happens to light when it passes through a glass block? (LB page
211)

You do not need a ray-box for this investigation. A laser, such as those found on keyrings, or a light bulb
can be used. If you use a light bulb, you need to make a cardboard screen. Cut a thin slit into the cardboard
and hold it in front of the light bulb, this will create a ray of light suitable for the investigation.
We are going to investigate what happens to a ray of light when it passes from air and into a glass block
and then from the glass block back into air. We are going to use a glass block with parallel sides.
Before we start the investigation, we need to think about how we are going to determine if light changes
direction or not. Do you remember in the investigation on reflection where we measured the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection? What did we find in this investigation?
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
Learners can come back to this diagram and mark in which is the more dense medium (glass) and which is
the less dense medium (air). In this diagram, medium 1 is air and medium 2 is glass.
The refracted ray bent towards the normal line.
Learners can come back to this diagram and mark in which is the more dense medium (glass) and which is
the less dense medium (air). In this diagram, medium 1 is now the glass and medium 2 is air.
Yes, it changes direction as the angle of incidence is not equal to the angle of refraction. The angle of

103
incidence is smaller than the angle of refraction.
In which direction did the refracted ray change?
The refracted ray bent away from the normal line.
Learners must hypothesize about whether they think the light ray will change direction or not when it
passes through the glass block.
1. Learners should note that angle 1 is equal to angle 4 and angle 2 is equal to angle 3 in all the sets of
measurements.
Note: Discuss this with your learners as to why angles 2 and 3 are equal. The explanation for this is to
do with parallel lines and alternate angles. This links well with what learners would have covered in
Mathematics in the beginning of the year. The normal lines are parallel and so the alternate angles
between them are equal. You can draw this on the board to explain it in more detail and show that
the normal lines are parallel as the corresponding angles are equal (they are 90o).
2. Angles 1 and 4 are the angles of incidence and angles 2 and 3 are the angles of refraction.
3. The angle of incidence is always different to the angle of refraction.
4. The light bends towards the normal line.
Note: This is because the light is moving from a less dense to a more dense medium, which will be
discussed later on.
5. Zero.
The angle of incidence is not equal to the angle of refraction. This means that the light ray changes
direction when it passes from the air into the glass block, and again when it passes from the glass block
back out into the air.

ACTIVITY: Magic coin trick (LB page 214)

This activity will show the learners that bending of light will affect what we are able to see. The coin is not
visible until the water is added. The water causes the light rays from the coin to refract (bend) towards the
learner's eye. This allows the learner to see the coin.
The learners should stick the coin to the bowl in order to keep the coin still when water is poured into the
bowl. Often learners do not pour the water in gently and if the coin moves then it will affect the results.
1. Learners responses may vary slightly but they should all have seen the coin "appear" when the water
was deep enough. When more water is added the entire coin can be seen.
2. The coin appears to be higher than it actually is.
3. When there is no water in the bowl there is no direct line of sight from the learner's eye to the coin.
When water is added the light from the coin leaves the water and is refracted. The learner's brain
detects the refracted light and as the brain knows light travels in straight lines, the coin appears to be
higher in the water.
We used a triangular prism. Learners have already experimented with this to show that white light is
actually composed of 7 different colours. However, you can repeat this activity again to explain why this
happens in terms of refraction.
Red is at the top and violet is at the bottom.

104
No, it does not. It is the reverse order.

ACTIVITY: Research careers in optics (LB page 217)

Here is some information about each of these careers:

Optometry
Optometrists measure the efficiency of the patient's eyes. They examine eyes for vision problems, disease
and other abnormal conditions. They test for proper depth and colour perception and the ability to focus
and coordinate the eyes. They specialise in visual defects They are able to prescribe spectacles or contact
lenses to rectify or alleviate visual defects such as far-sightedness, short-sightedness, astigmatism (image
distortion) and presbyopia (far-sightedness as the result of age).
School Subjects
National Senior Certificate meeting degree requirements for a degree course National Senior Certificate
meeting diploma requirements for a diploma course Each institution will have its own minimum entry
requirements.
Compulsory Subjects: Mathematics, Physical Sciences Recommended Subjects: Life Sciences
Training
Degree: BOptometry – UJ, UFS, UL. The duration of the course is 4 years of full-time study. After the
completion of the degree course, students may be expected to complete a one-year internship before
registration as professional optometrists.
Diploma: N.Dip: Optical Dispensing and B.Tech – CPUT. The duration of the course is three years. A fourth
year of study culminates in the BTech Optometry. During their third and fourth year, students have contact
with patients. Students are required to complete a one-year internship.
Optometrists are required to register with the Interim National Medical and Dental Council (INMDC) of SA
before they may practise.
Ophthalmology
Ophthalmologists diagnose and treat diseases of the eye, including glaucoma and cataracts, vision
problems, such as near-sightedness, and eye injuries. Most ophthalmologists practice a combination of
medicine and surgery, ranging from lens prescription and standard medical treatment to the most delicate
and precise surgical manipulations.
School Subjects
National Senior Certificate meeting degree requirements for a degree course Each institution will have its
own minimum entry requirements.
Compulsory Subjects: Mathematics, Physical Sciences Recommended Subjects: Life Sciences
Note: Competition to enter medical studies is stiff and there are usually many applicants with excellent
grades who naturally would be given preference.
Training
MBChB degree at UP, UCT, UFS, Wits, US, UL, UKZN:
l Theoretical training: 6 years
l Student internship: 1 year
l Practical work at a hospital: 1 year (also known as the house doctor year).
l Post-graduate study for specialisation as an ophthalmologist: 3 – 5 years. Registration: on successful
105
 completion of the examination to qualify as a specialist, the candidate must register with the
International Medical and diagnostic Centre as an ophthalmologist.
A useful website: bit.ly/18SxQty
Optoelectronics
Optoelectronics is the study and application of electronic devices that source, detect and control light,
usually considered a sub-field of photonics.
This career would require a degree in electrical engineering which could be obtained at any South African
university. Entry requirements will depend on the institution involved.
Illumination engineering
illumination engineering is the study and use of lighting in various situations, buildings and community
spaces, such as sports and recreational lighting, lighting industrial facilities, roadway lighting, museum
lighting. Illumination engineering can be studied at university by pursuing a degree in electrical
engineering. The Illumination Engineering Society of South Africa also offers courses, details are on their
website.
The Zooniverse website provides a great overview of the various citizen science projects that learners can
get involved in. There is a huge variety of projects, including helping to identify possible planets around
stars, analysing real life cancer data, looking at tropical cyclone data and listening to the calls from whales
or bats.
Citizen science is scientific research that is conducted in whole or in part by nonprofessional scientists,
specifically the general public. Encouraging learners to get involved in some of these projects will open
their eyes to the possibilities out there, and also add meaning and value to what they learn within the
Natural Sciences classroom. http://bit.ly/14JxLsw

Revision
1. 1: C
2: F
3: A
4: I
5: L
6: B
7: K
8: D
9: J
10: H
11: E
12: G
2. a) White light is made up of a spectrum of 7 colours.
b) When the light passes from the air into the glass at an angle, it refracts and bends. The colours of
the spectrum bend by different amounts causing the light to disperse. When the light leaves the
other side of the prism, it refracts again and the colours bend even more and split up showing the
seven colours.
c) Colour 1 is red and colour 7 is violet as red light bends the least and violet light bends the most.
d) Label 4, green.
e) These rays are the result of some reflection off the inner surfaces of the prism as not all the light
passes directly through.
106
 Note: This is an extension question. 3
An opaque object casts a shadow as it does not let any light pass through it. The light is either reflected
or absorbed. There will be a shadow on the opposite side to the light source as the light cannot reach
there due to the object.
4. a) The light is reflected off the poles and then it reflects off the surface of the water and into our
eyes.
b) This is because the light rays are not reflected off a smooth surface, but rather an uneven surface,
due to the ripples in the water. The light rays are scattered.
5. White is a combination of all of the colours in the visible spectrum. White objects reflect all the colours
equally and so we see the mixture of colours as white. Black is an absence of colour. Black objects
absorb all of the colours and reflect none. This means that we don't see any coloured light from that
object.
6. Black: All the colours are absorbed; none are reflected.
Yellow: All the colours except yellow are absorbed and the yellow is reflected.
Green: All the colours except green are absorbed and the green is reflected. Blue: All the colours
except blue are absorbed and the blue is reflected
Red: All the colours except red are absorbed and the red is reflected. White: All the colours are
reflected, none are absorbed and so the combined colours appear as white.

8. C
9. When light travels from a less dense into a more dense transparent medium, the light refracts and
bends towards the normal line. When light travels from more dense to a less dense medium, it refracts
and bends away from the normal line.
11. a) The ray of light. b)
c) The block is more dense than air as when the light enters the block, the ray bends towards the
normal line indicating that it travels more slowly. The ray then bends away from the normal line
when it leaves the block and enters a less dense medium (the air) and travels faster.
d) It must be a transparent medium, such as glass. e)
f) 0.5 marks for each label. The learner's completed diagram with labels should look as follows:
12. C
13. This is due to refraction. The light that passes through the piece of glass is bent and so the image
becomes distorted and looks as though the trunk is skew.
14. It must be convex.
16. Far-sightedness can be corrected using a convex lens. This is when the light focuses on a point behind
the retina so the image is blurred. A convex lens is used to bend the light rays before they enter the
107
eye so that when they do pass through the lens in the eye they are focused clearly on the retina

108
 11 The solar system
Chapter overview
3 weeks
The ordering of the chapter in Grade 8 Planet Earth and Beyond in CAPS is as follows:
1. The solar system
2. Beyond the solar system
3. Looking into space
Although this is the order in CAPS and it is the way in which the content has been ordered here in these
workbooks, we suggest starting with Chapter 3 on 'Looking into space' first, and then going on to the other
two chapters. This makes more sense conceptually to first learn about how we see into space, and then go
on to look at the objects that have been observed in our solar system and beyond, making use of a variety
of telescopes.
In Grade 6 learners covered material regarding the solar system, and in Grade 7, they focused on the Sun,
Earth, Moon system. Learners should be familiar with the fact that the Sun is a star located at the centre of
the solar system and they should understand that the planets orbit around the Sun. They should also be
aware that there are two types of planets: smaller rocky planets and larger gas giants. In this chapter, the
solar system is introduced in more detail, and the physical explanation for the two types of planets is
summarised. They will compare the properties of the different planets, information that they will then use
to explain why the Earth is presently the only planet suitable for life in our solar system. The main aims of
this chapter are to ensure that learners understand the following:
l The Sun is a star and produces heat and light (energy) via nuclear reactions.
l The planets, dwarf planets and asteroids all orbit around the Sun, held in their orbits by the force of
gravity.
l Different planets have different observed properties and characteristics.
l The Earth is located in a special zone around the Sun, where life is possible. Section 1.1 covers the
properties of the Sun, section 1.2 introduces all the other objects in the solar system and section 1.3
covers our special place in the solar system.
Concept maps: The concept maps in these workbooks were created at Siyavula using an open source
programme called CMapTools. You can download the programme from this link if you would like to use it
to create your own concept maps.bit.ly/1fMyJsQ
Do you think it is important to teach astronomy to learners at school? Read this interesting and informative
article detailing the benefits and applications of astronomy. bit.ly/17iVgpw
Citizen science offers you a free, easily accessible and inspiring opportunity to bring real science into the
classroom. Find out more about incorporating real science into your classroom with Zooniverse citizen
science projects at ZooTeach: bit.ly/H6krWT. ZooTeach is a website where teachers and educators can
share high quality lesson plans and resources that complement the Zooniverse citizen science projects.
Did you know that these workbooks were created at Siyavula with the input from many contributors and
volunteers? Just turn to the front to see the long list. Read more about Siyavula at our website:
www.siyavula.com

11.1 The Sun (1.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Observing the Sun observing, describing CAPS suggested
with a telescope
109
 Activity: Observing the Sun observing Alternative to above activity
with a pinhole camera
Activity: Sunspots observing, identifying, Optional, extension
analysing

11.2 Objects around the Sun (6 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: The scale of the solar simulating, visualising, taking CAPS suggested
system measurements
Activity: Make a hanging solar simulating, visualising, taking CAPS suggested (also
system measurements alternative to above activity)
Activity: Planetary reading tables, labelling graphs CAPS suggested
temperatures
Activity: Comparing terrestrial comparing, recalling Optional
planets and gas giants
Activity: Comparing the inner comparing, reading tables, CAPS suggested
and outer planets analysing
Activity: Planetary holidays writing, researching CAPS suggested
Activity: Planet factsheet writing, researching CAPS suggested (also
alternative to above activity)
Investigation: Impact craters investigating, observing, taking CAPS suggested
measurements, analysing
Activity: A comet's ion tail observing CAPS suggested

11.3 Earth's position in the solar system (1.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: The Sun's habitable plotting graphs, interpreting CAPS suggested
zone graphs, analysing

Key questions
l How does the Sun produce its energy?
l How can we observe the Sun without damaging our eyes?
l What objects are in orbit around the Sun in our solar system?
l Why are there two types of planets?
l How do the planets in our solar system differ?
l What are asteroids and comets?
l What is the difference between a planet and a dwarf planet?
l Why is life possible on Earth?

11.1 The Sun

In this section students learn how the Sun produces its energy in its core and how this energy is
transported to the surface and then into space. The effect that the Sun has on the Earth is also briefly
mentioned. This section focuses on conducting observations of the Sun and looking at images of the Sun to
study the surface features, including sunspots.
There are two activities in this section which involve observations of the Sun. It is very important that
learners DO NOT LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE SUN, even with sunglasses on, as they may permanently damage
their eyes.
110
Although the Sun is the brightest object in our sky, this is only because it is so close to us. The Sun is
actually a medium-sized star of average brightness compared with other stars. If the sun were further
away, it would look like a small point of light like the other stars in the sky.
At the temperatures encountered at the centre of the Sun the atoms are ionized and so nuclear fusion
involves the merging of atomic nuclei rather than atoms.
Different studies of the transport of photons within the Sun estimate different travel times to reach the
surface. Much older studies reported times of order of millions of years, but these have now all been
revised downwards to either tens or hundreds of thousands of years.
Although we often say that the Sun "burns" its hydrogen fuel into helium, the Sun does not burn in the
same way that a fire does, because it is not on fire. The energy generated from the Sun comes from fusing
atomic nuclei together to form a new atomic nucleus. As a result of the extreme temperatures throughout
the Sun, its gas glows, giving off light. Our usual experience of burning (or fire) is actually a chemical
reaction where atoms combine to form molecules, e.g. when oxygen combines with carbon to form carbon
dioxide.

ACTIVITY: Observing the Sun using a telescope (LB page 227)

This is an outdoors activity. You will need a telescope or binoculars for this activity. An alternative activity
is included after this,which does not need a telescope or binoculars.You will be projecting an image of the
Sun onto a white card or screen for your learners to observe.
If you do not have access to a telescope or binoculars it could be worth contacting a local amateur
astronomy club as they are often keen to get involved in educational activities. It is vital that learners do
not look directly at the Sun, with or without sunglasses. The projection method used in this activity is safe
and also has the bonus that any sunspots on the Sun's surface can also be seen. Sunspots are regions of
slightly lower temperature on the Sun's surface, and therefore appear darker. If you do not have access to
a telescope, but do have Internet access, then an image of the Sun is posted daily at 1 1.usa.gov/1a2n1cE
It is assumed that this will be a teacher-led demonstration, however, there is no reason why learners
cannot contribute by building the shade collar and setting up the white card. If you are using binoculars
instead of a telescope, be sure to cover one of the lenses so that only one side of the binoculars is used.
When trying to point the telescope at the Sun, a useful trick is to watch the shadow of the telescope tube:
if pointed directly toward the Sun, then the sides of the tube will cast no shadows. Preparing for the
activity can sometimes take a bit of fiddling, so it is a good idea for you to set your learners a short task to
do while you set up if you have not had the opportunity to set up ahead of time.
Sunspots are sometimes (not always) visible on the Sun's surface. You are more likely to see sunspots
when the Sun is most active during solar maximum. The Sun's activity varies over an 11 year cycle. Solar
maximum is currently predicted to be in 2013. Solar minimum is currently predicted to be in 2019. As an
extension you could repeat this activity over the course of several days to see if any sunspots or sunspot
groups change shape, size, or position over time.
Ask the learners to point out any interesting features they notice about the image. There may be sunspots
(dark spots) visible. Also you should see that the image is brighter in the middle of the Sun's disc than at
the edges. This is because when we look at the middle of the Sun's disc we can see deeper into the Sun
than when we look towards the edge. The temperature of the Sun increases with increasing depth. At the
centre of the Sun's disc we are seeing a hotter region. As the intensity of light is proportional to the
temperature, the Sun looks brighter in the centre.

111
The spin of the Earth on its axis

ACTIVITY: Observing the Sun with a pinhole camera (LB page 228)

1. The image should get smaller and brighter.

3. The angles are equal. This links back to what learners covered last term in Energy and Change.

ACTIVITY: Observing sunspots on the Sun's surface (LB page 230)

This is an additional, extension activity. In this activity learners will look at images taken over three
consecutive days in 2013. The images were taken using the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager instrument
on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory space satellite. In the images two major sunspot groups are
visible, one in the Sun's northern hemisphere and one in the Sun's southern hemisphere. Learners should
identify the two groups and observe that they move across the Sun from left to right in each successive
image. The sunspots move like this because the Sun is rotating on its axis. You could begin this activity by
asking learners if they noticed any features on the Sun's surface when they observed it in class, before
asking them to look at the pictures below.
1. There are two main groups, one in the top half of the Sun and the other group in the bottom half.
2. They are moving across the Sun's disc from left to right.
3. The Sun is rotating on its own axis (once roughly every 25 days).
4. They are called Sunspots and they are regions where the temperature is cooler than the rest of the
Sun's surface.
This is enrichment material to extend learners' knowledge beyond what they have covered in previous
grades about the Sun. Here is a link to a pdf download for an activity to track sunspots in real time, using
data from SOHO: 1.usa.gov/16mW96j

11.2 Objects around the Sun

This section covers all the objects in orbit around the Sun including the eight planets, dwarf planets,
asteroids, Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud and comets. Learners should be familiar with the eight planets in the
solar system, which were covered in Gr 6, however it is very likely that they are unfamiliar with the
remaining components of the solar system. The first half of this section is intended as revision, to remind
learners about the properties of the eight planets. The two types of planets, the terrestrial (rocky) planets
and gas giants are compared and contrasted in detail. The second half of this section covers the smaller
bodies in the solar system such as dwarf planets, comets and asteroids. It should be stressed to learners
that new discoveries are made all the time and so the numbers of moons discovered around planets and
the number of dwarf planets in the solar system will change over time.

ACTIVITY: The scale of the solar system (LB page 232)

In this activity learners will get a sense of the scale of the solar system. Using a model where the Sun is
scaled to the size of a grapefruit, the other planets areal so scaled down and are placed in orbit around the
grapefruit Sun at the correctly scaled distance. This activity needs a lot of space. The distance you need
from the Sun to Neptune is 321 m. The scaling used in this activity is 14 billion to one. You can change the
scaling to suit the space you have available. A summary table is included here with the scaled sizes and
distances for the planets for your reference. Learners can use a measuring tape to measure out the
112
distances. If no measuring tape is available, the approximate distance in strides is also given.
Object Actual diameter (D) or Measurements scaled Model suggestion
distance from the Sun to in model
(d) (km)
Sun D = 1.4 x 106 10 cm Grapefruit
Mercury D = 4.9 x 103 d = 58 x 0.35 mm 4.2 m Salt grain, 4 big strides
106
Venus D = 12 x 103 d = 108 x 0.86 mm 7.7 m Poppy seed, 8 big
106 strides
Earth D = 13 x 11033 d = 150 x 0.91 mm 10.7 m Poppy seed, 11 big
106 strides
Mars D = 6.8 x 1103 d = 228 x 0.48 mm 16.3 m Salt grain, 16 big strides
106
Jupiter D = 143 x 103 d = 778 x 10.0 mm 55.6 m Small grape, 55 big
106 strides
Saturn D = 128 x 103 d = 1426 x 8.57 mm 102 m Pea, 100 big strides
106
Uranus D = 51 x 103 d = 2868 x 3.65 mm 205 m Peppercorn, 200 big
106 strides. About twice the
length of a football
pitch.
Neptune D = 45 x 1103 d= 4500 x 3.55 mm 321 m Peppercorn, 320 big
106 strides. About three
times the length of a
football pitch.
Alpha Centauri (nearest D = 4.0 x 1013 2900 km Cape Town to Lusaka!
star)

See the table provided.

ACTIVITY: Make a hanging solar system (LB page 233)

In this activity learners will work individually to make a hanging model of the solar system.
The planets orbit the Sun in a flat plane that includes the Sun.
The aim of this section is to remind learners about the two types of planets. They were introduced to the
two planetary types, the inner rocky terrestrial planets and the outer gas giants in Grade 6. This section
covers this information again and goes on to explain why there are two types of planets. For a summary of
each planet's properties see 3 1.usa.gov/1cO92WC
The gas giants are much larger than the terrestrial planets.
They all have rings.
Uranus is on its side.
The terrestrial planets have no or few moons whereas the gas giants have lots of moons.

113
ACTIVITY: Planetary temperatures (LB page 237)

In this activity learners will compare the temperatures of the different planets. Using the table provided
they must label each planet on the thermometer drawn below. This activity therefore requires that
learners can read information from a table and also from a graph.
The labelled image:

1. Neptune.
2. It is the furthest planet from the Sun.
3. The average temperatures of the terrestrial planets are much higher than the average temperatures of
the gas giants.
4. In general, the further away from the Sun a planet is, the lower its temperature.
Note: Venus is the exception because it has a very thick atmosphere and is undergoing a runaway
greenhouse effect which learners will discover later on in this chapter.

ACTIVITY: Comparing terrestrial planets and gas giants (LB page 238)

In this activity learners must compare and contrast the two types of planet using the information already
provided in this section.
Terrestrial Planets Gas Giants
close to the Sun far from the Sun

114
closely spaced orbits widely spaced orbits
small masses large masses
small radii large radii
mainly rocky mainly gaseous
solid surface no solid surface
high density low density
slower rotation faster rotation
few or no moons many moons
no rings many rings
thin atmosphere thick and dense atmosphere
warm cold

Learner-dependent answer. Answer in text below.

ACTIVITY: Comparing the inner and outer planets (LB page 238)

In this activity learners will use the information provided in the table below to answer questions which
compare the properties of the rocky planets and the gas giants. This is a good exercise to get learners to
read information from tables and to look for patterns in data.
The day length given here is the average time in hours for the Sun to move from the noon position in the
sky at a point on the equator back to the same position. This is not the same as the time for the planet to
complete one revolution on its axis with respect to the stars. For example, the Earth completes one
revolution on its axis with respect to the stars in 23.9 hours, however, because the Earth moves along in its
orbit as it rotates, it actually takes 24 hours for the Sun to return to the same position in the sky again
(which is how we conventionally define a day on Earth – from noon to noon).
1. Saturn would float on water as its density is less than that of water.
Note: This links back to what learners covered in Term 2 in Matter and Materials on the Particle Model
of Matter.
2. The inner rocky (terrestrial) planets are more dense than the outer gas giants, as the inner planets are
made of solid rock, which is denser than gas.
3. Jupiter.
4. The gas giants tend to have the shortest days which means that these planets must spin on their axes
faster than the terrestrial planets.
5. Mercury, because it is the closest planet to the Sun and has the least distance to cover.
6. Mercury.
7. An example graph is given below. You can use Assessment Rubric 3 at the back of your teachers guide
if you would like to assess this translation task.

ACTIVITY: Planetary holidays (LB page 243)

This is a creative writing activity for learners to explore the solar system in an imaginative way. Learners
will play the role of cosmic travel agents and will write a travel brochure for one of the planets in the solar
system (not Earth!). This activity can be done as a team or individually. Encourage learners to research
information about their chosen planet at the school or local library or on the Internet. Alternatively, they

115
can use the information provided in this chapter. You could also provide some examples of travel
brochures for them to look at as a guide. These are available free at travel agents. You could also ask the
learners to present their work in class.

ACTIVITY: Planet fact sheet (LB page 243)

In this activity learners must summarise all the information they know about a particular planet on a one
page fact sheet. This activity is easier than the Planetary holidays activity as it requires less imagination,
and can therefore be done as an alternative activity.

INVESTIGATION: Impact craters (LB page 244)

In this activity, learners will investigate how craters are formed by dropping balls into a tray of sand.
Although you can do this activity with flour, it works best with sand. There are two parts to this
experiment. In the first part learners will investigate how the mass of an object affects the crater size
formed. In the second part, learners will investigate how the height at which an object is dropped affects
the size of the crater it leaves. You can use more objects in the investigation if you have time, and as an
extension you can examine the effect of impact angle on the shape of the crater formed. You will need to
experiment beforehand with the type of sand that you are using. Before your class performs this
investigation, drop marbles into the sand that you have, to observe what kinds of craters the marbles
leave. Experiment with the best possible option, for example, you might need to add some moisture to the
sand so that you are able to see the craters.
Learner-dependent answer. Learners should give reasons for their answers.
1. While investigating the effect of object mass, the height that the objects are dropped from should
remain constant. While investigating the effect of dropping height, the mass of the object being
dropped should be kept constant.
2. In the first case – the mass of the object being dropped. In the second case – the height from which the
object is dropped.
Learner-dependent answer. Answers might include conducting more measurements.
Learner dependent answer. Learners should summarise their results and provide a reason why they think
they got the results they did.
1. The larger the mass of the impacting object, the larger the diameter of the crater.
2. The greater the height at which the object was dropped, the larger the size of the crater.
3. Objects dropped from greater heights hit the sand with a higher speed and therefore have greater
energy (kinetic energy). As they have more energy they make a larger impact crater.
It tells us that craters on the surfaces of other planets are formed due to impacts. The impacting objects
must have been travelling very fast or have been very massive, because the craters we observe on other
planets are much larger than the craters made in this experiment.
Gravity (the gravitational pull of the Sun).
1. orbit around the Sun.
2. be large enough that its own gravity pulls it into a spherical shape.
3. clear out smaller objects in its orbit, by either flinging them into another orbit or by attracting and then
sticking them to itself.
116
The Oort Cloud has not been observed. At this point, it is purely hypothetical although very likely. Its
existence cannot be stated as fact since it has not yet been confirmed to exist. We therefore refer to the
Oort Cloud as hypothetical or predicted.

ACTIVITY: A comet's ion tail (LB page 248)

In this activity learners will discover that a comet's ion tail always points away from the Sun, no matter
which way the comet is travelling! You can either get learners to make their own comet tails or if you do
not have many materials you can make one comet yourself and pass it around for the learners to see.
1. Directly away from you (as it is blown away by your breath).
2. It still moves directly away from you as it is blown away by your breath. It does not follow the direction
of movement of the comet.
At the time of producing these workbooks, comet ISON was approaching very near to the Sun.
Astronomers did not know if it would break up or not. Read more about it here 4 1.usa.gov/15Xwsa1 and
here 5 1.usa.gov/174cdbK See if you can find out what happened to comet ISON in the beginning of 2014,
and tell your learners about this, or set it as a fun, small homework task.

11.3 Earth's position. in the solar system

In this section learners will discover just how fortunate they are to be on Earth, which is currently the only
planet known to harbour life. They will consider the conditions thought necessary for life and compare
those with the conditions found on Earth and on Earth's neighbours. A nice way to introduce this topic is to
have a class discussion about whether learners think aliens exist on other planets and, if so, what they
might be like. This could then lead into a discussion about what conditions learners think are necessary for
life. Talking about aliens usually excites learners!

ACTIVITY: The Sun's habitable zone (LB page 249)

In this activity learners will plot a graph of distance versus temperature for the planets Venus, Earth and
Mars. They will also be provided with information regarding the habitable zone around the Sun. Using this
information learners will have to decide which of the three planets lie within the Sun's habitable zone.
Learners should plot the following points:

117
1. 464 °C.
2. No, it is too hot. Water boils at 100 °C.
3. -63 °C.
4. No, it is too cold. Water freezes at 0 °C.
5. 15 °C.
6. Yes, because the temperature on Earth is between water's melting and boiling points.
7. Only Earth.
You will probably find different quoted ranges for the habitable zone from different sources. This is
because different scientists have used slightly different criteria to define what "habitable" means. Many
studies focus on how life on Earth would be affected if the Earth were closer to or farther from the Sun.
However, the point at which life can no longer exist on Earth is uncertain.
Learner-dependent answer. This is also an ideal opportunity for a class discussion. Answers could include,
sunlight for energy, oxygen, carbon (we are carbon based), liquid water. Note that other life forms might
not be carbon based and that life comes in many forms like bacteria, animals and plants. Scientists are
looking for more than just human-like beings and other forms of life that we find on Earth. Also, we are
likely to be biased in what we think the conditions are that are needed for life, because we only know
about life on Earth.

Revision
1. By nuclear fusion reactions, where hydrogen is converted to helium.
2. They are much cooler than the rest of the surface. A typical sunspot temperature is around 3 900 °C
whereas the rest of the surface is around 5 500 °C. (Intensity is proportional to temperature).
3. The gravity between these objects and the Sun.
4. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
5. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
118
6. In between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
7. Out beyond the orbit of Neptune.
8. They are mostly made of hydrogen and helium which are the most abundant elements in the universe.
9. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
10. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
11. Its atmosphere is so thick, there is a runaway greenhouse effect on the planet heating the planet to
high temperatures.
12. Mars.
13. a) The hypothetical Oort Cloud.
b) Comets and icy objects.
14. As comets come close to the Sun, the Sun's heat evaporates their surface, resulting in long bright tails
which we can see. Far from the Sun it is too cold for the tails to form, so we have to wait until the
comet is close enough to the Sun for it to form a tail before we can see it.
15. The official definition of a planet states that a planet must orbit the Sun, be large enough so that its
own gravity squashes it into a spherical shape and that it has cleared out other objects from its orbital
path. Pluto has not swept out other objects from its orbit and so it was downgraded from planet to
dwarf planet status.
16. Earth has a moderate temperature, with liquid water on its surface. There is also abundant oxygen for
respiration and plenty of sunlight (energy) for plants to grow.
17. It would eventually lose all its liquid water and therefore would not be able to sustain life.
18. a) Planets c, f and e.
b) The orbits of these three planets lie within the habitable zone around the star. This is the zone
which is the right distance from the star for water to exist as a liquid, making these planets
possible candidates to support life.

119
 12 Beyond the solar system
Chapter overview
3 weeks
Thus far, the learners have only been exposed to solar system astronomy. In this chapter learners will now
be introduced to astronomy outside the solar system, which focuses on the studies of galaxies and the
Universe. The main aims of this chapter are to ensure that learners understand the following:
l The Sun is our closest star, but if it were farther away, it would appear just like all the other stars in the
sky at night.
l Stars are arranged in galaxies, held together by the force of gravity.
l Our own galaxy is called the Milky Way Galaxy.
l There are billions of other galaxies in the Universe and they come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
l The distances between stars and galaxies are enormous and so new units of measurement are needed
because familiar units like kilometres are too small to be useful.
l On the largest scale, matter in the Universe is arranged rather like a bath sponge, into thin filamentary
structures with large voids between them. If you have Internet access and a projector in your class, an
interesting and fun way to introduce what lies beyond our solar system, and beyond the Milky Way, is
to use this interactive animation 'Scale of the Universe', where you use a sliding scale to either zoom in
or zoom out, available here: 1 bit.ly/1iaQkZV. Start with the human-sized scale and zoom out. For
interest, you can also go back to the start and zoom in to get to the microscopic level and even smaller
for learners to appreciate the size of atoms.

12.1 The Milky Way Galaxy (2.5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Draw the Milky Way observing, identifying, drawing CAPS suggested
Activity: Make the Milky Way observing, identifying, CAPS suggested
(modelling)

12.3 Light years, light hours and light minutes (3 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Travelling fast calculating CAPS suggested
Activity: Scale of the solar system calculating, reading tables, CAPS suggested
analysing
Activity: Our closest stars reading tables, analysing CAPS suggested

12.4 What is beyond the Milky Way Galaxy? (2,5 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Comparing galaxies observing, identifying, Optional
describing, ranking

Note: There are two optional, extension activities included in this section. They are:
l Activity: Wine glass gravitational lens
l Activity: The expanding Universe

Key questions
l How far is our second closest star, Proxima Centauri?
120
l What is a galaxy and how many different types of galaxy are there?
l Where is our Sun located within our own Milky Way Galaxy?
l How do galaxies arrange themselves on the largest scales in the Universe?
l How large is the observable Universe and how many galaxies does it contain?

12.1 The Milky. Way Galaxy

In this section learners will discover that the Sun is one of about 200 billion stars in our home galaxy, the
Milky Way. Learners will be introduced to the main features of the Milky Way Galaxy which include its
central bulge, flat disk and spiral arms. Students will also learn the Sun's place within the Milky Way: we
are not in the centre of our galaxy, but rather are out on the edge of our galaxy, about halfway out from
the centre.
Some learners have difficulty in envisioning what they are actually looking at when they see the Milky Way
in the sky at night. In fact, every individual star that we see in the sky at night is part of our Milky Way. If
the Milky Way were spherical in shape, then we would not see the thin band of the Milky Way across the
sky, stars would be more uniformly distributed across the whole sky. However, because the Milky Way is
flat, when you look at the band of the Milky Way across the sky at night you are actually looking along the
plane of the disk of the galaxy in towards the centre where there is a high density of stars. The density of
stars is so high that they cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye, and so the Milky Way
appears as a white band of light across the sky.
Some of the arms have alternative names, a table is included here for reference in case other names are
listed in books or online.
Common name Alternative name
Norma Arm 3 kiloparsec Arm
Scutum-Crux Arm Centaurus Arm
Sagittarius Arm Sagittarius-Carina Arm
Orion Arm Local Arm
Perseus Arm –
Cygnus Arm Outer Arm

If learners are familiar with scientific notation, then the above diameter of the Milky Way can be written as
9.5 x 1017 km.

ACTIVITY: Draw the Milky Way (LB page 258)

The aim of this activity is to reinforce the idea that the Milky Way Galaxy is a spiral galaxy with five major
spiral arms in addition to some smaller arms. Learners will also be reminded that the Sun and Earth are not
at the centre of the galaxy, but rather about half way out along a minor arm called the Orion Arm.
Learner-dependent answer. Ask learners to explain their answers. A typical response could be that we
count the number of stars we see in each direction.

ACTIVITY: Make the Milky Way (LB page 258)

In this activity learners will make a model of the Milky Way. They must come up with the best materials
they can think of and obtain for their models. For example, they can use cardboard, cotton wool balls and
121
glitter. This can be done as a group model, where learners are given the task a couple days before the
lesson and they must collect the materials, or else you can supply a selection of materials in class which
they can then use to build the model. Encourage learners to be creative when thinking about the materials
to use to represent the different components. The aim of this activity is to give learners a three
dimensional view of the Milky Way, including the structure of the central bulge and the disk containing the
spiral arms. The glitter is used to represent the distribution of stars and the colours are used to
demonstrate how old and young stars are distributed in the galaxy. The life cycle of stars in not covered
until Grade 9. Therefore, although you may want to mention that the stellar populations in the bulge and
the disk of our galaxy are different, it is not essential to do so.
Examples of other materials to supply are:
l a bag of cotton balls or pillow stuffing
l glue
l string
l pencil
l red, blue, gold and silver glitter
l star sticker
Learners must come up with their own model designs. An example design is included here if you would
prefer to make one which you then use to demonstrate to learners, instead of them making their own:
1. Build a dome of cotton balls in the centre of one side of the cardboard. Use glue to keep the cotton
balls in place. The dome should be about 8 cm across and 4cm high.
2. Repeat on other side of the board. The cotton ball dome represents the bulge of our galaxy.
3. Pull the outer cotton balls into six spirals around the cotton ball dome. These represent the five major
spiral arms found in the disk of our galaxy, in addition to the minor spiral arm that our Sun is found in.
4. Dribble glue on the spiral arms and sprinkle blue and silver glitter on the glue. These represent hot
newly forming stars.
5. Dribble glue all over the cotton wool dome ball in the middle and sprinkle this glue with gold and red
glitter to represent cooler, older stars.
6. Mark a position 8 cm from the centre inside one of the spiral arms.
7. Stick the star sticker on the spiral arm at the marked position. This marks the position of our Sun.
8. Make a hole in the centre of the model and thread it with a string so that it can be hung up.

1. The disk and the bulge.

2. In the disk.
3. Our Sun is located in a spiral arm.
4. Just over half way out from the centre.

12.2 Our nearest star

In this brief section learners will be introduced to the large distances found between stars in preparation
for the following section on light hours, minutes and seconds.
The following is an optional, extension activity that you can do on scientific notation with your learners.
Scientific notation is only covered in Gr 9 Mathematics, however. many of the numbers used in this
chapter are very long, and so can be written in scientific notation. Also, if you do some of the subsequent
activities doing calculations with a calculator, the answers will be given in scientific notation. It is therefore
useful for learners to know what this is. You can use the following activity to explain scientific notation to
learners and write some of the examples given in the tables on the board as examples.

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12.3 Light years, light hours and light minutes
In this section, learners will be introduced to the concept of light years, light hours and light minutes.
These units of distance are used for interstellar (between stars) and interplanetary (between planets)
distances because the distances involved are huge and familiar units like metres and kilometres are just
too small. Because of the references to time in each of these distance units, learners can often mistake
these units as units of time rather than units of distance. It is important to address this misconception. For
example, a light hour is the distance that light travels in one hour of time. Although time is involved the
final measurement is actually a distance. A useful activity to introduce the topic is to ask learners how far
they estimate they could walk, run and cycle in one hour. Although they have to use time in their
estimation they should understand that they are estimating a distance. This example also includes the
concept of speed. Learners should understand that if they move faster they will travel further in a given
hour. Starting off by using activities that they are familiar with should prove useful when then going on to
deal with the rather abstract concept of the speed of light.
This section is fairly mathematical, and learners will need a calculator to complete the activities. It is useful
(although not essential) if learners understand scientific notation. Learners need to understand what a
million, billion and trillion correspond to and so if in doubt it might prove useful to remind learners of the
powers of ten involved for millions, billions and trillions. Formulae for calculations have been provided
where necessary, and it is expected that most learners will be familiar with the formula speed = distance /
time. If learners are unfamiliar with this concept it would be a useful exercise to explain this before starting
on the exercises in this section

ACTIVITY: Travelling fast (LB page 261)

Mode of transport Speed (km/h) Distance between Time taken for the
Cape Town and journey
Durban (km)
cheetah 120 1753 14.6 hours
peregrine falcon 389 1753 4.5 hours
high speed train 581 1753 3.0 hours
NASA's scramjet 7000 1753 15 minutes
International space 27744 1753 3.8 minutes
station
light 1 079 252 850 1753 0.006 seconds

It is the distance that light travels in one minute.

A light minute is smaller because the light has less time to travel in a minute than an hour. So a light
minute must be shorter because this represents the distance that light travels in a minute.
One minute.

ACTIVITY: Scale of the solar system (LB page 263)

Question 7 in the activity is an advanced question for able learners.

1. 8.32 light minutes.
2. 8.32 minutes.
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3. We see the Sun as it was 8.32 minutes ago.
4. 30 times further. This is calculated by dividing the distance from the Sun to Neptune by the distance
from the Sun to Earth: 4495/150 = 30.
5. 4.17 light hours.
6. 4.17 hours.
7. If you see the flare happen from Earth, then the flare happened 8 minutes ago. The light from the Sun
showing the flare takes 4.2 hours to reach Neptune (about 4 hours 24 minutes), so your cousin will
only see the flare in 4 hours 16 minutes time.

ACTIVITY: Our closest stars (LB page 264)

In this activity learners will get a feel for how "close" the nearest stars are to the Sun. The idea of this
activity is to familiarise learners with the idea that stellar distances are generally measured in light years
(rather than light minutes or hours which apply to solar system objects).
1. Proxima Centauri.
2. Sirius is 8.58 light years away.
3. Light takes 5.96 years to reach us from Barnard's star.
4. It means that the star is at the distance that light can travel in 8.58 years. It means that light takes 8.58
years to reach us on Earth from Sirius.

12.4 What is beyond the Milky Way Galaxy?

In this section learners will find out what lies beyond our own galaxy. They will learn that there are billions
of other galaxies in our Universe of all shapes and sizes. They will learn about the different types of
galaxies, i.e. ellipticals, spirals, barred spirals, lenticular and irregular types. Learners do not have to know
the actual names of the different shapes (this is included for interest), but they must know the shape of the
Milky Way Galaxy and understand that other galaxies have different shapes. The will also look at how
galaxies are arranged in the Universe: into groups and clusters of galaxies, and finally they will look at the
Universe on its grandest scale finding out how matter is arranged into voids and filaments.
Extra information on the different shapes of galaxies:
l Spiral galaxies have a central bulge and a flat disk with spiral arms.
l Some spiral galaxies have arms that do not start at the centre of the galaxy but start at the end of a
bright straight bar that goes across the centre of the galaxy. These are called barred spiral galaxies.
l Elliptical galaxies look smooth and are shaped like giant rugby balls with no spiral arms. Some can be
round and some can be very elongated. They contain old stars and have very little gas and dust.
l A lenticular galaxy is in between a spiral galaxy and an elliptical galaxy. They are disk galaxies (like
spiral galaxies) but do not have defined arms as they have lost most of their dust and gas. As a result,
there is little star formation happening and they consist of mostly old stars (like elliptical galaxies.)
l Irregular galaxies do not look like spirals or elliptical galaxies. Some (but not all) irregular galaxies are
actually two or more galaxies in the process of colliding.
There is a really relevant link provided in the Visit box for the citizen science project, Galaxy Zoo. This is a
really great way for you and learners to become actively involved in some real science research related to
what you are doing in class. If you have Internet access and a projector in your class, a suggestion is to
bring this site up and go through some of the galaxies with your learners and classify them according to
their shapes.
Find out more about incorporating real science into your classroom with Zooniverse citizen science

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projects at the ZooTeach website: 2 bit.ly/H6krWT. Citizen science offers you a free, easily accessible and
inspiring opportunity to bring real science into the classroom. ZooTeach is a website where teachers and
educators can share high quality lesson plans and resources that complement the Zooniverse citizen
science projects.

ACTIVITY: Comparing galaxies (LB page 266)

This is an optional, extension activity. In this activity learners will describe and compare the appearance of
six different galaxies. They will also rank the galaxies in terms of increasing distance from Earth.
Galaxy name Galaxy type
Barred spiral galaxy (because it has spiral arms with
a bright, central bar)

Milky Way Galaxy.

Elliptical galaxy (because it is round and smooth
with no spiral arms)

Galaxy M 89, 60 million light years away.

Spiral galaxy (because it has spiral arms)

Galaxy NGC 4622, 111 million light years away.

Irregular galaxy (it does not have spiral arms and
is not a smooth oval shape like elliptical galaxies. It
looks like an irregular shape)

The Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy. This satellite

galaxy of our own Milky Way is only 163 000 light

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years away.
Lenticular galaxy (because it is disc shaped, with a
central bulge, but no spiral arms)

The Spindle Galaxy, 44 million light years away.

Extension content and activity

Galaxy clusters are beautiful yet peculiar objects. They seem to be full of a mysterious unseen type of
matter which has not yet been identified. From its gravitational effects on the gas and galaxies in the
cluster, astronomers estimate that this strange matter could be about five times more massive than all the
galaxies and hot gas in a cluster combined. Astronomers have no idea what this mysterious matter is and
call it dark matter, because they cannot see it. It turns out that this strange matter is not only found in
clusters of galaxies, but is spread throughout space.

The galaxy cluster called Abell 2218. Each point of light is a galaxy.
If you look closely at the image of galaxy cluster Abell 2218, in addition to the galaxies that make up the
cluster you can see thin arcs. These are images of distant galaxies behind the cluster that are distorted by
matter in the cluster. The cluster of galaxies acts like a giant lens, bending and distorting the light coming
from the more distant galaxies. The distant galaxies are not actually this funny shape, they are usually
elliptical or spiral shaped. They just appear this way because of the lensing. Matter bends light, just like a
lens does, although the effect is much weaker, otherwise our torches would have bent light beams. When
matter acts to bend light astronomers refer to the matter as a gravitational lens. Clusters of galaxies make
excellent gravitational lenses because they are so massive. Most of the lensing however does not come
from the galaxies or the hot gas in the cluster, but from the unseen dark matter within the cluster.

Revision
1. Proxima Centauri. 4.24 light years away.
2. Alpha Centauri. Alpha Centauri is actually a multiple star system containing the stars Alpha Centauri A
and B closely orbiting each other. To the naked eye these two stars look like a single star. Proxima
Centauri is also thought to be a member of this star system but it is farther away from the other two
stars.
3. A light year is the distance that light travels in one year.
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4. A galaxy is a massive collection of stars, dust and gas held together by gravity. A typical galaxy contains
hundreds of billions of stars.
5. It is located in the Orion spiral arm halfway out from the centre of the galaxy.
6. 200 billion.
7. Elliptical galaxies, spiral galaxies, barred spiral galaxies and irregular galaxies.
8. The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy.
9. Learners must draw the spiral shape of the galaxy from above. The exact positioning of the arms is not
important, but learners must show the position of the Sun towards the edge of one of the arms, Orion.
From the edge on, learners must show a flat disk with a bulge in the middle, and they must locate the
position of the Sun towards the one side of the disk.
10. The Milky Way Galaxy is a flat disk and when you look at the band of the Milky Way across the sky at
night you are actually looking along the plane of the disk of the Galaxy in towards the centre where
there is a high density of stars.
11. A collection of galaxies, held together by gravity.
12. The Local Group.
13. A cluster of galaxies is a collection of 50 or more galaxies held together by gravity. Clusters of galaxies
often group together to form larger structures called superclusters of galaxies.
14. The size of the observable Universe is 93 billion light years in diameter.
15. The Universe is made of thin walls called filaments which contain the galaxies and gas and dust. In
between the filaments lie empty bubbles called voids.

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 13 Looking into space
Chapter overview
2 weeks
In Grades 6 and 7 learners covered material regarding the viewing of space and telescopes.
In Grade 6 they were introduced to telescopes including SALT and the SKA. In Grade 7, they focused on the
historical development of modern astronomy including ancient observations and indigenous starlore all
the way up to modern scientific developments. In this chapter the focus is on how we observe objects in
space using telescopes. Some history showing how early astronomers viewed and interpreted the stars and
planets in the sky is also included. Learners will have the opportunity to conduct their own observations of
the Southern Cross as well as learn about the latest telescopes being developed in South Africa.
The main aims of this chapter are to ensure that learners understand the following:
l Early cultures studied the stars and planets using the naked eye. They often grouped stars together in
patterns called constellations.
l Astronomers now use telescopes to study galaxies, stars and planets.
l Telescopes help astronomers see fainter objects, because they act as light collecting buckets.
l South Africa is host to the largest optical telescope in the southern hemisphere and will be hosting the
majority of the largest radio telescope ever, the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). Section 3.1 covers the
early observations of space and section 3.2 covers modern day telescopes.

13.1 Early viewing of space (2 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Using star maps to observing, comparing CAPS suggested
observe the night sky
Activity: Observing the observing, comparing CAPS suggested
Southern Cross (Crux)
Activity: Constellation starlore researching, oral CAPS suggested
communication

13.2 Telescopes (4 hours)

Tasks Skills Recommendation
Activity: Telescopes as light observing, analysing, comparing CAPS suggested
buckets
Activity: Comparing your eye comparing, observing, Optional
with SALT calculating, estimating
Activity: Draw a telescope drawing, labelling, describing CAPS suggested
Activity: Telescope information listing, researching,describing, CAPS suggested
poster writing
Activity: Careers in astronomy discussing, analysing CAPS suggested

Key questions
l How did early cultures observe and interpret the night sky?
l How does a telescope help us to see more objects in the sky and in greater detail?
l What kind of telescopes are there?
l Why is South Africa a good place for locating telescopes?
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13.1 Early viewing of space
In Gr. 7 learners were introduced to indigenous knowledge about the stars and planets under the historical
development of astronomy. This section focused primarily on the practical uses of star observations, such
as timekeeping and navigation, along with an introduction to starlore associated with the Moon, Milky
Way and other celestial bodies. In this section the focus will lie in the observations of constellations (and
the planets) and starlore associated with one example constellation. A good way to introduce the topic of
the early viewing of space, is to ask learners if they know of any stories about famous constellations or the
planets. This facilitates discussions about constellations visible in the sky and how the stars are actually
related in space.

ACTIVITY: Using star maps to observe the night sky (LB page 272)

In this activity learners will use the star map provided to identify three constellations in the night sky visible
during September/October/November. If you want to generate a star map specific to your location and
date you can freely download a sky map from 1 bit.ly/17e1jm3 . All you need to do is select the area from
which you want to view, by clicking on 'select from map' or 'from database' and selecting your location.
Your location will then be saved. You can then click on the 'Sky chart' link further down to view a map of
the night's sky from your location at the current time. You can save and print this for learners. For example,
here are the links to the sky maps for several places in South Africa. A suggestion is to also organise this
activity as a field trip at night. Go beyond the city lights to an area where you are able to view the stars
more clearly without light interference. Also take note of when the full Moon occurs, as reflected light
from the Moon can also interfere with star gazing.
Location Link
Bloemfontein bit.ly/17GyAAH
Cape Town bit.ly/1bSSCeq
Durban bit.ly/17dZZ2m

ACTIVITY: Observing the Southern Cross (Crux) (LB page 273)

In this activity learners will observe the Southern Cross constellation at least three times during the months
of September and October. Learners should make sure that they try to observe the constellation at the
same time each night.
The constellation should appear to rotate in a clockwise direction over time. Inearly September its long axis
is fairly horizontal in the sky but the constellation gradually rotates so that by early November its long axis
is almost pointing downwards.

ACTIVITY: Constellation starlore (LB page 274)

This is a research activity for learners to complete. They will study ancient stories about a constellation of
their choice. You can either provide them with books or printed resources or if they have access to the
Internet you could ask them to conduct an online search. You may ask learners to pick South African
stories, or if you want, you could extend their research to other countries for comparisons with South
African starlore. You can ask learners to present their story to the class either as an oral presentation or a
poster, or if you wish you can turn this into a writing task.

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13.2 Telescopes
In Gr 6 learners were introduced to telescopes including the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) and
the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). In this section learners explore how telescopes work in more detail.
There is a particular focus on comparing the telescope with our eye. Simple ray diagrams are shown which
link to material covered in Gr 8 Energy and Change, Chapter 4 on Visible Light. Two case studies are
explored in more detail: SALT and the SKA, and learners will find out why South Africa is an ideal location
for professional telescopes.
By radiation, as electromagnetic waves travel in straight lines.
The image is inverted, it is upside down.
In the image above the tree is upside down in the top eye because images on the retina are upside down.
In the bottom eye the tree is the right way up because the telescope inverts the image of the tree.
A biconvex lens.
The light is refracted and the light rays converge as the light passes from one medium to another.

ACTIVITY: Telescopes as light buckets (LB page 277)

In this activity learners will discover how a telescope collects more light than our eyes can and as a
consequence can help us to see fainter and more distant objects. As well as demonstrating how telescopes
collect light, this activity also shows learners how telescopes focus light from distant objects to a point.
This activity introduces the concept of photons, or packets of light. This is not a formal part of the
curriculum in Gr 8, and is not explained in detail. The idea that a finite amount of light hits a telescope
mirror or eye per second is crucial to this activity and the understanding of why telescopes are useful. If
you feel that you would rather omit the concept of photons, you could instead talk about the rice grains
representing rays of light.
The wooden skewers used for making kebabs or sosaties are ideal for this activity.
1. The paper plate.
2. No.
3. Yes.
4. The telescope mirror has a curved surface and reflects the light hitting it, therefore causing the light to
focus at a point.

ACTIVITY: Compare your eye with SALT (LB page 278)

This is an optional activity. In this activity learners work in pairs. Learners should estimate that their
reaction time is of the order of 1/10th of a second. But as long as they estimate 1s or less this is perfectly
fine. They will use this value as their eye's exposure time. In fact roughly every 1/15th of a second, the eye
sends the brain another image. So the eye has about one-fifteenth of a second to collect light when making
an image.
1. Light is collected over the area of your pupil and over the whole area of the telescope.
2. Learner-dependent answer. Assuming a pupil diameter of 0.5 cm and a SALT mirror diameter of 10 m
the answer is 4 000 000 ((1000 cm x 1000 cm) / (0.5 cm x 0.5 cm))
3. It would increase. Note that this experiment shows us that we do not see or react instantaneously. It

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 takes time for the image of the moving pencil to be recorded and for us to react, so we do have a kind
of exposure time.
4. Learner-dependent answer. Assuming a reaction time of 1/10th second and a SALT exposure time of
20 minutes the answer is 12,000 (20 x 60s / 0.1s).
Extension content on another advantage of telescopes, namely angular resolution
Telescopes also have another advantage over the eye. Telescopes can better distinguish between objects
that are close together on the sky. The ability to see things that are close together as separate objects
rather than seeing one smeared or fuzzy object results in a sharper image. In astronomy, "close together"
means "separated by a small angle on the sky," so astronomers refer to the angular resolution of a
telescope. The higher the angular resolution of a telescope, the better it is at seeing narrowly separated
objects as individual objects and the sharper the images look.
The images below show what photographs of the same galaxy look like with different angular resolutions.

The same galaxy viewed with increasing angular resolution from (A) to (D). The image gets sharper with
increasing angular resolution. In (A) the telescope is able to distinguish between objects separated by an
angle of only 1/6 of a degree or more. In (D) the telescope can see objects separated by an angle of only
1/3600 of a degree or more.
In the following activity learners will measure the angular resolution of your eye and then compare it with
that of the SALT telescope.
Misconceptions about magnification
Many students want to know how much a telescope "magnifies" an image as they think this is the most
important characteristic of a telescope. Telescopes do magnify images, but this is not the main reason why
they are so useful. After all, a magnified dim image would still be dim and difficult to make out and a
magnified blurry image would still be blurry and wouldn't help you see anything. Astronomers care more
about how much light the telescope can collect and also its angular resolution: how bright, sharp and clear
its images are. These properties both depend upon the size of the collecting mirror or lens rather than the

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magnification. With telescopes, bigger really is better.
Both of the lenses are convex lenses which means that they cause light rays to converge or come together.
No, Violet is bent the most. Bluer colours are slowed more than redder colours and so they are bent or
refracted more.
Learner-dependent answer. Answers could include that the images could look colour-separated and blurry.
So that it does not block much light from the distant object as it travels to the primary mirror.
No, they do not, because they do not use a lens to collect and focus the light, but rather use mirrors which
reflect light.
This is a good opportunity to get learners to think about the conditions needed to make good observations
of very faint objects. You may need to lead the discussion. They should understand that ideally they should
collect as much light from the object with minimal stray light from other sources. You can lead the
discussion by first asking them what the air is like on the top of mountains and also what the weather is
like and asking them about how bright they think the sky is up a mountain compared to in a city. Possible
answers include:
1. They are far away from the light pollution from large cities and towns
2. They are above dust and other types of atmospheric pollution.
3. They are above low cloud.
4. The air is thinner and so there is less absorption of the starlight by the Earth's atmosphere.
5. There is less air turbulence resulting in sharper images.
It does not have a secondary mirror to reflect the light to an eyepiece, but rather a detector located at the
focal point.
Background information
This is because the angular resolution depends not only on the diameter of the collecting mirror but also
upon the wavelength of the light. The minimum angle at which two objects can be distinguished on the sky
is proportional to the wavelength of light used and inversely proportional to the diameter of the collecting
mirror. As radio waves are much longer than visible light, the diameter of the collecting mirror must
increase to compensate if you require the same angular resolution.

ACTIVITY: Careers in Astronomy (LB page 289)

In this activity learners will discuss the sorts of jobs that are available in astronomy. As well as
astronomers, facilities like SALT and the SKA need engineers, technicians, computer scientists, project
managers, HR professionals, accountants and administrative staff. This is a creative and challenging activity
for learners to imagine what contribution they could make to astronomy in South Africa.

ACTIVITY: Draw a telescope (LB page 289)

In this activity learners choose a telescope they want to focus on and a draw a picture of the telescope
labelling the parts and describing what each part does. They can use the examples in this chapter or they
can search online for examples of optical and radio telescopes.

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ACTIVITY: Telescope information poster (LB page 290)

In this activity learners will make a poster about a specific telescope they have conducted research on.
They can choose any type of telescope including ground-based and space telescopes. They should describe
how the telescope works and provide some examples of the sorts of astronomy that the telescope is used
for.

Revision
1. Constellations.
2. Learner-dependent answer. Answers could include, Orion, the Southern Cross, Pavo the Peacock, the
Phoenix.
3. Refracting telescopes use lenses to collect and focus light.
4. Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to collect and focus light.
5. Examples include: the glass of the mirror does not have to be perfect throughout, only the surface has
to be perfect. The mirror can be supported across the whole of its back so it won't sag. Making large
mirrors is easier and cheaper than making big lenses. They do not suffer from chromatic aberration.
6. They collect radio waves.
7. Radio telescopes can be used when it is cloudy and they can be used both during the day and during
the night whereas optical telescopes need clear skies and can only be used at night.
8. X-rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere and so do not make it to the ground. So telescopes to
detect X-rays must be placed above the Earth's atmosphere in space.
9. Because the images are not smeared out by the turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere.
10. To get a complete picture of the object they want to study.
11. The Southern African Large Telescope, SALT.
12. It is far from any cities and their associated light pollution, it is dry there, it is at high altitude.
13. 64 dishes.
14. 3000 dishes.
15. Answers could include: exoplanets, magnetism in space, pulsars and gravity, galaxy evolution and star
formation.

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