1.

Recommendations for structural analyses

The modern seismic design approach is based on the idea that much of the earthquake-
induced energy in the structure is dissipated by plastic mechanisms. It is not reasonable to resist
this action entirely in the elastic domain, except for very special situations, such as atomic
power stations etc. Current trends are to better control the energy dissipation, i.e. the system is
chosen, directed and controlled by the engineer. As a result of this principle, plastic
deformations are generally accepted only in the beams close to the joints and, at the end, at the
bottom of columns. They are not accepted along the columns and they should not be in the joints
of the frame to avoid the risk of formation of a floor mechanism. All other elements must
remain essentially in the elastic range until the mechanism has exhausted its dissipation
capacity.
Consequently, the steps of this simplified calculation (at this application) will be as
follows:
1. Calculate the seismic force;
2. Distribute the seismic force to frames;
3. Calculate the internal forces and moments in the structural members;
4. Establish the cross-sections of dissipative members (links);
5. Determine the plastic reserve of the chosen plastic mechanism;
6. Establish the cross-sections of columns (that are not supposed to go into the plastic range).
The structural members shall be checked for two types of design situations (load
combinations):
• persistent design situations (fundamental load combinations);
• seismic design situations (special load combinations).
In persistent design situations, internal forces and moments are calculated using design
values of actions. All actions are taken into account except for exceptional ones like explosions,
fire or earthquake.
In the seismic design situations, the values of permanent loads are generally considered
with their nominal values while for variable loads the long-term component ψ2,i is considered.
Recommendations for snow load (CR 1-1-3:2012 [11]; EN 1991-1-3 [18])
s = 1s   i  C e  C t  s k (CR 1-1-3:2012 [11], rel. (4.1)) (1.1)
γ1s = 1,0
μi = 0,8
Ce = 1,0
Ct = 1,0
Recommendations for wind load (CR 1-1-4:2012 [12]; EN 1991-1-4 [19])
w e (z e ) = 1w  c pe  q p (z e ) (CR 1-1-4:2012 [12], rel. (3.1)) (1.2)

q p (z ) = ce (z )  q b (CR 1-1-4:2012 [12], rel. (2.20)) (1.3)

Figure 1-1 Reference height, ze, depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure
profile (CR 1-1-4:2012 [12], Fig. 4.4 or, alternatively, in EN 1991-1-4 [19], Fig. 7.4])

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Figure 1-2 Illustrations of the exposure factor ce(z) (CR 1-1-4:2012 [12], Fig. 2.2 or, alternative
values, in EN 1991-1-4 [19], Fig. 4.2])

Table 1-1 Recommended values of external pressure coefficients for vertical walls of
rectangular plan buildings (CR 1-1-4:2012 [12], Tab. 4.1 or, alternative values, in EN 1991-1-4
[19], Fig. 7.1])

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Figure 1-3 Reference height, ze, depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure
profile (CR 1-1-4:2012 [12], Fig. 4.4 or, alternative, in EN 1991-1-4 [19], Fig. 7.4])

Figure 1-4 Key for vertical walls (CR 1-1-4:2012 [12], Fig. 4.5 or, alternative, in EN 1991-1-4
[19], Fig. 7.5])

1. Determine the seismic force

The Romanian code P100-1:2013 [14] recommends the following relation for calculating
the seismic base shear force:
Fb = Sd (T1 )  m   (EN 1998-1 [13], rel. (4.5)) (1.4)
Fb = 1,e  Sd (T1 )  m   (P100-1:2013 [14], rel. (4.3)) (1.5)
where:
γ1,e – coefficient depending on the building importance (see P100-1:2013 [14] Tab. 4.2,
page 29 and EN 1998-1 [13] Tab. 4.3, page 44; in this case we can consider γ1,e =
1,2; the classification is different between P100-1:2013 and EN 1998-1 [13]);
Sd(T1) – the ordinate of the design spectrum at period T1;
m – the total mass of the building, above the foundation or above the top of a rigid
basement (it is calculated using the nominal values of permanent loads and the
quasi-permanent fraction of variable loads ψ2,i given in CR0: 2012 [16] or in EN
1990 [17]);
• ψ2 – the combination coefficient for (the quasi-permanent value of) variable
actions;
• ψ2 = 0,3 for live loads (in this case);
• ψ2 = 0,4 for snow loads (in this case);
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 λ – the correction factor that takes into account the contribution of the fundamental
vibration mode by its associated modal mass;
λ = 0,85 if T1 ≤ Tc (T1 ≤ 2Tc EN 1998-1 [13]) and the building has more than two
storeys (P100-1:2013 [14]);
λ = 1,00 in all other cases;
For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the design spectrum, Sd(T), shall be
defined by the following relations:
 0 
 −1 
Sd (T ) = a g  1 +
q
0  T  TB  T (P100-1:2013 [14], rel. (3.17)) (1.6)
 TB 
 

(T )
T  TB Sd (T ) = a g   0,2  a g (P100-1:2013 [14], rel. (3.18)) (1.7)
q
or:
2 T  2,5 2 
0  T  TB Sd (T ) = a g  S   +   −  (EN 1998-1 [13], rel. (3.13)) (1.8)
 3 TB  q 3 

Sd (T ) = a g  S 
2,5
TB  T  TC (EN 1998-1 [13], rel. (3.14)) (1.9)
q

 2,5  TC 
= a g  S   
TC  T  TD Sd (T )  q T (EN 1998-1 [13], rel. (3.15)) (1.10)
   a
 g

 2,5  TC  TD 
= a g  S   
TD  T S d (T )  q  T2  (EN 1998-1 [13], rel. (3.16)) (1.11)
   a
 g

where S is the soil factor (1,0 – 1,4) (EN 1998-1 [13], Tab. 3.2, Tab. 3.3).
ag – the design ground acceleration on type A ground;
q – the behaviour factor (P100-1:2013 [14], ch. 6) (EN 1998-1 [13] ch. 6);
q = 4,0 (presuming DCM structure);
q = 6,0 (presuming DCH structure);
β – the lower bound factor for the horizontal design spectrum.

In the general situation, ag is read from spectra based on data in (Figure 1-5) and (Figure 1-6).
In this simplified case:
T 
Fb = 1,e  m  a g    ; β = 2,5 (1.12)
q

The seismic force on the ith floor is calculated with the following relation:
m s
Fi = Fb  n i i (P100-1:2013 [14], rel. (4.4);
 m j s j
j=1
EN 1998-1 [13], rel. (4.10))
(1.13)

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ONLY if the mass on each floor is identical and the deformed shape corresponding to the first
vibration mode is approximated by a triangular diagram, we can consider a simplified relation:
i
Fi = Fb  n
j
j=1
(1.14)

Figure 1-5 Design ground acceleration ag (P100-1:2013 [14], Fig. 3.1)

Figure 1-6 The upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch TC (P100-
1:2013 [14], Fig. 3.2)
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The possible torsion of the building caused by the seismic action needs to be taken into account
using an eccentricity of the force equal to 0,05 of the dimension of the building normal to the
direction of the force.
Given the fact that the earthquake can act on any direction, in order not to be obliged to consider
360 directions of action, in situations where the superposition of the effects of the components
on the two main directions (in a structural member) has to be taken into account, the following
type of combinations are considered to be on the safe side:
(P100-1:2013 [14], rel. (4.14);
EEdx  0,30  EEdy (1.15)
EN 1998-1 [13], rel. (4.18))
(P100-1:2013 [14], rel. (4.15);
0,30  EEdx  EEdy (1.16)
EN 1998-1 [13], rel. (4.19))
REMARK: In the case of braced steel structures, the systems for resisting the components of
seismic forces in the two main directions of the building are generally well defined and
separated, so it is not necessary to considered these combined effects.

The effects of actions on structures are considered based on design situations, also known
before as “load combinations” defined in codes like EN 1990 [20] or CR 0-2012 [29].

design situations (EN 1990 [20], def. 1.5.2.2) – sets of physical conditions representing the real
conditions occurring during a certain time interval for which the design will demonstrate that
relevant limit states are not exceeded.

The most commonly used such design situations are:

• persistent design situations (EN 1990 [20], def. 1.5.2.4) – design situation that is
relevant during a period of the same order as the design working life of the structure
(NOTE: Generally, it refers to conditions of normal use).
• seismic design situations (EN 1990 [20], def. 1.5.2.7) – design situation involving
exceptional conditions of the structure when subjected to a seismic event.
where:
• design working life (EN 1990 [20], def. 1.5.2.8) – assumed period for which a structure
or part of it is to be used for its intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but
without major repair being necessary.

Examples of such design situations (load combinations) are given in the relations below:
• persistent design situations
n n
 G   G k , j   Q,1  Q k ,1    Q,i   0,i  Q k ,i (1.17)
j=1 i=2

There are 4 possible directions to be considered for the wind load. Each variable load
shall be considered “the dominant variable load” successively in combinations.

• seismic design situations

n n

G
j=1
k, j    2,i  Q k ,i  A Ed
i =1
(1.18)

Given the previous REMARK, 8 of the 16 possible seismic combinations, each one
including one main direction of the seismic action (and the torsion effect), need to be
considered.

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In the previous relations:
Gk,j – characteristic value of permanent action j;
Qk,1 – characteristic value of the leading variable action 1;
Qk,i – characteristic value of the accompanying variable action i;
AEd – design value of seismic action;
γG – partial factor for permanent actions, also accounting for model un certainties and
dimensional variations;
γQ,1 – partial factor for the leading variable action, also accounting for model uncertainties and
dimensional variations;
γQ,i – partial factor for variable action i;
ψ0,i – partial factor for combination value of variable action i;
ψ2,i – partial factor for quasi-permanent value of variable action i;
 – implies “to be combined with”.

To ease seismic analysis in ordinary design, the following combination can be used:
GQS – gravitational loads associated to earthquake;
n n
GQS =  G k , j    2,i  Q k ,i (1.19)
j=1 i =1

The seismic design situations are then written as:

GQS  A Ed (1.20)
The eccentric action of the seismic force can be expressed as a separate load case
consisting of a couple of forces that generate the torsion moment. Consequently, the
seismic action will be define using the following load cases:
SX – the translation effect of the seismic action applied along the X axis;
SY – the translation effect of the seismic action applied along the Y axis;
STX – the torsion effect of the seismic action applied along the X axis;
STY – the torsion effect of the seismic action applied along the Y axis.

The seismic design situations (seismic load combinations) can be expressed as:
SLC1 → 1,0  GQS  (+ 1,0)  SX  (+ 1,0)  STX (1.21)
SLC2 → 1,0  GQS  (+ 1,0)  SX  (− 1,0)  STX (1.22)
SLC3 → 1,0  GQS  (− 1,0)  SX  (+ 1,0)  STX (1.23)
SLC4 → 1,0  GQS  (− 1,0)  SX  (− 1,0)  STX (1.24)
SLC5 → 1,0  GQS  (+ 1,0)  SY  (+ 1,0)  STY (1.25)
SLC6 → 1,0  GQS  (+ 1,0)  SY  (− 1,0)  STY (1.26)
SLC7 → 1,0  GQS  (− 1,0)  SY  (+ 1,0)  STY (1.27)
SLC8 → 1,0  GQS  (− 1,0)  SY  (− 1,0)  STY (1.28)

The values of the ψ2 factors are given in tables like Table 1-2 or Table 1-3, depending on the
code that is used.

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Table 1-2 Recommended values of ψ factors for buildings (CR0: 2012 [16], Tab. 7.1)

live loads

snow load

As an alternative to this table, EN 1990 [17], Tab.A.1.1 can be considered.

Table 1-3 Recommended values of ψ factors for buildings (EN 1990 [20], Tab. A1.1)

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