DURABILITY OF CONCRETE MADE WITH GROUNDNUT ASH AS

CEMENT REPLACEMENT

BY

GODDEY OJODOMO ABAH

NDA/PGDCE/ PO3320

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE

STUDIES, NIGERIAN DEFENCE ACADEMY, KADUNA
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF A POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
NIGERIA DEFENCE ACADEMY, KADUNA, NIGERIA

JULY 2022

i
 DECLARATION

I declare that the research work entitled “Durability of concrete made with

groundnut shell ash (G.S.A) as cement replacement” for the award of a Post

Graduate Diploma has been performed by me in the Department of Civil

Engineering, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna under the Supervision of Dr. J.E

Sani. The information derived from the Literature has been duly acknowledged by

means of reference.

..…………….. ………….
Goddey Ojodomo Abah Date
STUDENT

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this work entitled Durability of concrete made with

groundnut shell ash ( G.S.A) as cement replacement meets the regulations

governing the award of a Post Graduate Diploma in Civil Engineering of Nigerian

Defence Academy, Kaduna.

…………………………………. ………………….
DR. JE SANI DATE
SUPERVISOR

………………………………….. ………………….
DR S AHMED
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT DATE

…………………………………... ………………….
PROF. YA UMAR
DEAN, POST GRADUATE SCHOOL DATE

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincere gratitude goes to the Almighty God for his grace to complete this

program successfully may His name be praised forever.

I am also grateful to my project supervisor Dr. JE Sani for taking time despite his

tight schedule to supervise my work I say thank you sir.

My thank goes to the Head of Department Civil Engineering Dr. S Ahmed for his

Advice and encouragement throughout the course of my study.

I will also like to appreciate the various efforts of my Lecturers Prof. G Moses,

Late Prof. FOP Oriola, Col IA Chukwujama (Rtd), Late. Dr. J.O. Afolayan and Dr.

RL Batagarawa. God bless you all.

iv
 ABSTRACT

This research work was carried out to determine the durability of concrete made
with groundnut shell ash (G.S.A) as cement replacement. It was achieved by
casting 96 samples of cubes which are 150x150x150 mm size cured and crushed at
7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Samples of the 28 days cured which has gained full strength
was soaked in sulfuric acid to determine the percentage weight loss to check the
durability of the concrete cubes. From the result it is observed that slump value
decreases with increase in the percentage replacement of G.S.A in the concrete mix
after an initial increase at 5% G.S.A replacement. It was observed that the slump
value decreases from 48mm at 5% to 28mm at 25%. The groundnut shell ash
replacement samples has greater water adsorption ability than the cement. The
compressive strength result shows that the compressive strength decreases with
increase in G.S.A content for all percentage replacement except at 10 %
replacement.
The durability test shows that concrete prepared with G.S.A are more durable than
that of the natural concrete since the percentage loss in strength recorded less value
compared to those of the natural concrete. 10% G.S.A at 28days soaking in acid
gave a value of 0.18% which is lower than 5.5% recorded at 28 days soaking for
natural concrete. Hence it can be safely concluded that the G.S.A can be a very
good substitute for cement in concrete works in terms of compressive strength and
durability but the percentage should not exceed the 10% threshold.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title Page i

Declaration ii

Certification iii

Acknowledgement iv

Abstract v

Table of Content vi

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 4

1.3 Justification of the study 5

1.4 Aim and Objectives 5

1.5 Scope and limitations 6

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Groundnut 9

2.1.1 Chemical properties of Groundnut Shell Ash 10

2.2 Concrete 10

2.2.1 Properties of Concrete 11

2.2.1.1 Cement 11

2.2.1.2 Aggregates 16
vi
2.2.2 Properties of Hardened Concrete 18

2.2.3 Strength of concrete 18

2.2.3.1 Factors influencing strength of concrete 19

2.2.4 Qualities of good concrete 20

2.3 Review of past work 22

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials 24

3.1.1 Cement 24

3.1.2 Fine aggregate 24

3.1.3 Coarse aggregate 24

3.1.4 Water 24

3.1.5 Groundnut Shell Ash 24

3.1.6 Sulfuric acid 25

3.2 Methodology 26

3.2.1 Concrete production 26

3.2.2 Compressive strength test 27

3.2.3 Durability test resistance against acid attack 27

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Oxide composition of Groundnut Shell Ash 29

4.2 Slump test 30

4.3 Compressive strength test results 31

vii
4.3.1 Effect of G.S.A on the compressive strength of concrete 32

4.3.2 Effect of curing period on the compressive strength of concrete 32

4.4 Durability test results for concrete mixed with G.S.A 33

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 35

5.2 Recommendations 35

Reference 36

Appendix A 39

Appendix B 44

viii
 CHAPTER ONE:
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most essential sustainable construction material which is widely

used all over the world as it provides superior fire resistance, gains strength over

time, gives an extremely long service life and capable of being moulded into

different shapes (Neville, 2011). Most building components are made from cement,

sand and water moulded into different geometrical shapes or sizes of which the

most popular in Nigeria is the concrete. Studies involving the quality of concrete

have been conducted in many parts of the world. Some have shown the non

uniformity in their quality (Abdullahi, 2005). Others have shown the effect of

admixtures on the strength of the concrete (Oyekan, 2008; Oyekan, 2007;

Nimityongskul and Daladar, 1995; Oluremi, 1990).

Concrete is a composite construction material, composed of cement (commonly

Portland cement) and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement,

aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate made of gravel or crushed rocks such as

limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water and chemical

admixtures. Concrete is presently one of the most popular materials used in

building construction and other civil engineering works. It is strong in

compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. However, it

is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing

1
the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either

steel reinforcing bars, steel fibres, glass fibre, or plastic fibre to carry tensile loads.

The major components of concrete are cement paste and inert materials.

Typical Portland cement is a mixtures of tricalcium silicates (3CaO.SiO 2),

tricalcium aluminates (3CaO.Al2O3), dicalcium silicates (2CaO.SiO2) and a tetra-

calcium aluminoferrite (4CaO·Al2O3Fe2O3) in various proportions together with

small amounts of magnesium and iron compounds. Sometimes, Gypsum is added

to slow the hardening process (Deepa et al., 2010).

Research on alternative to cement, has so far centred on the partial replacement of

cement with different materials. In advanced countries, partial replacement of

cement with pozzolans is well documented and recommended, (Hornbostel, 1991).

Pozzolans as defined by (Oluremi, 1990) are siliceous material, which by itself

possesses no cementitous properties but in processed form and finely divided form,

react in the presence of water with lime, to form compounds of low solubility

having cementitious properties.

According to British Standards Institution BS EN 197- 1 (2000), pozzolanic

materials are natural substances of siliceous or silico-aluminous composition or a

combination thereof which do not harden in themselves when mixed with water

2
but, when finely ground and in the presence of water, they react at normal ambient

temperature with dissolved calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2) to form strength-

developing calcium silicate and calcium aluminate compounds which have a low

solubility character and possess cementitious properties (Donatello and

Cheeseman, 2010).

Furthermore, pozolans will decrease the pore size in the concrete and restricts entry

of aggressive ions (Setina and Juhnevica, 2013). Pozzolans can be natural or

artificial; the natural pozzolans are of volcanic origin, such as volcanic ashes, tuffs

and other diatomaceous earths, and agricultural and mine wastes. Artificial

pozzolans can be industrial byproduct like blast furnace slag, fly ash and silica

fume which are available in large quantity or obtained from agriculture based

industries. Rice husk ash and sugar cane bagasse ash are well established agro

based pozzolans already in use (Soares and Melo, 2015; Hadipramana et al, 2016)

which provides an interest in looking at the potential of groundnut shell ash as a

natural pozzolan.

Groundnut is found in both the urban and rural areas of Nigeria. Groundnut shell is

produced widely as a waste material after milling is done. The shell occupies 20–

24% of the rough groundnut harvested, although the ratio differs by variety. About

3
58 tonnes of groundnut shell are generated annually in the world (Nakoo, 1999). Its

application in some parts of human life will enhance sustainability of the

environment and economic development especially in the developing countries.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The high cost of cement, used as binder, in the production of concrete, mortar, and

sandcrete blocks has led to a search for alternative. In addition to cost, high energy

demand and emission of CO2, which is responsible for global warming, the

depletion of lime stone deposits is disadvantage associated with cement

production. About 7% CO2 is released into the atmosphere during cement

production, which has a negative influence on ecology and future of human being

arising from global warming (Oluremi , 1990). The temperature at which cement is

been manufactured (1500oC) and the high energy consumption associating with it

pose problem in construction industries. There is also emission of harmful gases

which pollute the atmosphere during its production. The production of every ton of

Portland cement contributes about one ton of CO 2 in the atmosphere. Small amount

of NOX (NO and NO2) and CH4 gases are also emitted (Singh et al. 2007).

4
1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

Groundnut is found in both the urban and rural areas of Nigeria. Groundnut shell is

produced widely as a waste material after milling is done. The shell occupies 20–

24% of the rough groundnut harvested, although the ratio differs by variety. About

58 tonnes of groundnut shell are generated annually in the world (Nakoo, 1999). Its

application in some parts of human life will enhance sustainability of the

environment and economic development especially in the developing countries and

in this case, if it proves effective as a natural pozzolan binding material.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this research is to check the durability of concrete made with groundnut

shell as cement replacement which was achieved by the following objectives;

1. To investigate Workability of concrete made with groundnut Shell ash

(G.S.A) as cement replacement

2. To investigate the compressive strength of concrete made with groundnut

shell ash (G.S.A) as cement replacement

5
 3. To Investigate the durability of concrete made with groundnut shell ash

(G.S.A) as Cement replacement

1.4 Scope and Limitation

This research was limited to the effect of Groundnut Shell ash (G.S.A) on

the strength and durability of concrete and all test was carried out in accordance to

BS 1881-116:1983 and BS 1881-122:2011 respectively. The design target strength

of concrete considered is heavy weight C25/30. The durability test of the concrete

is limited to short time acid environment.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Modern concrete is a sophisticated composite material which is constantly

undergoing improvements and modifications. However, the basic constituents of

conventional, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete such as fine and coarse

aggregate, cement, and water, remain the same. There are other materials such as

chemical admixtures including super plasticisers, water reducers, and air entrainers

that can be used to modify the characteristics of OPC concrete. There is also an

increase in the use of pozzolanic materials including fly ash, granulated blast-

furnace slag and silica fume and agricultural wastes (Neville, 1995). Over the last

few decades, the uses of various alternative binding materials in the production of

concrete have been investigated, including the use agricultural wastes.

Cement replacement materials, also known as supplementary cementitious

materials (SCMs) which include GGBF slag, fly ash, silica fume, bone ash,

agricultural waste ash, are now being promoted for use in concrete as they can

improve the characteristics of concrete, reduce cost, and are an example of

environmentally responsible practice in the concrete industry. They aim to reduce

7
the negative impact on the natural environment caused by the production of

Portland cement. Pozzolans have either none, or have very few cementing

properties. However, the silica in those minerals reacts with the calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2, being activated by Ca(OH)2, produced during hydration of Portland

cement to form calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H).

The partial replacement of cement with groundnut shell ash in concrete production

is a welcome development especially in Nigeria. Groundnut shell is an agricultural

waste obtained from milling of groundnut. Nigeria contributes about 7 percent of

world groundnut production which makes Nigeria the 3rd largest producer of

groundnut in the world. In Nigeria, the leading producing states include Niger,

Kano, Jigawa, Zamfara, Kebbi, Sokoto, Katsina, Kaduna, Yobe, Adamawa, Borno,

Taraba, Plateau, Nasarawa, Bauchi, Gombe and Kwara. It is estimated that over

2million hectares are planted to groundnut in Nigeria. The cost of groundnut shell

ash when compared with cement is very low due to the availability of groundnut

shell in large quantities as agricultural farm wastes. The utilization of groundnut

shell will promote waste management at little cost, reduce pollution by these waste

and increase the economic base of the farmer when such waste are sold thereby

encourage more production.

Moreso, groundnut shell ash production required less energy demand compared

with cement production and safe the needed foreign exchange spent on importation

8
of cement or its constituents. The main objective of this study is to investigate the

durability of groundnut shell ash as replacement for cement in concrete production.

It is expected that these materials would give reasonable results such that an

optimum result of their combination for concrete production will be obtained.

The beneficial effects of using SCMs in concrete include lower heat of hydration,

lower thermal shrinkage and reduced permeability, however, these materials tend

to alter setting time and rate of strength gain. This literature review provides the

necessary background information on concrete technology in general, along with

materials used for concrete manufacturing with a strong focus on binder

replacement. Similar works of cement replacement with pozzolians is also

reviewed.

2.1 GROUNDNUT

Groundnut botanically belongs to Araches hypo Gaea Linn of leguminous family.

Groundnut is a self-pollinated; annual and herbaceous legume crop. A complete

seed of groundnut is called pod and contains one to five kermis which develops

underground in a needle like structure called peg which grow into the soil and then

converts into a pod. Groundnut has taproot system which has many nodules,

present in root and lateral roots. These nodules contain Rhizobium bacterial, which

are symbiotic in nature and focus atmospheric nitrogen. Outer layer of groundnut

9
is called groundnut shell: The shell constitute about 25-35% of the pod. The seed

accounts for the remaining portion (65-75%).

2.1.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GROUNDNUT SHELL ASH

Chemical Composition of Groundnut Shell Ash (GSA) is given below;

Table 1: Chemical Composition of Groundnut Shell Ash (GSA)

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O P2O3 MnO SO3 LOI

34.2 12.42 14.0 14.3 2.0 0.048 15.46 2.1 0.36 0.64 4.85

2.2 CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite construction material, composed of cement (commonly

Portland cement) and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement,

aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate made of gravel or crushed rocks such as

limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water and chemical

admixtures. Concrete is presently one of the most popular materials used in

building construction and other civil engineering works. It is strong in

compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. However, it

is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing

the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either

10
steel reinforcing bars, steel fibre, glass fibre, or plastic fibre to carry tensile loads.

Thereafter, the concrete is reinforced to withstand the tensile loads upon it.

2.2.1 Properties of Concrete

2.2.1.1 Cement

Portland cement is the basic ingredient of concrete. Concrete is formed when

portland cement creates a paste with water that binds with sand and rock to harden.

Cement is manufactured through a closely controlled chemical combination of

calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and other ingredients.

Common materials used to manufacture cement include limestone, shells, and

chalk or marl combined with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica sand, and

iron ore. These ingredients, when heated at high temperatures form a rock-like

substance that is ground into the fine powder that we commonly think of as

cement.

Bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first made portland cement early in

the 19th century by burning powdered limestone and clay in his kitchen stove.

With this crude method, he laid the foundation for an industry that annually

processes literally mountains of limestone, clay, cement rock, and other materials

11
into a powder so fine it will pass through a sieve capable of holding water. (Francis

A. J. 1978).

Cement plant laboratories check each step in the manufacture of portland cement

by frequent chemical and physical tests. The labs also analyze and test the finished

product to ensure that it complies with all industry specifications.

The most common way to manufacture portland cement is through a dry method.

The first step is to quarry the principal raw materials, mainly limestone, clay, and

other materials. After quarrying the rock is crushed. This involves several stages.

The first crushing reduces the rock to a maximum size of about 6 inches. The rock

then goes to secondary crushers or hammer mills for reduction to about 3 inches or

smaller.

The crushed rock is combined with other ingredients such as iron ore or fly ash and

ground, mixed, and fed to a cement kiln.

The cement kiln heats all the ingredients to about 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit in huge

cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special firebrick. The finely ground raw

material or the slurry is fed into the higher end. At the lower end is a roaring blast

of flame, produced by precisely controlled burning of powdered coal, oil,

alternative fuels, or gas under forced draft.

12
As the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are driven off in the form

of gases. The remaining elements unite to form a new substance called clinker.

Clinker comes out of the kiln as grey balls, about the size of marbles.

Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and generally is

brought down to handling temperature in various types of coolers. The heated air

from the coolers is returned to the kilns, a process that saves fuel and increases

burning efficiency.

After the clinker is cooled, cement plants grind it and mix it with small amounts of

gypsum and limestone. Cement is so fine that 1 pound of cement contains 150

billion grains. The cement is now ready for transport to ready-mix concrete

companies to be used in a variety of construction projects.

Although the dry process is the most modern and popular way to manufacture

cement, some kilns also use a wet process. The two processes are essentially alike

except in the wet process, the raw materials are ground with water before being fed

into the kiln

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay

(silicon), bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl,

13
shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw materials

provides insight into the chemical properties of cement.

1. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the

hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of hydration. C 3A

does not provide any more than a little amount of strength.

Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO 3 (in cement having more than 8% C 3A)

Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)

2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S)

C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the

cement’s early strength gain an initial setting.

3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S)

As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain, dicalcium

silicate in cement helps the strength gain after one week.

4. Ferrite (C4AF)

14
 Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw

materials in the kiln from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it

does not contribute much to the strength of the cement.

5. Magnesia (MgO)

The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw

material in dry process plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the

cement unsound and expansive, but a little amount of it can add strength to

the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also causes less CO 2

emission. All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.

6. Sulphur trioxide

Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.

7. Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide

Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is

mainly responsible for the color of the cement.

8. Alkalis

The amounts of potassium oxide (K 2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine

the alkali content of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali

can cause some difficulty in regulating the setting time of cement. Low

15
 alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in concrete, can cause

discoloration.

9. Free lime

Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.

10.Silica fumes

Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of

properties, especially compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond

strength. Though setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it

can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence, Portland cement containing 5-

20% silica fume is usually produced for Portland cement projects that

require high strength.

11.Alumina

Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid

temperatures since alumina is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting

but weakens the cement.

2.2.1.2 AGGREGATES

Aggregates generally occupy 70–80% volume of concrete and can therefore be

expected to have important influences on their properties. They are granular

16
materials derived from natural rocks, crushed stones, or natural gravels and sand,

in addition to their use as economical filler, aggregates generally provide concrete

with good dimensional stability and wear resistance (Dahunsi, 2003). A good

aggregate should produce the desired properties in both fresh and hardened

concrete (Jackson, 1984). Aggregate should be least porous, densest, and strongest

and contains less deleterious materials such as clay, silt and dust (Chowdhury,

1982). Brandy, Clauser, and Vaccnri (2002) found that gravel are results of the

natural disintegration of rock which are at least 2 mm diameter, larger sizes may be

called pebbles, cobble or boulders and are usually rounded and as such required

less amount of cement paste which saves about 4–5% cement paste. Shetty (2005)

reported that in concrete, aggregates and paste are the major factors that affect the

strength. Adebakin et al, (2015) reported the use of recycled aggregate from old

con-crete cubes is suitable with up to 75% replacement of natural aggregate with

recycled aggregate, the 28 days compressive strength of concrete is in close

proximity with that of normal concrete.

Aggregate properties significantly affect the workability of plastic concrete and the

durability, strength, thermal properties, and density of hardened concrete (ACI,

1999). Lawal (2011) also worked on gravel mining in Nigeria and examined the

effects and characteristics of aggregates in concrete. Bamigboye, et al (2016)

discovered that gravel aggregates have not been adequately utilized as they should,

17
partly because of the fear that gravel cannot with-stand as much pressure as granite

due to its chemical composition.

Although the fine and coarse aggregate in concrete matrix provide inert filler, the

aggregates’ petrographical, physical and mechanical properties can significantly

affect concrete plastic and hardened characteristics. Nawy (1997) defines the most

important properties of aggregate for ordinary concrete being the particle size

distribution, aggregate shape, porosity and possible reactivity with cement. Nawy

(1997) also states that surface texture has significant influence on concrete

strength, since cubically shaped crushed stones with a rough surface appear to

produce higher strength concrete than smoother faced uncrushed gravel, as

bonding between aggregate and cement paste is increased. Other properties that

characterise concrete aggregate include: strength and rigidity expressed as a

crushing value, soundness which defines aggregate resistance to normal

weathering conditions, abrasion resistance, dimensional stability, alkali reactivity,

density, and water absorption.

2.2.2 PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

The properties of fresh concrete are important only in the first few hours, whereas

the properties of hardened concrete assume an important effect which is retained

for the remained of the life of the concrete. The important properties of hardened

concrete are strength, deformation under load, durability, permissibility and

18
shrinkage. In general, strength is considered to be the most important property and

the quality of concrete is often judged by its strength.

2.2.3 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The strength of concrete is defined as the maximum load (stress) it can carry. As

the strength of concrete increases its other properties usually improve and since the

test for strength particularly in compression are relatively simple to perform,

concrete compressive strength is commonly used in the construction industry for

the purpose of specification and quality control.

2.2.3.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

1 Constituent Material.

i. Cement: The influence of cement on concrete strength for a given

properties is determined by the fineness of the particles of the cement

and chemical composition through the process of hydration. The

fineness of the cement enable complete reaction to take place in a very

wide area, making the cement serves its purpose as binder.

ii. Water: Water reacts with cement to form the process of hydration of

cement with minimum amount of water, the hydration process is not

completed and the maximum strength of concrete is not attained, its

19
 water/cement ration determines the workability of the fresh concrete.

The quality of mixing water also affects concrete strength.

iii. Aggregate: In general, the aggregate are stronger than the concrete

produce and in such a case the aggregate strength has little effect on

the strength of concrete

iv. Admixture: This can only affect concrete strength by changing the

hydration processes and the air content of the mix or by enabling

changes to be made to the mix properties.

2 Method of preparation

When the materials that make up a concrete cannot be adequately mixed into a

consistent homogenous mass, some poor quality concrete is inevitable. Additional

care must be taken in placing; bleeding segregation and honey-comb result in the

poor quality concrete.

3 Curing

Curing is the hydration process that occurs after the concrete has been placed. In

chemical terms, curing allows calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to form. As curing

of concrete is a prerequisite for the hydration of the cement content. Curing allows

concrete to achieve optimal strength and hardness. Generally, the longer the period

20
during which concrete remain in water the greater the concrete strength produced.

To gain strength and harden fully, concrete curing requires time.

2.2.4 Qualities of Good Concrete

Concrete as a man-made composite has some qualities that make it good. For a

good concrete to be produced, the quality control of the concrete must be adhered

to, in order to avoid failure in structure or deformation.

i. Durability: Concrete structure should continue to perform its intended

functions that are maintained it required strength and serviceability

during the specified or traditionally expected service life. It follows

that concrete must be able to withstand the process of deterioration to

which it can be expected to be exposed such concrete is said to be

durable.

ii. Density: The concrete should be well compacted that there are no void

or hollow left in it.

iii. Water Tightness: the concrete should be watertight so as to protect the

steel reinforcement from corrosion. This quality of concrete becomes

very important when concrete is used for construction of water

retaining structures such as dams.

21
 iv. Workability: This is considered as that property of concrete which

determines its capacity to be placed and consolidated properly and to

be finished without harmful segregation. It embodies such concepts as

mouldability, cohesiveness and compatibility.

v. Resistance to Wear and Tear: when concrete is used in floor and road

construction, the concrete should be able to withstand abrasive forces.

vi. Curing of concrete: After placing and compaction, the concrete must

be allowed to set and harden for an appropriate period under

controlled humidity and temperature, this period is known as curing

process. The curing period varies from 1-28days depending on type of

cement used and the conditions of temperature and humidity.

2.3 REVIEW OF PAST WORKS

Okpalla (1987) showed that at 40% partial replacement of cement with rice husk

ash (RHA) produced a concrete with the same strength as plain ordinary Portland

cement concrete concrete. Kolawole and Mbachu (1998) examined the influence of

coarse aggregate on the drying shrinkage and elastic moduli of concrete with OPC

partially replaced with RHA. Results showed that OPC/RHA concrete cast with

quarry granite as coarse aggregate exhibited the least drying shrinkage over time

and also gave the highest values of elastic moduli when compared with river

22
gravel. On high performance concrete incorporating rice husk ash as a

supplementary cementing material, Malhotra and Zhang (1996) reported that rice

husk ash concrete had excellent resistance to chloride ion penetration and higher

compressive strengths at various ages up to 730 days compared with that of the

control concrete. Alabadan et al. (2005) reported that substitution of cement with

Bambara Groundnut Shell Ash (BGSA) in concrete mix design was possible when

not exceeding 10%. Sengul, et al. (2005) reported that there was little reduction in

compressive strength up to 40% cement replacement with ground fly ash at 28

days but at 56 and 120 days, however, the compressive strength up to 40% cement

replacement by fly ash is almost identical to that of the no fly ash concrete and for

one year it was even higher. Raheem et. al (2012) presented a study of the use of

saw dust ash as partial replacement for cement in concrete. They concluded that

the compressive strength generally increases with curing period and decreases with

increased amount of saw dust ash and only 5% saw dust ash substitution is

adequate to enjoy maximum benefit of strength gain. Olafusi and Olutoge (2012)

investigated the strength properties of corn cob ash concrete. They concluded that

concrete do not attain their design strengths at 28 days and the strengths of corn

cob ash concrete are dependent on its pozzolanic activities. Mujedu et al. (2014)

studied the use of corn cob ash and saw dust ash as a partial replacement for

cement in concrete production. They concluded that the compressive strength

23
increases with days of curing and decreases with increased amount of combination

of corn cob ash and saw dust ash and only 10% combination of corn cob ash and

saw dust ash replacement would be acceptable to enjoy maximum benefit of

strength gain.

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 MATERIALS

The material constituents, their mix and the manufacturing process are important

factors that determine the strength of the concrete. The materials used for this

experiment were:

24
3.1.1 Cement: Ordinary Portland Cement available in local market was used in

the investigation. The cement used has been tested for various properties as per BS

EN 197-1:2000

3.1.2 Fine Aggregate: Natural river sand having specific gravity of 2.65 was

used.

3.1.3 Coarse Aggregate: Crushed angular granite from local quarry was used as

coarse aggregate in this investigation.

3.1.4 Water: Tap water (portable) was used for mixing and curing during the

laboratory investigation.

3.1.5 Groundnut Shell ash

Groundnut Shell ash used for this study was obtained from the burning of the

groundnut shell from within Kaduna State. The husks were completely burnt under

atmospheric condition within a temperature range of 500 – 700 0C measured with a

thermocouple, sealed up in plastic bags and transported to the laboratory. The ash

was then passed through British Standard No 200 sieve and kept to be used to

replace cement in the appropriate percentages.

3.1.6 Sulfuric acid

25
 Sulfuric acid was used to provide the acid environment required for the short

time durability test. It comprise of Ammonia (NH ¿¿ 3)¿ -0.0005% , Arsenic (As) -

0.00001% , Chloride (Cl) -0.0002% , Heavy metals (Pb)-0.0001% , Iron (Fe)-0.0001

% ,Nitrate ( No3)-0.00002% , Oxygen absorbed (O)-0.00015% , Non-volatile residue-

0.0025% , and weighs 1.84g/ml

3.2 METHODOLOGY

3.2.1 Concrete production

In all 120 cubes were casted, 20 cubes were casted for control (3 samples for each

of the four different curing age for compressive test and another 2 set for each of

26
the four different curing age for durability test), while the rest was casted (three

samples each) with various percentage replacement i.e. 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% and

for 7 days , 14 days, 21 days and 28 days curing age respectively.

The cube moulds were cleaned with engine oil to prevent the development of bond

between the mould and the concrete and permit easy removing. Each mould was

then filled with prepared fresh concrete in three layers and each layer was

compacted with tamping rod using twenty five (25) strokes uniformly

distributed across the seldom of the concrete in the mould. The top concrete was

later smoothened by hand-trowel to level with the edge of the mould and then left

in the open air for 24 hours. Water cement ratio is 0.55 and the size of the mould is

150 x 150 x 150mm.

The concrete cubes were demoulded after 24 hours of the concrete setting under

air.

They were kept in curing tank measuring 3.0m x 1.5m filled with tap water only

for periods of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days respectively. After which compressive strength

was determined with first Samples.

Second batch samples were dipped in sulfuric acid for another 28 days to

determine durability of the concrete.

Attached to the appendix are the compressive strength test results.

27
3.2.2 Compressive Strength Test

Before crushing, the cubes were brought out of the water and kept for about 20

minutes for most of the water to wipe off. They were then weighed on a weighing

balance and then taken to the digital crushing machine in accordance with BS

1881: Part 1/6 (1983).

The cubes experienced cracks due to failure in their strength as a result of the load

applied by the crushing machine. Compressive strength test was carried out for the

various types of concrete (control, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% G.S.A) for the

ages of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days in accordance to BS 1881-1/6:1983. The

compressive test was conducted at Civil engineering laboratory of Kaduna

Polytechnic and result tabulated as attached in the appendix page.

3.2.3 Durability test resistance against acid attack

To determine the durability of concrete made with G.S.A as partial replacement,

the cubes was immersed in 10% solution of H2SO4 after achieving its maximum

strength for acid durability test.

The response of the cubes to the solutions was evaluated for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days

through the change in appearance, weight, compressive strength and thickness that

28
was observed. The results of the percentage weight loss are tabulated and recorded

in the appendix page. The percentage weight lost is calculated thus.

Loss∈specimen weight
Weight loss % = Initial specimen weight ×100 3.1

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION OF RESULT

4.1 Oxide composition of Groundnut Shell Ash

29
The result of the chemical analysis conducted on the Groundnut shell ash (G.S.A)

is presented in Table 4.1

Table 4.1: Oxide composition of Groundnut shell ash

S/N ELEMENTAL % COMPOSITION

OXIDES GROUNDNUT
SHELL ASH
1 CaO 14.30
2 SiO2 46.08
3 AL2O3 12.42
4 Fe2o3 14.0
5 MgO 2.0
6 SO3 0.64
7 Na2O 0.048
8 K20 15.46
9 P2O5 2.1
10 MnO 2.0
11 LOSS OF IGNITION 4.85
The result of the chemical analysis carried out on the G.S.A showed that it is a

very good pozzolana with its SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 content summing to 72.5% as

required by Class F, ASTM C618 (2012). As such, the usage of the G.S.A in this

work is justified.

4.2 Slump tests

The result for the slump tests is shown in Table 4.2. From the results it is observed

that slump value decreases with increase in the percentage replacement of G.S.A in

30
the concrete mix after an initial increase at 5% G.S.A replacement. It was observed

that the slump value decreases from 48mm at 5% to 28mm at 25%. The groundnut

shell ash replacement samples has greater water adsorption ability than the cement.

Table 4.2: Slump tests

Percentage W/C Ratio Slump Category

Replacement Of (mm)
G.S.A
(%)
0 0.55 20.5 True

5 0.55 48 True

10 0.55 43 True

15 0.55 37 True

20 0.55 32 True

25 0.55 28 True

4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST RESULTS

The compressive strength of concrete cubes was determined after 7, 14, 21 and 28

days of normal curing in a mixing ratio 1:2:4, the results are summarized in the

table A4.5 of the appendix page and in the plot of compressive strength against
31
replacement percentage of G.S.A below. It was observed that the compressive

strength at 10% is higher than both control and other G.S.A percentages

replacement samples. The variation of compressive strength results at different

G.S.A content is shown in Figure 4.1. The result shows a decrease in the

compressive strength value with increase in G.S.A content. However, the target

value of 30N/mm2 was achieved at replacement of 10% G.S.A at treatment beyond

that percentage gave a value less than the target strength.

40
Compressive Strength N/mm2

35

30

25

20

15
0% G.S.A 5% G.S.A 10% G.S.A 15% G.S.A 20% G.S.A 25% G.S.A
G.S.A Percentage

7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

Fig. 4.1 Comparison of compressive strength results of concrete at varying G.S.A content
cured at different days
4.3.2 Effect of curing period on the compressive strength of concrete

The variation of compressive strength of concrete replaced with G.S.A at different

curing period in days is shown in Figure 4.2. The results shows increasing strength

with age for all the G.S.A replacement considered. Higher strength values were

32
obtained at 28 days curing period therefore the target of 30N/mm 2 was obtained at

curing at 21 days and beyond for 10% G.S.A replacement.

40

35
Compressive Strength N/mm2

30

25

20

15
7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days
Curing Age

0% G.S.A 5% G.S.A 10% G.S.A 15% G.S.A 20% G.S.A 25% G.S.A

Figure 4.2: Comparison of compressive strength results of concrete at varying curing age for
different G.S.A content

4.4 Durability test results for concrete mixed with G.S.A

The results of the durability of concrete determined by immersing the concrete

cube after 28 days curing into sulfuric acid was determine using percentage weight

loss. The loss in weight as seen in the figure 4.3 increases with increase in curing

33
age while decreases with increase in the treatment. The percentage loss in weight

for natural soil increases from 3.01% at 7 days soaking to 5.40 % at 28 days

soaking in sulfuric acid. With treatment the concrete cube has a lower percentage

loss in strength and the lowest value is achieved at 10% G.S.A at 28days soaking

in acid with a value of 0.18% at 20% G.S.A also has a low value of percentage loss

in strength of 0.37% at 7 days curing and followed by 0.98% loss at 15% G.S.A

obtained at 28 days soaking and 0.97% loss at 25% G.S.A replacement at 21 days

curing. The reduction in percentage loss in weight recorded in the treated samples

shows that concrete produced with G.S.A despite recording reduction in

compressive strength are more durable when compare to natural concrete.

5
Percentage Weight Loss (%)

0
7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

Curing Age

0% G.S.A 5% G.S.A 10% G.S.A

15%G.S.A 20% G.S.A 25% G.S.A

34
 Figure 4.3: percentage weight loss with curing age at different G.S.A content

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

This work has looked into the use of Groundnut shell ash (G.S.A) as partial

replacement for cement in concrete. The compressive strength decreases with

increase in G.S A content for all percentage replacement except at 10 %

replacement. Hence it can be safely concluded that the G.S.A can be a very good

substitute for cement in concrete works but the percentage should not exceed the

10% threshold.

35
From the slump test carried out, it can also be concluded that the groundnut shell

ash replacement samples has greater water adsorption ability than the cement.

The durability test shows that concrete prepared with G.S.A are more durable than

that of the natural concrete since the percentage loss in strength recorded less value

compared to those of the natural concrete

5.2 Recommendation

Based on the result obtained, it is recommended that an optimum replacement of

15% G.S.A cured at 28 days is recommended to produce a durable concrete.

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Appendix A

TABLE A4.1 Compressive Test Results

Compressive Strength at 7 days

% G.S.A Wt of cubes Average Wt Crushing Compressive Average

of Cubes Load (KN) stress(N/mm2) Compressive
(Kg) stress(N/mm2)

0 8120 517 22.98

8098 8115 545 24.22 23.61

8128 532 23.64

39
 5 7687 476 21.16

8004 7796 489 21.73 21.73

7698 502 22.31

10 8190 590 26.22

8234 8245 587 26.09 25.79

8312 564 25.07

15 8130 480 21.33

8097 8134 440 19.56 20.03

8176 432 19.20

20 7998 418 18.58

8212 8143 410 18.22 18.04

8220 390 17.33

25 7980 398 17.69

7845 8021 405 18.00 17.67

8238 390 17.33

TABLE A4.2 Compressive Strength at 14 days

% G.S.A Wt of cubes Average Wt Crushing Compressive Average

(g) of Cubes Load (KN) stress(N/mm2) Compressive
stress(N/mm2)

0 8156 597 26.53

8452 8333 603 26.80 25.54

8390 524 23.29

5 7981 498 22.13

7845 7904 507 22.53 22.65

40
 7885 524 23.29

10 8231 623 27.69

8289 8317 645 28.67 27.47

8432 586 26.04

15 8356 512 22.76

8452 8377 539 23.96 23.32

8324 523 23.24

20 8246 534 23.73

8034 8171 498 22.13 23.27

8234 539 23.96

25 8123 434 19.29

8034 8100 435 19.33 19.30

8143 434 19.29

TABLE A4.3 Compressive Strength at 21 days

% G.S.A Wt of cubes Average Wt Crushing Compressive Average

(g) of Cubes (g) Load (KN) stress(N/mm2) Compressive
stress(N/mm2)

0 8423 632 28.09

8324 8427 629 27.96 28.24

8534 645 28.67

5 8090 612 27.20

8120 8148 629 27.96 27.08

41
 8234 587 26.09

10 8456 656 29.16

8543 8467 674 29.96 30.04

8402 698 31.02

15 8312 601 26.71

8267 8307 576 25.60 26.46

8342 609 27.07

20 8213 534 23.73

8104 8198 563 25.02 24.56

8276 561 24.93

25 8123 482 21.42

8068 8135 488 21.69 22.28

8213 534 23.73

TABLE A4.4 Compressive Strength at 28 days

% G.S.A Wt of cubes Average Wt Crushing Compressive Average

(g) of Cubes (g) Load (KN) stress(N/mm2) Compressive
stress(N/mm2)

0 8387 703 31.24

8389 8405 692 30.76 31.38

8440 723 32.13

5 8080 612 27.20

8129 8117 632 28.09 24.73

42
 8143 654 29.07

10 8543 785 34.89

8507 8527 790 35.11 35.01

8532 788 35.02

15 8305 602 26.76

8452 8388 654 29.07 27.51

8408 601 26.71

20 8234 589 26.18

8342 8333 598 26.58 26.83

8423 624 27.73

25 8234 502 22.31

8128 8213 556 24.71 23.59

8276 534 23.73

TABLE A4.5 AVERAGE COMPRESSSIVE STRENGTH FROM 7th to 28th Days during curing

% 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

0 23.61 25.54 28.24 30.32

5 21.73 22.65 27.08 28.12

10 25.79 27.47 30.04 35.01

15 20.04 23.32 26.46 27.51

20 18.04 23.32 26.46 27.51

25 17.67 19.30 22.28 23.59

43
APPENDIX B

TABLE B4.1 DURABILITY TEST RESULTS

DURABILITY TEST USING SULFURIC ACID

%G.S.A 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

Avg. Avg. % loss Avg. Avg. % Avg. Avg. % Avg. Avg. %

Wgt. Wgt. Wgt. Wgt. loss Wgt. Wgt. loss Wgt. Wgt. loss
Before Before Before Before
After After After After

0 8220 7973 3.01 8274 7926 4.21 8295 7879 5.02 8344 7893 5.4

44
5 7753 7478 3.55 7843 7543 3.82 7964 7728 2.96 7923 7682 3.04

10 8334 8242 1.11 8262 7942 3.87 8447 8107 4.02 8490 8406 0.18

15 8213 7839 4.55 8227 7935 3.55 8324 7837 4.77 8377 8294 0.98

20 8143 8115 0.34 8171 7735 5.34 8198 7993 2.50 8333 8012 3.85

25 8021 7852 2.11 8100 7859 2.97 8135 8056 0.97 8213 8037 2.14

45