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M
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kirtanmistry106Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 36
mampoter Network
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.
* The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable
media or wireless media.
* The best-known computer netwark is the Internet
Db -o
LAN transfers data at high speed.
> LAN technology is generally less expensive.
Local Area Network (LAN)
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Figure 2: Local area Network: MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
* MAN isa larger version of LAN which covers an area that is larger than the covered by LAN but
smaller than the area covered by WAN.
* A metropolitan area network or MAN cavers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the
cable televisian network available in many cities.
MAN connects two or more LANs.
© At first, the companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city
governments to wire up an entire city.
‘The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only.
Factory
Figure 3: Metropolitan Area Network
WAN (Wide Area Network)
© WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or region.
* WAN links different metropolitan's countries and national boundaries thereby enabling easy
communication.
© It may be located entirely within a state ar a country or it may be interconnected around the
world.
© It contains a callection of machines intended for running user (.e., application) programs.
‘We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hasts.
© ~The communication between different users of WAN Is established using leased telephone
lines or satellite links and similar channels.
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Figure 4: Wide Area Network Topologies (Network Topologies)
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
© A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems ar network devices are
connected to each other.
+ Types of network topologies :
1. Bus 3. Star 5. Tree
2. Ring 4, Mesh 6. Hybrid
Bus Topology
* Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable.
able Er Cable End
+
optine Drop tine Drop Li Features:
© Ittransmits data anly in one direction,
* Every device is connected to a single cable.
Advantages:
© It is cost effective (cheaper),
* Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
© Used in small networks.
© itis easy to understand.
«Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages:
* Cables fail then the whole network fails.
* If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
© Cable has a limited length.
Ring Topology
© It Is called ring topology because it farms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first, Exactly two neighbors for each device,
Features:
© Anumber of repeaters are used and the transmission is unidirectional
* Adate is transferred in a sequential manner that is bitten by bit,
Advantages:
* Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as anly the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
* Cheap to install and expand,
Disadvantages
* Troubleshooting is difficult in a ring topology.
* Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
* Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
Star Topology
* In this type af topology, all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central nade and all others nodes are connected to the central nade. MLM edt ole abet a ass,
L _ secrete
LAN (Local Area Network) _
* It ls privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in
sie.
@ They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and
factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot
INLAN, allthe machines are connected to a single cable.
Different types of topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star, and Tree are used.
‘The data transfer rates for LAN is up ta 10 Gbits/s.
‘They transfer data at high speeds. The high transmission rate Is possible in LAN because of the
short distance between various computer networks.
‘They exist in a limited geographical area
+ Advantages
> LAN transfers data at high speed.
LAN technology is generally less expensive
Local Area Network (LAN)
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ne ES) a eg rh
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Figure 2: Local Area Network
Trivedi, CE Department | 2140709~Computer Networks (CN) 3
1 - Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
‘MAN is a larger version of LAN which covers an area that is larger than the covered by LAN but
‘smaller than the area covered by WAN.
* A metropolitan area network or MAN covers a city, The best-known example of a MAN is the
cable television network available in many cities.
‘MAN connects twoor more LANs.
AN first, the companies began Jumping Into the business, getting contracts from city
governments to wire up an entire city
* The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only.
Factory
Figure 3: Metropolitan Area Network Protocols layers and their service model
OSI Layer Architecture
05 model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as
the first step toward international standardization of the protacols used in the various layers.
it was revised in 1995,
The model |s called the OS! (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals
with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other
systems.
The OSI model has seven layers.
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
MOUeW NE Layer Name of unit
‘exchanged
Application | APDU
PPDU
SPDU
Transport protocol
Network Packet
Frame
Bit
Network layer host-router protocol
Data link layer host-router protocol
Physical layer host-router protocol
Figure 17: OSI Reference Madel
Physical Layer
* The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and
reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium.
* It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium,
and carries the signals for all of the higher layers. it provides:
+ Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and Qs) used by the PC to better
accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in a bit and frame
synchronization.
* Transmission technique: determines whether the encaded bits will be transmitted by baseband
(digital) or broadband (analog) signalling.
* Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate for the
physical medium. Data link Layer
The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over
the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmissian over the
link.
To do this, the data link layer provides:
Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two
nodes.
Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting nade to "back-off" (stop) when no frame buffers are
available.
Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments, Detects and recovers from
errors that accur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling
duplicate frame receipt:
Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical
medium.
Network Layer
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data
should take based on network conditions, a priority af service, and other factors.
To do this, the data link layer provides:
Routing: routes frames among networks.
Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a sending
station to “throttle back” its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up.
Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit
(MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-
assembly at the destination station.
Logical-physical address mapping translates logical addresses or names, into physical addresses.
Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded by
subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information. CET n
femal
TCP/IP (Transm
ernet Protocol)
#_ithas 4 layers
* OSI provides layer functioning and also defines
functions of all the layers.
* TCP/IP model is more based on protocels
and pratocols are not flexible with other
layers.
© Inthe OS! model, the transport layer © In the TCP/IP model, the transport layer
guarantees the delivery of packets does not guarantee delivery of packets.
* Follows horizantal approach
© OS! model has a separate presentation layer
Prof, Maulik Trivedi, CE Department
( Darshan
‘¢ Follows a vertical approach.
© TCP/IP doesn't have a separate presentation
layer
| 2140709 ~ Computer Networks (CN) 27
1-—Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet
© OStisa general model
© The network layer of the OSI model provides
both connection-oriented and connectionless
service.
‘© TCP/IP model cannot be used in any other
lication.
* The Network layer in the TCP/IP madel
provides cannectionless service.
* OS! model has a problem of fitting the
pratocols in the model
© TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
* Protocols are hidden in the OS! model and are
easily replaced as the technology changes.
© OSI madel defines services, interfaces, and
protocols very clearly and makes a clear
distinction between them.
© In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
© In TCP/IP, itis not clearly separated its
Services, interfaces, and protacols, + umy uresuy-connecsed mes Gan ve MEE.
Datagram Network vs. Virtual Circuit Network
Issue Datagram
[Connection Setup [None
‘Addressing Packet contains full source and destination
address
‘State Information | None other than router table containing
destination network
Virtual Circuit
Packet contains short virtual circult
umber identifier.
Each virtual circuit number entered
to table on setup, used for routing.
Routing Packets rauted independently
Effect of Router — | Only on packets lost during crash
Failure
‘Congestion Difficult since all packets routed independently.
Control router resource requirements can vary.
Route established at setup, all
jackets follow same route.
All virtual circuits passing through
failed router terminated.
Simple by pre-allocating enough
bulfers to each virtual circuit at
setup, since maximum number of
circuits fixed. me Link-State (LS) Routing Algorithm (Dijkstra’s algorithm)
Dijkstra’s algorithm computes the least-cost path from one node (the source, which we will refer to
‘#5 u) to all ather nodes in the network
© — Dijkstra’s algorithm is iterative and has the property that after the k'" iteration of the algorithm, the.
least-cost paths are known to k destination nodes, and among the least-cost paths to all destination
nodes, these k paths will have the k smallest costs.
© Letus define the fotlawing notation:
Dv}: cost of the least-cost path from the source nade to destination v as of this iteration of the
algorithm.
> p(v): previous nade (neighbor of v) along the current least-cost path fram the source to v.
1 NV :subset of nodes; v is in N’ if the least-cost path from the source to v is definitively known.
© The global routing algorithm consists of an initialization step followed by a loop.
© The number of times the loop is executed is equal te the number of nodes in the network,
* Upon termination, the algorithm will have calculated the shortest paths from the source node u to
every other node in the network.
© Asan example, let’s consider the network in Figure 13 and compute the least-cost paths from u to
all possible destinations Fig. 13 Abstract graph model of a computer network:
1 Initialization:
2 N’ = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v is a neighbor of u
5 then D(v) = e(u,v)
6 else D(v) = =
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N’ such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N’
11 update D(v) for each neighbor v of w and not in N‘t
12 Div) = min( Div), Diw) + e(wev) )
13. /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 least path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until N'= N
Let’s consider the few first steps in detail.
In the initialization step, the currently known least-cost paths from u to Its directly attached
neighbours, v, x, and w, are initialized to 2, 1, and 5, respectively. Note in particular that the cost to
w Is set to 5 (even though we will soon see that a lesser-cost path does indeed exist) since this is the
cost of the direct (one hop) link from u to w. The costs to y and z are set to infinity because they are
not directly connected to u.
In the first iteration, we look among those nodes not yet added to the set N’ and find that node with
the least cost as of the end of the previous iteration, That node Is x, with a cost of 1, and thus x is
added to the set N’. Line 12 of the LS algorithm is then performed to update D(y} for all nodes v,
ylelding the results shown in the second line (Step 1) in below table. The cast of the path to v is
unchanged, The cost of the path to w (which was $ at the end of the initialization) through node x is
found to have a cast of 4, Hence this lower-cost path Is selected and w’s predecessor along the
shortest path from u is set to x. Similarly, the cost te y (through x) is camputed to be 2, and the table
is updated accordingly.
Inthe second iteration, nodes v and y are found to have the least-cost paths (2}, and we break the
tie arbitrarily and add y to the set N’ so that N’ now contains u, x, and y. The cost to the remaining nodes not yet in N’, that is, nodes v, w, and z are updated via line 12 of the LS algorithm, yielding the
results shown in the third raw in the below table,
And so on.
‘When the LS algorithm terminates, we have, for each node, its predecessor along the least-cast path
from the source nade.
For each predecessor, we alsa have its predecessor, and so in this manner we can construct the
entire path from the source to all destinations.
The forwarding table in a node, say node u, can then be constructed from this information by
storing, for each destination, the next-hop node on the least-cost path from u to the destination.
Figure 14. Shows the resulting least-cost paths for u for the network in Figure 13.
step WW Divi pty) Dfw),plw) —— Dixhpix} Diy)ply) ——_Ofx),piz)
0 v lw Su lo o =
1 wo au dy Qn eo
2 wy Qu Sy 4y
3 uy ay dy
4 oye 4y
5 woyews
Table: Running the link-state algorithm on the network in Figure 13
Fig. 14 Least cost path for nodule u The Distance-Vector (DV) Routing Algorithm
.
.
Distance-vector (OV) algorithm is iterative, asynchronous, and distributed.
It is distributed in that each node receives some information from one or more af its directly
attached neighbours, performs a calculation, and then distributes the results of its calculation back
to its neighbours.
It Is iterative in that this process continues on until no more information is exchanged between
neighbours,
‘The algorithm is asynchronous in that it does not require all of the nodes to operate in lockstep with
each other.
Let dx(y) be the cost of the least-