GEOGRAPHY PRACTICAL

CLASS XI B
UNIT I- FUNDAMENTALS OF MAPS
1. DATA AND MAPS
GEO SPATIAL DATA.
 Geo spatial data or GIS data has explicit geographic positioning information included within in it,
such as road network from a GIS or a geo referenced satellite image.
 Geospatial data may include attribute data that describes the features found in the data set.
There are two types of geo spatial data:-
1. Vector data-
Vector data uses the simple geometric objects of points, line and areas to represent spatial features. The
Vector data are good at:
i) Accurately representing true shape and size.
ii) Representing non- continuous data e.g. political boundaries, road lines, mountain peaks.

2. Raster data-
Raster data uses a grid to represent its geographic information. Points are represented by single cells,
lines by sequences of neighbouring cells and areas by collection of grouping cells.
i) representing continuous data(e.g. slope, elevation, chemical concentrations).
ii) representing multiple features (e.g. points, lines and polygons as single feature types (cells).

Globes and Maps-

Definition of Globes-
 Globe is the true representation of the earth.
 Globe is such a man- made model which has the closest opproximation to the earth.
Definition of Maps-
 A map is defined as selective, symbolized and generalized representation of whole or a part of the
earth’s surface at a reduced scale.
 Map represents the features of the whole earth or a part of it on a plane surface drawn on some
scale.

ESSENTIALS OF MAP MAKING

In view of the variety of maps, we may find it difficult to summarise what they all have in common.
Cartography, being an art and science of map-making, does include a series of processes that are common
to all the maps. These processes that may also be referred to as essentials of maps are :

Scale
Map Projection
Map Generalisation
Map Design
Map Construction and Production
1.Scale: We know that all maps are reductions. The first decision that a map-maker has to take is about
the scale of the map. The choice of scale is of utmost importance. The scale of a map sets limits of
information contents and the degree of reality with which it can be delineated on the map. For example,
figure 1.3 provides a comparison between maps having different scales and the improvements made
thereupon with the change in scale.

2. Projection: . A system of transformation of the spherical surface to the plane surface is called a map
projection. Hence, the choice, utilisation and construction of projections is of prime importance in map-
making.

3. Generalisation: Every map is drawn with a definite objective. For example, a general purpose map is
drawn to show information of a general nature such as relief, drainage, vegetation, settlements, means of
transportation, etc.

4. Map Design: The fourth important task of a cartographer is the map design. It involves the planning of
graphic characteristics of maps including the selection of appropriate symbols, their size and form, style
of lettering, specifying the width of lines, selection of colours and shades, arrangement of various
elements of map design within a map and design for map legend.

5. Map Construction and Production: The drawing of maps and their reproduction is the fifth major
task in the cartographic process. In earlier times, much of the map construction and reproduction work
used to be carried out manually.

HISTORY OF MAP MAKING

The history of map making is as old as the history of mankind itself. The oldest map was found in
Mesopotamia drawn on a clay tablet that belongs to 2,500 B.C. Figure 1.1 shows Ptolemy’s Map of the
World. Greek and the Arab geographers laid the foundation of modern cartography making was
revitalised in early modern period, with extensive efforts made to minimise the effects of the
transformation of the geoid onto a plane surface.

Figure 1.1Ptolemy’s Map of the World

The maps were drawn on different projections to obtain true directions, correct distances and to measure
area accurately. The aerial photography supplemented the ground method of survey and the uses of
aerial photographs stimulated map-making in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The foundation of
map-making in India was laid during the Vedic period when the expressions of astronomical truths and
cosmological revelations were made.
The expressions were crystallised into ‘sidhantas' or laws in classical treaties of Arya Bhatta,
Varahamihira and Bhaskara, and others. Ancient Indian scholars divided the known world into seven
‘dwipas’

Types of Maps Based on Scale: On the basis of scale, maps may be classified into large-scale and small-
scale. Large scale maps are drawn to show small areas at a relatively large-scale. For example, the
topographical maps drawn at a scale of 1: 250,000, 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 and the village maps, the zonal
plans of the cities and house plans prepared on a scale of 1:4,000, 1:2,000 and 1:500 are large scale maps.
On the other hand, small-scale maps are drawn to show large areas. For example, atlas maps, wall maps,
etc.
(i) Large-scale Maps: Large-scale maps are further divided into the following types :
(a) Cadastral maps
(b) Topographical maps
(a) Cadastral Maps : The term ‘cadastral’ is derived from the French word ‘cadastre’ meaning ‘register of
territorial property’. These maps are drawn to show the ownership of landed property by demarcating
field boundaries of agricultural land and the plan of individual houses in urban areas. The cadastral maps
are prepared by the government agencies to realise revenue and taxes, along with keeping a record of
ownership. These maps are drawn on a very large scale, such as the cadastral maps of villages at 1 : 4,000
scale and the city plans at a scale of 1 : 2,000 and larger.
(b) Topographical Maps : These maps are also prepared on a fairly large scale. The topographical maps
are based on precise surveys and are prepared in the form of series of maps made by the national
mapping agencies of almost all countries of the world (Chapter 5). For example, the Survey of India
undertakes the topographical mapping of the entire country at 1 : 250,000, 1 : 50,000 and 1 : 25,000 scale

(ii) Small-scale Maps: Small-scale maps are further divided into the following types :
(a) Wall Maps
(b) Atlas Maps
(a) Wall Maps : These maps are generally drawn on large size paper or on plastic base for use in
classrooms or lecture halls. The scale of wall maps is generally smaller than the scale of topographical
maps but larger than atlas maps.
(b) Atlas Maps : Atlas maps are very small-scale maps. These maps represent fairly large areas and
present highly generalised picture of the physical or cultural features. Even so, an atlas map serves as a
graphic encyclopaedia of the geographical information about the world, continents, countries or regions.
When consulted properly, these maps provide a wealth of generalised information regarding location,
relief, drainage, climate, vegetation, distribution of cities and towns, population, location of industries,
transport-network system, tourism and heritage sites, etc.

Types of Maps Based on Function: The maps may also be classified on the basis of their functions. For
example, a political map serves the function of providing administrative divisions of a continent or a
country and a soil map shows the distribution of different types of soils. Broadly, maps based on their
functions may be classified into physical maps and cultural maps.
(i) Physical Maps: Physical maps show natural features such as relief, geology, soils, drainage, elements
of weather, climate and vegetation, etc.
(a) Relief Maps: Relief maps show general topography of an area like mountains and valleys, plains,
plateaus and drainage.
(b) Geological Maps: These maps are drawn to show geological structures, rock types, etc

(c) Climatic Maps : These maps depict climatic regions of an area. Besides, maps are also drawn to
show the distribution of temperature, rainfall, cloudiness, relative humidity, direction and velocity of
winds and other elements of weather
(ii) Cultural Maps: Cultural maps show man-made features. These include a variety of maps showing
population distribution and growth, sex and age, social and religious composition, literacy, levels of
educational attainment, occupational structure, location of settlements, facilities and services,
transportation lines and production, distribution and flow of different commodities.
(a) Political Maps : These maps show the administrative divisions of an area such as country, state or
district. These maps facilitate the administrative machinery in planning and management of the
concerned administrative unit.
(b) Population Maps: The population maps are drawn to show the distribution, density and growth of
population, age and sex composition, distribution of religious, linguistic and social groups, occupational
structure of the population, etc.
(c) Economic Maps: Economic maps depict production and distribution of different types of crops and
minerals, location of industries and markets, routes for trade and flow of commodities.

USES OF MAPS
Geographers, planners and other resource scientists use maps. In doing so, they make various
types of measurements to determine distances, directions and area.

Measurement of Distance: The linear features shown on the maps fall into two broad categories, i.e.
straight lines and erratic or zigzag lines. The measurement of straight line features like roads, railway
lines and canals is simple.

Measurement of Direction: Direction is defined as an imaginary straight line on the map showing the
angular position to a common base direction. The line pointing to the north is zero direction or the base
direction line.

Measurement of Area: The measurement of area of features like that of administrative and geographic
units is also carried out over the surface of the map by map-users. The area is then determined by a
simple equation :
Area = Sum of whole squares + Sum of partial squares x Map
Chapter 2- Map Scale

Definition- a map scale provides the relationship between the map and the whole or a part of the
earth’s surface shown on it.
We can also express this relationship as a ratio of distances between two points on the map and the
corresponding distance between the same two points on the ground.
There are at least three ways in which this relationship can be expressed.
These are:
1. Statement of Scale
2. Representative Fraction (R. F.)
3. Graphical Scale

METHODS OF SCALE
1. Statement of Scale: The scale of a map may be indicated in the form of a written statement. For
example, if on a map a written statement appears stating 1 cm represents 10 km, it means that on that
map a distance of 1 cm is representing 10 km of the corresponding ground distance.

2. Graphical or Bar Scale: The second type of scale shows map distances and the corresponding ground
distances using a line bar with primary and secondary divisions marked on it. This is referred to as the
graphical scale or bar scale (Fig. 2.1). This is the unique advantage of the graphical method of the map
scale.

Figure 2.1

3. Representative Fraction ( R. F. ): The third type of scale is R. F. It shows the relationship between the
map distance and the corresponding ground distance in units of length. The use of units to express the
scale makes it the most versatile method. R. F. is generally shown in fraction because it shows how much
the real world is reduced to fit on the map. For example, a fraction of 1 : 24,000.

CONVERSION OF SCALE
If you have carefully read the advantages and limitations of the different methods of scale, then it will not
be difficult for you to convert the Statement of Scale into Representative Fraction and vice-versa.
Statement of Scale into R. F.
Problem Convert the given Statement of Scale of 1 inch represents 4 miles into R. F.
Solution The given Statement of Scale may be converted into R. F.
using the following steps.
1 inch represents 4 miles
Or 1 inch represents 4 x 63,360 inches (1 mile = 63,360 inches)
or 1 inch represents 253,440 inches
NOTE : We can now replace the character “inches” into “units” and read it as :
1 unit represents 253,440 Units
Answer R. F. 1 : 253, 440
Construction of the Graphical/Bar Scale
Problem 1 Construct a graphical scale for a map drawn at a scale of 1 : 50,000 and read the
distances in kilometre and metre.
NOTE: By convention, a length of nearly 15 cm is taken to draw a graphical scale.

Calculations To get the length of line for the graphical scale, these steps may be followed:
1 : 50,000 means that
1 unit of the map represents 50,000 units on the ground
or 1 cm represents 50,000 cm
or 15 cm represents 50,000 x 15/100,000 km
or 15 cm represents 7.5 km
Construction The graphical scale may be constructed by following these steps:
Draw a straight line of 10 cm and divide it into 5 equal parts and assign a value of 1 km each for 4 right
side divisions from the 0 mark. Also divide the extreme left side division into 10 equal parts and mark
each division by a value of 100 metres, beginning from 0. (You may also divide it into 2, 4, or 5 parts and
assign a value of 500, 250, or 200 metres to each of the subdivisions respectively from 0.

Figure 2.2

Chapter 3
Latitude, Longitude and Time
Geographical grid

The spinning of the earth on its axis from west to east provides two natural points of reference, i.e. North
and South Poles. They form the basis for the geographical grid.

A network of intersecting lines is drawn for the purpose of fixing the locations of different features. The
grid consists of two sets of horizontal and vertical lines, which are called parallels of latitudes and the
meridians of longitudes.

PARALLELS OF LATITUDES
The latitude of a place on the earth’s surface is its distance north or south of the equator, measured along the
meridian of that place as an angle from the centre of the earth. Lines joining places with the same latitudes are
called parallels. The value of equator is 0° and the latitude of the poles are 90°N and 90°S.

The parallels of latitude refer to the angular distance, in degrees, minutes and seconds of a point
north or south of the Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels.

Latitude of a place may be determined with the help of the altitude of the sun or the Pole Star.
The spinning of the earth on its axis from west to east provides two natural points of reference, i.e. North and South
Poles. They form the basis for the GEOGRAPHICAL grid.

Chapter 3
Chapter 3
28
Latitude, Longitude and Time
Latitude, Longitude and Time Figure 3.1 Parallels of Latitudes

DRAWING THE PARALLELS OF LATITUDES

How to draw the parallels of latitudes? Draw a circle and divide it into two equal halves by drawing
a horizontal line in the centre. This represents the equator. Place a protractor on this circle in a
way that 0° and 180° line on the protractor coincide with the equator on the paper. Now to draw
20°S, mark two points at an angle of 20° from the equator, east and west in the lower half of the
circle, as shown in Fig. 3.2. The arms of the angle cut the circle at two points. Join these two
points by a line parallel to the equator. It will be 200S.

Figure 3.2 Drawing of Parallels of

Latitudes
MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE
The meridians of longitude refer to the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point
east or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are often referred to as meridians.

The longitude of a place is its angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. It is also measured
in degrees. The longitudes vary from 0° to 180° eastward and westward of the Prime Meridian.

The part of the earth east of the Prime Meridian is called the eastern hemisphere and in its west
referred to as the western hemisphere.

Figure 3.3 Meridians of Longitude

Drawing the Meridians of Longitude -How to draw the lines of longitude? Draw a circle whose
centre represents the North Pole. The circumference will represent the equator. Draw a vertical line
through the centre of the circle, i.e. crossing the North Pole. This represents the 0° and 180°
meridians, which meet at the North Pole (Fig. 3.4).

When you look at a map, the east is towards your right and the west is towards your
left. However, to draw a longitude, imagine that you are on the North Pole, i.e. at the centre of the
circle as shown in Fig. 3.4. Observe now that the relative directions of east and west would reverse
in this case and east would be towards your left while west would be towards your right. Now,
draw 45° E and W as shown in Fig. 3.5.

Figure 3.4 Meridians of 00 and 1800 join at the North Pole Figure 3.5 Drawing of Meridians of Longitude
 Table 3.1 A Comparison between the Parallels of Latitudes and t he Meridians of
Longitudes

Parallels of Latitude Meridians of Longitude

1. Latitude is the angular 1. Longitude is the angular
distance of a point north or distance along the
south of the equator as equator measured in
measured in degrees. degrees. It is measured east or west of Greenwich
(0°), from 0° to 180°.

2. All latitudes are parallel 2. All meridians of to

the equator. longitude converge at the poles.

3. On a globe, parallels of 3. All meridians of

latitudes appear as circles. longitude appear as circles running through the
poles.
4. The distance between two 4. The distance between
latitudes is approximately two longitudes is
111 km. maximum at the equator (111.3 km) and minimum
at the poles (0 km). Midway, at 450 of latitude, it is
79 km.
5. The 00 latitude is referred to 5. There are 360° of
as the equator and the 90° longitude, 180° each in as the poles. the east and
west of the Prime Meridian.

6. The latitudes from the 6. The longitudes are used

equator to the poles are to determine the local
used to demarcate time with reference to
temperature zones, i.e. 0° to the time at Prime
23 ½° north and south as the Meridian.
torrid zone, 23 ½° to 66 ½°
as the temperate zone
and 66 ½° to 90° as the frigid

LONGITUDE AND TIME

We all know that the earth rotates from west to east over its axis. It makes the sun rise in the east and
set in the west. The rotation of the earth over its axis takes 24 hours to complete one circle or 360° of
longitudes. As 180° of longitudes fall both east and west of the Prime Meridian, the sun, thus takes 12
hours’ time to traverse the eastern and western hemispheres. In other words, the sun traverses 150 of
longitudes per hour or one degree of longitude in every four minutes of time. It may further be noted
that the time decreases when we move from west to east and increases with our westward movement.

Example 1 : Determine the local time of Thimpu (Bhutan) located at 90° east longitude when the time
at Greenwich (0°) is 12.00 noon.
Statement : The time increases at a rate of 4 minutes per one degree of longitude, east of the Prime
Meridian.
Solution : Difference between Greenwich and Thimpu = 90° of longitudes
Total Time difference = 90 x 4 = 360 minutes = 360/60 hours = 6 hours\Local time of Thimpu is 6
hours more than that at Greenwich, i.e. 6.00 p.m.

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

While the world is divided into 24 time zones, there has to be a place where there is a difference in
days, somewhere the day truly “starts” on the planet. The 180° line of longitude is approximately
where the International Date Line passes. The time at this longitude is exactly 12 hours from the 00
longitude, irrespective of one travels westward or eastward from the Prime Meridian We know that
time decreases east of the Prime Meridian and increases to its west. Hence, for a person moving east of
the Prime Meridian, the time would be 12 hours less than the time at 0° longitude. For another person
moving westward, the time would be 12 hours more than the Prime Meridian.

Chapter 6
Introduction To Aerial Photographs

Aerial Photograph : A photograph taken from an air-borne platform using a precision camera.
Aerial Photography : Art, science and technology of taking aerial photographs from an air-borne
platform.

USES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

The principles used in photogrammetry facilitate precise measurements related to the length,
breadth and height from such photographs. Hence, they are used as the data source for creating and
updating topographic maps.

ADVANTAGES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

The basic advantages that aerial photographs offer over ground based observation are :
a. Improved vantage point: Aerial photography provides a bird’s eye view of large areas, enabling us
to see features of the earth surface in their spatial context.

b. Time freezing ability: An aerial photograph is a record of the surface features at an instance of
exposure. It can, therefore, be used as a historical record.

c. Broadened Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the film used in taking aerial photographs is relatively
more than the sensitivity of the human eyes. Our eyes perceive only in the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. 0.4 to 0.7 μm whereas the sensitivity of the film ranges from 0.3 to 0.9
μm.
d. Three Dimensional Perspective: Aerial photographs are normally taken with uniform exposure
interval that enables us in obtaining stereo pair of photographs. Such a pair of photographs helps us in
getting a three-dimensional view of the surface photographed.

TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

a. Types of Aerial Photographs Based on the Position of the Cameral Axis: On the basis of the
position of the camera axis, aerial photographs are classified into the following types :
(i) Vertical photographs
(ii) Low oblique photographs
(iii) High oblique photographs
(i) Vertical Photographs: While taking aerial photographs, two distinct axes are formed from the
camera lens centre, one towards the ground plane and the other towards the photo plane. The
perpendicular dropped from the camera lens centre to the ground plane is termed as the vertical axis,
whereas the plumb line drawn from the lens centre to the photo plane is known as the
photographic/optical axis. When the photo plane is kept parallel to the ground plane, the two axes also
coincide with each other. The photograph so obtained is known as vertical aerial photograph (Figures
6.3

.
Figure 6.3 Vertical Aerial Photograph
(ii) Low Oblique: An aerial photograph taken with an intentional deviation of 15° to 30° in the
camera axis from the vertical axis is referred to as the low oblique photograph (Figures 6.5 and 6.6).
This kind of photograph is often used in reconnaissance surveys.

Figure 6.5 Low-Oblique Photograph

(iii)High Oblique: The high oblique are photographs obtained when the camera axis is intentionally
inclined about 60° from the vertical axis (Figure 6.7). Such photography is useful in reconnaissance
surveys.
 Photo frame

Camera Lens

Vertical Axix

Camera Axis

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MAP AND AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

Table 6.2: Difference between Maps and Aerial Photographs

Aerial Photograph Map

It is a central Projection. It is an orthogonal Projection.

An aerial photograph is A map is a geometrically correct

geometrically incorrect. The representation of the part of the earth
distortion in the geometry is projected.
minimum at the centre and
increases towards the edges of the
photographs.

The scale of the photograph is The scale of the map is uniform

not uniform. throughout the map extent.

Enlargement/reduction does not Enlargement/reduction of the maps

change the contents of the involves redrawing it afresh.
photographs and can easily be
carried out.

Aerial photography holds good for The mapping of inaccessible and

inaccessible and inhospitable areas. inhospitable areas is very difficult and
sometimes it becomes impossible.
 Chapter 7
Chapter 7
Introduction To Remote Sensing

The term remote sensing was first used in the early 1960s. Later, it was defined as the total processes used to
acquire and measure the information of some property of objects and phenomena by a recording device
(sensor) that is not in physical contact with the objects and phenomena in study.

STAGES IN REMOTE SENSING

These basic processes that help in the collection of information about the properties of the objects and
phenomena of the earth surface are as follows :
(a) Source of Energy (sun/self-emission);
(b) Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth;
(c) Interaction of energy with the earth’s surface;
(d) Propagation of reflected/emitted energy through atmosphere;
(e) Detection of the reflected/emitted energy by the sensor;
(f) Conversion of energy received into photographic/digital form of data;
(g) Extraction of the information contents from the data products; and
(h) Conversion of information into Map/Tabular forms.

Box. 7.1 Comparison between Sun-Synchronous and Geostationary Satellites

Orbital Sun Synchronous Geostationary

Characteristics Satellites Satellites
Altitude 700 – 900 km @ 36,000 km
Coverage 810 N to 810 S 1/3rd of the Globe
Orbital period @ 14 orbits per day 24 hours
Resolution Fine Coarse
(182 metre to 1 metre) (1 km x 1 km)
Uses Earth Resources Telecommunication
Applications and Weather monitoring
SENSORS

A sensor is a device that gathers electromagnetic radiations, converts it into a signal and presents it
in a form suitable for obtaining information about the objects under investigation. Based upon the
form of the data output, the sensors are classified into photographic (analogue) and non–
photographic (digital) sensors..

Multispectral Scanners: In satellite remote sensing, the Multi Spectral Scanners (MSS) are used as
sensors. These sensors are designed to obtain images of the objects while sweeping across the field of
view. A scanner is usually made up of a reception system consisting of a mirror and detectors.

The Multi-Spectral Scanners are divided into the following types:

(i) Whiskbroom Scanners

(ii) Pushbroom Scanners

(i) Whiskbroom Scanners : The whiskbroom scanners are made up of a rotating mirror and a single
detector. The mirror is so oriented that when it completes a rotation, the detector sweeps across the
field of view between 90° and 120° to obtain images in a large number of narrow spectral bands
ranging from visible to middle infrared regions of the spectrum.

(i) Pushbroom Scanners: The pushbroom scanners consist of a number of detectors which are
equivalent to the number obtained by dividing the swath of the sensor by the size of the spatial
resolution
SENSOR RESOLUTIONS

TABLE 7.1 S PATIAL, S PECTRAL AND RADIOMETRIC Resolution of LANDSAT, IRS

AND SPOT Sensors
Satellite/Sensor Spatial Resolution Number of Radiometric Range
(in metres) Bands (Number of Grey
Level Variations)
Landsat MSS (USA) 80.0 x 80.0 4 0 - 64
IRS LISS – I (India) 72.5 x 72.5 4 0 - 127
IRS LISS – II (India) 36.25 x 36.25 4 0 - 127
Landsat TM (USA) 30.00 x 30.00 4 0 - 255
IRS LISS III (India) 23.00 x 23.00 4 0 - 127
SPOT HRV - I (France) 20.00 x 20.00 3 0 - 255
SPOT HRV – II (France) 10.00 x 10.00 1 0 - 255
IRS PAN (India) 5.80 x 5.80 1 0 - 127

DATA PRODUCTS

Based upon the mechanism used in detecting and recording, the remotely sensed data products may
be broadly classified into two types :

Photographic Images

Digital Images

Photographic Images: Photographs are acquired in the optical regions of electromagnetic spectrum,
i.e. 0.3 – 0.9 µm. Four different types of light sensitive film emulsion bases are used to obtain
photographs. These are black and white, colour, black and white infrared and colour infrared.
Digital Images: A digital image consists of discrete picture elements called pixels. Each one of the
pixels in an image has an intensity value and an address in two-dimensional image space. A digital
number (DN) represents the average intensity value of a pixel. It is dependent upon the
electromagnetic energy received by the sensor and the intensity levels used to describe its range.

INTERPRETATION OF SATELLITE IMAGERIES

The data obtained from the sensors is used for information extraction related to the forms, and
patterns of the objects and phenomena of the earth’s surface. We have seen that different sensors
obtain photographic and digital data products. Hence, the extraction of both qualitative and
quantitative properties of such features could be carried out using either visual interpretation
methods or digital image processing techniques.

The visual interpretation is a manual exercise. It involves reading of the images of objects for the
purpose of their identification. On the other hand, digital images require a combination of hardware
and software to extract the desired information.

Elements of Visual Interpretation

1. Tone or Colour: We know that all objects receive energy in all regions of spectrum. The
interaction of EMR with the object surface leads to the absorption, transmittance and reflection of
energy.

2. Texture: The texture refers to the minor variations in tones of grey or hues of colour. These
variations are primarily caused by an aggregation of smaller unit features that fail to be discerned
individually such as high density and low density residential areas.

3. Size: The size of an object as discerned from the resolution or scale of an image is another
important characteristic of individual objects. It helps in distinctively identifying the industrial and
industrial complexes with residential dwellings.

4. Shape: The general form and configuration or an outline of an individual object provides important
clues in the interpretation of remote sensing images. The shape of some of the objects is so distinctive
that make them easy to identify. For example, the shape of the Sansad Bhawan is typically distinct
from many other built-up features.

5. Shadow: Shadow of an object is a function of the sun’s illumination angle and the height of the
object itself. The shape of some of the objects is so typical that they could not be identified without
finding out the length of the shadow they cast. For example, the Qutub Minar located in Delhi,
minarets of mosques.

6. Pattern: The spatial arrangements of many natural and man–made features show repetitive

appearance of forms and relationships. The arrangements can easily be identified from the images
through the utilisation of the pattern they form.

7. Association: The association refers to the relationship between the objects and their surroundings
along with their geographical location. For example, an educational institution always finds its
association with its location in or near a residential area as well as the location of a playground within
the same premises
 Chapter 8- Weather Instruments, Maps and charts

Weather : The condition of the atmosphere at a given place and time with respect to atmospheric
pressure, temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness and wind. These factors are known as
weather elements.

weather maps are prepared for that day by the Meteorological Department from the data obtained
from observations made at various weather stations across the world.
WEATHER OBSERVATIONS
Globally, meteorological observations are recorded at three levels, viz. surface observatories, upper
air observatories and space-based observation platforms. The World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), a specialised agency of the United Nations, coordinates these observations.
SURFACE OBSERVATORIES

A typical surface observatory has instruments for measuring and recording weather elements like
temperature (maximum and minimum), air pressure, humidity, clouds, wind and rainfall. Specialised
observatories also record elements like radiation, ozone atmospheric trace gases, pollution and
atmospheric electricity.

Typical instrumental facility available in a Class-I observatory consists of the following:

1. Maximum and minimum thermometers

2. Anemometer and wind vane

3. Dry and Wet bulb thermometer

4. Rain gauge

5. Barometer

SPACE-BASED OBSERVATIONS

Weather satellites make comprehensive and large-scale observations of different meteorological

elements at the ground level as well in the upper layers of the atmosphere. The geo-stationary satellites
provide space-based observations about weather conditions .For example, The Indian National Satellite
(INSAT) provides valuable observations of temperature, cloud cover, wind and associated weather
phenomena.

WEATHER INSTRUMENTS

Various instruments are used for measuring different weather phenomena. Some of the common but
important weather instruments are listed below.
Thermometer

Thermometer is used to measure air temperature. Most thermometers are in the form of a narrow closed
glass tube with an expanded bulb at one end. The bulb and the lower part of the tube are filled with
liquid such as mercury or alcohol. Before the other end is sealed off, the air in the tube is released by
heating it. The bulb of the thermometer in contact with the air gets heated or cooled, as the case may be,
as a result of which the mercury in the bulb rises or falls. A scale is marked on the glass tube and readings
are taken from there.

The two most common scales used in thermometers are Centigrade and the Fahrenheit. On the
Centigrade thermometer, the temperature of melting ice is marked 00C and that of boiling water as
1000C, and the interval between the two is divided into 100 equal parts. On the Fahrenheit thermometer,
the freezing and boiling points of water are graduated as 320F and 2120F respectively.

Figure 8.1 Maximum Thermometer

Figure 8.2 Minimum Thermometer

BAROMETER
The instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is called a barometer. The most commonly used
barometers are the mercury barometer, aneroid barometer and barographs. The unit of measurement is in the
millibar. Mercury barometer is an accurate instrument and is used as a standard. In it the atmospheric pressure of
any place is balanced against the weight of a column of mercury in an inverted glass tube. The principle of a mercurial
barometer can be explained by a simple experiment (Fig. 8.4). Take a thick glass tube of uniform length about a
meter long and fill it with mercury.

Chart

Figure 8.4 Mercury Barometer

Wind VANE

Wind Vane Wind vane is a device used to measure the direction of the wind. The wind vane is a
lightweight revolving plate with an arrowhead on one end and two metal plates attached to the
other end at the same angle. This revolving plate is mounted on a rod in such a manner that it is
free to rotate on a horizontal plane. It responds even to a slight blow of wind. The arrow always
points towards the direction from which the wind blows. (Fig. 8.6)

Figure 8.6 Wind Vane

RAIN GAUGE
Rain Gauge The amount of rainfall is measured with the help of a rain gauge. The rain gauge consists of a
metal cylinder on which a circular funnel is fitted. The diameter of the funnel’s rim is normally 20 cm. The
rain drops are collected and measured in a measuring glass. Normally, rainfall is measured in the units of
millimetres or centimetres. Snow is also measured in a similar manner by turning it into liquid form (Fig.
8.7).

Instruments for Measuring Weather Elements

S. No Element Instrument Unit

1 Temperature Thermometer °C/°F

2 Atmospheric Pressure Barometer Millibars
3 Wind (Direction) Wind Vane Cardinal points
4 Wind (Velocity) Anemometer Km/hr
5 Rainfall Rain Gauge mm/cm

WEATHER MAPS AND CHARTS

Weather Maps: A weather map is the representation of weather phenomena of the earth or a part of
it on a flat surface. It depicts conditions associated with different weather elements such as
temperature, rainfall, sunshine and cloudiness, direction and velocity of winds, etc.
Weather Charts: The data received from various weather observatories are in plenty and detailed.
As such, they cannot be incorporated in one single chart unless the coding designed to give the
economy of expression is used. These are called synoptic weather charts and the codes used are
called meteorological symbols. Weather charts provide the primary tools for weather forecasting.
WEATHER SYMBOLS
The messages received from all the observatories are plotted on the map using weather symbols
standardised by the World Meteorological Organisation and the National Weather Bureaus.
Mapping the Climatic Data
Much of the climatic data is represented by line symbols. The most common of these are the
isometric lines. These lines are depicted on the map as isopleths. The Isopleth can be interpolated
for places having the same mean values of temperature, rainfall, pressure, sunshine, clouds, etc.
Some of these lines and their uses are mentioned below:
Isobars : Lines connecting places of equal air pressure.
Isotherms : Lines connecting places of equal temperature.
Isohyets : Lines connecting places of equal amount of rainfall over a given period of time.
Isohels : Lines connecting places of same mean daily duration of sunshine.
Isonephs : Lines connecting places of same mean value of cloud cover.