Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Earth-Science Reviews
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/earscirev

Petroleum systems and hydrocarbon potential of the North-West Himalaya T

of India and Pakistan
Craig J.a, Hakhoo N.b, , Bhat G.M.b, Hafiz M.b, Khan M.R.d, Misra R.c, Pandita S.K.b, Raina B.K.e,
⁎

Thurow J.f, Thusu B.f, Ahmed W.b, Khullar S.b

a
Eni Upstream & Technical Services, Via Emilia, San Donato Milanese, Milano 120097, Italy
b
Institute of Energy Research and Training (IERT), and Postgraduate Department of Geology, University of Jammu, Ambedkar Road, Jammu and Kashmir 180006, India
c
Keshav Deva Malviya Institute of Petroleum Exploration (KDMIPE), Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Videsh Ltd, New Delhi, India
d
Pakistan Petroleum Limited (PPL), Karachi, Pakistan
e
Geological Survey of India, Jammu and Kashmir, India
f
Maghreb Petroleum Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street London WC1E 6BT, London, United Kingdom

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Key words: The Himalayan orogeny has shaped the sedimentary basins of the region, where continuous deformation formed
Petroleum Systems both ‘conventional’ and ‘unconventional’ petroleum systems at multiple stratigraphic levels ranging in the age
Hydrocarbons from Precambrian to Neogene. Himalaya is considered to be prospective for hydrocarbon exploration because of
NW Himalaya its suitable tectono-sedimentary environment, oil/gas shows, and the presence of commercial oil and gas dis-
India
coveries in broadly similar structural settings in the eastern and western regions. Although detailed surface
Pakistan
geological mapping, the acquisition of geological data and the drilling of wells has considerably improved the
understanding of the geological and structural setting and the hydrocarbon potential of the NW Himalaya,
commercial discoveries have remained largely elusive.
In the NW Himalaya the Precambrian-Cambrian sequences that are of primary interest include the Salt Range
Formation (Potwar Basin), and also some sequences in the Lesser-and-Sub-Himalaya, such as the Proterozoic
Sirban Limestone Formation; in the Kashmir and Bhadarwah-Chamba basins further to the northeast, and in the
Garhwal Group and the Krol belt in the southeast.
The Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks exposed within the Lesser Himalaya and the Tethyan Himalaya (re-
presented by the Kashmir, Zanskar-Spiti, Kinnaur-Uttarakhand and Kumaon basins) have been subjected to low
grade metamorphism, and presently have no significant hydrocarbon generation potential. The Cambrian
Khewra and the Permian Tobra formations form hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs in the East Potwar. The
Palaeozoic stratigraphy of the Zanskar Tethyan Himalaya in northern India is rather similar to that of the
Peshawar Basin in Pakistan. The thick argillaceous successions are the best potential hydrocarbon source rock
horizons within the Palaeozoic.
The Mesozoic and Early Eocene successions of the Tethyan Himalaya were deposited in the shallow southern
margin of the Tethys Ocean. In the western Himalaya, the Tethyan Himalayan succession is exposed in Kashmir,
Zanskar, Chamba and Spiti basins. The Mesozoic successions include thick sequences of organic material rich
argillaceous sediments. The Triassic and Jurassic strata are generally poorly developed or absent in the eastern
Potwar Basin, while they get thicker towards the west Potwar and Kohat basins. The sandstones of Jurassic age
are proven reservoirs, and potential source rocks are present. The Mesozoic succession of the Kashmir Basin is
represented by the formations of the Triassic age. Some of the shales contain organic matter (OM) and could
represent viable hydrocarbon source rocks, while some of the limestones, dolomites and sandstones have suf-
ficient reservoir characteristics. The OM content of the argillaceous sediments within the Mesozoic-Tertiary
succession of the Zanskar-Spiti Basin (Ladakh Himalaya) is appropriate for hydrocarbon generation.
The Cenozoic foreland basin of the Himalayan orogen was deformed by a southward migrating thrust system
during the Late Miocene-Quaternary. The Sub-Himalaya Zone contains a sequence of Cenozoic sedimentary
rocks divided into the Subathu and Dharamsala (=Murree) formations, and Siwalik Group. Hydrocarbon source
rocks are present in the Subathu and Dharamsala formations; while the Lower Siwalik, Kasauli and Dagshai
formations contain potential sandstone reservoirs. The Eocene Subathu Formation is a key exploration target in

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: naveen@jugaa.com (N. Hakhoo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.09.012
Received 11 December 2017; Received in revised form 27 July 2018; Accepted 28 September 2018
Available online 05 October 2018
0012-8252/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

the NW Himalaya with both potential hydrocarbon source and reservoir rocks sealed by a thick clay sequence.
The coeval shales within the Patala and Nammal formations are considered to be the main source rocks in the
Potwar Basin, whereas, the fractured carbonates of Palaeocene and Early Eocene age are the main reservoirs. The
Miocene Murree Formation is the youngest oil-producing horizon in the Potwar Basin. Palaeocene Hangu
Sandstone and Lockhart Limestone are the main reservoirs in the Kohat Basin. The stratigraphy of Kohat-Potwar
Basin extends into Margalla, Kalachitta and Samana Ranges. In these ranges the Jurassic-Eocene strata is ex-
posed, so sub-thrust sheets could have hydrocarbon potential.
In the NW Himalaya, the surface gas seeps are characterised by a high nitrogen content, and are either
thermogenic or biogenic in origin, while the gases encountered in the wells are typically methane rich (dry) with
low nitrogen concentrations, indicating thermogenic origin. There appears to be a strong linear correlation
between the relative concentration of methane and nitrogen in the Himalayan fore-deep gas shows. There are
numerous references to biogenic gas seeps in the Plio-Pleistocene sediments and lignite fields in the Kashmir
Valley, and also in the shallow Plio-Pleistocene sediments in the Peshawar Basin.
The evolution and establishment of the key petroleum system elements, the generation, expulsion, migration
and accumulation (entrapment) of hydrocarbons at multiple stratigraphic levels in NW Himalaya has been
controlled by the regional tectonic events. These events are associated with the source rock burial and ma-
turation history, coupled with hydrocarbon generation, ‘peak oil’ and subsequent migration occurring con-
comitantly with the peak activity along the major regional thrusts. The complex and variable structural geo-
metries have allowed a variety of traps beneath sections where source rocks have adequate burial depth, and
where traps have not been breached. In NW Himalaya, the key to understand the direct relationship between
tectonics and the evolution of petroleum systems are the accurate estimates for the timing of the related tectonics
and that of the hydrocarbon generation, accumulation and critical moment. Here, the exploration has been
hampered by the structural complexity, difficult terrain, drilling complications and poor seismic data quality.
Timing of the trap formation vs. hydrocarbon charge, trap integrity, seal presence and capacity, and reservoir
quality are the key geological risks that have to be addressed.

1. Introduction 1991; Fig. 1). It branches out westwards to the Sulaiman and Kirthar
fold belts in Pakistan and eastwards to the Indo-Burma ranges in the
Hima’ al-aya is a Sanskrit word meaning ‘abode of snow’ (Zurick and eastern India, Bangladesh and Myanmar. The northern boundary of the
Pacheco, 2006). Himalaya is the world’s youngest, highest and largest Himalayan Range is usually considered to be at the east-flowing Yar-
orogenic belt, being 250-350 km wide and extending for more than lung Tsangpo River and the west-flowing Indus River, while the
2400 km between the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis to the NW in Pakistan and southern boundary is the topographic break at the northern limit of the
the Namche-Barwa Syntaxis to the SE in Tibet (Wadia, 1931; Gansser, Indo-Gangetic plains. The NW part of the orogenic belt comprises three

Fig. 1. Tectonic map of the Himalaya depicting the tectono-stratigraphic (tectono-geomorphic) divisions bound by major faults forming distinct tectonic boundaries.
These faults have significantly affected the petroleum system elements in the region (Modified after: DiPietro and Pogue, 2004).

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J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Kohistan–Ladakh and NW Himalayan region, showing major features viz. rivers, faults and mountain ranges belonging to the Indian and
Asian plates (Modified after: Searle and Treloar, 1999). KKH- Karakoram Highway.

mountain ranges. To the west of the Hunza River is the Karakorum Continent-continent collision with associated crustal shortening, uplift
Range, between the Hunza and the Indus rivers is the Hindukush Range and exhumation began at c. 50 Ma (Meng et al., 2012; Ahmed et al.,
and to the west of the Indus River is the true Himalaya (Kazmi and 2012), during the Early Eocene, when the Indian Plate collided first
Abbasi, 2008), including the Pir Panjal, Zanskar and Ladakh ranges of with the Kohistan-Ladakh island arc, closing the ‘Karakoram Ocean’ and
High Himalaya (Fig. 2). forming the Shyok Suture Zone (Mukherjee et al., 2015). During the
The Himalaya formed by the subduction of the Indian Plate below Mid-Eocene, i.e. around 40 Ma, India and the Kohistan-Ladakh arc to-
the Asian Continental Plate (Gansser, 1964, 1977; Ingalls et al., 2016). gether collided with the Eurasian Plate closing the Neo-Tethys Ocean

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J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

(‘Indus Ocean’) and formed the Indus-Tsangpo Suture (Gansser, 1964; conventional oil and gas exploration and unconventional tight oil/shale
Jagoutz and Schmidt, 2012; Oberhänsli, 2013). The double collision oil and tight gas/shale gas exploration. Very low oil expulsion effi-
involved significant crustal shortening and an associated anticlockwise ciency reduces the potential of conventional petroleum systems but
rotation of India, relative to Asia, of 45° in the north-western Himalaya increases the potential of unconventional petroleum systems, because
to 10-15° in north-central Nepal as the Neo-Tethys Ocean closed ob- more of the generated oil is retained in the shale source rock increasing
liquely and the ‘Pamir wedge’ (the rigid crustal wedge of the western tip its shale oil potential. With increased burial and maturation, much of
of the Indian Subcontinent, limited at present by the Chaman Fault to this retained oil is cracked into gases which also increases the sub-
the west and the Karakoram fault to the east) penetrated into Laurasia sequent shale gas potential. Shale source rocks typically retain a sub-
(Tapponier et al., 1981). The ultimate retreat of the Tethyan seaway stantial quantity of petroleum, even after expulsion to conventional
occurred around 41.2 Ma in the Pakistan area, also marking the closure reservoirs (Jarvie et al., 2007; Meyer, 2012; Ghori, 2013), and com-
of the Kohat-Potwar Basin (Ahmed et al., 2012). The structural evolu- monly, the source rocks for conventional petroleum systems are also the
tion of the NW Himalaya foothills is characterised by the formation and reservoirs (referred to as ‘source-rock reservoirs’ by Hart et al., 2013)
subsequent abandonment of a series of thrust faults whose lateral for unconventional petroleum systems. Shales are texturally and mi-
continuity and inferred large displacement identifies them as the pri- neralogically heterogeneous and have different source and reservoir
mary zones of intra-continental thrusting during the Himalayan or- characteristics (Aplin and Macquaker, 2011). The geochemical, geo-
ogeny (Gansser, 1981; Molnar, 1988; Seeber et al., 1981; Malinconico mechanical and petrophysical properties of source rocks play a key role
and Lillie, 1989). Each of these thrusts has accommodated tens to in unlocking the retained hydrocarbons in them and is usually achieved
hundreds of kilometers of shortening between India and Asia. through a combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing
The growth of the Himalaya as a result of the collision between the (or fracking). From a reservoir perspective, conventional and un-
Indian and Asian plates led to the flexural down-warping of the over- conventional petroleum systems form a continuum from a pore-throat
ridden Indian Plate and the formation of the Himalayan molasse basin, size of greater than 2 μm in conventional reservoirs, to between 2 and
the world’s largest terrestrial foreland basin (Burbank et al., 1996a). 0.03 μm in tight-gas sandstones and 0.1 to 0.005 μm in shale gas re-
The Himalayan Foreland Basin (HFB) was formed over a failed rift zone servoirs (Nelson, 2009).
located over acutely flexed leading edge of the Indian continental crust Shale gas is an unconventional gas system in which the shale is both
(Acharyya and Saha, 2018). The composition of early foreland basin the source of, and the reservoir for, natural gas derived from the organic
sediments from Pakistan eastwards through India and Nepal to Ban- matter within the shale through biogenic and/or thermogenic processes
gladesh records the arrival of ophiolitic to low-grade metamorphic (Curtis, 2002). Natural gas is stored in organic-rich shales as free gas in
detritus derived respectively from the Indus Suture Zone and from the pores and fractures, adsorbed gas in organic matter and inorganic mi-
early Himalayan thrust sheets. The associated closure of Neotethys was nerals and dissolved gas in oil and water. Effective shale gas resources
diachronous, ranging from latest Palaeocene in the west to Eocene, or generally require sufficient net pay (thickness of the producing horizon
possibly even later, in the east (Najman and Garzanti, 2000). ≥100 m), adequate porosity (≥2%), high reservoir pressure (ideally
The outer margin of the Lesser Himalaya and the frontal foreland- over-pressured), high thermal maturity (≥1.5% Ro), high organic
fold-and-thrust belts of the Sub Himalaya have thick sedimentary richness (≥2% TOC), low clay content (≤50%), high competence (rich
packages that contain the necessary elements of the working petroleum in brittle minerals viz. quartz, carbonates, feldspars), and a favourable
systems. This paper mainly reviews hydrocarbon potential aspect of the in-situ stress state (Ghori, 2013).
NW Himalaya of Pakistan and India - as how proven/potential petro- The gas sorption capacities of organic rich shales at a given tem-
leum systems/plays are distributed and how these can be extended to perature and pressure are primarily controlled by the organic matter
the lesser explored parts of the study the area, particularly in India. richness, but may be significantly influenced by the type and the ma-
Previous studies, e.g., Iqbal and Shah, 1980; Khan et al., 1986; Dolan, turity of the organic matter, mineral composition (especially clay con-
1990; Quadri and Quadri, 1996, 1998a & 1998b; Petroconsultants, tent), moisture content and the volume and pore structures. The
1996; Raza, 1992; Jaswal et al., 1997; Wandrey et al., 2004; Asif et al., thermal conversion of kerogen to petroleum generates micro-scale and
2008 and Asif et al., 2009; Fazeelat et al., 2010; Asif et al., 2011; Asif nano-scale pores within organic matter in shales (Jarvie et al., 2007;
and Fazeelat, 2012; Oakley, 2016, amongst others in Pakistan, and Butt, Slatt and O’Brian, 2011). The gas sorption capacity of organic rich
1968; Bhattacharya and Chandra, 1979; Raiverman et al., 1994; shales increases with increasing pressure and decreases with increasing
Mukherjee and Chakrabarti, 1996; Kak et al., 1997, amongst others, temperature so, during burial, the gas sorption capacity initially in-
mainly focused on particular parts of the NW Himalaya. As this part of creases with depth due to the dominant effect of pressure, passes
the NW Himalaya is spread over both India and Pakistan, the in- through a maximum at approximately 1 km of burial, and then de-
formation available in both countries has never been integrated before. creases because of the influence of increasing temperature at greater
This review paper utilizes the published literature, un-published reports depth (Hao et al., 2013). At elevated temperatures and pressures and in
and information, and research and exploration work of the authors to the presence of moisture, the gas sorption capacities of organic rich
present the complete picture of the petroleum systems and hydrocarbon shales are generally quite low. High concentrations of free gas in macro-
prospects in the NW Himalaya of India and Pakistan. pores or fractures can be preserved in organic rich shales in relatively
closed systems, but the loss of free gas can occur during post-generation
2. ‘Conventional’ and ‘Unconventional’ petroleum systems uplift and erosion. Closed fluid systems are often over-pressured and
because much of the retained gases are preserved, the organic rich
‘Conventional’ petroleum systems are buoyancy driven, producing shales usually have high free gas contents. High free gas content seems
discrete accumulations in structural and/or stratigraphic traps which to be critical for high gas flow rates from shales, and loss of free gas
require appropriate geometric relationships between source, reservoir during post-generation evolution is a major risk to the viability of shale
and seal rocks and appropriate timing between trap development and gas plays in tectonically active areas.
hydrocarbon charge. ‘Unconventional’ petroleum systems, in contrast, The organic richness and kerogen properties of the Proterozoic to
are generally not buoyancy driven, are regionally extensive, self-sour- Tertiary shales in the NW Himalaya of India and Pakistan are indicative
cing, involve subtle trapping mechanisms most commonly, but not ex- of their gas generation potential suitable for unconventional gas ex-
clusively, independent of conventional structural and stratigraphic ploration. The interbedded shale in the Proterozoic Sirban Limestone
traps, and are less critically dependent on the timing between trap Formation (SLFm), in Jammu region (India), show total organic carbon
development and charge (Law and Curtis, 2002). (TOC) values of up to 1.4 wt. % with very low S1, S2 and HI values.
The oil expulsion efficiency of source rocks is very important for Thermal maturity of these silica rich shales within the SLFm succession

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indicates a post-mature stage (Hakhoo, 2013 and Hakhoo et al., 2016a; Himalaya and the Outer Himalaya (Chatterjee et al., 2013; Yeats and
Mani et al., 2014). In the Permian–Jurassic and Paleozoic–Tertiary Lawrence, 1984; Farah et al., 1984; Gansser, 1964). These tectonic
shales of Ladakh (India), the TOC content ranges from 0.01 to 1.2 wt. % units are separated by four regional fault systems – the Indus-Tsangpo
(Mani et al., 2014). In the Eocene Subathu Formation (= Sakesar and Suture Zone (ITSZ)/Main Karakoram Thtust (MKT), the Main Mantle
Nammal shales of Potwar Basin, Pakistan) shales/coaly shales (TOC 0.3 Thrust (MMT), the MBT and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) in a north
to 42.4 wt. %) from Jammu, thermal maturity parameters of Tmax and to south sequence (Heim and Gansser, 1939; Gansser, 1983). The sig-
calculated vitrinite reflectance (1.5 to 3.7 Ro %), suggest a post-mature, nificance of at least some of these faults systems as distinct structural
dry-gas-stage. The Subathu Formation shale is characterized by a late boundaries has, however, been challenged (Mukhopadhyay, pers.
meta-genetic gas prone Type III kerogen and a fair to excellent gas com.). In Pakistan, the MFT juxtaposes Precambrian rocks against
potential is exhibited by these shales having a brittleness index (BI) of Miocene strata and is folded as a result of later east-west compression
~0.8 in the upper part of the sequence (Hafiz, 2015; Mani et al., 2014). caused by the anticlockwise rotation of the Indian Plate during collision
The Plio-Pleistocene lignites and mudrock from the Lower Karewa (Ali et al., 2017). In India, the MBT is traditionally considered to mark
Group of Kashmir Valley are organically rich with TOC content ranging the tectonic boundary between the Lesser Himalaya, composed pre-
from 5.86 to 29.4 wt. %. The Lower Triassic black shales from the dominantly of Palaeoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic-Palaeozoic se-
Permian–Triassic (PT) boundary sections in Kashmir are comparatively quences, thrust over the Tertiary conglomerates and sandstones of the
poor in organic matter, with TOC values ranging from 0.18 to 0.93 wt. Sub Himalaya in the footwall. In Pakistan, it juxtaposes Jurassic to
%, whereas the Permian–Jurassic and Paleozoic–Tertiary shales from Tertiary strata in the hangingwall against Eocene to Miocene strata of
Ladakh have a TOC content ranging from 0.01 to 1.22 wt. %. The other the Kohat-Potwar Foreland Basin in the footwall (Ahmad et al., 2012).
Rock Eval parameters (viz. S1, S2, HI) are quite low and indicate a poor In both India and Pakistan, seismological data suggests that the MBT is,
source potential (Mani et al., 2014). Therefore, in the NW Himalaya of at least partially, ‘thick-skinned’ and rooted in the Precambrian base-
India the laterally extensive Subathu Formation shales (average thick- ment (Seeber and Armbruster, 1979; Lisa and Azam, 2005; Ahmad
ness 100m) are the primary targets of the unconventional shales re- et al., 2012).
sources exploration, particularly in the regions where the tectonic The MFT, also sometimes called the Himalayan Frontal Thrust
complexity has not adversely affected their subsurface disposition (e.g. (HFT), marks the southern limit of the emergent foreland fold-and-
in Mahogala, Jammu) and the degree of maturity (Mani et a., 2014; Ali thrust belt in India, while further west, in Pakistan, the Salt Range
et al., 2017). In the NW Himalaya of Pakistan an analysis of the un- Thrust (SRT) defines the southern limit of the emergent thrusting. The
conventional shale oil/gas potential of the Paleocene–Eocene succes- Indian portion of the fold-and-thrust belt is characterised by a series of
sion in the Meyal area of the Potwar Basin has been performed (Ali salients (e.g. the Nahan salient) and flanking re-entrants (e.g. the
et al., 2017). This study (comprising thermal maturity modelling; pet- Kangra and Dehra Dun re-entrants) along the MBT (Mukhopadhyay and
roelastic and petrophysical studies) shows that the thermally mature Mishra, 2007), the largest of which have dimensions of ~100 km by
Palaeocene Patala Formation has the potential of being a shale gas play ~50 km. These salients and re-entrants represent the seismogenic lo-
as compared to the lower part of the immature Eocene Sakesar For- cales where the Proterozoic peninsular fold belts, lithospheric flexures,
mation. and the margin faults (extending from the NW Peninsular India through
It is also observed that the compressional tectonics has a significant the Gangetic Plains) intersect with the north-western Himalayan front.
adverse effect on the maturation of Paleocene-Eocene successions of the The rocks in the Sub Himalaya Zone and the Lesser Himalaya Zone were
Potwar Basin, Pakistan and in the coeval basins (e.g. Subathu Basin) in deformed in a single continuous episode and form a deformed cover
India (Ali et al., 2017). Therefore, the influence of different multiple sequence - the frontal fold-and-thrust belt of the Himalaya - to which
tectonic phases on the Subathu shales of the NW Himalaya in the form the crystalline rocks of the High Himalaya Crystalline Zone (HHCZ)
of high-and-over-maturity should provide a potential strategy for the form the basement (Kumar et al., 2013).
evaluation of unconventional resources in compressional regimes (Mani The progressive tectono-stratigraphic evolution and construction of
et al., 2014; Ali et al., 2017). the Himalaya is attributed to the large-scale thrusts operating at dif-
ferent times and the successive emplacement of nappes, as discussed in
3. Tectonic and stratigraphic context of the NW Himalaya the “in-sequence-model” by Seeber and Gornitz, 1983 (in Catlos et al.,
2007 and references therein). According to this model, following the
In India, the Himalaya orogenic belt is traditionally divided into six activity along the ITSZ during the Late Cretaceous, the intra-continental
tectono-stratigraphic zones (Figs. 1 and 2). These distinct structural MCT initiated during the Early Miocene. After accommodating
units have been thrust southwards and imbricated during the collision ~140–210 km of convergence, the MCT relayed the activity to the MBT
of the Indian and Asian plates (Powell and Conaghan, 1973; Lefort, that became active during the Late Miocene to Pliocene. From the
1975; Mattauer, 1986; Hodges, 2000; Yin and Harrison, 2000; DeCelles Pliocene to present times, the MFT is active. In addition to this other
et al., 2002; Murphy and Yin, 2003; Yin, 2006; Guillot et al., 2008). models also exist, e.g., the “steady-state-model” (Seeber and Gornitz,
From south to north, they are the Outer or Sub Himalaya, the Lower or 1983), which suggests that contraction along Himalayan faults pro-
Lesser Himalaya, the Higher or Greater Himalaya (the Himalayan core), gresses at the regional scale towards the foreland, but the hinterland
the Tethyan or Tibetan Himalaya, the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone and continues to internally thicken. On the basis of this model Catlos et al.,
the Trans Himalaya (Thakur and Rawat, 1992). 2007 have proposed that the “subsequent to activity along the ITSZ
The Lesser Himalaya, Greater Himalaya and Tethyan Himalaya during the Late Cretaceous, the MCT initiated during the Early Miocene
zones consist of packages of pre-Himalayan sedimentary and igneous as a low-angle (~7°) thrust that accommodated ~100 km of displace-
rocks derived from Greater India. The Lesser Himalaya Zone consists of ment. When the MBT became active during the Late Miocene to Plio-
sedimentary to low-grade metamorphic rocks of Neoproterozoic to cene, the MCT was deformed to a steeper 30° angle. During the Pliocene
Early Cambrian age. The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) separates the to present times, the MCT, MBT, MFT, and the Main Himalayan Thrust
Lesser Himalaya Zone from the Sub Himalaya Zone to the south and (MHT) have all been active structures. In both the scenarios, it is seen
west, although there is some local tectonic intercalation of rocks be- that the skin-frictional movement along the MHT provided an im-
longing to the two different zones (Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2012) portant amount of heat via shear stress of ~30 MPa. (Catlos et al.,
In Pakistan, the Himalayan orogen is classically divided into five 2007). Therefore, during the evolution of the Himalaya the conditions
tectonic units (Figs. 1 and 2): the Trans Himalaya (Karakoram-Lhasa were conducive for the establishment of the essential elements of the
Block) in the north, followed sequentially southwards by the High Hi- petroleum system, and also for the hydrocarbon maturation, expulsion
malaya (Kohistan-Ladakh Batholiths), the Lesser Himalaya, the Sub and retention.

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J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

Fig. 3. Geological map of the NW Himalaya showing the locations of the oil and gas exploration and producing wells in Pakistan and India in broadly similar
geological setting (of note is the absence of the producing wells in the NW Himalaya of India). (Modified after: DiPietro and Pogue, 2004).

The Indian portion of the NW Himalaya has long been considered appropriate static corrections, in an intensely thrusted and extremely
prospective for hydrocarbons (e.g. Middlemiss, 1919) because of its complex orogenic belt. Detailed stratigraphic correlation in the area is
suitable tectono-sedimentary environment, the existence of gas shows made difficult by the lack of marker horizons, the presence of faults and
at the surface (e.g. at the Jawalamukhi ‘fire temple’), and in the sub- fractures, the addition/omission of strata and thickness variations
surface (e.g., Jawalamukhi-1; Balh Deep-1 wells) and the presence of oil across different tectonic units with varying structural styles. Of parti-
and gas discoveries in broadly similar structural settings both to the cular significance is the fact that most of the wells drilled in the region
west in the Kohat-Potwar area of Pakistan (Fig. 3), and to the east in in the last twenty years failed to reach their intended target due to the
Assam and of oil discoveries to the northeast in the dextral transten- difficult geology and associated drilling complications, particularly the
sional Lumpola Basin and the Tadjik Basin area in the north of the presence of significant overpressure (e.g. Balh Deep-1, Nurpur-1 and
Tibetan Plateau (Zhang et al., 1984; Zhili and Congguang, 1988; Zhang Suruinsar 1 and 2; Fig. 3), repetition of beds and heavy mud losses
et al., 1997; Paracha, 2004). In the Potwar Basin, there are oil and gas during drilling.
accumulations and shows in the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic, Palaeocene-Eo- Seismic imaging in the NW Himalayan region is severely con-
cene and Oligocene-Miocene sequences, while in the Upper Assam strained by large scale structural complexity and intense tectonic de-
Basin there are source rocks and reservoirs in the Palaeocene-Eocene formation (Fig. 4) leading to the absence of uniformly processed, high
and Oligocene-Miocene successions. Although detailed surface geolo- quality seismic profiles that take into account the distribution and
gical mapping, the acquisition of large volumes of geological data and varying velocities at thrust surfaces prone to velocity inversion. This
the drilling of wells has considerably improved the understanding of the makes it extremely challenging to accurately image the complex in-
geological and structural setting and the hydrocarbon potential of the ternal deformation and structures with steep dips and lateral velocity
intervening portion of the Indian Himalayan region, commercial dis- variations. The acquisition of additional seismic data with higher sub-
coveries of oil and gas have remained elusive here (Meissner et al., surface resolution, combined with advanced processing techniques (e.g.
1974 and Meissner et al., 1975; Khan et al., 1986; Jaswal et al., 1997). pre-stack depth migration) and appropriate modelling is required in
Critically, the geological models envisaged have not been corroborated order to define new prospects for drilling in the foothills and the
by subsequent drilling. In particular, anticlines mapped at surface have foreland basins of the NW Himalaya.
been shown not to persist down to the predicted levels. This has Kohat-Potwar is the most tectonically complex region of the
highlighted the uncertainties associated with imaging subsurface northern Pakistan. The Kohat area is a complex tilted plateau similar to
structures with poor quality data, often without a common datum and a ‘cuesta’ region with its difficult geological attributes, viz. moderate to

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Fig. 4. Generalised seismotectonic model across the Himalaya depicting intense deformation and seismogenic locales associated with the decollment and imbrication
(Modified after: Dasgupta et al., 2013). Q-Quaternary; US, MS, LS - Upper, Middle and Lower Siwalik; IS - Indus Suture; MBT - Main Boundary Thrust; MCT - Main
Central Thrust; MFT - Main Frontal Thrust; MHT - Main Himalaya Thrust.

steep dips and asymmetrical structures which may have been formed by Jafar Kandao Formation culminated with the intrusion of the mafic
a large number of thrusts/normal faults. The interpretation of the dykes and sills, and the extrusion of the associated lavas (Pogue et al.,
geological and geophysical data has indicated that the area has several 1992). The Peshawar Basin formed during the uplift of the Attock-
salt affected and/or basement involved thrust/reverse fault systems Cherat Range along its southern margin following a late Miocene to
formed as a result of transpressional tectonics (Paracha, 2001). The Pliocene folding and thrusting event that affected the pre-existing
Kohat-Potwar depression is a classic foredeep basin, situated south of Muree Formation sediments. The Campbellpore Basin also formed as a
the Himalaya and formed due to compressional tectonics at the result of Late Cenozoic uplift of the Kala Chitta-Margalla Range along
northern margin of the Indian Plate, produced by continent-to-con- its southern margin. The rapid upliftment of the Attock Range after c.
tinent collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates (Farah et al., 1984). 0.6 Ma terminated the sedimentation in the intermontane Peshawar
The depression is located between lat. 32° and 34°N, and long.70° and Basin and resulted in folding and dissection of the sediment fill
74°E at the junction between the oblique collision zone of the Indus (Burbank and Tahirkheli, 1985).
region (Sulaiman-Kirthar Fold belt) and the frontal collision zone of the The reconstruction of the paleogeography of Hazara-Campbellpore
Himalaya. It is a classic foreland basin with a gentle monocline to the (Attock-Cherat Range) and Peshawar basins is not only complicated but
south and an increasingly complex thrust system to the north (Yeats and also poorly constrained because of multiple deformation phases, re-
Lawrence, 1984; Jaswal et al., 1997) (Fig. 5). sultant unconformities and poor exposures. First major unconformity
The 36,000 km2 Kohat-Potwar Basin contains more than 5,000 m of between Precambrian and Early Paleozoic successions has been con-
marine sediments of Infra-Cambrian (Neoproterozoic to Early sistently marked by the presence of basal conglomerates. It suggests
Cambrian) to Eocene age, with a major break in deposition between the nearby uplift at the start of the Paleozoic Era. Precambrian strata in
Ordovician and the Carboniferous. The marine sedimentation in the these basins are metamorphosed up to slate-phyllite grades (greenschist
Kohat-Potwar Basin stopped around 50-49.5 Ma and the youngest facies) (Shah et al., 1977; Shah, 2009). Second major unconformity was
marine sediments are of Middle Eocene (Upper Lutetian) age (Ahmad also erosive as Jurassic overlies the Cambrian and Precambrian strata in
et al., 2012). In the south, the basin is bounded by the Salt Range and its these basins (Latif, 1973). From Jurassic to Late Cretaceous, sedi-
extensions to the west (called the Trans-Indus ranges), whereas the mentation was continuous and mixed clastic and carbonate facies were
northern physical boundary of the basin is marked by the Kalachitta deposited. Last major unconformity before Himalayan Orogeny was
and Margalla ranges. The Jhelum River marks the eastern boundary, recorded during the Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene, which was fol-
while the western margins are delineated by the Kurram-Parachinar lowed by thermal subsidence of NW margin of the Indian Plate. During
ranges. The Indus River separates the Kohat Basin from the Potwar Paleocene, clastic Hangu unit was deposited on erosional unconformity
Basin. The Potwar Basin is separated from the Sulaiman Foredeep to the and followed by wide spread Middle Paleocene carbonate platform of
south by the Sargodha-Shapur High, a regional basement high that Lockhart Limestone and marginal marine to offshore shales of Patala
extends northwest-wards from the Punjab Platform where basement Formation (see Tectono-stratigraphic Chart for the details, Fig. 6).
rocks sub-crop directly below the Tertiary sequences (Bender and Raza, As seen in the Fig. 6, in the Lesser Himalaya – ranges and basins
1995). The Sargoda-Shahpur High was active before the development (i.e., Peshawar-Campbellpore-Hazara), the Precambrian Hazara For-
of the foredeep basins, but was reactivated during the India-Eurasia mation is unconformably over lain by Palaeozoic successions affected
collision (Fig. 5). by the Pangean orogenies, and the major erosion of the NW part of the
The Peshawar Basin represents the most complete Palaeozoic se- Indian Plate. These signatures are completely missing along the MBT
quence in Pakistan (Pogue et al., 1992). The Peshawar Basin strati- ranges (in Samana-Kalachitta-Margalla), although the basal conglom-
graphy extends locally in the Sherwan Synclinorium of Hazara and in erates are present here. In the Sub Himalaya basins (viz. Kohat-Potwar-
the Khyber Pass region. The Peshawar Basin successions lie to the north Eastern Potwar) the Precambrian Salt Range Formation (SRF) is over
of the Khairabad Thrust (= MCT), forming the part of the Tethyan lain by the Early Palaeozoic Jutana Formation which is truncated by an
Himalayan succession (Fig. 5). The Peshawar Basin was subjected to unconformity, and the succession up to Permian Nilawahan Group
two major tectonic episodes during the Late Cambrian and Early Car- eroded during Pangean orogenies. Further east, along MFT ranges (viz.
boniferous – Permian. The Late Cambrian tectonic effects are also found Trans Indus and Salt Range) the stratigraphic extension of the Pre-
in the Tethyan Himalaya of India (Jain et al., 1980; Garzanti et al., cambrian and the overlying Early Palaeozoic succession is present,
1986). The Early Carboniferous-Permian tectonic event (indicated by which has inherent source and reservoir facies. There is a very well

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J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

Fig. 5. Generalized structural and tectono-stratigraphic map of the Potwar (north, central and south), Kohat and adjacent areas (including Kashmir and Peshawar
basins). The tectono-physical boundaries; regional truncations (wavy lines) and oil/gas occurrences are also shown. [Modified after; Pakistan Petroleum Limited
(PPL), 2013. Original map by: M. Nizamuddin (author) and Irfan Lateef (graphics)].

developed and correlatable tectono-stratigraphic succession from Per- the movement of the Indian Plate over Reunion Hotspot. The sedi-
mian (MFT ranges and Sub Himalaya Basin) and Early Jurassic (MBT mentation was largely affected by the rifting of Pangea (and post rift
ranges and Lesser Himalaya – ranges and basins) extending up to Late stages) up to Early Jurassic. Early Cenozoic sedimentation was affected
Eocene. The base of Oligocene has a regional Late Cretaceous to Pa- by the thermal subsidence and post-upliftment phase that established
laeogene unconformity formed by the upliftment and erosion during the source and reservoir facies at multiple stratigraphic levels. The

Fig. 6. Tectono-stratigraphy of the northwestern Lesser and Sub Himalaya of Pakistan. Major tectonic events coupled with source and reservoir facies at multiple
stratigraphic levels are also shown. (Modified after: Gansser, 1964; Lefort, 1975; Shah et al., 1977; Iqbal and Shah, 1980; Wells, 1983; Gee, 1989; Pogue et al., 1992;
Quadri and Quadri, 1996; Wandrey et al., 2004; Reham et al., 2017 and PPL Internal Reports).

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J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

Fig. 7. (a) Extent of the original Himalayan Foreland Basin. (b) Tertiary and Early Quaternary sedimentary rocks of the Himalayan Foreland Basin (Peripheral-
Foreland) and the Retro-Foreland, south and north of the Himalayan core respectively (Modified after: Valdiya, 2002 and Brookfield, 1993 - in Valdiya, 2016).

Oligocene to Early Pleistocene successions are poorly exposed and collision became more intense during the Eocene, and caused the
generally absent in the Lesser Himalaya ranges and basins, and in the southward migration of the deformation front and thrust belt. This also
MBT ranges. The Siwalik sedimentation from Miocene to Pleistocene is brought about the movement and parking of the fold and thrust
very well preserved above a basin wide Early Miocene unconformity. nappes/ thrust sheets (constituting the fold-thrust belt- FTB) towards
This sedimentation phase was affected by the thrusting and deforma- the south, thus carving the doubly tapered-prism-geometry of the basin
tion along the MBT and MCT (Fig. 6 and references therein). (DeCelles and Giles, 1996; DeCelles et al., 2001). The MBT and HFT
The HFB bordering Pakistan to the NW and Nepal to the SE covers a mark the northern and southern limits of the HFB. The MBT thrust the
total area of 30, 300 km2 in India, encompassing the states of Jammu Lesser Himalaya over the Sub Himalaya during the Miocene/Pliocene
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The HFB is a wedge times (DeCelles et al., 1998; Hodges et al., 1988; Meigs et al., 1995).
shaped ‘peripheral’ foreland basin (deepening towards the hinterland) The active HFT (=MFT) lies to the south of the Sub-Himalaya, and
that formed in response to the flexural down-buckle of lithosphere by separates it from the present-day foreland basin (i.e. the Indo-Gangetic
the adjacent thrust belt during the India-Asia collision (Jordan, 1981; alluvial plain) to the south (Powers et al., 1998). The peneplanation of
Valdiya, 1998; Najman et al., 2004). The HFB had a wider extent, both the egressed parts supplied the sediments which accumulated in the
towards east and west, and the foreland succession had a widespread foreland basin as Subathu Formation constituting the primary source
distribution, which presently is exposed in limited areas (Valdiya, facies in the HFB extending from Pakistan (Patala/Nammal shales) in
2016) (Fig. 7). The continued convergence of the India and (Eur)Asia NW, through India and Nepal (Bhainskanti Formation) towards the

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J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

Fig. 8. Tectono-stratigraphy of the northwestern Himalaya of India. Major tectonic events, sea level rise and fall, coupled with source and reservoir facies at multiple
stratigraphic levels are also shown. (Modified after: Gansser, 1964; Sastri, 1979; Baud et al., 1984; Klootwijk et al., 1986; Kotila, 1990; Thakur, 1993; Kapoor, 1996;
Kak et al., 1997 & Kak et al., 1999; Najman et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2005a; Myrow et al., 2006; Verma et al., 2012; Hakhoo, 2013; Mani et al., 2014; Bhargava, 2015
and ONGC Internal Reports).

Ganga- Brahmputra region in NE (DeCelles and Giles, 1996; Clift and trends (Burbank and Johnson, 1982). The KB is part of Kashmir Nappe,
VanLaningham, 2010). In India, the Sub Himalaya Foreland Basin is and is considered to be an “extensional rift basin” oriented parallel to
subdivided into Subathu and Kangra sub-basins by the basement ridges the Himalaya orogen with a tendency to sink with respect to the general
and spurs (Raiverman et al., 1983; Najman, 2004). In India, the HFB is a rise of the Himalaya (Agarwal and Agrawal, 2005). The rocks consist of
category III basin (prospective with hydrocarbon shows). A total of 34 Precambrian basement overlain by a thick fossiliferous succession of
wells have been drilled to date in this basin, and oil and gas shows from Palaeozoic and Triassic strata with thrusted contacts in the north with
the Murree Formation (overlying the Subathu Formation) have been High (Great) Himalaya defined by the Zanskar Thrust, and in the south
reported in only 9 of the wells (ONGC internal reports; Kak et al., 1997 with Pir Panjal Range defined by the Panjal Thrust (=MCT). From the
& Kak et al., 1999) (Fig. 3). southwest to northeast of the KB these rocks form complicated struc-
In the NW Himalaya of India, further NE of the HFB, the bowl- tures and are overlain by ~ 1.3 km thick succession of sand, mud and
shaped intermontane Kashmir Basin (KB) is situated, the basin is gravels Neogene-Quaternary age Karewa (Udra) Group (Ganjoo, 2014).
flanked by the Pir Panjal Range in the south and west, the high The Lower Karewa sediments are organically rich with mixed Type II/
Karakoram Ranges in the north, and the Zanskar Range in the east III kerogen (Mani et al., 2014).
(Wadia, 1931; Ganjoo, 2014) (Figs. 1, 2 and 5). The KB and Peshawar As seen in the Fig. 8, In the NW Himalaya India, the foreland basin
Basin (discussed above) are symmetrically oriented about the NW Hi- comprises ~ 10 km thick Cenozoic sedimentary succession [viz. Eocene
malayan syntaxial bend, and the intermontane sedimentation in both Subathu Formation (=Patala/Nammal shales in Potwar Basin), Mio-
the basins began approximately at the same time. The two basins have cene Murree (= Dharamsala) Formation and the Plio-Pleistocene Si-
similarities, but the KB unlike the Peshawar Basin was never part of the walik Group] in the Punjab plains and the Sub Himalaya (Thakur, 1993;
subsiding foredeep, and the Peshawar Basin being nestled in the Hindu- Najman et al., 2004; Clift and VanLaningham, 2010). In the Punjab
Kush range is not frequently constrained by the Himalayan structural plains the Siwalik Group (penetrated by a number of exploratory wells

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Table 1
Detailed description of the exploration wells drilled in the NW Himalayan foothills of India. None of the wells have intercepted the Subathu Formation (primary source rock in the area), and gas shows occur in some of the
wells.
Well name Date Operator TD (m) Oil/Gas TD Fm. Description
Shows

Adampur-1 (ADM-1) 1962 2538 Granite Upper and post-Siwalik, Middle Siwalik and thin Lower Siwalik above granite (Acharyya and Ray, 1982)
Ambala pre 1983
Balh Deep-1 2003 ONGC Yes Balh Deep-1 gas is methane rich, but the isotope value is not available, so it is not possible to determine whether
the gas is of biogenic or thermogenic origin.
Changartalai-1 1991 ONGC 4968 Drilled to 4900 m against a target of 6530 m.
Cheri-1 1986 ONGC 3238
Hoshiarpur-1 1957 ONGC 3439
Janauri-1 1960 ONGC 4931 Marble Dharamsala (Oligocene-Lower Miocene) above pre-Vindhyan marble
Janauri-2 1965 ONGC 5027
Jawalamukhi-1 1957 ONGC 3068 Yes Lower Dharamsala (Oligo-Lower Miocene) The first exploratory well in Jawalamukhi area (Jawalamukhi #A) was spudded in 1957 for structural and
stratigraphic information and exploration of hydrocarbons in Jawalamukhi structure. The small gas find in two
shallow zones (Siwalik) of JMI#A well led to drilling of a number of wells in Jawalamukhi area to delineate its
lateral extent and hydrocarbon prospects.
Jawalamukhi-2 1960 ONGC 5047 Lower Dharamsala (Oligo-Lower Miocene) Upper and Lower Dharamsala (Oligo-Lower Miocene)
Jawalamukhi-3 1964 ONGC 994
Jawalamukhi-4 1977 ONGC 1048

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Jawalamukhi-5 1978 ONGC 1037
Jawalamukhi-Baggi 1987 ONGC 6727 Yes Located close to the village of Jawalamukhi-Baggi, famous for the temple of goddess Jawalamukhi. Jawalamukhi
#B is the deepest well in the basin drilled to a depth of 6720 m and terminated within Lower Dharamsala. The gas
seepages observed in cellar pit of well JMI#B probably come from the interval 4031-4037 m in Lower Dharamsala.
The zone was over pressured and not covered with cement. The gas is enriched in methane and C2+ hydrocarbons
are present in a very low concentration and nitrogen concentration is also not high. In July 2002 water/gas leaked
at the well head.
Mohand Deep-1 1965 ONGC 5264 Vindhyan Group Lower Siwalik and Dharamsala Formation resting on Vindhyan Group (Acharyya and Ray, 1982)
Nurpur-1 1987 ONGC 4936 Yes Located close to the village of Lunj. A gas sample from Nurpur#á has a methane 13C value of -32.5 ‰, suggesting
a genetic correlation with the JMI#â gas.
Philibit-1 1966 ONGC Vindhyan Group Siwalik Group directly overlying Precambrian Vindhyan Group (Acharyya and Ray, 1982).
Ramshahr-1 1977 ONGC 2648 Upper Siwalik in sub- thrust position Drilled on the exposed Dharamsala Formation in the core of a faulted anticline in the middle Sub-Himalayan belt.
Instead of reaching the expected Eocene source rocks of the Subathu Formation, the well passed through the
Paonta Thrust and 'went entirely through the Upper Siwalik sediments below the older Dharamsala Group 1,700 m
below the surface' (Acharyya and Ray, 1982).The Paonta Thrust has a dip of about 20° and accommodates at least
4.4 km of displacement.
Saharanpur-1 1990 ONGC 2362 Lower Siwalik over Precambrian.
Sundarnagar-1 2000 ONGC 5100
Suruinsar-1 1970 ONGC 3665 Claystone and shale of the Lower Dharamsala Starts in Lower Siwalik and TDs in claystone and shale of the Lower Dharamsala (Oligocene-Lower Miocene).
(Oligo-Lower Miocene) Located approximately 20 km towards NE from Jammu, close to hydrocarbons surface seeps.
Suruinsar-2 1987 ONGC 5448
Zira pre 83 < 1000 No Granite Middle Siwalik above granite (Acharyya and Ray, 1982).
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185
J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

e.g. Zira-1, Adampur-1 and Hoshiarpur-1, Fig. 3) tapers towards the establishment of the source and reservoir facies at multiple strati-
Indian craton and thickens towards the hinterland from SSW to NNE, graphic levels (Fig. 8). These sedimentation cycles coupled with the
owing to the structural control of the MHT (Kak et al., 1997 & Singh progressive movement and activity along the major regional faults in
et al., 2005a; Singh et al., 2005b; Singh et al., 2005c). In the Sub Hi- the region created conducive conditions for the maturation, expulsion,
malaya ‘orogenic wedge’ of Jammu and Himachal Pradesh (HP), the migration and accumulation of oil and gas at multiple stratigraphic
Pre-Cambrian basement (Sirban Limestone Formation-SLFm) underlies levels. There is very high possibility for the traps to have been deformed
the Cenozoic succession, the contact between the two is back-thrusted and breached by the later tectonic movements (Fig. 8 and references
at least in the Jammu area (Hakhoo, 2013). The Cenozoic sedimenta- therein).
tion and the subsequent deformation was associated with the initiation
of movement, peak activity and relay of deformational front along
4. History of hydrocarbon exploration and production
major regional thrusts, i.e. MCT (peak activity c. 16-14 Ma), MBT (peak
activity c. 10 Ma) and the HFT (peak activity c. 1 Ma) (Klootwijk et al.,
4.1. NW Himalaya of India
1986; Verma et al., 2012; Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2012), and also
the transgressive and regressive events from Palaeocene to Oligocene
Exploration for oil and gas in the Indian part of the Himalayan fold-
(Fig. 7). Further NNE, in the intermontane Kashmir Basin (sister basin
and-thrust belt and associated foreland basin in the states of Jammu
of the Peshawar Basin in Pakistan) the Palaeozoic passive margin se-
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand was one of the ear-
dimentation on the Pre-Cambrian basement was influenced by many
liest targets for the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) following
transgressive and regressive events, separated by regional un-
its establishment in 1956 (Chakraborty and Sastry, 1958; Talukdar
conformities up to Triassic, and ending with the deposition of the
et al., 1959; Aditya, 1959 and Shukla et al., 1960). Exploration took
fluvio-lacustrine sediments of Plio-Pliestocene age known as the
place in three phases. During the first phase (1957-66), the whole re-
Karewa Group (age equivalent of the Siwalik Group) (Gansser, 1964;
gion was covered by aeromagnetic and gravity surveys, and subjected
Roy, 1975; Kotila, 1990; Kapoor, 1996). There is a very well developed
to surface geological mapping. The period was characterised by inter-
and correlatable tectono-stratigraphic succession from Late Devonian to
pretations involving predominantly vertical fault tectonics. Nine wells
Late Triassic in the Zanskar Range (Tethys Himalaya) where the Late
were drilled during this phase. The Jawalamukhi-A well (Table 1 &
Triassic sedimentation was primarily rift related followed by sedi-
Fig. 3) tested gas from an interval in the Lower Siwalik Subgroup at a
mentation cycles associated with sea level rise and fall (as observed in
depth of 885.5-887.5 m, at a rate of 43,350 m3/day. Refraction and
the Kashmir Basin) up to Cenozoic and culminating with the India-Asia
reflection seismic surveys were conducted selectively (Kak et al., 1997
collision. This was followed by the Cenozoic sedimentation on the basin
& Kak et al., 1999).
wide unconformity (Fig. 8). The sedimentary units from Early Triassic
Four wells were drilled during the second phase of exploration
to Late Cretaceous/Early Palaeocene are traceable and tectono-strati-
(1970-80), including two wells in the Jawalamukhi area, together with
graphically correlatable from the Zanskar to ITSZ (representing the
the acquisition of additional seismic data. The third exploration phase
northern margin of the Indian Plate). Further NNE the northern margin
(1986-90) targeted the Palaeocene-Eocene Subathu Formation in the
of the Tethys represented by the Ladakh Magmatic Arc comprises of
‘triangle zone’ and involved the drilling of five more wells, although
Drass Volcanics and calc-alkaline granites (Thakur, 1993) (Fig. 8).
even the deepest of these (Jawalamukhi-B) in Jawalamukhi-Baggi area,
These sedimentation cycles were largely affected by regional tectonics
Table 1 & Fig. 3) drilled to a depth of 6727 m failed to reach the Sub-
influencing the sea level rise and fall. This brought about the
athu Formation target whose regional extent and source rock potential

Table 2
Detail and the description of the exploration wells drilled in the Kashmir Basin, NW Himalaya, India.
Well Name Date Operator TD(m) Gas Shows TD Fm

Chattargam-2 1975 ONGC 1601

Kenyhoma-1 1965 ONGC 103.55 Drilled in November 1965, 8 km from Srinagar. The well penetrated a sequence of grey, sticky,
calcareous clay with silt and sand. Four cores were taken at 40, 42.5, 52 and 91.83 m. It was not
possible to deepen the well through a boulder bed, the top of which was at 99 m. No gas shows were
encountered (Butt, 1968).
Narbal-1 1976 ONGC 1303
Nowgom-1 1965 ONGC 125.05 Yes Karewas Drilled in October 1965, 5 km from Srinagar, close to a water well dug in 1963 which produced ‘a
combustible liquid’ (Butt, 1968). The well penetrated a sequence of greenish-grey-plastic-calcareous
clay, silt and gravel consisting of clasts of quartzite, sandstone and Panjal volcanics. Three cores were
taken at depths of 68.5, 115 and 118.93m. Drilling terminated when a boulder was encountered. The
hole filled with water and gas bubbles issued from the top of the water (Butt, 1968).
Rawalpur-1 1965 ONGC 139.25 Karewas Drilled in November 1965, 6 km from Srinagar. It penetrated 110 m of alternating bands of clay and
lesser amounts of sand before encountering a bed of pebbles and boulders. No gas was encountered.
The well was drilled through the boulder bed with some difficulty into another sequence of clay and
sand then entered another boulder bed, which continued to TD. Nine cores were taken at 9.25, 39, 50,
58.35, 103.3, 131.3, 137.75 and 138 m (Butt, 1968).
Sopore-1 1965 ONGC 197 Yes Karewas Drilled in November 1965 close to a water well that had produced combustible gas, about 50 km from
Srinagar. Small flows of gas were encountered at depths of 37 m and 91 m. The gas show at 91 m was
the larger of the two and correlates with a gas zone encountered in a water well 100 m away. A total of
13.25 m cores were taken at depths of 18.34, 82.25, 92.25 and 145.25 m. The well penetrated a
sequence of alternating soil, loose fine-to-medium grained sand and sticky plastic clay (Butt, 1968).
Srinagar-1 1975 ONGC
Srinagar Silk Factory 1920 97 Yes Karewas The well flowed a large volume of water accompanied by a ‘load hissing column of gas which ignited
and burned with a petroleum odour’. Most of the gas came from a depth of 190-300 ft (58-97 m). The
gas was methane with some olefines and ethylene. The well became chocked and, after bailing and
pumping was resumed, an emission of gas, mud and fine sand was observed (Butt, 1968).
Yechgom-1 1965 ONGC 199.8 Yes Drilled in December 1965 close to the surface gas seep, 9 km from Srinagar. Nine cores were taken
between 21.105 and 197.3 m. The well penetrated Lower Karewas grey-blue and bluish-grey clay, sand
and gravel. Clasts in the gravel consist of Panjal volcanics, quartzite, schist and phyllite.

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 Table 3
Summary and salient features of the petroleum system elements in the Precambrian to Cenozoic basins in the NW Himalaya of India and Pakistan.
J. Craig et al.

Area Basin, Tectonics Sedimentation (Mega Structural Styles Source and Type Migration Reservoir Seal Trap and Play Type Hydrocarbon Remarks/Data
and Formation sequence)

Precambrian-Cambrian Petroleum System

India: Riasi Allochthon. Upper Indus Basin. Proterozoic carbonates, Platform margin Proterozoic Unknown Dolostones with, vuggy, Chert beds/ Structural Gas seeps (mixed, A Potential
(Hakhoo, 2013, The Sub-Himalayan (dolomite/limestone), compressional (Palaeo, Meso and (Possible inter- and intra- lenses, Shales (Triangle zones, biogenic and petroleum system/
Hakhoo et al., Foreland Fold- stromatolitic biostromes, regime (folding, Neoproterozoic) occurrence of a granular, fracture, and and argillites. Duplex structures, thermogenic) Primary and
2016a; Bhat et al., Thrust-Belt (FTB). chert and organic rich faulting (thrusts) carbonates, shales petroleum inter-and-intra-layer, associated Production of oil/ secondary data
2009, 2012) Riasi Allochthon – shale. Interbedded and imbrication) and algal fairway between cavern porosity. backthrust) and gas from Potwar. available.
Meso- transgressive and Multiple tectonic limestones Riasi (India) and Stratigraphic.
Neoproterozoic regressive sedimentation episodes related to (biostromes). Potwar
Sirban Limestone cycles. (Broad carbonate the drift, rotation, (Pakistan).
Formation (SLFm) shelf: marine supratidal, collision and under- (Wandrey et al.,
System. intertidal shallow thrusting of the 2004)
subtidal to inner Indian Plate.
carbonate shelf
environment)
Pakistan: Indus Basin. The Three lithological facies- South migrating Red gypsiferous Short distance, Shallow water Primarily, the Horst-graben traps Oil in one well in Frontier basin,
Neoproterozoic- Neoproterozoic Salt (i) basal thick dominantly thrust-sheets. Fault- claystone, up-dip, carbonates, intercalated evaporitic beds. in the eastern part. eastern part of the original
Cambrian Salt Range Formation. salt sequence, overlain propagation-folds, dolomite, shale, vertically into clastics. Dome/duplex basin (Pakistan), recoverable
Range Formation Present decollment by, (ii) massive gypsum detachment folds, siltstone. High- adjacent Reservoir within the structures in where the reserves 290
System. (Ahmad and contractional with dolomite beds, (iii) pop-ups and triangle grade oil-shale reservoirs sequence is unlikely. Sulaiman and potential source is MMBO (Jadoon
and Alam, 2007; tectonics. NE-SW capped by marl zones. (Type II Kerogen) through faults Stacked reservoirs – Kirthar ranges. thicker and deeper et al., 2015). Oil is
Craig et al., 2013; oriented mega- intercalated with gypsum in the top gypsum and fractures. Cambrian-Eocene Pop-up structures than the geochemically
Gee, 1989; Khan, evaporitic basin and dolomite. Indicating bed. fractures carbonates. in Potwar. Baghewala field similar to oil from
1956; Jadoon et al., that existed along sea incursion into the Detachment folds, (India). (coeval
2015; Law et al., the NW margin of closed evaporitic basin, fault-propagation Generation of sequences);

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1998) the gently dipping persisting into Early folds, pop-ups and mature oil. Baghewala and
metamorphic Cambrian, followed by triangle zones. Oman. A paleo-
Indian Shield with transgression. basin that
restricted shallow- extending across
marine arid Indian and Arabia,
environment. forming Pangaea.

Palaeozoic Petroleum System

Pakistan: Kohat-Potwar Kohat-Potwar South Gondwana Initial rift related, Sardhai Formation Generation Fair-good reservoir Permian Faulted anticlines, Oil production An established
Province. Basin. Lower affinities. Fluctuating sae- and younger black shales; primarily during properties - Tobra Gypsiferous pop-up structures from Tobra and field producing for
(Dolan, 1990; Gee, Cambrian Jhelum level (Lower, Upper compressional and Wargal Formation Late Cretaceous Formation horizons and and fault block Jutana formations the last 100 years.
1989; Khan et al., Group – Khewra, Cambrian sandstones, thrusting associated. Carbonaceous for Cambrian conglomerates, Jutana shales. traps. Possible reservoirs in Kal, Primary and
1986; Kussak, Jutana and siltstones, carbonates); shale – TOC ~1 wt. through Formation carbonates, ‘petroleum fairy’ Rajian, Dhurnal secondary
Petroconsultants, Baghanwala major truncations; % (oil production Cretaceous sandstones. Cambrian/ between Kohat- fields. Oil and gas (exploratory, dry
1996; Shah et al., formations. Lower increased sedimentations in Dhurnal field); source rocks. Permian Sandstones, Potwar and production/seeps and producing)
1977; Sinha et al., Permian Waracha, rates; accumulation of Permian shales of Migration over Sandy carbonates. Himalayan from Wargal well data and
2014; Wandrey Sardhai, Dandot organic rich sediments Dandot, Sardhai short distances, Foreland (Riasi, formation in subsurface seismic
et al., 2004) formations. Upper (Lower, Upper Permian and Chhidru vertically into India) (Wandrey, Dhurnal field. data. Boutique
Permian Wargal, carbonaceous shales, coal formations. adjacent 2004). Stacked source, province for USGS
Chhidru formations. seams, shales, limestones, reservoirs. reservoirs – world petroleum
gypsiferous horizons, mixing of oils. assessment.
fluvio-glacial deposits).
Permian glacial till,
diamictites – Tobra
Formation.
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 Table 3 (continued)

Area Basin, Tectonics Sedimentation (Mega Structural Styles Source and Type Migration Reservoir Seal Trap and Play Type Hydrocarbon Remarks/Data
J. Craig et al.

and Formation sequence)

Pakistan: Peshawar Peshawar Basin. Broad shelf: marine Transitional; Ordovician- Largely Ordovician quartzites, Cambrian cherts Possibly structural Numerous oil/gas Frontier area, very
‘Intermontane Cambrian Ambar supratidal, intertidal between fold-thrust- Devonian argillites unknown. Silurian Orthoceratid, and argillites; (fold-thrust-belt seeps. limited
Basin’. Formation shallow subtidal to inner belt and and limestones Associated with limestones, Devonian Devonian- related), and information. The
(Hussain et al., unconformably environment, metamorphosed (Nowshera, Misri Late Cambrian; carbonates. Carboniferous stratigraphic succession is
1991; Khan et al., overlain by transgressive/regressive terrain. Banda formations); Early argillites. (associated with metamorphosed
2003; Lefort, 1975; Ordovician Misri cycles. Periodic Silurian argillites Carboniferous- unconformities, and could have
Pogue et al., 1992) Banda Quartzite, sedimentation from the and limestones Permian secondary/ contained
Silurian Panjpir, northern highlands and (Panjpir tectonic events. diagenetic) hydrocarbon
Devonian the southern craton. Formation). potential
Nowshera, and Deposition of carbonates,
Devonian to quartzite, argillite and
Carboniferous Jafar chert; fossiliferous
Kandao formations. argillites, limestones, and
a basal conglomerate
with the Infracambrian.
India: Kashmir Basin. Rhythmic alterations of Initial rift related Argillaceous Unknown Cambrian quartzites, Shales and Unknown, but, (i) Unknown Very limited
Kashmir Valley Intermontane fault rudites, arenites and (peak during successions within sandstones, oolitic argillites at structural: possibly research, meager
‘Intermontane “extensional rift argillites. Cambrian - carboniferous – Lolab, Margan, limestones. Ordovician- multiple related to rifting to no data-sets
Basin’ (Agarwal and basin” – part of shale, black shale, contemporaneous Syringothyris Devonian stratigraphic (Carboniferous); available.
Agrawal, 2005; Kashmir Nappe. quartzite, siltstone. with Panjal Limestone and conglomerates. levels from Contractional
Mani et al., 2014; Cambrian Lolab, Middle-Upper Cambrian - Volcanics), followed Fenestella Shale Devonian arenites. Cambrian to tectonics (Nappe
Thakur and Rawat, Middle-Upper green shale, sandstone, by tectonic formations. Carboniferous arenites Carboniferous. and Synclinorium)
1992) Cambrian Karihul variegated, oolitic upheaval and uplift. Cambrian black and conglomerates, and (ii)
formations; Upper limestone (fossil rich). Regional NW shales, limestones; diamictite, limestone, Stratigraphic:
Ordovician-Lower Upper Ordovician-Lower trending Devonian and dolomite and associated with

122
Devonian Margan, Devonian - shale, arenite, Synclinorium. Lower sandstones. unconformities
Middle Devonian siltstone, conglomerate Carboniferous (e.g. base Permian)
Muth Quartzite, (fossil rich). Middle shales, black
Upper Devonian Devonian - Quartz- shales, siltstones
Aishmuqam arenites. Upper Devonian and limestones.
formations; Lower arenites, shale, siltstone. Permian shales –
Carboniferous Lower Carboniferous - TOC ~1 wt. %.
Syringothyris Limestone, arenite, shale,
Limestone, calc-shale, black shales,
Fenestella Shale, conglomerate, pebbly
Upper layers (fossil rich).
Carboniferous- Permian Diamictite, slate.
Lower Permian Shale/ carbonaceous
Agglomeratic Slate shale, sandstone, grit
formations; (fossil rich). Purple/pink
Permian arenite, tuff, novaculite,
Nishatbagh, Panjal limestone. Shales/sandy
Traps, Mamal, shales, dolomitic and
Upper Permian crinoidal limestones and
Zewan formations. sandstone.
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 Table 3 (continued)

Area Basin, Tectonics Sedimentation (Mega Structural Styles Source and Type Migration Reservoir Seal Trap and Play Type Hydrocarbon Remarks/Data
J. Craig et al.

and Formation sequence)

India: Zanskar-Spiti Basin. Zanskar: Slightly Compressional Zanskar: Grey/ Unknown. Zanskar: Cambrian Shales, argillites Duplex, pop-up Unknown. Hydrocarbon
Zanskar-Spiti Compressional metamorphosed (contractional), black shales of silici-clastics, at Cambrian structures. occurrences
(Cornfield and tectonics and Cambrian Trilobite rich detachment, thrust Parahio, Po carbonates, sandstones. and Ordovician- Unconformity unknown, very
Searle, 2000; crustal shortening shales/slates, dolostones/ related. formations. Carboniferous-Permian Silurian and related limited source and
Gaetani and (~36 km). Zanskar, stromatolites, shales, Ordovician- quartzites, arenites, Late stratigraphic traps. no reservoir
Garzanti, 1990; Cambrian Pahario, sandstones (marine, Silurian shales of limestones. Pin Valley Carboniferous potential data.
Sinha et al., 2014) Karsha, Kurgiakh fluvial, shallow marine Thango and (Spiti): Cambrian fluvio- to Permian
formations. Late carbonate platform Takche formations deltaic sediments, intervals.
Carboniferous- environment, storm (TAI 3.35-3.75). Devonian
Permian Po, events). Carboniferous- quartzarenites.
Chumik formations. Permian quartzites,
Spiti, Cambrian arenites black shales,
Batal, Pahario/ limestones and siltstones.
Kunzam La Pin Valley (Spiti):
formations. complete succession from
Ordovician Thango, the Neoproterozoic
Ordovician-Silurian (shallow near-shore
Takche (black environment) through
shales) and Cambrian (fluvio-deltaic
Devonian Muth with marine flooding),
formations. Ordovician-Silurian black
shales and Devonian
quartzarenite (tidal
environment and
fluctuating sea-level).

123
Mesozoic Petroleum System
Pakistan: Potwar Basin and Deposition on the shallow Plate collision and Fair to good source Generation: Triassic sandstones, Fault Stacked source and Oil/gas An established
Kohat-Potwar ?Kohat Plateau. continental shelf-slope of thrusting associated. potential. Shales, during Late carbonates (producing truncations, reservoir rocks. condensate. Oil field producing for
Province. (ODGC, Rift related flight of southern margin of Tectonic dolomite and Cretaceous. reservoirs- Chanda Deep interbedded Over-turned production, show/ the last 100 years.
1996; Kemal et al., Indian plate; active, Tethys Ocean. Triassic, compression and platform Migration: for Field). Jurassic shales and clays faulted anticlines, seeps; gas Primary and
1992; Iqbal and passive margin Jurassic and Cretaceous undercompaction. carbonates short distances, siliciclastic, sandstones, at multiple pop-up structures production, gas secondary
Shah, 1980; Khan tectonics. shelf, shallow marine (Jurassic-Lower vertically into carbonates (producing stratigraphic and tilted fault shows from (exploratory, dry
et al., 1986; Law Triassic Zaluch, sediments, viz. sandstone, Cretaceous). adjacent in the Dhulian, Toot, levels. block traps. Jurassic Datta and producing)
et al., 1998; Musa-Khel groups, shale, dolomite, sandy Chichali and reservoirs Meyal, Chanda, and Greater potential Formation. Oil well data and
Petroconsultants, Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonates; Triassic Lumshiwal through faults/ Mela fields). Cretaceous in northern folded production, subsurface seismic
1996; Shah et al., Surghar Group: continental coarse-to- formations – fractures. Lumshiwalsandstones zone. shows/seeps from data. Boutique
1977, USGS-WEAT, Mianwali, Tredian, fine-sandstones, shales, youngest mature (producing horizons in Possible Cretaceous province for USGS
2000; Wandrey Kingriali carbonates deposited source rocks. Manzalai, Makori, Mela, ‘petroleum fairy’ Lumshiwal, world petroleum
et al., 2004) formations. unconformably Permian Chanda fields). between Kohat- Kawagarh, assessment.
Jurassic Datta, strata. Jurassic-near shore Potwar and Moghal Kot
Shinawari siliciclastics, non-marine Himalayan formations. [0.3
formations; Samana sandstones, carbonaceous Foreland (Riasi, BBO⁎ and 1.9
Suk Formation. and lateritic interbeds India) (Wandrey, TCFG⁎⁎]
Lower Cretaceous and platform carbonates. 2004).
Chichali Formation; Lower Cretaceous shales,
Lower-Upper glauconitic sandstones
Cretaceous (shoreline packages);
Lumshiwal Lower to Upper
Formation; Upper Cretaceous sandstone;
Cretaceous Upper Upper Cretaceous
Goru, Kawagarh/ siliciclastic sequences
Upper Moghal Kot (regression of Tethys Sea,
formations; uplift and erosion).
Cretaceous Chichali
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

Formation.
(continued on next page)
 Table 3 (continued)

Area Basin, Tectonics Sedimentation (Mega Structural Styles Source and Type Migration Reservoir Seal Trap and Play Type Hydrocarbon Remarks/Data
J. Craig et al.

and Formation sequence)

India: Kashmir Basin. Initial Passive margin Passive margin, rift Lower Triassic gas- Unknown. Limestone, dolomite, Largely Unknown. Gas seeps from Very limited
Kashmir Valley Intermontane fault
setting, followed by related - prone black shales shales of Upper Triassic unknown, but Triassic rocks research, meager
‘Intermontane “extensional riftPermian rifting, breaking, contemporaneous (av. TOC 0.33 wt. Wuyan Formation – could be the (Butt, 1968) to no data-sets
Basin’. (Algeo et al., basin” – part of Late Permian widespread with basaltic %) of fossiliferous sufficient reservoir shales at available.
2007; Brookfield Kashmir Nappe. transgression - deposition volcanism, followed Khunamuh properties (Butt, 1968) multiple
et al., 2013; Upper Permian of marine shales, by breakup, Formation. (Tiwari stratigraphic
Kapoor, 1996; Leu -Lower Triassic limestones. Md. Triassic- subsidence and et al., 1992) levels.
et al., 2015) Khunamuh; Middle black shales, limestones; uplift.
Triassic Khrew and
Upper Triassic limestone,
Upper Triassic dolomite, shale,
Wuyan formations.sandstone. Cycles of
Jurassic Wumuh breakup, unconformity
Formation. and subsidence. Finally,
End Triassic regression.
Jurassic limestone,
sandstone, shale.
India: Zanskar-Spiti; Zanskar-Spiti Basin Mesozoic sequence Predominantly Shales of Kulling Unknown. Largely unknown, but Shales, siltstone Late Cretaceous Overall - poor Very basic data
Trans-Himalaya. and Trans deposited on the north- influenced by post (av. TOC 1.17 wt. possible in Kulling, and siliceous (76-65 Ma); hydrocarbon available, an
(Awasthi et al., Himalaya. S facing passive margin of India-Asia collision; %, Type III/II Lilang formations volcanics at Eocene-Oligocene generation important frontier
2011; Bhargava, Zanskar: Upper Tethys-shallow shelf, rethrusting, SW- kerogen), Indus sandstones and multiple (54-25 Ma); potential (Singh area to explore for
2008; Cornfield and Permian-Lower deep basin to slope facies verging folding, (av. TOC 1.91 wt. carbonates. Limestones, stratigraphic Miocene-Recent et al., 2004). Gas hydrocarbons.
Searle, 2000; Fuchs, Triassic Kulling deposits. Zanskar: thin-skinned fold- %, fixed C – sandstones in Spiti are levels (25-0 Ma) – prone Kulling Fm.
1982; Gradstein Formation, Lower- Sandstone, shale, thrust-belt, pop-up 32.3%), Nindam sparitized and (particularly top passive margin Shales. Indus (Ro
et al., 1991; Singh Upper Triassic limestone (Kulling Fm.); structures. Giant (av. TOC 0.94 wt. cemented, with poor Cretaceous). obduction, thrust 0.6-1.7%),
et al., 2004; Lillang Group. N carbonates (Lillang Gp.); Synclinorium with %), and Trans porosity. Conglomerates sheets. Imbricates, Nindam (Ro 1.44-

124
Thakur, 1993) Zanskar: Triassic- shale, siltstone, sandstone NW closure. Himalayan and sandstones of Indus pop-ups, triangle 1.51%), Lamayuru
Jurassic Lamayuru (Lamayuru Fm.). Spiti: Lamayuru (av. Fm. zones, stacked (Ro 1.34-1.44%)
Formation. Spiti: limestone (Kioto); shale TOC 1.24 wt. %) thrust sheets, and formation shales –
Triassic-Jurassic (Spiti); sandstone with formations. ?Spiti reactivated ramps sufficiently
Kioto Limestone; coal intervals (Guimal) - Shale (unknown – important mature to
Upper Jurassic Spiti sparitized and cemented. potential) – coeval exploration generate gas with
Shale; Lower Trans Himalaya: shales in Nepal targets. some oil. Indus
Cretaceous Guimal, calcareous shale, have av. TOC 2 wt. Fm. Shales have
Tashegang siltstone, sandstone %, beyond oil greatest potential
formations; Albian- (Lamayuru Fm.); window, VR 1.5- (Awasthi et al.,
Maastrichtian Volcanics (Dras Fm.); 2%, Tmax 400- 2011).
Chikkim Limestone. alternated beds – 500 oC.
Trans Himalaya: siltstone, sandstone, shale
Lower Triassic- (Nindam Fm.);
Middle Jurassic conglomerate, sandstone,
Lamayuru; Lower siltstone, shale, limestone
Jurassic-Cretaceous (Indus Fm.) – deposited in
Dras; Cretaceous arc-trench environment.
Nindam; Lower
Cretaceous-
Oligocene Indus
formations.
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 Table 3 (continued)

Area Basin, Tectonics Sedimentation (Mega Structural Styles Source and Type Migration Reservoir Seal Trap and Play Type Hydrocarbon Remarks/Data
J. Craig et al.

and Formation sequence)

Tertiary Petroleum System

India/Pakistan: NW Himalayan Basement controlled 8-10 Thin-and-thick Shales, coaly Unknown Moderate-good Absent Potential traps in Gas seeps from Category III Basin
Himalayan foothills Foreland Basin km of sediment fill skinned; strike-slip shales, coals of the (possibility of a porosities in Lower regionally. 25-20 Ma and 15- Subathu (ONGC, DGH).
(Jammu, Himachal (HFB) Frontal Fold- (transgressive-regressive displacements; pop- Subathu Formation fairway between Siwalik, Dagsai and Lensoid clay/ 10 Ma old Formation Data available –
Pradesh, Thrust-Belt. India- cycles) on down-warped ups; enechelon (TOC - 0.4 to 42.4 HFB and Kasauli formations shale (5-25 m structures back- (productive dry- geological,
Uttarakhand, Asia Collision, Indian Plate, viz. Paralic- folds; high angle wt. %; Type III Potwar. (potential sandstone thick) in all the bulge, fore-bulge, gas window). aeromagnetic,
India); (Rawalpindi, southward ‘step- marginal (shallow) reverse faults; kerogen; Ro - 1.37 Wandrey et al., reservoirs). Secondary formations fore-deep, wedge- Hydrocarbon gravity, magnetic,
Pakistan) (Burbank wise’ migrating marine Subathu transpression and to 1.84%), 2004) porosity in Subathu (except Upper top, duplex, generation 16-14 seismic,
and Raynolds, thrusts and down- Formation (carbonaceous imbricate thrusting. excellent to fair Limestones (additional Siwalik) – triangle zones). Ma; Peak oil 10 exploratory/
1984; DeCelles and warping. Lower shale, coal, sandstone, Simple structural source potential potential reservoirs). adequate local Greatest potential Ma; Gas pool in structural wells.
Giles, 1996, Palaeocene to nummulitic limestone, geometry in Siwalik; (conventional and seals. in > 3 Ma old Lower Siwalik Oil/gas shows in 9
DeCelles et al., Middle Eocene shelly limestone and pink complex structural unconventional) – structures (Jawalamukhi). 5 wells. Potential
1998; Hafiz, 2015; Subathu; Oligocene needle shale). Fluvio- geometry Generation: 16-14 (imbricates, Ma old structures petroleum system
Kak et al., 1997; to Lower Miocene deltaic (imbricates, horses, Ma; Peak Oil: 10 duplexes, pop-ups, – significant (both
Mishra and Dharamsala; Late Lower Dharamsala slivers) in Subathu Ma; Gas Window: slivers and horses) exploration conventional-true
Mukhopadhyay, Eocene–Early (shales, subsidiary sands, and Murree. 9-6 Ma. in inner tectonic targets. (Verma and hybrid, and
2012; Raiverman, Miocene Murree (= sandstones; Upper Dharamsala belt with thick et al., 2012). unconventional)
2013; Sinha et al., Dagsai/Kasauli) Dharamsala (sandstones, Formation shales. Subathu shales. Surface oil seeps
2007) formations. Upper greenish/grey/red shales) and asphalt in
Miocene to formations. Fluvio-deltaic Subathu (Mittal
Pleistocene Siwalik Murree Formation et al., 2006).
Group. Rawalpindi (sandstones and shales). Famous
Group (consisting of Fluvial Siwalik Group ‘Jawalamukhi’ gas
Murree and (Sandstones, clays, seep.
Siwalik) conglomerates).

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Pakistan: Potwar Potwar Basin. India- Western Himalayan Decoupled Primary source Migration over Sakesar Formation Mostly are fault Mostly, overturned Generation An established
Province. Asia Collision, Foredeep. Continuously successions in rocks – Patala short distances, limestone, Murree truncations, faulted anticlines, starting at 30 Ma, field producing for
(Fazeelat et al., southward ‘step- subsiding foreland basin decollment zone Formation shales up-dip and Formation sandstone interbedded Pop-up structures, through 20-15 Ma the last 100 years.
2010; Gaetani and wise’ migrating with pervasive cyclicity. (folds/thrusts). (av. TOC 1.4 wt. vertically into reservoirs (producing in shales and clays. or fault-block traps to present. Oil Primary and
Garzanti, 1991; thrusts and down- Palaeocene transgression Thin-skinned %, Type II, III adjacent Khaur). Sandstones: Seals are not of Miocene age. production/show/ secondary
Gee, 1989; Ghani warping. – Hangu Formation deformation, Kerogen) (OGDC, reservoirs. porosity – 5-30%, extensive and seep from (exploratory, dry
et al., 2017; Jaswal Palaeocene Hangu/ Sandstone. Shallow water detachment surfaces 1996; Quadri and (Mixing of permeability – 300 mD. laterally Lockhart and and producing)
et al., 1997; Lillie Dhak Pass, carbonates (Lockhart); and strike-slip Quadri, 1996). hydrocarbons is Also in Lockhart, Patala, continuous in Patala formations. well data and
et al., 1987; Lockhart, Patala carbonaceous shales, faults. Hinterland Potential/ seen). Nammal, Bhadrar, Siwalik and Oil/Gas subsurface seismic
Magoon & Dow, formations. Lower limestone, sandstone and foreland significant source Chorgali, Margali Rawalpindi production/show/ data.
1984; Vestrum Eocene Nammal, (Patala); Eocene Nammal verging thrusts. rocks - Sakesar formations. Siwalik -has groups. seep from Sakesar Undiscovered oil/
et al., 2011; Eocene Sakesar, claystones, Sakesar Formation poor reservoir quality. Formation. Lower gas in Patala-
Wandrey et al., Chorgali ‘outer-shelfal’ limestones; limestones (TOC Miocene Murree Nammal
2004) formations. Oligo- Chorgali dolomites, up to 13 wt. %, Formation – Composite
Miocene claystones. Rawalpindi Type III gas prone youngest oil Petroleum System:
Rawalpindi Group Group – continental-tidal Kerogen); Lockhart producing Oil-149MMBOE,
(Lower Miocene flat Murree (sandstone, Limestone (av. horizon. Gas – 1,314BCFG,
Murree, Md. – Up. shale), thrust-stack TOC 1.4 wt. %) Generation NGL-54MMBNGL
Miocene Kamlial deposition & Kamlial and Nammal continues even (Wandrey et al.,
formations). Upper (sandstone, mudstone, Formation. today. 2004)
Miocene- caliche) formations.
Pleistocene Siwalik Siwalik Group molasse
Group. sediments with extreme
lateral variability.

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 Table 3 (continued)

Area Basin, Tectonics Sedimentation (Mega Structural Styles Source and Type Migration Reservoir Seal Trap and Play Type Hydrocarbon Remarks/Data
J. Craig et al.

and Formation sequence)

Plio-Pleistocene to Recent Systems

India. India: Kashmir Basin. Late c. 4 Ma old syn-orogenic NW-SE trending Carbonaceous Unknown. Sands of the Karewa Largely Mainly Immature phase of Non-commercial
Kashmir Valley Cenozoic- sedimentation – anticlines. clays and lignites Group (extremely good unknown, stratigraphic hydrocarbon accumulation.
‘Intermontane Quaternary accumulation of fluvio- Development on the of the Karewa porosity, Butt, 1968) (possibly (primary- generation. Gas Two wells drilled
Basin’ (Craig et al., synformal lacustrine (silt, siltstone, back of imbricate Group (TOC up to siltstones and depositional; occurrences - to test Karewa
2013; Dar and depression as down- conglomerate, sandstone, thrust sheets. 29.4 wt. %, Type shales). secondary- Biogenic gas (Dry, (ONGC). Detailed
Dubey, 2013; folds on SE side of glacial deposits, II/III Kerogen) diagenetic and CH4 rich, with 3D modelling/
Middlemiss, 1920, Nanga Parbat carbonaceous shales, (Mani et al., 2014) associated with CO2 and N2) from analysis is
1924; Rajtarangini; Syntaxis. Plio- lignite) and loess unconformities) lignite fields, required.
Yeats and Pleistocene to deposits. Time wells in Upper
Lawrence, 1984) Recent Karewa transgressive Karewa (along
Group (Hirpur, (Pleistocene-Holocene) thrusts and
Nagum, Dilpur deposits at the top. (Butt, anticlinal flanks)
formations). 1968)
India: Jammu, Himalayan Tectonically influenced Imbricates, wedge Unknown (older Unknown. Not established. (could Not established. Unknown. (could CH4 rich biogenic Very preliminary
Himachal, Foothills. Orogenic along the deformation top, duplex and Palaeogene be porous sands). (could be silt be thrust related in gas. data available.
Uttarakhand. wedge. Recent front of the frontal-fold- triangle zones. sequences, and siltstones). the orogenic Occurrence of
(Faber et al., 1992; sediments and thrust-belt. Proximal fans, younger sediments wedge). seeps warrants
Mittal et al., 2006) alluvium. braided river systems, in the re-entrants) further
fluvial and shallow exploration.
lacustrine sediments.
Pakistan. Peshawar and Peshawar Fluvial and alluvial Associated with sub- Lacustrine Unknown. Fluvial Sandstones Interbedded Faulted anticlines CH4 rich gas, no Preliminary data.
Campbellpore ‘intermontane’ and sediments. Alluvial fan horizontal ?claystone could be reservoir (Not claystone. and wedge related. N2, biogenic and Gas (under
areas. (Burbank and Campbellpore progradation, floodplain, detachment. Piggy interbedded with tested yet). possibly pressure)
Tahirkheli, 1985; basins. floodpond, lacustrine back compressional fluvial sediments. thermogenic (no encountered in

126
Pogue et al., 1992; Lithological/ sediments. tectonic features isotopic data) e.g. water wells. Data
Seeber and Tectonic similarity Izakhel gas-seep. is mainly from
Armbruster, 1979, with Kashmir Basin. ‘Higher’ adjacent outcrops.
Seeber et al., 1981) Plio-Pleistocene hydrocarbons up
sediments (= to C5.
Karewa Group).
Area Basin, Tectonics Sedimentation (Mega Structural Styles Source and Type Migration Reservoir Seal Trap and Play Type Hydrocarbon Remarks/Data
and Formation sequence)
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185
J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

is based on the unsubstantiated interpretation of seismic data (Petroconsultants, 1996). The first discovery of oil and gas in the Kohat
Karunakaran and Rao, 1979; Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2012). The Basin was made at Chanda in 1999. The field was brought onstream in
second and third exploration phases included the drilling of two wells 2004, and by the end of 2014, it had produced more than 15 Million
close to surface seeps on the Suruinsar Anticline, reputedly the largest Barrels of Oil Equivalents (MMBOE) and 29 Billion Cubic Feet of Gas
anticline in South Asia, about 20 km northeast of Jammu (Kak et al., (BCFG) from reservoirs in the Cretaceous Lumshiwal, Jurassic Datta and
1997 & Kak et al., 1999). Suruinsar-1 was drilled in 1970 to a depth of Triassic Kingriali formations. Between 1999 and 2011, nine further oil
3665 m and Suruinsar-2 was drilled in 1987 to a depth of 5448 m and gas discoveries were made in Kohat Basin - Manzalai, Makori, Mela,
(Table 1 and Fig. 3). Both wells were apparently abandoned because of Mamikhel, Maramzai, Nashpa, Makori East, Tolanj and Halili. Further
high pressure and neither reached their intended target. To date, a total discoveries were made in the Kohat Basin by the Kohat-1 well in 2012
of 3923 km of refraction and 2485 km of reflection seismic data have (minor gas discovery), the Kot-1 and Malgin-1 wells in 2014 (non-
been acquired. A fourth phase of exploration began in the year 2000 commercial), the Mardan Khel-1 well (gas and condensate discovery),
with the drilling of a well at Sundernagar in Himachal Pradesh tar- the Kalabagh-1A well (oil, gas and condensate discovery) in 2015
geting a salt related play (Table 1 & Fig. 3). A total of 15 wells have now (Oakley, 2016) and the Halini-Deep-1 well (oil and gas discovery in the
been drilled in the the Indian part of the NW Himalayan foothills (and Jurassic Samana Suk) in 2016 (Figs. 3 & 5). In April 2016, a well test in
11 wells further south in the Indo-Gangetic alluvium), mainly targeting the Makori-Deep-1 well (drilled to a depth of 5,067 m) flowed 2,202
traditional fold-and-thrust belt plays such as hangingwall anticlines and Barrels of Oil Per Day (BOPD) and 5.4 Million Standard Cubic Feet Per
triangle zones (Karunakaran and Rao, 1979; Dwivedi, 2016), so far Day (MMSCFD) of gas from the Palaeocene Lockart Formation. After
without commercial success (Table 1 and Fig. 3). The occurrence of gas acid stimulation, the flow rate increased to 3,790 Barrels (BBLS) of oil
seeps and shows would suggest that there is a working petroleum and 10.9 MMSCFD of gas. Later in 2016, another discovery was made
system in this area (Bhattacharya and Chandra, 1979; Raiverman et al., by the Tolanj West-1 well (total depth of 4941 m) which flowed 14.51
1994), but the exploration has been hampered by the structural com- MMSCFD of gas and 34 bbls of condensate from the Cretaceous Lum-
plexity, difficult terrain, drilling complications and poor seismic data shiwal Formation. As of October 2015, the Kohat Plateau fields were
quality (Mukhopadhyay and Mishra, 2007; Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, contributing 52% of Pakistan’s liquids production and 10% of its gas
2012). Timing of the trap formation vs. hydrocarbon charge, together production (Oakley, 2016).
with trap integrity, seal presence and capacity, and reservoir quality are Despite the high success rate, drilling activity has been slow in the
the key geological risks that need to be addressed in this area (Mishra Potwar-Kohat Province because targets are deep and drilling conditions
and Mukhopadhyay, 2012; Bhat et al., 2012). are difficult (e.g. formation pressures are abnormal in the thick over-
Concerted efforts to explore for hydrocarbons in Kashmir were de- burden of fluvial sandstone-shale formations). Most of the producing
layed until 1960 when the State Directorate of Geology and Mining fields discovered in the Potwar-Kohat Province are in faulted anticlinal
(India) investigated the oil and gas seeps at Natipora, and a well in the traps. So far, thirty three oil and gas fields (22 in Potwar and 11 in
grounds of the Srinagar Silk Factory, drilled in 1920, that had produced Kohat) have been discovered in eleven different clastic and carbonate
some gas (Kak et al. Pers. Comm.). ONGC began exploration in the plays ranging from Early Cambrian (Khewra Formation) to Lower
Kashmir Valley in 1963 and drilled five shallow wells into the upper Miocene (Murree Formation) in age. Trap types include thrust-faulted
part of the Plio-Pleistocene Karewa succession in 1965 (Butt, 1968). anticlines generated during Late Tertiary compression (fault propaga-
Additionally, three deeper wells were drilled by the ONGC in 1975 and tion folds, pop-ups and triangle zones), salt-cored and rim anticlines
1976 to test the full Karewa succession and the top of the underlying around diapirs and sub-thrust traps. The total recoverable reserves in
pre-Tertiary succession. Several of the wells encountered gas in the these 33 fields are 1227.5 MMBOE. The largest oil and gas field dis-
Karewa succession, but the volumes were not considered sufficient for covered so far is Dhurnal with an aerial closure of 13.5 km2 and a
commercial development at that time and further exploration was vertical closure of 500 m (Wandrey et al., 2004). The initial in-place
abandoned (Butt, 1968 and Kak pers. Comm.) (Table 2 & Fig. 3). estimate for Dhural was 102 MMBOE (Jaswal et al., 1997). Interest-
ingly, all the discoveries in the Kohat Plateau have been made during
4.2. Kohat - Potwar Basin of Pakistan the last 12 years in a very small area in the east and south. These fields
have contributed reserves of about 850 MMBOE.
In rather stark contrast, exploration for hydrocarbons in Pakistan In 2004, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated the
has resulted in more than 50 oil and gas fields being brought into mean remaining undiscovered oil and gas potential in the Kohat-Potwar
production in the Kohat-Potwar Province of the NW Himalaya and in Province (which includes part of the NW Himalayan foothills of India,
the Sulaiman-Kirthar fold-and-thrust belt (Kadri, 1994; Ahmad et al., (Figs. 3 & 5) to be 149 million barrels of oil (MMBBL) and 1,314 Billion
1996). Cubic Feet (BCF) of gas and 54 million barrels of natural gas liquids
The first oil well on the western Indian Sub-continent was drilled at (Wandrey et al., 2004). In 2016, the Kohat Basin alone was estimated to
Kundal in 1866, near the Kundal oil seep. The first commercial oil hold 4.5% of Pakistan’s remaining recoverable gas and just under 25%
discovery in the Potwar Basin was made in 1914 at Khaur by the Attock of its oil and condensate (Oakley, 2016). The south and west parts of
Oil Company (Dolan, 1990) in reservoirs within the Sakesar and Murree the Kohat Plateau, together with the neighbouring Bannu Trough, are
formations in a 65 m deep well drilled on a thrust-faulted anticline still relatively unexplored and represent opportunities for the future.
(Figs. 3 & 5). Production from the Khaur Field began in 1922. Drilling
between 1920 and 1967 resulted in several more discoveries, including 4.3. Proven petroleum systems
Dhulian (a structural dome, 17 km southeast of Khaur), Joya Mair
(1944), Balkassar (1946), Karsal (1956) and Tut (1967) (Fig. 3). Many The sedimentary succession in the NW Himalaya of India and
prospects have been drilled in the Potwar Basin since 1914 and so far Pakistan ranges in the age from Precambrian to Recent. In the Potwar
twenty two oil and gas fields have been discovered. Initially, explora- Basin, major unconformities divide the succession into four ‘mega-
tion was focused on the southern and central part of the Kohat-Potwar sequences’ – Infra-Cambrian, Permian, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The
Basin which is structurally less complex, has better seismic imaging and succession contains potential source rocks of Precambrian, Permian,
fewer drilling problems, but more recently exploration has begun to Jurassic, Palaeocene and Eocene age, clastic reservoirs of Cambrian,
focus on the more complex northern part of the basin and also on Permian and Jurassic age, and fractured carbonate reservoirs of
deeper reservoirs. The discovery at Adhi in 1979 was the first gas dis- Permian, Palaeocene and Eocene age, with the youngest oil-producing
covery in the Potwar Basin and the field has produced from a variety of level being the Miocene Flysh deposits of the Murree Formation.
reservoirs ranging in the age from Cambrian to Eocene Structural traps in the Potwar Basin include faulted and thrust-related

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anticlines, pop-up structures and tilted fault blocks (Fig. 5 & Table 3). group which contains predominantly terrigenous organic matter, in-
There is considerable future hydrocarbon potential in the fault bound cluding higher plant contributions, deposited under oxic/fluvio-deltaic
structural traps and probably in various stratigraphic traps. Limited conditions, and two groups derived from shallow marine source rocks,
source potential is also reported from the Jurassic and Permian for- one from a clastic-rich system deposited in a suboxic/dysoxic deposi-
mations. tional environment and the other with a higher input of algal organic
There are several different petroleum systems in the Potwar Basin, matter and mixed with terrigenous organic matter deposited in a
but the presence of stacked source and reservoir intervals of different marine oxic environment. The Palaeocene Patala Formation has been
ages and the extensive fault systems, which frequently juxtapose se- assumed to be the primary source of hydrocarbons in the Potwar Basin,
quences of widely differing age (e.g. Infra-Cambrian against Tertiary but other source rocks may also have contributed, at least locally. The
and Tertiary against Miocene Flysh) has led to mixing of hydrocarbons oils vary from very light oils (condensate) about 48° API gravity to
from multiple sources. This has led some workers to consider the dif- biodegraded heavy oils of 16-18°API gravity, but the heavy and light
ferent petroleum systems in the Potwar Basin as a single composite oils are genetically related and have a close spatial relationship (Asif
Eocambrian-Miocene System (Wandrey et al., 2004). Although the Pa- et al., 2008 and Asif et al., 2009). Biomarker thermal maturity para-
laeocene Patala Formation seems to be the primary source of most of meters for the oils show that the source rocks in the Potwar Basin must
the oils encountered in the basin (Raza, 1973; Quadri and Quadri, have reached maturity levels ranging from the early to the late oil
1996), oils from the Dhurnal, Pindori, Bhangali and Adhi fields contain generation window (Asif et al., 2011).
less than 0.2% sulphur due to the varying percentage of aromatic In the Kohat Plateau, convergence between the Indian and Eurasian
napthenes and different biomarkers and appear to be different from the plates has produced a series of complex, en-echelon, predominantly
oils that are known to be sourced from the Patala Formation, suggesting east-west striking fold and thrust zones. Competent Palaeozoic-
that there are more than one active oil source systems in the basin Palaeocene sediments folded into southward-verging asymmetric anti-
(Khan et al., 1986; Malik et al., 1988; Fazeelat et al., 2010). Generation clines with vertical or overturned southern limbs, reshaped by later
of hydrocarbons in the Potwar Basin probably began in the Late Cre- strike-slip shear events, are the main reservoirs (e.g. Vestrum et al.,
taceous from source rocks in the Cambrian to Lower Cretaceous suc- 2011; Oakley, 2016). There is no direct evidence of Palaeozoic within
cession and from the Pliocene onwards for younger source rocks Kohat-Potwar Basin, as the deepest well has been drilled up to Late
(Fazeelat et al., 2010). Migration is generally assumed to have occurred Triassic Kingriali Dolomite. However, Palaeozoic strata is well exposed
over short distances, up-dip and vertically into adjacent reservoirs along the Trans-Indus Ranges and southern margin of the Kohat-Potwar
along faults and through fracture networks. Seals include the sealing of Basin, wherefrom it can be extended towards the north into the Kohat-
fault truncations, interbedded shales and ultimately the thick shales and Potwar Basin (Gee, 1989 & Gee, 1980; Shah, 1978).
clays within the Miocene to Pliocene Siwalik Group (Jaswal et al., 1997; The individual imbricated folds and associated thrusts are inter-
Fazeelat et al., 2010; Wandrey et al., 2004). This fluvial deposit preted as ramp anticlines forming a foreland-propagating stack. In areas
(wrongly interpreted as flysch deposit by Wandrey et al., 2004), more of the Kohat Plateau where the the Eocene Bahadur Khel Salt and Jatta
popularly known in the Potwar Basin as the Rawalpindi Group (Murree Gypsum formations are present, there is much greater structural com-
and Kamlial formations) and Siwalik Group have played a significant plexity. The main source rocks in the Kohat Plateau area have been
role in providing the massive overburden responsible for the Palaeo- variously interpreted as Mesozoic black shales and/or the marine shales
cene shales becoming mature for oil and gas/condensate generation. of the Patala Formation, with the peak of both source rock maturity and
Two distinct phases of over pressuring have been proposed in the structural deformation occurring during the Pliocene (Oakley, 2016).
Potwar Basin (Law et al., 1998), a pre-Neogene phase attributed to Till date no studies have been undertaken for the source-oil correlation
combined hydrocarbon generation and compression and a Neogene in this area, and if there are any, these are not available in the public
phase attributed to tectonic compression and undercompaction. Pub- domain. The main reservoirs in the Kohat Plateau are the Palaeocene
lished burial history plots for the Dakhni-1 well in the northern Potwar Lockhart and Hangu formations, Cretaceous Lumshiwal Formation, the
and the Fim Kassar well in the central Potwar show maximum burial Jurassic Datta, Shinawari and Samana Suk formations and the Triassic
occurring c. 2 million years ago (Law et al., 1998; Wandrey et al., 2004) Kingriali Formation.
(Figs. 5, 9a & 9b). The most recent major trap forming compressional The Early Tertiary dextral transtensional/extensional Lupola Basin
events occurred in the Pliocene approximately between 5 Ma and 2 Ma on the northern Tibetan Plateau, north of the main Himalayan moun-
(Jaswal et al., 1997). tain chain, is the world’s highest petroliferous basin. It contains well
In the Potwar Basin, oil and gas has been produced from reservoirs developed organic-rich lacustrine hydrocarbon source rocks (oil shale,
of Precambrian (Salt Range Formation) Cambrian (Khewra, Kussak and shale and mudstone) in the Eocene Niubao and Oligocene-Miocene
Jutana formations), Permian (Tobra, Amb and Wargal formations), Dingqinghu formations and hosts the only potentially commercial oil
Jurassic (Datta Formation), Palaeocene (Lockhart and Patala forma- accumulations so far discovered on the high altitude Tibetan Plateau
tions), Eocene (Sakesar, Bhadrar, Chorgali and Margalla Hill forma- (Wang et al., 2011; Fu et al., 2015; Zeng et al., 2017). It provides an
tions) and Miocene (Murree Formation) age (Khan et al., 1986) analogue for potential petroleum systems in any other similar Tertiary
(Table 3). The stratigraphy of the Kohat-Potwar Basin extends into terrestrial basins within the main Himalayan orogen itself.
Margalla, Kalachitta and Samana ranges (Figs. 5 & 6). As in these ranges
Jurassic- Eocene strata is exposed, the sub-thrust sheets could have 5. Precambrian-Cambrian petroleum Ssystems
hydrocarbon potential and the primary challenge is to properly image
the traps in seismic profiles. Of the twenty two fields discovered on the It has been suggested that the Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian
Potwar Plateau, twelve produce from more than one of these reservoir (Infra-Cambrian) succession of the Lesser Himalayan Zone in the Indian
horizons (Wandrey et al., 2004). The average reservoir porosities in the part of the NW Himalaya is likely to be characterised by moderate
formations are 12-16%, with permeability in the range of 4 to 17 mil- quality reservoir rocks and over-mature source rocks with little or no
lidarcy (md) (Jaswal et al., 1997; Khan et al., 1986). Some 60% of the significant remaining hydrocarbon generation potential (Mukherjee
fields in the Potwar produce from carbonate reservoirs, primarily from and Chakrabarti, 1996). Despite this rather negative assessment there
tectonically-induced fracture systems (Wandrey et al., 2004). Oil-oil are several Precambrian-Cambrian sequences in the NW Himalaya and
correlation using biomarkers, δ13C and δD (Asif et al., 2011), and oil adjacent areas that are of interest from a hydrocarbon perspective be-
classification based on heterocyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydro- cause they contain lithologies that may have formed potential source,
carbons (Asif and Fazeelat, 2012) has suggested that three different reservoir or seals for an active petroleum system in the past and, in
compositional groups of oils occur in the Potwar Basin fields – one some cases, may still retain some limited residual potential (Table 3).

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The most important of these is the Salt Range Formation and its carbon (TOC) content of 0.02 to 1 wt. % with very low Hydrogen Index
equivalents in the Bikaner-Nagaur Basin to the south and southeast (HI) values for the shales, and TOC content of about 0.02 wt. % for the
which contains a proven Precambrian-Cambrian petroleum system dolostones. The samples exhibit Tmax values indicative of immature to
(Peters et al., 1995; Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Sheikh et al., 2003; post mature stage. But, since the samples have complex thermal and
Kumar and Chandra, 2005; Basha et al., 2012; Jamil and Sheikh, 2012; tectonic histories the results may be unreliable.
Cozzi et al., 2012 and Craig et al., 2013) (Figs. 10 & 11; Table 3).
There is, however, also potential in some sequences in the Lesser- 5.1.2. Structure and hydrocarbon potential
and-Sub Himalayan Zone, such as the Sirban Limestone Formation in The SLFm is the oldest stratigraphic unit in the region. It is tecto-
Himalayan frontal-fold-and-thrust belt; in the Kashmir and Bhadarwah- nically juxtaposed against the Cenozoic sedimentary successions of the
Chamba basins further to the northeast, and in the Shali-Deoban-Tejam Late Palaeocene to Middle Eocene Subathu Formation (SFm) (coal,
belt (Garhwal Group) and the Krol belt (Balini, Krol and Tal formations) carbonaceous shale, nummulitic limestone), and the Miocene Murree
along strike to the southeast (Fig. 12). Diamictites (Langera Diamictite, Formation (sandstone and mudstone) in the northern part of the Riasi
laterally equivalent Zor Diamictite and Manjir Conglomerate), cap- Allochthon, and against the Plio-Pliestocene Siwalik Group (mudstone,
carbonates, evaporites and black shales/slates occur at various strati- sandstone and conglomerate) in the south. The southern contact is the
graphic intervals within the Precambrian successions in the Kashmir Riasi Thrust, a subsidiary of the Himalayan MBT (Hakhoo et al., 2011;
and Bhadarwah-Chamba Basins (Raina, 2012). The black shales/gra- Hakhoo, 2013; Hakhoo, 2016a). North of the Riasi Allochthon (re-en-
phitic schists and slates are now strongly deformed and metamorphosed trant) the SLFm and the SFm are juxtaposed along a back-thrusted
as a result of subsequent Himalayan orogeny, but their thickness, lateral contact that may act as a potential hydrocarbon trap (Fig. 13; Table 3).
continuity and probable high original organic content suggests that The SLFm in the Riasi Allochthon has been subjected to multiple
they may once have been significant potential hydrocarbon source deformation episodes as evidenced by its structural complexity
rocks. (Hakhoo et al., 2011; Hakhoo, 2013). The SLFm first experienced very
strong contractional tectonics causing a major regional folding episode,
5.1. Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic Sirban Limestone Formation system and the formation of a reclined-recumbent fold-nappe. The axial plane
of this regionally disposed fold-nappe acted as a thrust and caused the
5.1.1. Introduction subsequent folding of the hangingwall, followed by the imbrication
The Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic Sirban Limestone Formation associated folding causing anticlinal stacking of the thrust sheets. The
(SLFm) - also known as Sirban Limestone; Great Limestone, Vaishno continued contraction (thrust) tectonics is expressed by the younger
Devi Limestone, Shali Dolomite, Trikuta Limestone and Jammu cross-folds within the footwall of the Riasi Thrust (Hakhoo, 2013). The
Limestone - crops out as detached allochthons in the Sub Himalayan SLFm, SFm, Murree Formation and the Siwalik Group sediments are all
foothill fold-and–thrust belt of the Riasi area in the Jammu region involved in a north directed re-entrant (the structural embayment of
(Jammu and Kashmir State, India) (Hakhoo, 2013; Hakhoo et al., Dasarathi, 1968). Re-entrants of any type, age and facies are favourable
2016a, 2016b) (Figs. 13 & 14; Table 3). Previously the SLFm alloch- zones for oil and gas accumulation, and therefore, the sedimentary
thons in Dandili-Devigarh, Kalakote-Mahogala, Riasi and Dhansal-Sa- complexes of the re-entrant edges can be prolific hydrocarbon source
walkot (Lopri) areas have been described as inliers (Raha, 1974, 1984). and reservoirs, along with the neighbouring carbonate and terrigenous
The SLFm has its coeval lateral equivalents in the west in Salt Range- facies (Basharin and Belyaev, 2003).
Potwar, in the NW in Abbotabad (Sirban Limestone) in Pakistan, in the Triangle zones are recognised as key structures for the hydrocarbons
southeast in Dharamshala (Dharamkot Limestone), and in Shimla exploration (Jones, 1982). There is a “Triangle Zone” within the Riasi
(Tundapather Limestone) Himachal Pradesh, India. (Bhat et al., 2009; Allochthon in the Anji Valley, east of the Riasi town, and this may be an
Hakhoo et al., 2011; Craig et al., 2013 and Hakhoo et al., 2016a, important potential exploration target (Hakhoo et al., 2011). The Salt
2016b) (Fig. 8). Oil and gas occurs in Proterozoic successions globally Range-Potwar Plateau about 120 km west of the Riasi town produces
(Craig et al., 2013), and the existence of some remaining hydrocarbon moderate amounts of hydrocarbons from the triangle zones (Khan et al.,
potential in the SLFm cannot be excluded. 1986; Raza et al., 1989; Kemal, 1991). To the north of the Riasi Al-
The SLFm succession consists of thickly bedded and highly jointed, lochthon, the Chenab River veers abruptly from west to south, forming
hard, dark to light grey and pinkish (silicified) reservoir quality do- a loop. This drainage anomaly suggests the presence of a subsurface
lostones/limestones characterised by microbial mats and stromatolites, tectonic structure (Bhat et al., 2009; Hakhoo, 2013) that may act as a
interbedded with thin chert, shale and black shale beds (that have potential hydrocarbon trap, and numerous gas seeps have been re-
yielded a Re-Os date of 607 ± 330 Ma, Hakhoo et al., 2016a). Oolitic ported from the Chenab River bed along this drainage anomaly
limestone and tempestite (storm deposit) beds along with fine lamina- (Hakhoo et al., 2011 and Hafiz, 2015). In addition, imbricate fans,
tions and lenticular arenaceous layers, quartz-arenitic and quartzitic breached duplexes, stacked thrust sheets, out-of-sequence thrusting,
beds, mineralization zones (of galena, pyrite and covellite), siliceous reactivated ramps, and duplex structures associated with back thrusts
chert bands, nodules and lenses also occur (Figs. 15 & 16; Table 3). The are likely to have formed potential hydrocarbon traps (Hakhoo et al.,
carbonate units (predominantly well-sorted packstones and grain- 2011; Bhat et al., 2012).
stones) were deposited in restricted platform (cut-off lagoons and The limited maturity data available is equivocal, but suggests that
coastal ponds with restricted circulation) and platform evaporite en- the organically lean samples (with very low TOC values) from the SLFm
vironments (Bhat et al., 2009; Koul, 2012; Hakhoo, 2013). The dolo- (exhibiting ambiguous Tmax values) are thermally immature to over-
mite/limestone has vuggy, inter- and intra-granular, fracture, and inter- mature (Craig et al., 2013; Mani et al., 2014; Hakhoo et al., 2016b). The
and intra-layer porosities and dolomitization has increased the matrix presence of a substantial quantity of highly altered organic matter and
permeability locally (Hakhoo, 2013). kerogen (microbial sapropel), the dark brown to dark colour of the
The interbedded shales and algal laminated dolostones within the kerogen (Thermal Alteration Index-TAI of 3 to 4), and good preserva-
SLFm have yielded microflora (viz. cyanobacterial trichomes, branching tion of the micofloral assemblage would suggest that the outcropping
filaments, Neoproterozoic acritarchs, including Synsphaeridium sp., SLFm is likely to be thermally mature for gas generation in the areas
Leiosphaeridia sp.,) comparable to those reported in the North African with ~1 wt. % TOC (Hakhoo et al., 2016b).
Neoproterozoic sandstones and the Late Proterozoic carbonates of the It is assumed that the Lesser Himalayan Zone rocks in the Indian
giant oil and gas fields of the Siberian Platform (Koul, 2012; Craig et al., part of the NW Himalaya reached their maximum depth of burial
2013). The SLFm contains a rich and diverse biota comprising ~10% of during Middle Siwalik deposition (time of initial movement along the
the rock volume in thin section. The SLFm has yielded a total organic MBT). If so, then preliminary 1D thermal modelling for a location in the

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immediate hanging wall of the MBT suggests that the Precambrian to (A1-A6) recognised in the assumed age-equivalent Ara Group in the
Early Cambrian succession would have already passed through the gas subsurface of Oman (Matte and Conway Morris, 1990; Schröder et al.,
generation window and become over-mature before structural traps 2003 & Schröder et al., 2005; Amthor et al., 2005), and to assume that
formed in the Lesser and Sub Himalayan zones (Mishra and the two basins were once connected or, at least, subject to the same
Mukhopadhyay, 2012). This is clearly a significant risk for the hydro- environmental controls. The average duration of the Ara carbonate-
carbon prospectivity of the Precambrian succession in this part of the evaporite cycles is 1.2-1.3 Ma (Bowring et al., 2007) giving an overall
NW Himalayan orogen. Comprehensive source analyses of the SLFm duration for the six cycles of 6-8 Ma, but their cause is enigmatic. The
extending over other regions in the Sub Himalaya could provide useful cycles are too long to be controlled by Milankovitch cyclicity – even the
insights on the hydrocarbon source potential regionally (Hakhoo et al., long term cycle of 0.4 Ma would give an overall cycle duration of only 3
2016a, 2016b). Ma – unless there are cycles missing, perhaps due to amalgamation,
non-deposition, erosion or tectonic effects (Smith, 2012). These ob-
5.2. Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Salt Range Formation system servations are consistent with published evidence that the salt basins of
north-western India, Pakistan and southern Oman were in close
In the Potwar Basin, potential hydrocarbon source rocks occur proximity along the northeast margin of the Gondwana Supercontinent
within the Late Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran) – Early Cambrian (‘Infra- during the Late Neoproterozoic-Early Cambrian (Smith, 2012; Bhat
Cambrian’) Punjab Saline Series (Khan, 1956) now generally called the et al., 2012)
Salt Range Formation (Jones, 1970) (Fig. 5; Table 3). It is commonly At the southern edge of the Bikaner-Nagaur Basin a 100 to 300 m
referred to as ‘Eocambrian’ but is largely Ediacaran in age (Smith, thick succession of carbonates forming the Bilara Group also directly
2012). Sediments of ‘Infra-Cambrian’ age are exposed in the Salt Range overlie the Jodhpur Group sandstones (Sharma et al., 2014) (Fig. 11a).
at the southern margin of the basin where the succession is approxi- The carbonates are generally assumed to represent a coeval marginal
mately 100 m thick, rests directly on the Precambrian metamorphic and facies and to pass basin ward into the Hanseran Evaporite Group, based
igneous basement (Jones, 1970) and consists of marl, halite, gypsum, largely on the similarity of the carbon isotope profiles of the two suc-
dolomite, claystone and oil shale (Shah et al., 1977; Gee, 1989) cessions (Mazumdar and Bhattacharya, 2004).
(Table 3). Elsewhere, the formation varies from 50 to ~1000 m thick, ‘Infra-Cambrian’ sediments from the Salt Range Formation are
the variation in thickness being partly due to dissolution of the eva- considered to be the potential source rocks in the southern Potwar and
porites. The Salt Range Formation is dominated by the clastics in the Punjab Platform of Pakistan extending into Lesser Himalaya, the
lower part, the carbonates in middle part and the halite in the upper Bikaner-Nagaur Basin of India and around Pakistan. Ahmad and Alam
part also containing the best potential carbonaceous shale source rocks (2007) assessed the hydrocarbon source potential of the Salt Range
(Shah et al., 1977; Iqbal and Shah, 1980; Kovalevych et al., 2006) Formation in 91 outcrop and core samples from different localities.
(Fig. 11b). A section in the Khewra salt mine contains at least ten po- Outcrop samples were taken from the outer periphery of the Salt Range
tassic layers each as much as 4 m thick, closely associated with beds of from Kalabagh in the west to Khewra Gorge in the east (Fig. 17). The oil
halite (Jones, 1970) (Table 3). shales, brown bituminous shales and bituminous dolomites found near
The regional extent of the evaporite sequences is not clear. It is the top of the Precambrian Salt Range Formation of the Eastern Salt
generally assumed that the Salt Range Formation pinches out north- Range are up to 5 m thick locally (Gee, 1989), extremely rich in organic
wards, presumably near the northern boundary of the Potwar Plateau carbon with TOC values of up to 30 wt. % and have excellent potential
(Jaumé and Lillie, 1988). It extends southwards to the Bikaner-Nagaur for hydrocarbon generation (HI up to 879 mgHC/gTOC). Core samples
Basin (also called the Nagaur-Ganganagar Basin, Kumar and Chandra, from the Dulmial-1 well are extremely rich in organic carbon, TOC
2005; Fig. 10a) in Rajasthan, India and in the Sind Province, Pakistan. ranging from 20.50 to 47.80 wt. % and HI of 305 to 922; two core
The age equivalent evaporite succession (the Hanseran Evaporite samples from Karampur-1 well also have fairly high TOC values (1.27
Group) and associated Infra-Cambrian and Cambrian reservoirs host the and 1.58 wt. %) and excellent HI (835-842 mgHC/gTOC). Geochemical
giant Baghewala Oil Field (Figs. 10 & 11a) containing 628 MMBL of analyses suggest that the oil show (heavy oil/bitumen) recorded in
heavy (19.5°API) oil (Peters et al., 1995; Cozzi et al., 2012; Craig et al., Karampur-1 well is derived from the Salt Range Formation source rock
2013 and references therein). Seismic data indicates the presence of salt (Ahmad and Alam, 2007). These findings suggest that the Salt Range
as far west as the eastern Sulaiman Range, but not in the western part of Formation, where present, has the potential to generate hydrocarbons
the range (Humayon et al., 1991), and as far south as the central Bi- at optimum maturity. However, the organic rich facies are thinly de-
kaner-Nagaur Basin (Figs. 10 & 11), although evaporites are probably veloped locally and are not consistent laterally. These organic rich units
not present continuously across all of this area (Ram, 2008; Smith, can be easily missed during sample collection for geochemical analyses.
2012). The eastern limit of the Late Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian The maximum thickness of the shale in Khewra Gorge section is 1-2 m.
evaporite depositional system is uncertain. A metamorphosed carbo- These oil shales in the eastern Salt Range are immature. However, in
nate, phyllite and evaporite sequence, containing both anhydrite and the Potwar Basin where the shales are buried deep enough, they have
gypsum, within the undated, but certainly Precambrian, Salkhala For- generated hydrocarbons and charged overlying Cambrian (and poten-
mation in the Ramban-Assar area of the NW Himalaya in Jammu and tially younger) reservoirs. Hydrocarbon generation in these areas
Kashmir state (Sharma, 1976; Sharma and Banerjee, 1986; Raina, 2012) probably began in the Late Cretaceous with primarily short distance
could be co-eval with the Salt Range Formation and the Hanseran migration up dip and vertically into adjacent reservoirs and through
Group further west and southwest. faults and fractures associated with fold and thrust development during
In the central and northern parts of the Bikaner-Nagaur Basin, the the Himalayan orogeny (Cozzi et al., 2012). Jadoon et al. (2015) have
Hanseran Evaporite Group is 100 to 652 m thick and consists of dolo- identified 12 oil fields that are classified as - three detachment folds,
mite, anhydrite and halite with minor potassium salts and occasional four fault-propagation folds, four pop-ups, and one triangle zone
clay layers (Mazumdar and Strauss, 2006). The Hanseran Evaporite structure. The pop-ups and triangle zones are identified as better pro-
Group overlies sandstones, shales and occasional chert bands of the Late spects with the triangle zone having an estimated reserves of 51
Neoproterozoic Jodhpur Group (Figs. 10 & 11a). The lower part of the MMBBL.
Hanseran Evaporite Group consists of up to seven evaporite cycles with The organic geochemistry of the oil reservoired in the Bilara and
each cycle consisting, in ascending order, of dolomite, magnesite, an- Jodhpur formations in the Baghewala field suggests that it was derived
hydrite, halite, polyhalite and clay bands (Mazumdar and Strauss, from sulphur-rich organic matter in marine carbonates deposited under
2006). It is tempting to correlate the seven evaporitic cycles observed in anoxic conditions (Peters et al., 1995), while that of the heavy oil
the Hanseran Evaporite Group (Cozzi et al., 2012) with the six cycles (20°API) discovered in 2012 in the Jodhpur Formation in the adjacent

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Punam Structure, about 10 km northeast of the Baghewala discovery basins with near continuous thickness of 500 to 16,000 m ranging in
well, was derived from a marine clastic source rock deposited in an age from Precambrian to Cretaceous, with the exception of Zanskar,
anoxic hyper-saline environment (Raju et al., 2014). The geochemistry where the succession continues into the Eocene (Table 3). There has
(strong predominance of C29 steranes, diasteranes and monoaromatic been an estimated shortening of ~36 km in the Eocene-Late Miocene
steroids, a very negative stable carbon isotope ratio, a low pristane/ molasse, giving a minimum basin width of ~60 km in Zanskar (Searle
phytane ratio, low diasteranes, low API gravity and high sulphur) of et al., 1990), where a fair hydrocarbon potential may remain.
both these oils is very similar to that of oil encountered in the Kar- The Lower Palaeozoic successions are dominated by siliciclastic
ampur-1 well in Pakistan and to the ‘Infra-Cambrian’ oil of southern sediments and contain fossil invertebrates, microfossils, palynomorphs
Oman, suggesting that they may all be of the same age and formed and algal remains. In Zanskar region north of Padum Cambrian shales
under similar environmental conditions (Peters et al., 1995) (Fig. 18). (with poor source potential) and dolostones crop-out (Fig. 19). In the
The Nanuwala-1 well drilled in 2001 ~200 km north-northeast of the Pin Valley (Himachal Pradesh) a complete succession from the Neo-
Baghewala Field recovered 3 barrels of lighter oil (33.33°API) from proterozoic through Palaeozoic and into Mesozoic is exposed (Figs. 20
dolostones interbedded with the halite of the Hanseran Group at a & 21) but the source and reservoir potential of these rocks has not been
depth of 967-973 m, which suggests that two different hydrocarbon assessed. The Ordovician-Silurian shales are dominantly grey black in
source systems are active in the Bikaner-Nagaur Basin (Craig et al., colour and contain a rich and diverse organic walled microflora,
2009). The Binjbala-1 well, drilled in 2003 ~35 km northeast of Na- dominated by marine plankton along with Amorphous Organic Matter
nuwala also encountered oil shows in a similar tight dolomite unit (AOM) of indeterminate origin and abundant semi-structured vitrinite
within the Hanseran Group at about the same depth. The most likely like fragments – an organic rich assemblage capable of generating hy-
source of the heavy, high sulphur oil in the Baghewala Field is the drocarbons prior to the uplift of the Himalaya. Hydrocarbons from this
‘laminated organic-rich dolostones’ of the Bilara Formation carbonates phase may be preserved in favourable tectonic structures. At present the
and equivalents. The Baghewala oil is not biodegraded – its heavy Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) of palynomorphs varies from 3.25 to
nature is suggestive of early maturation, probably reflecting the limited 3.75 indicating the high thermal maturation of the organic matter as a
overburden thickness in this part of the basin (500-2000 m at max- result of Himalayan tectonics (Sinha et al., 2014).
imum), and it has probably only migrated a short distance from the The Tethyan Himalaya was part of Gondwana Super-continent si-
source. The heavy oil in the Punam Structure is also derived from an tuated at ~250 to 300 S while the vast majority of Gondwana was then
early mature source rock but, unlike the Baghewala oil, it has under- at higher latitudes as evidenced by the Hirnantian glaciation. There are
gone a moderate degree of biodegradation (Raju et al., 2014). The light no Hirnantian glacial deposits recorded in the Tethyan Himalaya but
(42-50°API), low sulphur oil is most likely sourced from the ‘oil shales’ major truncations occur and sedimentation rates increase strongly
interbedded in the Hanseran Evaporite Group. Given adequate levels of during this time-interval. A change in sediment flux due to a fluctuating
thermal maturity of the source rock, this light oil has the potential for sea-level would have brought nutrients and vitrinite-like fragments
longer distance migration and, from an exploration and production (from near-shore) into the marine environment and triggered blooms of
perspective, is clearly a more commercially desirable product (Table 3). microflora/microfauna ultimately depositing the organic-rich sedi-
It is possible that both types of potential source rocks could also gen- ments (Sinha et al., 2014).
erate hydrocarbons in appropriate parts of the NW Himalaya where the The thick succession of Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic carbonates
overburden is thick enough to trigger generation and expulsion. and low to high grade psammites and pelites in the NW Himalaya are
Prior to the onset of the India-Eurasia plate collision, in the Eocene, overlain unconformably by distinctive, extensive and stratigraphically
the Precambrian succession was not buried to a sufficient depth for the well-defined Palaeozoic-Mesozoic successions in the Potwar, Kashmir,
generation of hydrocarbons. Indeed, much of the Precambrian, Spiti-Zanskar and Kumaon basins (Figs. 6, 8 & 22; Table 3 and refer-
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Palaeocene succession in the Potwar Basin is ences therein).
still thermally immature (Khan et al., 1986; Grelaud et al., 2002;
Fazeelat et al., 2010), although generation and expulsion of hydro- 6.1. Potwar Basin and Kohat Plateau
carbons from pre-Eocene rocks has occurred in the local areas where
they are buried to a greater depth beneath thrusts and/or thick se- The ‘Infra-Cambrian’ Salt Range Formation in the Potwar Basin is
quences of Eocene and younger overburden (Law et al., 1998; Grelaud overlain by a Cambrian succession (Lower Cambrian Jhelum Group)
et al., 2002). consisting of the Khewra Formation (sandstones and shales) 185-450 m
thick (Jones, 1970), Kussak, Jutana and Baghanwala formations
6. Palaeozoic petroleum systems (sandstones, siltstones and carbonates) (Fig. 23; Table 3).
Lower Cambrian Khewra Formation sandstone is a producing oil
In the NW Himalaya of India and Pakistan, Palaeozoic sedimentary reservoir in the Adhi, Chak Naurang and Rajian fields (Khan et al.,
rocks are exposed within both the Lesser Himalaya and the Tethyan 1986). The glauconitic shore-face sandstones and siltstones up to 180 m
Himalaya (Bhargava, 2008). The stratigraphy and facies of the Pa- thick of the Kussak Formation which overlie the Khewra Formation
laeozoic successions is significantly different in these two tectonic do- have also produced oil in the Misa Kiswal Field (Petroconsultants,
mains, and this has been cited as evidence for large horizontal dis- 1996). The overlying Jutana Formation which consists primarily of
placements on the intervening MCT (Gansser, 1964). The Lesser sandy carbonates and near shore sandstones is also a producing re-
Himalayan Palaeozoic successions are characterised by the absence of servoir in the Kal and Rajian fields. The Upper Cambrian Baghanwala
strata of Ordovician through Devonian age, a general lack of fossils and Formation shales and interbedded sandstones in the Potwar Plateau and
a Permian sequence containing tillites and flora with Gondwana affi- Salt Range area, and contemporaneous Khisor Formation salts south of
nities. This contrasts with the relatively complete and fossiliferous Pa- the Kohat area, mark the top of the Cambrian stratigraphic sequence.
laeozoic successions with a subtle Gondwana influence that char- The top of this sequence marks the beginning of a hiatus that lasted
acterise the Tethyan Himalaya domain. In the Tethyan Himalaya, the until the Permian, as is represented by a major, regionally extensive
deformed sedimentary succession of the Palaeozoic/Mesozoic northern unconformity which separates the Cambrian succession from the
Indian continental margin, is located between the ITSZ (subducted overlying Permian succession (Figs. 5, 6 & 24).
ocean) in the north and the major thrusts in the south (Fig. 1). It ex- The Permian succession oversteps the Cambrian westwards and
tends along the entire length of the Himalaya from Nanga Parbat in the northwards, and in the western part of the Salt Range it rests directly on
west to Namche Barwa in the east. The Tethyan Himalaya in India is the ‘Infra-Cambrian’ Salt Range Formation (Gee, 1989). Lower Permian
represented by the Kashmir, Zanskar-Spiti and Kinnaur-Uttarakhand Nilawahan Group strata are restricted to the eastern Potwar Basin and

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include the Tobra Formation which consists of interbedded glacial til- Gondwana sequence, the Palaeozoic stratigraphy of the Salt Range and
lites and diamictites (Shah et al., 1977), as well as fluvio-glacial, glacio- the Potwar Basin more closely resembles the Lesser Himalayan suc-
lacustrine and glacio-marine deposits, overlain by sandstones and cession of the northern India than that of most other Palaeozoic suc-
claystones of the Dandot, Waracha and Sardhai formations (Fazeelat cessions in northern Pakistan (Figs. 5, 6 & 8).
et al., 2010). The basal conglomerates of the Tobra Formation vary
considerably in thickness in the Salt Range (Gee, 1989), and appear to 6.2. Peshawar Basin
infill a remnant glacial or pre-glacial topography (Dolan, 1990). The
Lower Permian Waracha Formation in the western Salt Range contains The most complete Palaeozoic sequence in Pakistan is exposed in
some carbonaceous shale with thin coal seams. Elsewhere, in the Salt inliers within and in the ranges fringing the eastern Peshawar Basin
Range, the Lower Permian Nilawahan Group consisting mainly of cal- (Hussain et al., 1991; Pogue et al., 1992). Correlatives of the Peshawar
careous sandstones and shales with red sandstones, gypsiferous hor- Basin stratigraphy are also present locally in the Sherwan Synclinorium
izons with some glacial or glacio-fluvial boulder beds at the base, the of Hazara and in the Khyber Pass region. The Peshawar Basin succes-
coarse-grained sandstones and shales of Dandot Formation; the coarse- sions lie to the north of the Khairabad Thrust, the local equivalent of the
grained argillaceous sandstones and occasional shales of Waracha MCT, and are, therefore, part of the Tethyan Himalayan succession.
Formation and the sandstones and shale of Sardhai Formation (Kemal They are very different to the Lesser Himalayan successions to the south
et al., 1992) (Fig. 6). The Tobra Formation is a producing reservoir in of the Khairabad Thrust in the Attock-Cherat Range, the Potwar Basin
the Kal, Rajina and Dhurnal fields in the southeast part of the Potwar and the Salt Range (Figs. 5 & 6).
Plateau where it has fair to good reservoir properties (Fig. 5). The In the Peshawar succession, interbedded quartzites and argillites of
source of the oil is generally assumed to be the ‘Infra-Cambrian’ shales the Precambrian and Cambrian Tanawal Formation are unconformably
but there are also some black shales within the Sardhai Formation that overlain by the Cambrian(?) Ambar Formation. This, in turn, is un-
might also have source potential (Dolan, 1990). conformably overlain by the Ordovician Misri Banda Quartzite and then
The Nilawahan Group is overlain by the Zaluch Group (Amb, by the Silurian Panjpir Formation (Llandoverian-Pridolian), Devonian
Wargal and Chhidru formations) which consists mostly of limestones Nowshera Formation (Lochkovian to Frasnian), and the Devonian to
with some shales and sandstones in the lower and upper parts. It con- Carboniferous Jafar Kandao Formation (Kinderhookian to
tains a rich fauna of corals, bryozoa, brachiopods, gastropods and ce- Westphalian). The Palaeozoic succession is topped by the Karapa
phalopods indicating an Early to Late Permian age. The Late Permian Greenshist, consisting of metamorphosed lava flows of probable
marine sediments of the Wargal and Chhidru formations include shales, Permian age. The pre-Carboniferous successions in the Peshawar Basin
limestones and sandstones, and are restricted to the western and north- are intruded by ubiquitous mafic dykes and sills. Similar dykes which
central parts of the basin. The Amb and Wargal formations both contain intrude the Mansehra Granite in Hazara have yielded 39Ar/ 40Ar ages of
thin interbeds of carbonaceous shale (Gee, 1989). Oil has been pro- 284 ± 4 Ma and 262 ± 1 Ma (Baig, 1990) which supports the inter-
duced from the Wargal Formation in the Dhurnal Field (Figs. 5 & 6). pretation that these dykes and sills are the feeders for the Permian lava
The sandstones of the Cambrian Khewra Formation and those of flows forming the Karapa Greenschist (Fig. 6).
Permian age are proven producing reservoirs in the Potwar Basin, while The Peshawar succession provides evidence for at least two major
potential source rocks include shales within the Permian Dandot, episodes of tectonism – a Late Cambrian event and an Early
Sardhai and Chhidru formations (Quadri and Quadri, 1996; Wandrey Carboniferous – Permian event (Pogue et al., 1992). The Late Cambrian
et al., 2004). The Permian Wargal Formation has an average TOC of 1.0 event coincides with the intrusion of a belt of cordierite granites
wt. % (Jaswal et al., 1997). Thermal maturity from vitrinite reflectance throughout the Himalaya (Baig et al., 1988), which includes the Man-
ranges from 0.65-0.95% (Tobin and Claxton, 2000). sehra Granite in Hazara. Evidence of the Late Cambrian tectonism is
A complete Permian succession probably existed throughout the also found elsewhere in the Tethyan Himalaya, including Spiti (Jain
Salt Range before it was removed from the eastern parts of the range by et al., 1980) and Zanskar (Garzanti et al., 1986). The initiation of the
uplift and erosion during the Late Cretaceous (Gee, 1989). With the Early Carboniferous-Permian tectonic event is indicated by the granite-
Ordovician to Carboniferous hiatus and well-developed Permian clast cobble conglomerate (Jafar Kandao Formation). This tectonic

Fig. 9. Generalized burial-history plots for Mesozoic-Neogene source rocks in: (a) the ODGC Dakhni 1 well, and (b) the Precambrian to Neogene source rocks in the
Gulf Oil Fim Kassar well (Modified after: Law et al., 1998 in Wandrey et al., 2004).

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event culminated with the intrusion of the mafic dykes and sills, and the shale. These have yielded trace fossils, brachiopods, trilobites together
extrusion of the associated lavas (Pogue et al., 1992). with algae and acritarchs. The succeeding Karihul (Shumal and
The Palaeozoic successions have been subjected to low grade me- Rangmal) Formation of Middle-Late Cambrian age consists of greenish
tamorphism, and probably no longer have any significant hydrocarbon shale, greenish micaceous sandstone with bands of variegated semi-
potential, but the presence of Ordovician quartzites, dark-grey to olive- crystalline and oolitic limestone, locally containing brachiopod and
grey Upper Silurian argillites with interbedded orthoceratid limestones trilobite horizons (Fig. 8; Table 3).
and thick Devonian carbonates suggests that the succession may once The succeeding Margan Formation (Upper Ordovician-Lower
have contained both potential source and reservoir rocks. Devonian) rests unconformably on the Karihul Formation and com-
prises purple shale, arenite, siltstone, shale and conglomerate with a
6.3. Kashmir Basin rich fossil assemblage of brachiopods, crinoids, corals, trilobites etc.
The succeeding Muth Quartzite (Middle Devonian) is dominated by
Kashmir occupies an area of about 5200 sq. Km., in an intermontane quartz-arenites and ranges from 300 to 900 m in thickness (Thakur and
valley bound by the Pir Panjal range in the southwest and North Rawat, 1992). It is overlain unconformably by a suite of variegated
Kashmir/ Higher Himalayan range in the northeast. The Kashmir Basin quartz arenites with shale partings and greenish siltstone designated as
contains Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sediments overlying metamorphosed the Aishmuqam Formation. It is well developed in Liddar valley and
basement (Wadia, 1931). These rocks are structurally deformed into the bears pre-Gondwana flora of Upper Devonian age. The succeeding
regional NW trending Kashmir Synclinorium. Excellent sections of Pa- Syringothyris Limestone Formation (Lower Carboniferous) comprises
laeozoic-Mesozoic rocks are exposed in the southeast, in NW and north limestone, arenite, shale, calc-shale and conglomerate with a rich as-
of the basin. The Palaeozoic succession in the Kashmir Basin exhibits semblage of brachiopod, bivalves, crinoids and corals. This is overlain
lithological elements of both the Tethyan and the Lesser Himalaya by the Fenestella Shale Formation which has a restricted development
(Figs. 1, 5, 8 & 25). being present in parts of southeast Kashmir and the Pir Panjal. It
The Cambrian succession is relatively thick and widely distributed comprises a thick sequence of grey, dark grey and black shales, siltstone
in the Kashmir Basin. It is recognized as the Lolab and Karihul (Shumal and quartz arenite, arenite with pebbly layers. The shaly horizons are
and Rangmal) formations (Bindal, 2012; Bhargava, 2015). These are rich in bryozoans, brachiopods, pelecypods, corals, crinoids and a few
best developed in the Liddar Valley of the Anantnag District in the trilobites and foraminifera. The arenite facies of this formation has
southeast, the Kupwara District in the north-west, and Sind valley of the yielded plant fossils of pre-Gondwana affinity, including Rhacopteris,
Ganderbal District in the north. Lithologically, the Lower Cambrian Lepidodendropsis etc. of Early Carboniferous age (Fig. 8; Table 3).
Lolab Formation (up to 3000 m thick) is a suite of rhythmic alternations The Agglomeratic Slate Formation is widely distributed in the entire
of grey to dark grey shale and quartzite, dark grey to black bleaching Kashmir Basin and succeeds the Fenestella Shale in southeast Kashmir,
shale with siltstone bands, quartzite and micaceous sandstone and silty but overlies Cambro-Silurian strata with a pronounced unconformity in

Fig. 10. (a) Generalised map depicting the disposition of the Neoproterozoic-Early Cambrian (Infracambrian) basins in western India (Rajasthan) and Pakistan. Blue
inset-loop shows the extension of the similar stratigraphy from the Salt Range to Nagaur-Ganganagar (=Bikaner-Nagaur) Basin (Baghewala field). (b) Geological
cross-section through the Nagaur-Ganganagar Basin depicting the lateral facies variation from basin margin (N) to basin centre (S) (Modified after Kumar and
Chandra, 2005; Cozzi et al., 2012). (c) Summary of the Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian petroleum system encountered in the Baghewala Field (OIL, 1991)
(Modified after: Sheikh et al., 2003).

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Fig. 11. (a) Stratigraphy and oil shows of the Bhagewala-1 well (OIL, 1991), western part of the Baghewala Field, Nagaur-Ganganagar Basin, Rajasthan, India, and
the detail of the Infracambrian-Cambrian outcrop stratigraphy at Rajas. (Modified in part after Peters et al., 1995; Sheikh et al., 2003; Cozzi et al., 2012). (b)
Generalised stratigraphy of the Salt Range Formation (Pakistan), of note is the similar vertical profile of litho-facies with respect to the Middle and Upper Marwar
supergroups (After: Cozzi et al., 2012).

the NW part of the basin. It comprises a diverse lithology of diamictite, Gondwana plant beds and marine carbonate as well as quartzite occur
arenite, conglomerate, grit and slate with some pryoclastic material. in the Panjal Volcanics (Thakur and Rawat, 1992) (Fig. 26). It is
The bivalves Eurydesma and Deltopecten have been recovered from this tempting to correlate the 5-10 m thick discontinuous unit of rhyolite
formation in a few localities, suggesting that it is Late Carboniferous to locally overlying the Precambrian Sirban Limestone Formation and
Early Permian in age. The Agglomeratic Slate of Permian age is suc- overlying a thin and impersistent bauxite horizon (Jangalgali Forma-
ceeded by non-marine, plant bearing continental deposits at a few lo- tion) in the Riasi area of the Jammu region with the Panjal Volcanics in
calities which are designated as the Nishatbagh Formation, comprising the Kashmir Basin, although the rhyolite itself is currently undated
shale, carbonaceous shale, sandstone, grit etc. and containing (Siddaiah and Shukla, 2012).
Gangamopteris, Glossopteris, Cordiates, Psygmophyllum etc. of Peninsular The Panjal Volcanics are directly overlain in places by another suite
Lower Gondwana affinity indicating an Early Permian age (Fig. 8; of continental sediments including purple and pink arenite, tuff, no-
Table 3). vaculite, limestone etc. belonging to the Mamal Formation. These have
In post-Carboniferous times the tectonic history of the Kashmir yielded Lower Gondwana flora (Gangamopteris and Glossopteris) of Early
Basin changed dramatically as a result of Hercynian tectonics and as- Permian age (Hayden, 1907; Middlemiss, 1909). The Panjal Volcanics
sociated rift-related volcanicity which buried large areas of the basin are believed to be the products of continental rifting associated with the
under a 1500-2000 m thick sequence of lava flows of Early Permian age initial phases of the break-up of the Gondwana Supercontinent
(c. 290 Ma). These Panjal Volcanics dominate the present-day physio- (Sorkhabi, 2010; Shellnutt et al., 2014).
graphy of the Kashmir Valley and comprise augite-andesite basalt, with The Upper Permian (Lopingian) Zewan Formation is a well-defined
intermediate-acid differentiates including trachyte, keratophyre, rhyo- marker horizon in the stratigraphy of the Kashmir Basin and rests di-
lite, acid tuff etc. The individual lava flows are typically 5 m to 30 m rectly on either the Mamal Formation or the Panjal Volcanics (Fig. 8). It
thick and are separated by ‘jasper-like’ beds of tuff (De Terra, 1935). consists of shales, sandy shales, dolomitic and crinoidal limestones and
The Panjal Volcanics are almost certainly the lateral and age equiva- sandstone, and is richly fossiliferous with bryozoans, gastropods, for-
lents of the Karapa Greenschist in the Peshawar Basin (Pogue et al., aminifera, conodonts etc. The shales are organic rich with a dominance
1992). These have a shallow mantle source and formed as a result of of amorphous organic matter amongst the dispersed organic con-
partial melting during extension associated with the development of a stituents (Tewari et al., 2015; Fig. 27).
nascent ocean basin (Greg Shellnutt, pers. com.). Intercalations of

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Fig. 12. Regional geological map of the NW Himalaya and surrounding areas with the location of the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic basins (After: Bhat et al., 2012).

6.4. Zanskar-Spiti Basin Margan, Syringothyris Limestone and Fenestella Shale formations are the
best potential hydrocarbon source rock horizons within the Palaeozoic
The Palaeozoic stratigraphy of the Zanskar Tethyan Himalaya succession of the Kashmir Basin and are most promising targets for
(Figs. 8 & 12) in northern India (Gaetani et al., 1986; Gaetani and future shale gas/shale oil exploration in Zanskar as well.
Garzanti, 1990) is rather similar to that of the Peshawar Basin in Pa- There is a well-preserved Cambrian succession in the Zanskar Valley
kistan, suggesting that the two areas are more closely related than they assigned to the Haimanta Group and consisting of the Lower and Middle
are to the Kashmir Basin (Shah, 1978) with which they exhibit marked Cambrian Parahio Formation and the overlying younger Cambrian
differences. Based on the very limited information currently available, Karsha and Kurgiakh formations (Myrow et al., 2006). The marine and
it appears that the thick argillaceous successions within the Lolab, fluvial siliciclastic deposits of the Parahio Formation and the overlying

Fig. 13. Geological map of the Riasi Allochthon and adjoining areas showing key localities and tectono-stratigraphy.

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Fig. 14. Regional geological map with location of the Sirban Limestone Formation (SLFm) outcrops (allochthons) and generalized stratigraphy. (Modified after:
Gansser, 1964).

stromatolite bearing carbonate platform succession of the Karsha For- deposited in the Tethyan Ocean from Late-Carboniferous to Permian
mation were deposited on the west-northwest oriented northern passive (Searle, 2013), viz. the Po Formation (alternating quartzarenites and
margin of India. The overlying shales and sandstones of the Kurgiakh black splintery shales) and the overlying Chumik Formation (glauco-
Formation were deposited in shallow-marine, storm-influenced en- nitic arenites, with few arenitic limestones and siltstones) (Gaetani and
vironments reflecting drowning of the earlier carbonate platform. The Garzanti, 1990). These two formations have not been assessed for their
Parahio Formation contains thin beds (up to 60 cm thick) of grey to source and reservoir potential, and could host hydrocarbon systems in
black shales indicative of high organic carbon content and low-oxygen the area between steep Oma Chuk Detachment and Phontang/Spontang
depositional environments. A major regional unconformity at the top of thrusts (Cornfield and Searle, 2000) (Fig. 8).
the Haimanta Group separates the Cambrian succession from the In the Pin Valley along the Village of Muth, the Neoproterozoic is
overlying Middle Ordovician and younger deposits (Fig. 8; Table 3). In mainly buried under scree and wherever exposed exhibits low-grade
the Zanskar region, north of Padum (surrounding the Kashar Gompa) metamorphism and well preserved sedimentary structures formed in
slightly metamorphosed (lower greenschist facies), Trilobite bearing shallow near-shore environment. This is followed by dark well-bedded
Cambrian shales/slates with slaty and spaced disjunctive cleavage, and, Cambrian sediments (mainly fluvial-deltaic with marine flooding sur-
dirty dolostones with prolific elephant-skin weathering, are exposed faces containing Trilobites - Middle to Late Cambrian, Batal and
(Fig. 19). Parahio/Kunzam La formations) which are in turn overlain by an an-
In the eastern Zanskar region, from Leh across Zanskar Range into gular unconformity identified with distinctly red coloured coarse con-
Zangla, there is a section of continental margin sedimentary rocks glomerates to quartz sandstone (Ordovician Thango Formation) which

Fig. 15. Outcrops of the shallow water platform carbonates interbedded with stromatolitic biostromes, limestones, dolostones, evaporites which are in part strongly
silicified and contain thin organic-rich layers. Proterozoic Sirban Limestone Formation (SLFm), Riasi Allochthon, frontal part of the main Himalayan thrust system.

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Fig. 16. Field Photographs showing outcrops of the SLFm: (a) Thickly bedded Limestone units; (b) Beds of brownish/gray siliceous dolostones; (c) Interbedded black
shales and dolostones; (d) Thin to thick siliceous (cherty) algal laminae on evaporitic substrate; (e) Exposure of the conical stromatolite - Conophyton sp.; (f)
Tempestite (storm deposit) bed within the dolostone.

are gradually overlain by shallow water carbonates with stromato- along the Ninety-East Ridge during the Late Cretaceous while rifting
poroid buildups (Late Ordovician? – Middle Silurian? Takche between the Madagascar and the Seychelles portions of the Indian Plate
Formation). Above follows the Devonian Muth Formation – quartzar- resulted in the formation of the Mascarene Basin. The Asian active
enite, tidal environment with stratigraphic gaps, followed by margin (represented by the magmatic rocks of the Gangdese-Ladakh-
Carboniferous to Triassic sediments (Fuchs, 1982; Myrow et al., 2006) Kohistan Belt to the north of the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone) was still
(Figs. 8 & 20; Table 3). The hydrocarbon occurrences in thsese rocks separated from the passive continental margin of India to the south by
unknown. the 2000 km wide expanse of the Neotethys Ocean at the end of the
Cretaceous Period (Gaetani and Garzanti, 1991; Fig. 28).
7. Mesozoic petroleum systems The Mesozoic and Early Eocene successions of the Tethyan
Himalaya were deposited on the shallow continental shelf to slope of
From Permian to Middle Jurassic time, the Indian Plate was located the southern margin of the Tethys Ocean. The Tethyan zone extends
in the Southern Hemisphere between the African, Antarctic and from the southern margins of the Tibetan Plateau in the east, to the
Australian plates and formed part of southern Gondwana, separated Zanskar mountains in the west. In the western Himalaya, the Tethyan
from the Eurasian plates by the Tethys Ocean. During the Late Jurassic Himalayan succession is well exposed in Kashmir, Zanskar, Chamba and
Madagascar, India, Australia, Antarctica and the Seychelles began to Spiti (Fuchs, 1977; Nanda and Sinhg, 1976 and Nanda and Singh, 1977;
separate from Africa forming the Somali Rift Basin, and Australia and Gaetani et al., 1986; Fuchs, 1987; Thakur and Rawat, 1992; Dèzes,
Antarctica rifted away from India. Then, during the Cretaceous the 1999, amongst others) (Figs. 1 & 8; Table 3). The succession is com-
Indian Plate drifted northwards towards the Eurasian plates and en- prised of carbonates, shales and sandstones, and is locally highly fos-
tered warmer latitudes (Scotese, 2011). A transform fault became active siliferous with, for example, abundant Cretaceous ammonites, often

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called ‘shaligram shila’ (dark stones devoted to Lord Vishnu-‘the sus- regression and emergence occurred at the end of the Middle Jurassic
tainer’ according to Hindu religious scriptures), which are used as marked by an erosional surface at the top of the Samana Suk Formation,
amulets by Himalayan Hindus (Krishna and Pathak, 1994; Krystyn followed in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous by deposition of
et al., 2004; Sorkhabi, 2010; Pandey and Pathak, 2015), and are a shallow-marine clastic sediments of the Surghar Group. Fatmi et al.
common feature in many Himalayan Hindu temples. Very good out- (1990) divided Surghar Group of Gee (1980) into Lower Broach Group
crops of Jurassic (Oxfordian-Callovian) Spiti shale can be seen around (Jurassic) and retained the upper part as the Surghar Group (Lower
village Chichim (20 km north of Kaza, Himachal Pradesh). The source Cretaceous) (Fig. 6).
potential of these fossiliferous (molluscs bearing) silty shales has not The Lower Cretaceous section consists of the Chichali Formation
been assessed, however, coeval shales (with greater marine influence) basinal shales and glauconitic sandstones, coarsening-upward re-
from a section in Nepal show TOC of up to 6 wt. % (Fig. 29; Table 3). gressive shoreline packages and the late to Early Cretaceous sandstones
The Mesozoic successions belong to the ‘Tethyan realm’ and include of the Lumshiwal Formation (maximum basin flooding surface). The
thick sequences of argillaceous sediments, some of which are enriched Kawagarh siliciclastic sequences represent Late Cretaceous low-stand
in organic matter, show the presence of volatile components (S1), ele- events and are present in the southeast of the Salt Range and on the
vated HI values and so could be a potential source for conventional Kohat Plateau, but are not reported within the Potwar Basin. The
hydrocarbons, and/or potential targets for shale gas and shale oil ex- Samana Suk and Lumshiwal formations are producing reservoir hor-
ploration (Verma et al., 2006; Mani et al., 2014). izons in the Manzalai, Makori, Mela and Chanda fields in the Kohat
Basin (Wandrey et al., 2004) (Fig. 6).
The latter part of the Cretaceous regression of the Tethys Sea to-
7.1. Potwar Basin and the Kohat Plateau wards the NW was accompanied by uplift and erosion along the
Precambrian Sargodha High to the south, which removed much of the
Mesozoic rocks are generally widely distributed in the Salt Range Mesozoic and Permian deposits in the eastern part of the Salt Range and
and southeast Potwar Basin, but part or all of the succession is missing across parts of the Potwar Basin. As a result, Jurassic and Triassic strata
from the Kohat Plateau and north-western Potwar (Jaswal et al., 1997), are generally poorly developed, absent and eroded from the eastern
due to erosion and restricted sedimentation towards the west. In the part of the Potwar Basin (Fig. 6 and references therein), but sandstones
Potwar Basin and Kohat Plateau, shelf and shallow marine sediments of Jurassic age are proven reservoirs, and potential source rocks are
are preserved in the Late Permian Zaluch, Triassic Musa Khel groups present in the Jurassic Datta Formation (Fazeelat et al., 2010). The
and the Jurassic and Cretaceous Surghar Group (Wandrey et al., 2004). thermal maturity from vitrinite reflectance ranges from Ro 0.5% to
Initially, continental coarse-to-fine-grained sandstones, shales, and 0.9%.
carbonates of Triassic age were deposited unconformably over the The Jurassic Datta Formation in the NW part of the Potwar Basin
Permian strata. These are represented by the Mianwali (sandstone and contains substantial amounts of mainly Type II and mixed Type II/Type
shale), Tredian (sandstone and shale) and Kingriali (dolomite, sandy III kerogen with TOC values ranging from 1 to 7.5 wt. %, S1 and S2
carbonates and shales) formations. The shelf carbonates of the Triassic values of 0.5 to 5, and 4 to 33 mg HC/g rock, respectively, with the
Kingriali Formation are a producing reservoir in the Chanda Deep Field majority of HI values in the range 340 to 500 mg HC/g TOC indicating
in the Kohat Basin (Figs. 5 & 6; Table 3). potential for oil generation. Tmax values in the range 424 to 436°C
The Jurassic strata are represented by the near-shore siliciclastics of (average 430°C), however, suggest that although the Datta Formation
the Datta and Shinawari formations and platform carbonates of the has significant oil generating potential it is marginally mature at this
Samana Suk Formation (Khan et al., 1986). The Early Jurassic Datta location despite being at a depth of more than 5,000 m, possibly due to
Formation has produced oil and gas in the Dhulian, Toot and Meyal low heat flow and convective cooling by meteoric waters (Fazeelat
fields in the Potwar Plateau and in the Chanda and Mela fields of Kohat et al., 2010). The Cretaceous Chichali Formation with algal/microbial
Basin (Figs. 3 & 5). The Datta Formation consists mainly of non-marine organic matter deposited in anoxic/reducing marine environment has a
sandstones, with carbonaceous and lateritic interbeds and some cal- fair hydrocarbon generation potential at least in Punjab Platform (Indus
careous bands (Gee, 1989). Deposition of the Datta Formation was Basin, Pakistan) (Gakkhar et al., 2012). In the Kohat-Potwar area Chi-
followed by a widespread marine transgression which continued into chali Formation can be considered as source but its true source po-
the Middle Jurassic and resulted in the deposition of the predominantly tential is towards Hazara area. The Middle Jurassic Shinawari
calcareous Shinawari and Samana Suk formations. A period of

Fig. 17. Outcrops of the carbonate beds in the upper part of the Salt Range Formation showing organic rich shale layers, Khewra Gorge, Salt Rage Pakistan.

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Formation is mostly argillaceous and limestone facies with gas prone thermal maturity.
kerogen and has poor conventional reservoir characteristics (Zaidi The Middle Triassic Khrew Formation is characterized by black
et al., 2013). arenaceous shale with interbedded limestones (Fig. 8). The Upper
Triassic Wuyan Formation is extensively developed and forms pictur-
7.2. Kashmir Basin esque escarpments and cliffs in the Kashmir Valley. It is characterized
by a thick succession of bedded and massive limestone, dolomite and
The Mesozoic succession of the Kashmir Basin is almost entirely subordinate interbedded shale and sandstone. Some of the shales con-
represented by three well defined formations of Triassic age that are tain organic matter and could represent viable hydrocarbon source
widely developed throughout the entire basin. The Khunamuh rocks, while some of the limestones, dolomites and sandstones have
Formation succeeds the Upper Permian Zewan Formation in a more sufficient porosity and permeability to form potential reservoirs (Butt,
than 100 m thick conformable succession that is a potential Global 1968).
Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the Permian-Triassic boundary There was a widespread marine regression at the end of Triassic,
(Kapoor, 1996) (Fig. 8). The entire Late Permian-Early Triassic suc- and there is a complete absence of post-Triassic stratigraphy in the
cession was deposited in a passive-margin setting following the Permian Kashmir Basin until the deposition of the Plio-Pleistocene Karewa
rifting and basaltic volcanism associated with separation of a Cim- However, a few exposures of Jurassic sediments, designated as Wumuh
merian micro-continent from the northern flank of Gondwana. The Formation, are preserved in synclinal cores. These consist of ocherous
breakup unconformity and subsidence phase is marked by a widespread limestone, ferruginous sandstone and shales with fossils of cephalopods
Late Permian transgression in northern India (Brookfield, 1993; and lamellibranchs. Butt (1968) records that gas seeps once existed in
Shellnutt et al., 2011, 2014). the Triassic rocks of the Kashmir Basin.
The Khunamuh Formation comprises grey, dark grey marine shales,
with alternations of limestone which generally increase in abundance
7.3. Zanskar-Spiti Basin and the Trans-Himalaya
upwards (Algeo et al., 2007). It is considered to be of Early Triassic age
with the Permo-Triassic boundary occurring at the base of the Otoceras
There is a well-developed ~15 km thick sequence of richly-fossili-
woodwardi Zone in the Guryul Ravine section, near Khunamuh, 13 km
ferous rocks of Late Precambrian to Cretaceous or lower Eocene age
southeast of Srinagar (Fig. 25). The Permian-Triassic (P-Tr) boundary
within the main belt of the Tethys Himalaya Zone between the Indus
sequence at Guryul Ravine contains possible evidence of very large
Tsangpo Suture and the Higher Himalaya Zone (Fig. 8). The Tethyan
earthquakes and tsunamis in the form of disturbed beds and tsunamites
Himalaya Zone occupies a 70 km wide belt in the Zanskar Mountains of
in the section just below the palaeontologically defined P-Tr boundary
Ladakh, much of which is folded into the giant Zanskar synclinorium.
(Brookfield et al., 2013; Krystyn et al., 2014). Contorted beds about 1 m
The Mesozoic sedimentary sequence was deposited on the north-facing
thick, showing typical earthquake-induced soft sediment deformation,
passive margin of the Tethys Ocean and consists of shallow shelf and
also occur in the Early Triassic Khunamuh Formation at the base of the
deeper basin to slope facies deposits. In southern Zanskar, the Lower
Niti Limestone, a cliff-forming limestone interval developed throughout
Permian volcanics are overlain by the Kulling Formation, a 30 to 55 m
the Tethyan Himalaya. The inferred seismic activity during the Late
thick succession of sandstone, shale and limestone. This is succeeded by
Permian and Early Triassic was possibly associated with recurrent
a 1000 m thick sequence of predominantly carbonates belonging to the
phases of syn-sedimentary extensional faulting along the northern In-
Lilang Group. In northern Zanskar, the succession consists of the
dian passive margin (Leu et al., 2015). The lowermost member of the
Zanskar Carbonates, Shilakong Formation, Lamayuru Formation,
Khunamuh Formation (Member E) in the Guryul Ravine section consists
Linghset Limestone and Kong Slate which crop out sequentially from
of alternating shale and subordinate limestone and is informally divided
north to south (Thakur, 1993; Fig. 8). In the Spiti Basin the Mesozoic
into units E1, E2 and E3 on the basis of varying proportions of shale
sequences comprising Kioto Limestone, Spiti Shale, Giumal Sandstone,
(Tewari et al., 2015; Fig. 30).
Tashegang Limestone and Chikkim Limestone formations are exposed
A sustained negative carbon isotope excursion, which begins at the
along the Pin River, in and around the villages of Muth, Demul and
base of the Khunamuh Formation, is interpreted to coincide roughly
Kibber.
with the end-Permian extinction event shortly after the Permian-
Triassic boundary proper (Algeo et al., 2007). Unit E1 contains a mix of
typical Permian and Triassic marine fauna (Tewari et al., 2015 and
references therein). Units E and F of the Khunamuh Formation consist
of black to dark grey shales intercalated with generally subordinate
amounts of limestone. In addition to recognisable fungi, algae and plant
remains, these shales also contain amorphous organic matter (AOM),
brown degraded organic matter and opaque (black) organic particles in
varying abundance, but with generally decreasing proportions of AOM
and opaque organic particles, and an increase in brown degraded or-
ganic matter stratigraphically upwards through the E Member sug-
gesting an increasing terrestrial component (Tewari et al., 2015;
Fig. 30), and hence an increasingly gas-prone hydrocarbon source po-
tential. The Lower Triassic black shales samples from the Guryul Ravine
P-Tr boundary section are organically lean with TOC contents ranging
from 0.17 to 0.71 wt. % (averaging 0.33 wt. %). The samples with TOC
content of ~ 0.7% have fair source potential. The shale samples from
the age equivalent P–Tr boundary section at Barus-Spur section
(Fig. 25) have comparatively higher TOC (0.78–0.98 wt. %) while those
from Kathsu, Pahalgam have TOC contents between 0.3 and 0.4 wt. %
(Mani et al., 2014). However, the HI values for all these shales are Fig. 18. Organic geochemistry of the hydrocarbons (oil) encountered in
extremely low. The P-Tr sections are slightly metamorphosed, with Karampur-1 well in Pakistan, Bhagewala-1 well in India and the ‘Infra-
abundant chloritoid indicating the sub-greenschist facies (Brookfield Cambrian’ of southern Oman, suggesting that they may all be of the same age
et al., 2013), so the low TOC content is probably a consequence of high and formed under similar environmental conditions.

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Fig. 19. (a) Outcrops in the Zanskar region north of Padum (surrounding the Kashar Gompa) where, (b) slightly metamorphosed (lower greenschist facies), Trilobite
bearing Cambrian shales/slates with slaty and spaced disjunctive cleavage, and, (c) dirty dolostones with prolific elephant-skin weathering, are exposed.

In the Muth village looking north three prominent ridges are seen potential of these fossiliferous (molluscs bearing) silty shales is un-
(Fig. 21) following the scree from the Lower Ordovician Formation. The known. Transition from the Spiti Shale to Giumal Sandstone is observed
first ridge is comprised of Devonian quartzarenite; the second ridge close to the pass southwest of Demul. The transition in the weathering
exposes the Carboniferous to Lower Triassic? Sequence and the main profile is relatively abrupt. In the Guimal Formation quartz-rich sand-
ridge exposes the Triassic to Jurassic Kioto Formation (Fuchs, 1982). In stone alternates with more silt/shale-rich dark grey coaliferous inter-
and around the Kibber village, transition from the Kioto Limestone via vals. The sandstones contain abundant bivalves frequently dominated
Upper Jurassic Spiti Shale and Lower Cretaceous Guimal Sandstone to by one species – which seem to have been transported? (Fig. 29)
the carbonates of the Albain-Maastrichtian Chikkim Formation is ex- (Srikantia, 1981; Singh et al., 1995a,b; Bhargava, 2008). The facies
posed. This bedded sequence on top of the mountain is around 150 m change from “organic-rich” shales to better ventilated deeper marine
thick (Bertlea and Suttner, 2005). The Kioto Limestone is highly sediments is coeval with the sequence in the Thakkhola Valley, Nepal,
sparitised and has poor porosity. The Giumal Sandstone consists of albeit without the massive sandstones. Spiti shales of identical facies in
glauconitic sands which are well indurated and have very poor inter- Nepal produce natural gas (eternal flame in Muktinath temple (Mus-
granular porosity. The porosity is further reduced by calcite cementa- tang, Nepal). The TOC of the shales reaches up to 2% in the lower part
tion. Similarly, the Tashegang Limestone is also highly sparitised and of the Spiti Shales in the Muktinath area with all measured samples
has poor porosity. Spiti shale is dark grey, black, carbonaceous, occa- beyond the oil window (vitrinite reflectance 1.5-2%, Tmax 400-500)
sionally oxidised in nature (Singh et al., 2004) (Fig. 8). (Gradstein et al., 1991).
Outcrops of the Jurassic (Oxfordian-Callovian) Spiti Shale occur Singh et al. (2004) have estimated the hydrocarbon potential of
along a massive landslide around the village Demul. These silty shales Mesozoic sequences from Kibber, Gate Tashegang and Lidang Domal
have abundant ironstone concretions frequently around molluscs – traverses comprising the Mesozoic Tethyan sediments exposed as Kioto
Shaligrams. No plant material has been observed here. The source Limestone, Spiti Shale, Giumal Sandstone, Tashegang Limestone and

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Fig. 20. (a) View along the Pin Valley towards

North. The Neoproterozoic (in the foreground) is
mainly covered with scree. (b) Dark well-bedded
Cambrian sediments overlain with an angular un-
conformity by - (c) Lower Ordovician – ‘purple’
conglomerates that grade into - (d) Upper
Ordovician/Silurian quartz sandstone gradually
overlain by shallow water carbonates of Takche
Formation. Above follows the Devonian Muth
Formation (note the brown dolomitic interval in the
upper part. (e) Top Devonian (Muth Formation) to
basal Triassic? The Carboniferous is partly hidden
behind the quartzarenites of the Muth Formation. (f)
Carboniferous towards extreme right; Permian (dark
shales) in the centre and Lower Triassic towards the
left side. The view is towards the East from Muth.

Chikkim Limestone formations. The organic matter studies of these 1 wt. %. S2 of the organic matter rich samples is very low probably due
sediments indicate that the TAI value ranges from 3 to 3.5 indicating to weathering affects, and the better values could exist in the subsur-
thermally matured sediments. The geochemical studies on all the face. Since S2 is low, T max data of these samples is also unreliable and
samples have indicated poor hydrocarbon generation potential with maturity estimate is ambiguous.
very low TOC except for carbonaceous shales having TOC of more than The Trans Himalaya to the north of the Tethys Himalaya Zone

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J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

Fig. 21. (a) Looking towards North, Pin River flowing through the lower right, as seen in the photograph, village of Muth at bottom right. Foreground - scree from
Lower Ordovician Formation; First ridge – Devonian quartzarenite; Second ridge - Carboniferous to Lower Triassic? Main ridge - Triassic to Jurassic Kioto Formation.
(b) Detail of the Kioto Limestone. (c) Transition from Kioto Limestone (foreground) via Spiti Shale (soft topography) and Guimal Sandstone (brownish beds sticking
out from the flank of the mountain) to Chikkim Formation. Village Kibber is in the centre of the photograph.

includes the Indus and Shyok sutures and the Karakoram Zone and Cretaceous to Oligocene Indus Formation (Fig. 8).
contains a sedimentary succession of Lower Triassic to Oligocene age The TOC content of the argillaceous sediments within the Mesozoic-
(Thakur, 1993). Here, the 3000 m thick Lower Triassic to Middle Jur- Tertiary succession of the Zanskar-Spiti Basin (Figs. 1 & 8), exposed in
assic Lamayuru Formation is overlain by the Late Jurassic to Early the Ladakh Himalaya, ranges from 0.09 to 3.69 wt. % (mean 1.24 wt.
Cretaceous volcanics of the Dras Formation. This is followed by the %) in the Triassic-Jurassic (and probably Early Cretaceous) Lamayuru
3000 m thick Cretaceous Nindam Formation and finally by the Early Formation, 0.05 to 3.42wt. % (mean 0.94wt. %) in the Cretaceous

Fig. 22. Generalised geological cross-section across the Zanskar and Ladakh Himalaya, of note is the imbricated Mesozoic succession in a fold-thrust-belt and pop-up
structure where significant exploration potential remains. (After: Cornfield and Searle, 2000 and Searle, 2013)

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Fig. 23. Reference stratigraphic section for the Cambrian Jhelum Group at Fort Kussak, Salt Range, Pakistan. (After: Cozzi et al., 2012).

Fig. 24. Schematic cross-section through the Kirana Hills, Salt Range and Potwar Plateau, Pakistan. (Not to scale). (After: Cozzi et al., 2012).

Nindam Formation and 0.03 to 5.18 wt. % (mean 1.91wt. %) in the thickly and thinly bedded sandstone, siltstone and shale together with
Cretaceous–Late Eocene/Early Oligocene Indus Formation (Awasthi bedded tuffs, volcaniclastic sediments and minor lava flows. The Indus
et al., 2011). Source rock analysis by Mani et al., 2014 has shown TOC Formation is approximately 5000 m thick and occurs to the south of the
content of 0.08 wt. % in silty-calcareous shale and TOC content of 1.12 Ladakh Plutonic Complex. It consists of a thickly interbedded succes-
and 1.22 wt. % in two samples of dark-grey shales form the Lamayuru sion of predominantly conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and shale
Formation (Kuling-Lilang Group, Leh-Ladakh). The nature and type of together with subordinate calcareous shale and limestone, deposited in
the organic matter has been determined by analysis of extractable or- an arc-trench environment (Thakur and Rawat, 1992).
ganic matter, gas chromatographic analysis of saturate (C15+), optical Four thin carbonaceous bands, varying from carbonaceous shale to
examination of organic matter and stable carbon isotopic analysis. The coaly shale and up to 0.4 m thick occur within the Indus Formation
higher percentage of aromatics as compared to saturated hydrocarbons, about 200 m above the base near the village of Hemis Shukpa, some 70
predominance of odd normal-alkanes over even-alkanes (API more than km from Leh in Ladakh. The maximum measured amount of ‘fixed
1) and the ratio of pristane to phytane (mainly more than 1) all indicate carbon’ in these carbonaceous shales is 32.3%, but most samples have
a predominance of mainly gas-prone, land-derived organic matter rich much lower carbon contents (Tilak and Dhall, 1976).
in type III kerogen with a minor amount of type II kerogen. This is Indicators of thermal maturity (vitrinite reflectance, thermal al-
further supported by the presence of vitrinite, fusinite, cuticle and teration index and gas chromatographic analyses) show that the organic
woody organic matter in shales within these formations. matter in these sediments has undergone sufficient thermal maturation
The Lamayuru Formation consists of calcareous shale, siltstone and to generate hydrocarbons, mainly gas with some oil. The mean vitrinite
graded-bedded sandstone with sedimentary structures typical of flysh reflectance (Ro) values range from 0.6% to 1.7% in the Indus
deposits and contains large olistostromal blocks of Carboniferous and Formation, 1.44% to 1.51% in the Nindam Formation and 1.34% to
Permian limestones. The Nindam Formation consists of alternating 1.44% in the Lamayuru Formation, with equivalent thermal alternation

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indices of 2.25-3.5, 2.0-3.75 and 3.0-3.35 respectively (Awasthi et al., experienced critical moments during subsequent deformational events
2011). The low (< 50 mg/g) extractable hydrocarbon to organic carbon from Eocene-Recent.
ratio and dominance of pristane over phytane also indicate that the In Zanskar intense deformation and duplex formation is seen in the
organic matter in these shales has undergone sufficient thermal ma- Mesozoic shelf deposits that extend farther south, within the High
turity to generate hydrocarbons. Himalaya in Tandi Syncline. Post India-Asia collision (54-50 Ma), re-
While all three of the Mesozoic (–Tertiary) formations in the thrusting and SW-verging folding happened throughout the entire
Zanskar-Spiti Basin contain sufficient organic matter and are suffi- Mesozoic to Early Tertiary Zanskar shelf sequence, forming intense
ciently mature to have generated hydrocarbons (mainly gas, but pos- imbricate and pop-up structure. It is seen that from SW to NE, the
sibly with some oil), the shales of the Cretaceous-Eocene Indus Mesozoic and Early Tertiary succession is very shallow and crops out
Formation appear to have the greatest potential as hydrocarbon source between the Karsha and Oma Chu detachments. Further NE, from the
rocks. Spontang Region to the Indus Suture Zone, the Mesozoic succession is
Cornfield and Searle (2000) have observed that the structures (and intensely deformed and imbricated in a thin-skinned fold-and-thrust-
possible trapping mechanisms) of the Tethyan Himalaya in the Zanskar belt and pop-up structure (Cornfield and Searle, 2000). This pop-up
region can be split into three separate deformation events, viz. (i) Late structure forms a WNW-ESE trending, ~6 km thick belt, widening to
Cretaceous (76-65 Ma); (ii) Eocene-Oligocene (54-25) and (iii) Mio- more than 20 km along the Zanskar River in the SE.
cene-Recent (25-0 Ma). The Late Cretaceous event caused the obduction The pop-up structures, triangle zones and imbricate fans have fair
of the Spontang ophiolite, Neo-Tethyan thrust sheets and Mesozoic preservation and potential source environment in the footwall zone,
continental slope deposits onto the outer passive margin. This event higher fault dip, and good reservoir communication (e.g., Bo et al.,
caused ~200% shortening by internal folding and duplex formation 2011), but form challenging exploration targets. In addition, in the fold-
within stratigraphic units in the outer shelf, but did not affect the in- thrust-belts, the imbricate fans, duplex/breached duplexes, stacked
nermost parts of the Indian passive margin (Fig. 22). These inner most thrust sheets, out-of-sequence thrusting, reactivated ramps, presence of
parts could still hold appreciable source potential, and may have triangle zones and duplex structures associated with back-thrusts, and

Fig. 25. Geological map of the Kashmir (Valley) Basin, showing key outcrop localities and the main hot springs with gas (rich in methane) seeps (After: Singh, 1978
in Craig et al., 2013).

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the reactivation of the faults as normal shear zones (Finch et al., 2014) 8.1.1. Geometry of the deep crustal detachment
not only add to the complexity, but also are likely to have formed po- The most widely accepted model of the present-day structure of the
tential hydrocarbon traps (Hakhoo et al., 2011; Bhat et al., 2012). This Himalayan orogen proposes that the convergence is accommodated on
belt represents one of the significant targets for hydrocarbon explora- a detachment or decollment (the ‘Main Himalayan Thrust’, MHT) be-
tion in the Zanskar region. tween the under-thrusting Indian Shield rocks and the overlying
Himalayan rocks (Taylor, 2016; Whipple et al., 2016; Jain, 2017)
(Fig. 4). The part of the detachment that underlies the Outer (Sub) and
8. Tertiary petroleum systems Lesser Himalaya is seismically active and slips episodically in a slip-
stick or strike-slip manner. Strain accumulated is released during in-
8.1. Tertiary tectonic and stratigraphic evolution frequent earthquakes through a sudden slip on the detachment. The
portion of the detachment which underlies the Higher and Tethyan
The Tertiary foreland basin of the Himalayan orogen was deformed Himalaya slips aseismically and does not accumulate strain (Gupta and
by a southward migrating thrust system during the Late Miocene- Gahalaut, 2014). The gently dipping seismic and aseismic parts of the
Quaternary. Chronologies for the Siwalik molasse and intermontane detachment are usually considered to be connected by a mid-crustal
basins along the southern margin of the Himalaya and the Hindukush ramp, although an alternative interpretation (Whipple et al., 2016)
ranges constrain the timing and pattern of facies migration and struc- suggests that the MHT is a planar gently-dipping structure. In this latter
tural disruption of the Indo-Gangetic foredeep (Figs. 1, 7 & 8). They model, the internal deformation and growth of the High Himalaya is
suggest that quiescent intervals were punctuated by pulses of rapid attributed to movement along the steeply-dipping splay faults rather
deformation as thrusting migrated in a stepwise fashion across the than to movement across the deep crustal ramp.
foredeep (Burbank and Raynolds, 1984). Shortening in the Himalayan In the Garhwal Himalaya, the upper flat of the MHT is ~ 10 km
fold-thrust belt is in excess of 700 km (DeCelles et al., 1998) and the below sea level and dips north at ~ 2°, connecting to a mid-crustal ramp
isostatic loading produced by the orogen has created a classic foreland which is ~ 10 km high and dips at ~16°, while the lower flat is 20-25
basin (Burbank et al., 1996a) with locally more than 6 km of sedi- km below sea level and dips at ~ 4° (Caldwell et al., 2013). The Moho in
mentary fill on the down-warped Indian Plate to the south of the MBT. this part of the Himalaya is nearly horizontal at 35-45 km depth be-
Flexure of the Indian Plate due to the load of the Himalaya and the neath the Sub Himalaya and Lesser Himalaya and deepens to 50 km or
filling of the resultant depression by detrital sediments accounts for more beneath the Higher Himalaya. The Moho in the NW Himalaya is
much of the large negative gravity anomaly that exists across the inferred to be deeper by an average of 10-25 km than in the Garhwal
foreland. The width and depth of the deflection as represented by the Himalaya (Rai et al., 2006), presumably reflecting along-strike varia-
HFB, varies spatially (and potentially over time) in response to varia- tion in the type and thickness of the crust subducted beneath the Hi-
tions in the rigidity of the flexed crust and the placement of the load. malaya. The crust entering the subduction zone in the NW Himalaya is
The under-thrusted Indian Plate is not spatially homogeneous and this, assumed to consist of Palaeoproterozoic Aravalli fold belt and overlying
combined with the presence of long-lived basement faults, produces Neoproterozoic Marwar Supergroup (Meert et al., 2010) with a crustal
irregularities in the basement configuration beneath the foreland basin thickness of ~ 45 km (Rai et al., 2006). The crust entering the sub-
on scales of 150-300 km (Fig. 4). The basement structures delineate a duction zone of the Garhwal Himalaya further east is presumed to be
succession of spurs and depressions in the Indian Craton (Raiverman the thinner (~38 km thick) Archaean Bundelkhand Shield (Vijay Kumar
et al., 1983), oriented obliquely to the structural trend of the Himalayan et al., 2012; Caldwell et al., 2013).
thrust belt, that control both the thickness of the overlying Tertiary
sedimentary successions and the sedimentation patterns within the in-
8.1.2. Stratigraphic sub-divisions
dividual basins (Sinha et al., 2007).
The Lesser Himalaya zone in NW India (Himachal Pradesh and

Fig. 26. Distribution of Panjal Volcanics (Traps) in northern Indian and Pakistan, and the associated geology of the Indian Platform and the Asian margin (After:
Shellnutt et al., 2011).

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Jammu and Kashmir states) consists of rocks of Neoproterozoic to Early around 5 cm /year by c. 50 Ma with the onset of continental collision
Cambrian age which, in Himachal Pradesh, are traditionally separated (Henderson et al., 2010 and Henderson et al., 2011; White and Lister,
into the Shimla-Jaunsar Group and the Krol Group. The Shimla-Jaunsar 2012; Meng et al., 2012; Chatterjee et al., 2013; Bouilhol et al., 2013).
Group is dominantly arenaceous, but the Krol Group is mainly calcar- The abnormally rapid northward movement of the Indian Plate be-
eous. Rocks belonging to the Shali-Deoban Group also occur in the tween c. 85 Ma and 65 Ma was probably due to the combined pull of
Lesser Himalaya Zone, but are less commonly encountered in outcrops. two subducting slabs associated with two, almost parallel, northward
The Sub Himalaya Zone contains a sequence of Cenozoic sedimentary dipping subduction zones (Jagoutz et al., 2015).
rocks which are traditionally divided into the Subathu Formation, Convergence between the Indian and Eurasian plates is currently
Dharamsala Formation and Siwalik Group (Fig. 8). The Siwalik Group is ongoing at about 5 cm/year. About 2 cm/year of this is accommodated
divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Siwalik formations. Hydro- in the Himalayan region (Bilham et al., 1997; Gupta and Gahalaut,
carbon source rocks are present in the Subathu and Dharamsala for- 2014) and, as a result, the Outer and Lesser Himalaya, in particular,
mations; while the Lower Siwalik, Kasauli and Dagshai formations suffer strong seismic activity. There were at least five earthquakes of
contain potential sandstone reservoirs with moderate to good porosities magnitude (Mw) 8 or stronger during a particularly seismically active
and it is possible that secondary porosity in the limestones of the phase between 1897 and 1952 (Gupta et al., 1993; Gupta and Gahalaut,
Subathu Formation could create an additional potential hydrocarbon 2014). Focal mechanism solutions of the repeated earthquakes in the
reservoir within the Cenozoic successions. There do not appear to be region (e.g., Molnar and Chen, 1982, 1983) show that the Indian Shield
regionally extensive potential seal horizons in the Cenozoic successions, to the south of the Himalaya is undergoing weak extension, the Lesser
but discontinuous, lensoid- shaped clay or shale sequences ranging from Himalaya is experiencing compression (thrusting) and the High Hima-
less than 5 m to more than 25 m thick occur in all the formations, except laya are subject to a combination of extension and strike-slip de-
the Upper Siwalik (Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2012) and would formation (Yin, 2010). Focal mechanism solutions of contemporary
probably form adequate local seals. earthquakes suggest that a large part of the current convergence across
In the Kohat-Potwar Basin (Pakistan) the Cenozoic sedimentation the central Himalaya is presently accommodated by strike-slip motion
began with the deposition of the Paleocene-Eocene Makarwal Group on an intersecting series of NE-NNE and NW-NNW trending transverse
consisting of Hangu, Lockhart, Patala, Nammal and Sakesar formations. structures (faults/lineaments) which divide the region into a mosaic of
The Hangu Formation siliciclastics [exposed in the Lesser Himalaya – rhombic crustal blocks (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2011; Dasgupta et al.,
ranges and basins (except Peshawar Basin); ranges along MBT; Sub 2013). In the central Himalaya, active shortening is localised at the HFT
Himalaya basins and ranges along MFT (except Salt Range)] were de- but in the NW Himalaya, it is distributed across a system of emergent
posited over an erosional surface marking the top of the Cretaceous reverse faults [including the Balakot-Bagh Fault – source of the Mw 7.6,
Lumshiwal Formation (Fig. 6). The contact between the Hangu and the 2005 Kashmir Earthquake, and the Riasi Thrust (Figs. 1, 13 & 14)]
overlying Lockhart Formation (carbonate-shelf system) is transitional. within the orogenic wedge to the north of the Himalayan deformation
The contact between the Lockhart and the shallow-marine shales and front (e.g. Whipple et al., 2016; Gavillot et al., 2016). The presence of
carbonates of the Patala Formation is also transitional (Shah et al., northeast-dipping reverse faults (including the 40 km long Balapora
1977; Kemal et al., 1992; Wandrey et al., 2004). The Lockhart and Fault) cutting Late Quaternary deposits in the Kashmir Basin (Madden
Patala formations are the oil/gas producing horizons in the basin. The and Meigs, 2010) indicates that the active deformation is distributed
overlying shallow marine to lagoonal shales and interbedded lime- over more than 120 km across the orogen from the deformation front to
stones of the Eocene Nammal and Panoba formations have a transi- the internal zones of the NW Himalayan orogen (Meigs et al., 2010).
tional contact. The Lower Eocene Sakesar (=Margalla Hill) Formation
marine limestones and shales overlie the Nammal and Panoba forma-
8.1.4. Structural style
tions. All these formations exhibit similar disposition - but the Lockhart
The interpreted structural style of the autochthon and the para-
Formation is also exposed in the Salt Range; the Patala Formation is
utochthon in the Himalaya are different, with ‘thin-skinned’ thrusting
partly eroded in the Trans Indus ranges and the Nammal Formation
dominant in the parautochthon and ‘thick-skinned’ deformation invol-
isn’t exposed in Samana and West Kohat. Good exposures of the Sa-
ving steeply dipping faults rooted in the basement in the autochthon
kesar/Margalla Hill Formation occur in the Kala Chitta – Margalla
(e.g., Raiverman et al., 1993; Raiveman, 2002 and Raiverman, 2013).
ranges and eastern Potwar. In the Margalla Hill section oil and gas has
There is also widespread evidence of strike-slip deformation in the form
been produced from eight fields throughout the Potwar area. Oil and
of strike-parallel displacements of stratigraphic units, pop-up struc-
gas production has also been achieved form the Bahadur Khel Salt
tures, convergence of en-echelon folds and positive flower structures
Formation in three fields of the Potwar Plateau (Shah et al., 1977;
indicative of transpressional deformation. Significant sections of the
Petroconsultants, 1996). The Makarwal Group is overlain by the
Chharat Group (exposed in Kohat and N Potwar; in the ranges along
MBT and Sub Himalaya basins) which includes marine shales and in-
terbedded limestones of the Lower Eocene Chorgali Formation, the
shales of the Upper Eocene Kohat Formation, and the shales and car-
bonates of the Oligocene Kirthar Formation. Oligocene rocks are absent
in most of the basin. The Rawalpindi Group (consisting of Miocene to
Pliocene Murree Formation fluvial sandstones and siltstones, and the
Kamlial Formation fluvial sandstones and clays) represents the onset of
the alluvial environment. The Plio-Pleistocene Siwalik Group fluvial
sandstones and conglomerates mark the top of the stratigraphic suc-
cession in the area. The Rawalpindi and Siwalik groups are exposed in
the Sub Himalaya basins, the ranges along the MBT and also in Pe-
shawar and Campbellpore basins (Fig. 6 and references therein; Reham
et al., 2017).

8.1.3. Convergence rates and seismicity

During Cretaceous and Palaeocene times (85-55 Ma), India moved Fig. 27. Upper Permian black organic-rich crinoidal limestone, Guryul Ravine,
northwards at a rate of 15-20 cm/year, but this slowed significantly to near Srinagar, Kashmir – a potential gas source (also see Section 8.3).

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Fig. 28. Palaeogeographic reconstruction showing the rifting, drift and eventual collision of the Indian plate. (a) Initial separation of India, Australia, Antarctica,
Seychelles and Madagascar from Africa. (b) India drifted towards Eurasia, establishment of ninety-east transform fault. (c) India approached the southern margin of
Asia. (d) India began to collide with Asia. (After: Scotese, 2001 and 2002. www.scotese.com).

fault system separating the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt from the The active Kalabagh strike-slip fault links the Kohat and Potwar fold-
foredeep appear to be characterized by zones of high angle reverse and-thrust belts (Fig. 5). To the north, in the North Potwar Deformed
faults and en-echelon faults and folds, consistent with at least some Zone (NPDZ), the Miocene and underlying Cambrian–Eocene strata are
degree of transpression (Fig. 31). Viable structural interpretations for tightly folded and thrusted in a south-verging imbricate duplex in the
the definition of hydrocarbon prospects need to account for the role and footwall of the MBT, with the deformation focused above ramps ori-
genesis of thrusting, inversion, strike slip faults, a well-developed basal ginating in a brittle basal detachment (Ghani et al., 2017). To the south
detachment, flower structures, the local involvement of pre-Tertiary of the North Potwar Deformed Zone, the main part of the Potwar Pla-
rocks in imbricate thrusting and significant tectonic thickening of in- teau consists of the broad, asymmetric Soan Syncline and other gentle
dividual formations. Attempts to unravel the structural complexity and folds that involve the Neoproterozoic Salt Range Formation, the Cam-
to understand sequential tectonic evolution through balancing of geo- brian to Eocene carapace strata, and the Miocene and Pliocene molasse
logical cross sections (e.g., Bally et al., 1997; Mukhopadhyay and sediments above a ductile salt detachment (Fig. 33). The structures in
Mishra, 2007; Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2012) are constrained by the the Potwar Plateau are generally gentle and upright with ENE-WSW
wide variation in the shortening (22% to 71%) in different segments trending folds in the west and both hinterland- and foreland-verging
along the length of the Himalaya and the widespread strike-slip thrusts and upright folds exhibiting a progressive change towards a NE-
movement. Many important aspects of the structure of the Himalaya SW trend in the east. The basement slope changes from flat (< 1°)
fold-and-thrust belt have never been completely addressed in large below the Kohat fold-and-thrust belt and the northern Potwar Deformed
parts of the NW Himalaya. This includes the temporal and spatial re- Zone to north-dipping (> 1°) below the southern Potwar fold-and-
lationship between thrusts, their branching pattern and geometries in thrust belt and Kalabagh reentrant (Ghani et al., 2017).
the subsurface, the amount of tectonic shortening, the variation in The Salt Range, at the southern edge of the Potwar Plateau, consists
depth to basement and the distribution of basement warps that may of gentle upright folds and pop-up structures cored by the Salt Range
control the location of thrust ramps. Formation evaporites (Fig. 5). The northern flank of the central Salt
Seismic data from the Potwar Plateau and adjacent areas on NW Range is an eroded monocline and is the surface expression of a foot-
Pakistan (Lillie et al., 1987; Pennock et al., 1989) clearly show thin- wall ramp formed by southward thrust movement across a buttress
skinned deformation within the foreland with detachments localised created by a down-to-the-north basement normal fault with a offset of
within the Salt Range Formation with additional detachment surfaces ~1 km, decreasing to the east (Lillie and Yousef, 1986; Faisal and
within Eocene evaporites and along shales within the Miocene Murree Dixon, 2015). This probably formed as a result of Late Precambrian
and Siwalik strata. The basal detachment beneath the Potwar Plateau rifting associated with the development of the evaporite basins on the
steps out about 100 km to the south along the Salt Range Formation NW margin of the Indian Subcontinent, or during the Neogene, as a
evaporites, with very little internal deformation within the hangingwall result of flexure as the crust was loaded by thrust sheets developing to
that has been transported about 20 km to the south (Baker et al., 1988; the north (Baker et al., 1988) or, perhaps, by a combination of the two.
Fig. 32). The Salt Range and Potwar Plateau are truncated to the west Deformation within the North Potwar Deformed Zone occurred
by the dextral Kalabagh strike-slip fault and extend eastwards as far as before 10 Ma. Out-of-sequence thrusting occurred on a large scale
the Jhelum sinistral strike-slip fault and the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis. within the Potwar Plateau over the past 6 Ma (Burbank and Beck,

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Fig. 29. (a) & (b) Outcrops of the Jurassic (Oxfordian-Callovian) Spiti Shale (exposed along a massive landslide) seen around village Demul. The source potential of
these fossiliferous (molluscs bearing) silty shales is unknown. (c) Close-up of the silty shaly layers with abundant ironstone concretions (frequently around molluscs -
Shaligrams). (d) Transition from Spiti Shale to Giumal Sandstone that alternates with (e) silt/shale-rich coaliferous intervals. (f) Close-up of the coaliferous intervals.
(g) Bivalves (belonging to a single specie) abundantly occur in the sandstones. Location: Pass SW of the village Demul.

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Fig. 30. Log of the Upper Zewan and Lower Khunamuh formations exposed in the Guryul Ravine section, Kashmir Basin showing sampling intervals for, and relative
abundances of, four main categories of dispersed organic matter. Scale bars: 20 μm. (After: Tewari et al., 2015).

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Fig. 31. Geological cross-sections through the foothills of the Himalaya showing the contrasting styles of structural interpretation. (a) ‘Compressional’ interpretation
of structures sub-dividing the foothills Tertiary Basin and pre-Tertiary Lesser Himalaya (modified from Karunakaran and Rao, 1979 in Acharyya and Ray, 1982). (b)
‘Srtike-slip’ interpretation of structures in the Sub Himalaya (after Raiverman et al., 1993; Raiveman, 2002 & Raiverman, 2013). Some of these structures have been
penetrated by the exploratory wells.

1989), but particularly between 5 and 1.9 Ma (Jaswal et al., 1997; Salt Range Formation into the higher-strength molasse sediments
Grelaud et al., 2002). The ramping of the Salt range thrust sheet as it in the east, or
began to override the basement offset began between 2.1 and 1.6 Ma (iii) a lateral change in basement dip, from 1.9°-3.6° beneath the cen-
(Johnson et al., 1986). tral Salt Range, western Potwar Plateau and North Potwar
In the Kohat Plateau, the shortening is accommodated on at least Deformed Zone, to 0.8° in the eastern Potwar Plateau.
two distinct detachment surfaces: a deep one within the Salt Range
Formation and a shallower one within the Palaeogene sequences The absence of Late Precambrian salt in the main part of the
(Vestrum et al., 2011). In the north, the upper detachment is within the Himalayan frontal thrust zone in India (Baker et al., 1988) allows de-
lower part of the Eocene shales, while in the south, it is within the formation in the basement and the sedimentary cover in this region to
younger Eocene section, which comprises thick evaporitic sequences be coupled. This results in a much narrower thrust belt with a higher
including gypsum and halite. Folds and thrusts in the Tertiary sequence, angle of taper compared with the areas underlain by salt further to the
above the Tertiary detachment, behave like passive roof backthrusts or west (Smith, 2012). The presence of gypsum and anhydrite in the
detachment folds (Figs. 32 & 33). Precambrian Salkhala Formation at the base of the hangingwall of the
The presence of broad, flat synclines, narrow box-like anticlines and Panjal Thrust in the Ramban area of the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt
doubly-vergent thrusts suggests that evaporites also underlie the wes- in Jammu and Kashmir, (Sharma and Banerjee, 1986) could indicate
tern part of the Jhelum Re-entrant (Jaumé and Lillie, 1988; Pennock that evaporites are well enough developed in this area to act as local
et al., 1989), where deformation also extends about 100 km south of the detachment horizons. There is, however, no evidence that equivalents
MBT (Burbank et al., 1996a). of the Infra-Cambrian Salt Range and Hanseran Group halite deposits
The contrast in structural styles between different parts of the Salt are present in this part of the NW Himalaya.
Range and Potwar Basin have been ascribed to variations in the The western margin of the Indo-Pakistan continental plate inherited
strength and depth of the basal detachment, with strong detachment in extensional structures resulting from the initial rifting of the proto-
the North Potwar Deformed Zone and weak detachment in the Potwar continent and the generation of new oceanic crust during sea-floor
Plateau (Jaumé and Lillie, 1988; Faisal and Dixon, 2015). The changes spreading (Powell, 1979; Biswas, 1987; Zaigham, 1991). The eastern
in trend and style from west to east across the Potwar Plateau have been part of Pakistan is characterized by a broad north-south trending
variously attributed to: foreland basin containing thick Tertiary sequences, underlain by Me-
sozoic and older rocks and overlain by Quaternary sediments (flood-
(i) thinning of the Salt Range Formation, plain deposits of the Indus River). The southern Indus Basin is about
(ii) stepping upward of the basal detachment from the low strength 250 km wide and bounded to the east by the Thar Desert and to the

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Fig. 32. Bottom: Balanced cross-section A-A’ through the Himalayan foreland fold-thrust-belt in Pakistan, showing the structure of the Potwar Basin, Soan Syncline
and the Salt Range. Middle: Balanced cross-section showing the present configuration and possible mode of origin of the Salt Range, with the thrust sheet having
encountered the basement offset and ramped above thickened Salt Layer. Top: Seismic profile of the ramp region (Modified after: Baker et al., 1988).

west by the mountainous region of the Kirthar and Sulaiman fold and margin of the Indo-Gangetic foredeep occurred mainly during the Plio-
thrust belts (Figs. 5, 6 & 12). The Indus River appears to more or less Pleistocene. Three independent data sets from north-western India and
follow the axis of the basin. Pakistan suggest initial displacement along > 1000 km of the MBT
The basement manifestations are the Sibi, Jacobabad, Khairpur and occurred prior to 10 Ma (Meigs et al., 1995; Brozović and Burbank,
Hyderabad ‘highs’ (Kazmi and Rana, 1988). Most early workers con- 2000), as follows:
sidered these ‘highs’ to be the result of subsurface NW trending, narrow,
finger-like extensions of the Indian Shield which caused deformation of 1. Regionally extensive changes in the depositional characteristics and
the overlying geological strata (Wadia, 1931). During early 1990s, a rates of foreland-basin fill between 11 and 9.5 Ma are interpreted to
north-south trending failed-rift system was identified in the southern reflect new hinterland loading due to the development of the MBT.
Indus Basin, based on the detailed analysis of the aeromagnetic data Sediment-accumulation rates, sandstone-siltstone ratios, and thick-
(Fig. 34), buried beneath the thick sequence of the Mesozoic and ness and amalgamation of individual sandstone bodies all sub-
Cenozoic sediment (Zaigham, 1991; Zaigham and Mallick, 2000). The stantially increase after 11 Ma in well-dated sections from Pakistan
depths of these inferred rift segments (i.e., horsts and grabens) were to Nepal across the Indo-Gangetic Foreland Basin.
estimated as ± 5 km for southern, ± 9 km for central, and ± 7 km for 2. In the Himachal Pradesh Re-entrant of north-western India, an 8.7
northern segments. Another failed rift system (the ‘Thar Rift’) was Ma conglomerate derived from the hangingwall of the MBT in-
subsequently identified on seismic data to the southeast of the Indus dicates that source area uplift and denudation must have occurred
Rift, (Zaigham et al., 2000 and Zaigham et al., 2012). The gentle re- prior to 9 Ma and probably prior to 10 Ma, assuming a gravel pro-
gional uplifts in the Indus foreland basin are now interpreted as surface gradation rate of 3 cm/yr.
manifestations of the underlying failed-rift geometry (Fig. 35). 3. Three apatite fission-track ages from structures at the leading edge
These rift structures are considered to be excellent environments for of the MBT in the Kohat region of NW Pakistan indicate that rapid
the development of hydrocarbon source rocks, with sufficiently high cooling below 105°C between 8 and 10 Ma followed bedrock uplift
heat flow for thermal maturity, with prospective structures, reservoirs and erosion that began c.1-2 million years earlier.
and seals, particularly in the south-eastern region.
These data indicate that the MBT in the western Himalaya formed
synchronously along the strike during Middle-Late Miocene, and has a
8.1.5. Development of the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)
displacement rate of ~10 mm/yr. The displacement history of the MBT
Movement on the MBT and related thrusts along the north-western

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Fig. 33. Generalized cross section of the Potwar Plateau with detailed structure of the Soan Syncline, and generalized maturity profile for the source rocks (Modified
from: Malik et al., 1988).

is coeval with late displacement on the MCT. The MBT is the most of seismicity of the region (Gahalaut and Kundu, 2011; Gupta and
important thrust in the area. To the west and south of it, the Tertiary Gahalaut, 2014).
and pre-Tertiary sediments are deformed into a series of elongated tight The structural complexity of the fold-and-thrust belt generally in-
anticlines and are repeated or eliminated by numerous thrusts, while to creases from the foreland towards the hinterland. The area closest to
the east and north of it only pre-Tertiary sediments are exposed. The the foreland is occupied predominantly by Siwalik Group rocks and has
frontal fold-and-thrust belt to the west and south of the MBT zone is a rather simple structural geometry consisting of widely-spaced thrusts
about 100 km wide in the Jammu sector, but narrows southward to and simple fault-related folds. The MBT has a ramp-flat-ramp geometry
about 50 km in Himachal Pradesh with a distinct narrowing to about 25 with associated ramp anticlines in the hangingwall in some areas, while
km in the east of Sutlej. It is characterised by a series of ‘south-verging in others, it is emergent with fault-propagation folding in the hang-
homoclinal imbricate thrust stacks and associated piggy back basins, ingwall. Further towards the hinterland the geometry of the thrusts and
linear antiformal thrust stacks formed by convergence of emergent their hanging wall structures varies with fault-bend folds, divergent
thrusts of opposite vergence, emergent thrust bound tip-line folds and thrust splays and blind thrusts all being developed along strike in dif-
frontal pop-ups floored by blind thrusts’ (Kak et al., 1999). Local ferent sections (Mukhopadhyay and Mishra, 2007; Fig. 36).
basement promontories offered greater resistance to the foreland ward Further hinterland ward again, the structural geometry becomes
propagation of the basal decollment of the frontal fold-and-thrust belt, more complex. In the area occupied predominantly by the rocks of the
which resulted in increased local shortening that was accommodated by Subathu and Dharamsala formations, the linked thrust systems define
the development of backthrusts and by ‘stacking’ of the thrust sheets imbricate fans or buried hinterland-dipping duplexes. The structural
(Kak et al., 1997). The subduction of three prominent basement ridges, setting further towards the hangingwall of the MBT, which is occupied
viz., the Delhi Hardwar, Faizabad and Munger Saharsa ridges under the predominantly by rocks of the Lesser Himalaya, is even more complex
Himalayan arc has segmented the arc, and has affected the distribution with low ramp spacing, folded thrusts, interference of axial surfaces and

Fig. 34. Left: The southern Indus basin magnetic anomalies, and Right: The inferred deep-seated ‘fossil’ failed rift in the southern Indus basin (Modified after
Zaigham, 1991).

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Fig. 35. Schematic failed-rift model illustrating the present-day tectonic setting (surface manifestations of the underlying failed-rift geometry) of the southern Indus
Basin. (Modified after: Zaigham, 1991).

breached horses being characteristic features (Mukhopadhyay and to very complex structural geometries, particularly in the Lesser Hi-
Mishra, 2007 and Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2012; Fig. 36). Overall, malaya Zone (Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2012).
the sequence of deformation appears to have been characterised by a
foreland propagating, in-sequence thrusting event, followed by out-of-
8.1.6. The Himalayan syntaxes
sequence thrusting in an approximately break-back style. Some of the
The eastern and western Himalayan syntaxes (Wadia, 1931) are
ramps formed during the in-sequence thrusting were reactivated re-
crustal-scale antiforms situated at geodynamically similar locations,
peatedly during the subsequent out-of-sequence thrusting event leading
where the Palaeogene Tethyan suture is folded around half-windows in

Fig. 36. Balanced cross sections through the Nahan Salient of the frontal fold-and-thrust belt of the NW Himalaya depicting structural complexity and trap geometry.
The different hydrocarbon play types (labeled with prefix ‘P’) are identified and listed below the sections (After: Mukhopadhyay and Mishra, 2007).

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the Indian crust (Wadia, 1957; Gansser, 1966; Treloar et al., 1991; Burg Himalaya have been elucidated using a variety of techniques including
et al., 1997). Himalayan metamorphism - Pliocene-Pleistocene high- petrographic and heavy mineral analysis, Samarium (Sr)- Neodymium
grade metamorphism and anatexis overprint basement rocks in both (Nd) analysis of bulk rock and conglomerate clasts and Argon-Argon
syntaxes, and both have undergone a history of rapid growth and de- (Ar-Ar) analysis of detrital white micas (Najman et al., 2009). The re-
nudation lasting ~4 million years, during which the denudation rate of sults suggest that the exhumation rate of the Higher Himalaya de-
the Nanga Parbat massif averaged ~5 mm/yr (Zeitler et al., 1989, 1993; creased markedly shortly before 16 Ma. After this, the Higher Himalaya
Burg et al., 1998). In the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis, the uplift has been continued to be exhumed to progressively deeper metamorphic levels,
accommodated by a combination of initial NW verging thrusting on the but at slower rates, as the locus of thrusting transferred to the Lesser
western margin, followed by crustal scale folding within the syntaxis Himalaya in the footwall of the MCT which contributed substantial
and subsequently by dextral reverse faulting on the western margin sediment input from 17 Ma (White et al., 2002). Non-metamorphosed
(Treloar et al., 1991). Long wavelength folding of the continental li- Lesser Himalaya rocks were exhumed to the surface by 9 Ma. Major
thosphere during large-scale continental shortening has been proposed exhumation of the Lesser Himalaya (including exhumation to the sur-
as the process responsible for the coeval development of the syntaxes face of Lesser Himalayan Crystalline Series) occurred at 6 Ma and
and the adjacent synformal Peshawar and Kashmir basins on either side caused major disruption to the existing river drainage patterns (Najman
of the western Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and its southern continuation, the et al., 2009).
Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis (Bossart et al., 1988; Burg and Podladchikov,
1999, 2000). The level of the Moho decreases under the Nanga Parbat 8.1.9. Hydrocarbon trap types
Syntaxis (Farah et al., 1984). Lithospheric scale buckling with wave- The complex and variable structural geometries present within the
lengths ranging from 50 to 600 km has been suggested as an important frontal fold-and-thrust belt of the Himalaya allow a wide variety of
process during shortening in several continents, including Central structural, stratigraphic and combination hydrocarbon traps to be de-
Australia, Central Asia, Canada and Western Europe (Cloetingh et al., veloped, ranging from classic ramp anticlines and stratigraphic pinch-
1999). These intermontane Peshawar and Kashmir basins are domi- outs/wedge-outs to the roof sequences of buried duplexes and sub-
nated by proximal alluvial–fan facies, intermediate braided-river sedi- thrust structural highs (Mukhopadhyay and Mishra, 2007; Fig. 36).
ments and extensive high-sinuosity fluvial and shallow lacustrine se-
diments that were deposited in tectonically ‘ponded’ valleys behind the 8.1.9.1. Sub-thrust traps below the MBT. A large part of the HFB in the
deformational front of the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt (Figs. 1 & 5). NW Himalaya region is over-thrust by Lesser Himalaya rocks in the
hangingwall of the MBT. It is possible that prospective hydrocarbon
8.1.7. Development of the Himalayan Foreland Basin (HFB) accumulations exist beneath sections of the MBT that have a large
Subsidence in the Himalayan foreland during the Neogene was horizontal displacement, where the source rocks in the Subathu
driven primarily by thrust loading over a failed rift zone that produced Formation have adequate depth of burial for hydrocarbon generation
volcanism occurring in concomitance with the India-Asia collision and migration, and where the traps have not been breached by
(Acharyya and Saha, 2018). Sediments carried into the foreland by thrusting (e.g. Acharyya and Ray, 1982). There may also be potential
rivers draining the deforming hinterland were either deposited in the in sub-thrust locations below the cover of pre-Tertiary Lesser Himalaya
foreland basin or by-passed it, and were transported by the Ganges and successions in tectonic ‘windows’ within the Lesser Himalaya
Indus rivers to the sea, where they were deposited in the Bengal and themselves. Support for extensive overthrusting is supplied by seismic
Indus fans. There is a marked increase in the sediment accumulation data from northern Pakistan, west of the Kashmir-Hazara Syntaxis
rate across the entire Himalayan foreland from Pakistan to Nepal be- which show thick succession of low velocity rocks (possibly Murree
ginning at around 11.5 to 11 Ma, which is attributed to the develop- Formation) beneath an overthrust which has a displacement of more
ment of significant erosion topography along the MBT at this time than 100 km (Ni et al., 1991).
(Meigs et al., 1995; Burbank, 1996; Brozović and Burbank, 2000). The Seismic data shows that the basal decollment to the south of the
record of sustained rapid Neogene sediment accumulation in the deep- MBT in the Potwar Plateau in Pakistan is at a depth of 8,000 to
sea Bengal and Indus fans suggests that the rate of delivery of sediments 10,000 m. The Triassic to Eocene platform succession is only 4,000 m
from the hinterland consistently exceeded the rate at which accom- thick, so the succession is probably repeated by overthrusting in long-
modation space was created in the foreland, such that the foreland travelled folded thrust sheet(s) creating the possibility that hydro-
basin was persistently filled to overflowing by sediment (Brozović and carbon traps exist in the lower thrust sheet(s) at drillable depths of ~
Burbank, 2000) (Figs. 7 & 8). 5.000 m. Cross section balancing indicates crustal shortening of 45% in
this area, implying that the deposition basin extended almost 100 km
8.1.8. Plio-Pleistocene intermontane basins further to the north (Gardezi et al., 2017).
A major pulse of deformation, associated with thrusting along the
MBT is manifested across a broad region of the north-western foredeep 8.1.9.2. Inner belt structures in Jammu and Kashmir. The inner tectonic
at ~2.0-1.5 Ma ago. Three distinct phases of deformation can be dis- belt close to the MBT is also potentially prospective for hydrocarbons.
cerned in both the intermontane sediments of Kashmir and the molasse Proximity to the Hazara-Kashmir/Nanga Parbat Syntaxis, the possible
sediments to the south. In Kashmir, the basin-filling Karewa Group occurrence of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sediments equivalent to the
exceeds > 1,300 m in thickness. Magnetostratigraphic sections indicate hydrocarbon source and reservoir rocks of the Kohat-Potwar area and
that the Karewa sedimentation spans the period from c.4 Ma to the the presence of surface hydrocarbon shows near Sutra are positive
present (Burbank and Johnson, 1983). Deposition began in response to indications. Structural traps are expected to occur in sub-thrust and up-
the initial uplift and emergence of the ancestral Pir Panjal Range at c. thrust blocks of the Murree Thrust (=MBT) and wedge outs of Mesozoic
4.5 Ma. Palaeocurrent indicators suggest that the pulses of uplift (pre- and Palaeozoic successions are expected in sub-thrust locations. The
sumably thrust-related) occurred along the northeastern margin of the Punch-Rajouri area (NW of Jammu) was highlighted as particularly
Kashmir Basin until c. 2 Ma. Subsequently, the diminution of this prospective in a joint DGH/ONGC/OIL study in 2000 (Kak pers.
thrusting and accelerated uplift of the Pir Panjal Range re-directed comm.).
palaeocurrents towards the northeast. A further phase of tectonism
dated at c. 0.5-0.4 Ma in the eastern Potwar was probably con- 8.1.9.3. Salt-related plays. A large evaporite basin, with an area of more
temporaneous with the most recent interval of rapid uplift (totaling than 50,000 km2 in the subsurface covers much of western India from
some 1,300 to 3,000 m) of the Pir Panjal Range (Figs. 1, 5 & 25). Rajasthan, to beyond the Salt Range of Pakistan (Dey et al., 1991;
The exhumation history of the Lesser Himalaya and the Higher references therein). Salt-related structures have been mapped on

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seismic data in the Sundarnagar-Mandi area of the NW Himalaya of 8.2. The ‘Palaeogene Wedge’ gas play
India, including a piercement type dome some 5 km in diameter which
affects presumed Subathu and Lower Dharamsala successions near The HFB, like most foreland basins, is a wedge-shaped basin that
Sundarnagar in Himachal Pradesh. Salt also occurs along the MBT on thickens towards the hinterland. The two major stratigraphic divisions
the eastern extremity of the Kangra-Mandi Depocentre at Mandi, in the Himalayan foreland are the Rawalpindi Group (in Pakistan),
Jogindernagar and Palampur while, in outcrops elsewhere along the which includes the Miocene Murree Formation and the Siwalik Group
MBT, it occurs as thrust slices juxtaposed with pre-Tertiary rocks. In the of Plio-Pleistocene and younger age (Burbank et al., 1996a). Collision of
Sarkaghat area, the salt forms a decollment that has facilitated the Asian and Indian continental landmasses and the associated closure
thrusting. Hydrocarbon traps formed as a result of salt tectonics are of the Neo-Tethyan seaway produced a sudden change in climate in the
considered to be an emerging new play in the Indian portion of the NW area of the NW Himalaya from wet equatorial during the Palaeocene to
Himalaya, having been well established in the Potwar region of tropical semi-arid during the Early Eocene. This change resulted in the
Pakistan for more than twenty years. development of red beds, pedogenic carbonates (caliche) and local
evaporites (Garzanti et al., 1987, 1996).
Tertiary sedimentation in the NW Himalaya began in a shallow
8.1.10. Burial History – Maturation, Hydrocarbon Generation and Charge marine environment (Subathu Formation) and gradually changed to
Verma et al. (2012) have modelled an active hydrocarbon kitchen fluvio-deltaic (Dharamsala/Murree Formation) and, eventually, fluvial
environment in the Kangra-Mandi sub-basin of the HFB (in Himachal (Siwalik Group) environments as the Himalaya formed (Figs. 7 & 8).
Pradesh). The maturity history indicates that source rock (Subathu The Upper, Middle and Lower Siwalik groups and the Upper and Lower
shales) started generating oil during early Middle Miocene time (c. 16- Dharamsala members have all been extensively penetrated by oil and
14 Ma) and reached peak oil generation stage at c.10 Ma (late Middle gas exploration wells drilled in the Himalaya foothills (Fig. 3) and have
Miocene). This was followed by an increase in the geothermal gradient been shown to contain good to excellent quality potential reservoirs,
post 14 Ma, primarily due to the rapid subsidence during deposition of but to have only very poor source rock potential. The Subathu For-
Lower Siwalik and the intensification of the tectonic activity. The mation has not, so far been penetrated in the subsurface because it is
generation of hydrocarbons started during the late stage of formational too deeply buried (or pinches out laterally), but outcrop studies suggest
activity along the MCT. The age of the MCT is constrained at 22-14 Ma that it contains some intervals of coal and carbonaceous shale that
and the structures formed in association with MCT during this time could have acted as a source for hydrocarbons. The entire succession
might have been charged. Peak oil generation from the basal parts of forms a northward dipping and northward thickening sedimentary
the Subathu and Lower Dharamsala formations at c. 11–10 Ma is con- wedge with an average taper ranging between 1° and a maximum of 12°
comitant with the establishment of MBT. The primary locations for the (Kak et al., 1999). The succession is in excess of 5 km thick adjacent to
hydrocarbon exploration are the structures in the sub-thrust of MBT the MBT, where it is over-thrusted by the pre-Tertiary successions of the
that were charged during this time. The Structures formed at c. 6 Ma Lesser Himalaya. The outer basin margin of the marine to brackish
are expected to have received gaseous hydrocarbons. Structures formed water Palaeogene sediments is located close to the present front of the
in association with c. 5 Ma splay of MBT are considered the best locales Himalayan Foothills, but south of the MBT, and it is probable that more
for charging of gaseous hydrocarbons (Fig. 37). basinal facies (possibly with better hydrocarbon source potential) occur
The gas pool in the Lower Siwalik initiated in the up-thrust region of further to the north under the over-thrust pre-Tertiary sequences of the
the Jawalamukhi Thrust during Upper Pliocene (c. 2 Ma). Burial/ Lesser Himalaya. There are a few scattered exposures of marine to
Subsidence history and organic matter transformations suggest that the brackish-water Palaeogene rocks in tectonic windows within the Lesser
Subathu and Lower Dharamsala (=Murree) formations have expelled Himalaya 30 to 70 km north of the frontal zone which support the
88% and 81% hydrocarbon, at burial depths of 8300 m and 7650 m original existence of a broad northward extension of the late Mesozoic-
respectively. It seems that the Lower Siwalik gas pools are charged by Eocene basin (Acharyya and Ray, 1982).
the continued maturation and transformation of the left over source It is generally considered that the Lesser Himalaya Zone, the Lower
potential. The modelling by Verma et al. (2012) also predicts that lower Sub Himalaya Zone (i.e., the Subathu and Dharamsala successions) and
part of the Upper Dharamsala Formation attained oil maturity window the Upper Sub Himalaya Zone (i.e. the Siwalik Group) are completely
during Early Pliocene (c. 5 Ma) at burial depth of 5100 m. The Subathu separated by tectonic surfaces, both at the surface and in the subsur-
and Lower Dharamsala formations attained maturity at c. 10 Ma, and face. Detailed geological maps, however, show that the situation is
the Lower Siwalik attained oil window at c. 3 Ma at a palaeo-geo- more complex with many other thrusts being developed between the
thermal gradient of 21-22°C/Km (Dutta et al., 2011; Verma et al., Main MBT and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) (Mukhopadhyay and
2012). On the basis of the exploration by ONGC in the recent years, the Mishra, 2007).
inner part of the inner tectonic belt and sub-thrust prospects associated In the Salt Range of Pakistan, the Tertiary succession directly
c. 5 Ma old structures in the Lesser Himalaya have significant ex- overlies the Cambrian Jhelum Group in the eastern part of the range
ploration potential in the Indian part of the NW Himalaya (Verma et al., and rests on Permian and Mesozoic formations progressively towards
2012). the NW (Fig. 6). The associated unconformity is often marked by a
Law et al. (1998) (also in Wandrey et al., 2004) have presented lateritic bed (Gee, 1989) consistent with it representing a significant
burial history plots for the source rocks in the Kohat-Potwar Basin period of subaerial exposure. In the Jammu region of the NW Himalaya
(Fig. 9). These plots begin from c. 30 Ma depicting the later period of foothills in India, the unconformity between the Proterozoic Sirban
hydrocarbon generation starting c. 20-15 Ma and continuing up to Limestone Formation and the Palaeogene Subathu Formation on the
present. The polts show that the source rocks including the Palaeocene flanks of the Riasi Allochthon (previously referred to as an Inlier) is
Patala Formation shales attained the maximum burial c. 2 Ma BP, and similarly marked by extensive, but discontinuous development, of pi-
these shales are in the oil window. In Kohat-Potwar Basin the source solitic bauxite deposits (Singh et al., 2005a; Siddaiah and Shukla,
and reservoir rocks are stacked at multiple stratigraphic levels and have 2012), and rhyolitic-chert-breccia (Acharyya and Saha, 2018 and re-
been subjected to distinct overpressure regimes attributed to tectonic ference therein) again suggesting a prolonged period of sub-aerial ex-
compression and undercompaction during Neogene, the and combined posure and volcanism. But, Hakhoo (2013) has inferred a tectonic
effect of hydrocarbon generation and tectonic compression during Pre- (back-thrusted) contact between the Sirban Limestone Formation and
Neogene times (Law et al., 1998). The stacked source and reservoir the Subathu Formation around the Raisi Allochthon in the Jammu area,
rocks have also resulted in the in mixing of oils (Wandrey et al., 2004). questioning the unconformable nature of the contact between the two

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Fig. 37. The subsidence (burial) history of the HFB (involving the rate of subsidence, sedimentation and critical timing of the hydrocarbon generation- that may vary)
in concomitance with the initiation of, and peak activity along the major regional thrusts in the region (Verma et al., 2012).

(Hakhoo, 2013; Hakhoo et al., 2016a & Hakhoo et al., 2016b; Figs. 12 & Palaeocene shoreline (Figs. 6 & 8).
13).
The Palaeogene succession consists of a single transgressive-re- 8.2.1. Latest Palaeocene to Middle Eocene Subathu Formation and
gressive cycle across most of the Himalayan Foredeep, although a equivalents
second, much more limited transgression occurs in the NW Pakistan. Tertiary sedimentation began during the Palaeocene within the HFB
The Palaeocene to Middle Eocene transgressive/regressive cycle thins formed by the collision of the Indian and Asian plates with the sub-
craton ward from an observed maximum thickness of 600 m in the sequent closure of the Tethyan Ocean. The HFB is located in Sub
Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis to a feather-edge in the Himalayan Foredeep. Himalaya Zone and is bounded by the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT)
The thinning is partly due to pre-molasse erosion, but facies changes in = Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) in the south and the MBT in the north
the Potwar Basin and an abundance of plant material in wells in India (Figs. 2 & 3)). The Late Palaeocene-Middle Eocene Subathu Formation
suggests the present day pinch-out edge is probably close to the original forms the base of the basin fill and represents the culmination of marine

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fossiliferous sedimentation in the Sub Himalaya. This is unconformably The Subathu Formation is a platform succession comprised of three
overlain by the continental facies of the Murree Formation (equivalent distinct transgressive and regressive facies (Sahni et al., 1983; Kak
to Dharamsala Formation or Dagshai – Kasuali formations). In the et al., 1999; Hafiz, 2015). The initial marine transgressive facies (basal
western part of the Himalayan foredeep, the initial phase of the Pa- swampy to marginal marine) was associated with the subsidence and
laeogene transgression is marked by the deposition of a basal sandstone formation of the basin. The second, regressive, facies (intra-shelf la-
– the Hangu Formation of the Potwar Basin and the Stumpata Forma- goonal facies) was deposited following the uplift and shallowing of the
tion of the Zanskar Range – and is followed, respectively, by the de- basin and the third and final regressive facies (delta plain and tidal flat
position of shallow water carbonates of the Lockhart and Dibling- facies) accompanied the complete withdrawal of the sea (Raiverman
Shinge La formations (Gaetani and Garzanti, 1991) (Figs. 6 & 8; and Raman, 1971; Singh, 1978).
Table 3). In the Jammu area, the Subathu Formation is ~ 80 m thick and
Discontinuous, structurally-controlled outcrops of the Subathu comprises black carbonaceous shale at the base, overlain by coal seams,
Formation occur from the Potwar Basin in Pakistan eastwards along the with intermittent anastomosing stringers of ash in the Manma section
Himalaya foothills through Jammu, Himachal Pradesh, Garhwal and (towards the west of the Kalakot Allochthon). This is followed by grey
Kumaon to their eastern limit in Nepal (Thakur, 1993). They consist of shale with a thin sandstone unit overlain by limestone beds containing a
carbonaceous shale, coal, green shale, sandstone, nummulitic lime- variety of foraminifera. This succession is overlain by the rhythmic
stone, shelly limestone and pink needle shale in the Jammu and Hi- sequences of grey shale and fossiliferous limestone conglomerate. The
machal areas (Kak et al., 1997; Hafiz, 2015). The thickness of the overlying succession consists of shelly limestone dominated by oyster
Subathu Formation varies from ~50 m to 1800 m (Thakur and Rawat, shell fragments. These are followed by an upper member that typically
1992) due to the tectonic complexity in the region. However, there is no consists of pink-needle-shale unconformably overlain by the coarse-
consensus on the actual depositional thickness of the Subathu Forma- micaceous-pinkish-sandstones and pink shales of the Murree Formation
tion since widely differing correlation schemes have been used, and the (Fig. 38). At Muttal, towards the south-eastern end of the SLFm, Riasi
variations arising due to the structural complexity and repetition of Allochthon, the Subathu Formation is composed of black carbonaceous
strata adds to the variations in the thickness regionally. Moreover, the shale, foraminiferal limestone, sandstone and olive green shales at the
complete Subathu succession has never been penetrated in the sub- top (Fig. 13). A thin unit of pisolitic bauxite and ‘bauxitic’ iron-stone
surface by wells, and knowledge of the facies and thickness variations shale occurs at the base of the Subathu succession that forms a complex
are, therefore, based almost entirely on the rather poor, small and ‘thrust wedge’ with the SLFm. Sandy turbidites (~ 2 m thick) with
isolated outcrops, mainly close to the MBT Zone north of the back- Bouma Ta-e beds are also present in the Subathu Formation slivers
thrusted contact between the Sirban Limestone Formation (SLFm) and further northeast in this section (Hakhoo, 2013; Hafiz, 2015). The facies
Subathu formations. associations of the Subathu Formation suggest deposition in platform
The exact nature of both the upper and lower contacts of the edge and deep shelf margin environments with faunal elements con-
Subathu Formation is controversial. The lower contact is generally sisting of reworked shallow marine bioclasts, autochthonous benthic
considered to be a major regional unconformity (Raha, 1974 and Raha, and planktonic fauna and reworked Neoproterozoic microflora (Bhat
1984; Chadha, 1992; Acharyya and Saha, 2018), but some workers et al., 2009).
consider it to be conformable (Bhatia, 1980), and according to Hakhoo The coals within the basal Subathu Formation in the Chakkar
(2013) and Hafiz (2015) the contacts are tectonic (back-thrusted) in Coalfield to the NW of the Riasi Allochthon (Fig. 40) are thin (lower
nature, at least in the Jammu area (Figs. 13 & 38). A late Thanetian age seam average thickness 0.36 m; upper seam average thickness 0.52 m)
(latest Palaeocene, 56 Ma) has been assigned to the basal part of the and are low moisture, low volatile, non-coking, low ash semi-anthra-
Subathu Formation at Kalakot in the Jammu region based on the pre- cites (Pareek, 1976; Srivastava and Nanda, 1976; Bargotra and Gupta,
sence of index foraminifera, including Daviesina garumnensis, Rani- 1979). The coal seams are laterally discontinuous and rapidly vary in
kothalia nuttalli and Lockhartia spp. (Mathur and Juyal, 2000). Some thickness, and can be completely absent (e.g., in the Beragua Borehole,
workers also interpret an unconformity between the Subathu Formation southwest Kalakot Allochthon), at least partly due to their ductile be-
and the overlying units. The basal part of the overlying Dagshai haviour. This results in complex folding, faulting and localized
(=Murree) Formation has been assigned the depositional age of c. ‘necking’ and thickening of the seams. The Chakkar (=Chakar) Coal-
31 ± 1.6 Ma based on the fission-track dating of the detrital zircon from field occupies a prominent asymmetric syncline in the hanging wall
the white sandstone of the Dagshai Formation (Najman et al., 2004), zone of the Riasi Thrust (Fig. 41). There are two or three thin coal
suggesting a major unconformity of > 10 Ma between the Subathu and seams in most areas, with thicknesses typically ranging from 0.6 to
Dagshai formations. However, Bera et al. (2008) has reassessed the 2.4 m, separated by grey carbonaceous shales (Pareek, 1976).
duration of this unconformity and interpreted it to be ≤ 3 Ma on the The limestones observed in the Shali Window in the Lesser
basis of the reworked fossils in calciturbidite, which suggest the upper Himalaya (the northern most occurrence of the Subathu Formation)
limit of the Subathu Formation is younger than c. 44 Ma. Other workers consist of packstones and wackestones, interbedded with finely lami-
consider the upper contact of the Subathu Formation to be conformable nated shales. The facies distribution suggests a general transition from
(Karunakaran and Rao, 1979) or suggest an inter-fingering relationship flysch to marginal marine to fully marine depositional conditions to-
between the Subathu and Murree formations, cropping-out as thrust wards the north, consistent with the development of a northward dip-
bound slivers in the Riasi area of the Jammu region (Hakhoo, 2013; ping palaeoslope reflecting the gradual development of a foreland basin
Hafiz, 2015). In some areas, the Subathu Formation is completely as the Himalaya formed (Kak et al., 1999).
missing and SLFm is juxtaposed in thrusted contact against the Murree In the Koti area of the Simla Hills, the ‘black/grey Subathu shale’
Formation (Hakhoo, 2013). unit at the base of the upper Subathu Formation in the Subathu Basin
The gravity modelling and depth section refraction profiling un- contains interbedded basinal sandy turbidites derived from the
dertaken in the HFB and Punjab plains indicate that the Subathu Himalayan orogen and calciturbidites derived from older carbonate
Formation forms a ‘wedge’ that pinches-out towards the south and ramps that were deposited on the outer, passive margin of the foredeep
south-west. The exact position of the regional pinch-out is not well basin (Bera et al., 2008) (Fig. 42). The black and/or grey shale with
defined due to the lack of high quality regional seismic data and poor carbonate and sandstone interbeds passes upwards into a sequence of
acoustic properties of the Subathu Formation. The depth section and ferric oxide-rich red shale, variously described as the ‘Red Subathu
gravity modelling profiles show that the Subathu Formation is of con- shale’, passage bed or transition bed (Bhatia and Bhargava, 2006 and
siderable thickness towards the inner belt of the HFB (Singh et al., references therein). The shales are overlain by the ‘white sandstone
2005b) (Fig. 39). unit’, a regionally extensive forced regressive wedge of white and/or

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Fig. 38. (a) Stratigraphic column of the Subathu Formation from Manma section in Kalakote (Jammu), and (b) Bore-hole log of the Subathu Formation at Mahogala
(Jammu). In both the localities the basal and the top contacts of the Subathu Formation are back-thrusted. (See Fig. 13 for locations).

Fig. 39. Gravity modelling profile of Punjab plains and Sub Himalayan Foreland Basin (Modified after: Singh et al., 2005b).

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Fig. 40. Geological Map of the Chakar Coalfield (close to Ransuh) and bore-hole log depicting the tectono-stratigraphic relationships between the SLFm and Subathu
Formation, NW Riasi Allochthon, Jammu. (See Fig. 13 for the locations).

greenish mature marine shore-face sandstone associated with a rapid unconformably on the Cambrian strata (Figs. 5 & 6). Prior to the
fall in sea level and progressive shoaling of the Subathu Sea (Sahni widespread Palaeocene marine transgression in the Potwar Basin, the
et al., 1983; Bera et al., 2008). land surface consisted predominantly of variably eroded Mesozoic and
The Palaeocene succession in the Potwar Basin of Pakistan com- Palaeozoic strata that were strongly weathered, forming a cap of la-
prises the Hangu/Dhak Pass Formation which is dominated by sand- terite and bauxite in many places (Gee, 1989). This is probably the time
stones with minor carbonaceous shales, coals and limestones, the equivalent of the thin unit of pisolitic bauxite and ‘bauxitic’ iron-stone
shallow water carbonates of the Lockhart Limestone and the Patala shale at the base of the Subathu Formation succession at Muttal in the
Formation composed of dark grey fossiliferous shales and limestones Riasi area of Jammu, India.
indicative of relatively deeper and more anoxic conditions. The The type section of the Patala Formation is in the Patala Nala
Palaeocene Lockhart and Patala (the ‘Patala Shale’) and the Early (=rivulet) in the western Salt Range (Davies and Pinfold, 1937), where
Eocene Nammal formations are the equivalents of the Subathu it consists of dark-greenish-grey, carbonaceous and calcareous shale
Formation. The contact between the Lockhart Formation and the Patala and marl with subordinate interbedded light grey, medium-bedded and
Formation is transitional. In the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, the Hangu nodular limestone and yellowish brown sandstone, which occurs in the
Formation basal sandstone is absent and the Lockhart Limestone rests upper part of the formation. Workable sub-bituminous coal seams occur

Fig. 41. Geological cross section (based on borehole data) through part of the ‘Khori Block’ of the Chakkar Coalfield, NW Riasi Allochthon, Jammu. (See Fig. 13 for
the locations).

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in the middle part of the formation in the central and eastern Salt Range The S1 values range from 0.01 – 1.81 mgHC/g rock and S2 values have
and the eastern part of the Potwar Basin (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008). In a wide range between 0.03 and 29.88 mgHC/g rock. These shales have
the Salt Range, the coal-bearing facies appears to pass westwards into poor to excellent hydrocarbon generation potential (S1+S2) with the
marine shale (Gee, 1989). The calcareous claystones of the overlying values ranging from 0.01 – 30.43 mgHC/g rock. The poor generation
Nammal Formation mark the base of the Eocene and are overlain by potential is shown by the younger grey and calcareous shales, whereas
massive limestones of the Sakesar (or Margalla Hill) Formation, which the basal Subathu Formation shales and coaly shales have good gen-
are, in turn, overlain by dolomitic limestones and calcareous claystones eration potential. The samples have an elevated Hydrogen Index (HI) of
forming the Chorgali Formation (Fazeelat et al., 2010). between 2 and 113 mg HC/g TOC, but a low Oxygen Index (OI) of < 69
The first Palaeogene transgression probably peaked with the de- mgCO2/g TOC (Mani et al., 2014; Hafiz, 2015). The kerogen type plot
position of the Nammal Formation in the Potwar Basin. The overlying indicates the dominance of Type III gas prone kerogen (Fig. 43). The
Sakesar Formation begins with outer shelfal limestones but grades up- S1/TOC values for the Subathu Formation shales from the mines and
wards into intertidal dolomites. As the regression continued, evaporites outcrops in the Jammu area are typically in the range of 0.01 to 0.04,
(Bahadur Khel Salt Formation) were deposited in the Kohat area during indicating that they could generate gas. Plots of S2 vs TOC show are
the Early Eocene (Wells, 1983) and by the Middle Eocene intertidal and wide variation, but with an overall tendency to fair to excellent source
terrestrial red beds (lower Mami Khel Formation) were prograding over potential (Mani et al., 2014).
the deepest parts of the basin in the Kohat area. A second transgression Elsewhere, samples analysed from several outcrops of the Subathu
began with the deposition of the upper Mami Khel Formation and Formation are less encouraging in terms of source potential and suggest
culminated with the deposition of the Middle Eocene Kohat Limestone that the content of organic matter is highly variable (Agarwal et al.,
but was restricted to north-western Pakistan. 1994). Massive, finely laminated, shallow marine black shales (20 m-
The petrography of the sandstones in the Subathu Formation in- 35 m thick with TOC ranging from 2.6 to 11.8 wt. %) occurring at the
dicates that they are derived from a predominantly recycled sedimen- base of the Subathu Formation are exposed in various places in the
tary source, with a distinct ophiolitic and volcanic influence, while the Indian portion of the NW Himalaya (Neelam, 2011). The carbonate and
mudstone geochemistry indicates the presence of a mafic-ultramafic TOC contents of the black shales are inversely related. There is a sharp
source. The composition of detrital spinels in the Subathu Formation increase in TOC to a maximum of 11 wt. % at the base and the TOC
suggests that they were derived from both mid-ocean ridge basalt-type content gradually decreases upwards to 2.5 wt. %, while the CaCO3
and arc-type ophiolites or from an ophiolite of composite origin content varies from 1 to 14 wt. %. These black shales were deposited
(Najman and Garzanti, 2000). Together with other petrographic and under anoxic conditions during a period of low sea level associated with
geochemical data, this suggests that there was a strong provenance an increase in the flux of organic matter (Neelam, 2011). Samples of the
input from the Indus Suture Zone during the deposition of the Subathu Subathu Formation from Himachal and Uttarakhand, however, have
Formation. This is consistent with the onset of continent-continent low TOC content (Sain et al., 1990; Mittal et al., 2006). Samples from
collision and the initial stages in the development of the Himalayan the Nilkanth, Koshaliya River and Kuthar River areas of Himachal and
orogen and the associated foreland basin during latest Palaeocene Uttrakhand states have TOC values of up to 15 wt. %, with the average
–middle Eocene time (Najman and Garzanti, op. cit.). The basal Sub- to moderately high TOC values in the basal Subathu Formation black
athu Formation shales have an abundance of clay minerals inherited shales (Ranganathan, 2013). The samples from the Dharamsala-Dadahu
from the weathered basic igneous (volcanic arc and ultramafic) rocks in area of Himachal Pradesh exhibit a wide variation of TOC from 0.11 to
the north, considered as the possible sediment source (Hafiz, 2015). 7.20 wt. % and have poor generation potential (Sain et al., 1990), while
the samples from the Surajpur ‘structural unit’ and from the Bilaspur-
Nalagarh areas have low organic content. Palynological studies of
8.2.1.1. Hydrocarbon source potential. Many source rock studies outcrop samples from the Subathu Formation in the Bilaspur-Surajpur
have been conducted on samples obtained during the drilling of unit show fair to excellent TOC.
exploration wells in the Himalaya foothills (Sain et al., 1987 and Sain Most of the coals in the Riasi area contain predominantly plant-
et al.,1989; Goyal et al., 1989a, 1989b; Gupta, 1999; Hassan et al., derived-gas-prone organic matter (vitrinite kerogen) and semifusinite
2004). There appears to be little doubt, based on complimentary and fusinite inertinite macerals, indicative of organic facies Type C, and
outcrop studies (Sain et al., 1990), that the only significant have high pyrite content. This suggests that they were deposited in
hydrocarbon source rocks within the Palaeogene succession of the close proximity to the source (e.g. swamp forest) in a marsh environ-
NW Himalaya foothills occur in the Palaeocene to Middle Eocene ment (Hafiz, 2015). The portions of the Subathu Formation that have
Subathu Formation (e.g. Mittal et al., 2006) in India and the broadly the best hydrocarbon source potential are generally rich in sapropelic-
equivalent Patala and Nammal formations in Pakistan. The Subathu humic-semifusinitic and fusinitic organic matter (Mittal et al., 2006;
Formation forms a key exploration target in the NW Himalaya with Hafiz, 2015). The occurrence of a surface oil-seep from a thin limestone
both potential hydrocarbon source and reservoir rocks sealed by a thick bed within the Subathu Formation near Chomukha village in the Sun-
clay sequence in the overlying Lower Murree/Dharamsala Formation. dernagar area of Himachal Pradesh and asphalt shows in the Subathu
This play has yet to be tested by any of the wells drilled in the region. Formation limestone at Satra Nala (=Rivulet), Jokan in the Punch area
In the absence of subsurface penetrations, extrapolation of the re- of Jammu and Kashmir suggests that the Subathu Formation may also
gional extent and source presence within the Subathu Formation away have some minor oil generating potential (Mittal et al., 2006).
from the limited outcrops relies on interpretation of widely spaced and The most organically rich coal samples obtained from the Subathu
poor quality seismic data (Karunakaran and Rao, 1979). One exception Formation in Kalakot Nala have TOC contents in excess of 80 wt. %, but
to this is in the Riasi area, where the coals occurring within the Subathu with low to very low Hydrogen Index values (10.2-61.0 mg HC/g TOC)
Formation have been extensively studied, including by shallow bore- indicating predominantly gas generating potential (Tiwari et al., 1992).
hole drilling, in order to ascertain the thickness and lateral continuity of The carbonaceous shales have lower TOC (1.08-9.35 wt. %), and their
the coals with a view to exploiting the resource commercially. remaining generation potential is very low (S2 = 0-2.4 mg HC/g of
The Subathu Formation shales, coaly shales, and coals sampled from rock). The coals have low moisture, ash and volatile contents varying
the boreholes, underground mines and fresh outcrops near Kalakot, between 9.48% and 15.30% on a dry, ash-free basis (Pareek, 1976).
Mahogala, Beragua, Manma, Tattapani, Chakkar, Chapparwari, Salal, The shales within the Patala and Nammal formations are considered
Kanthan, Bakkal, Ransoo, Kalimitti and Muttal areas of Raisi (Jammu) to be the main hydrocarbon source rocks in the Potwar Basin, whereas,
(Fig. 13) are organically rich with the TOC values ranging from 0.4 to the fractured carbonates of Palaeocene and Early Eocene age are con-
42.4 wt. %, suggesting fair to excellent source rock quality (Fig. 43). sidered as the main reservoirs (Fazeelat et al., 2010). The Patala

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Fig. 42. Graphic log correlation across the marine Subathu-Dagshai alluvial sediments in the Subathu sub-basin (Modified after: Bera et al., 2008).

Formation ranges from 20-180 m in thickness and has an average TOC formation which contains Type II/type III organic matter and HI va-
of 1.4 wt. % with Type II and Type III kerogen (Fazeelat et al., 2010) lues > 250 mg HC/g TOC (Fazeelat et al., 2010). The spatial distribu-
except in the Dhurnal Field where the Patala Formation has low TOC, tion of organic matter in the Patala Formation within the Potwar Basin
but the underlying Lockhart Formation has an average TOC of 1.4 wt. % appears to be variable. In a well further to the north (Well B close to the
(Jaswal et al., 1997). Well ‘A’ close to Joya Mair in the southern part of Dhurnal Field, Fazeelat et al., 2010; Fig. 5), the 210 m thick sequence of
the Potwar Basin (Fazeelat et al., 2010, Fig. 5) has significant source the Patala Formation has mainly low organic content and would not be
rock potential in the middle part of the 45 m thick Patala Formation, an effective source, except for a few relatively thin intervals in the
with TOC value of 10 wt. % (predominantly gas-prone organic matter), lower part that have TOC values of 2-8 wt. %, relatively high S2 (1.5-
S1 and S2 values of 3 and 19 mg HC/g rock, respectively, and HI values 2.0 mg HC/g rock) and S2/S3 ratio (1.5-15) and HI of > 150 to 300 mg
ranging from 100 to 200 mg HC/g TOC. The underlying Lockhart HC/g TOC indicating mixed organic matter with minor oil and gas
Formation in the same well has mainly low source potential with a potential (Fazeelat et al., 2010).
significant amount of inert kerogen, except in the lower part of the The limestones in the uppermost 100 m of the Eocene Sakesar

Fig. 43. The source quality, kerogen type and maturity plots of the Subathu Formation samples.

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Formation in the Potwar Basin also contain abundant Type III gas-prone maturity (Fig. 43) (Hafiz, 2015). The basal Subathu Formation shale
organic matter, with TOC values of up to 13 wt. % and S1 and S2 values samples exhibit high Ro values (1.5 to 3.7%) suggesting high levels of
of 0.5-4 and 1.5-36 mg HC/g rock, respectively, and HI values in the thermal maturity and indicating late dry gas generation stage (Mani
range 100-200 mg HC/g TOC, indicating that these are also potential et al., 2014). In general, the coals in the Subathu Formation appear to
source rocks (Fazeelat et al., 2010). exhibit a higher level of thermal maturity (Tmax above 550°C) than the
Palaeogene successions containing potential source rocks also occur carboniferous shales (Tmax typically 490-515°C).
in the Lesser Himalaya of Nepal and the Tethyan Himalaya. In the Tmax values which are typically in the range of 440-448°C indicate
western part of the Nepalese Lesser Himalaya, the lower part of the that the potential source horizons in the upper 100 m of the Eocene
Surkhet Formation (which correlates with the Lower Subathu Sakesar Formation from a well in the southern part of the Potwar Basin
Formation) includes approximately 100 m of carbonaceous shale and in Pakistan (Well A, close to Joya Mair; Fig. 5) are mature and at the
nummulitic limestone (Kumar and Gupta, 1981) while further east, the onset of hydrocarbon generation, although the organic matter present is
Eocene Bhainskati Formation (equivalent to the Subathu Formation) probably mainly gas-prone (Fazeelat et al., 2010). Organic rich hor-
includes at least 100 m of black organic rich and pyritiferous shale izons in the Palaeocene Patala Formation in the same well are also
(Matsumaru and Sakai, 1989; DeCelles et al., 1998). While these oc- thermally mature with Tmax values ranging from 430°C to 444°C and
currences are encouraging for hydrocarbon prospectivity of the Nepa- could act as a minor source of gas (Fazeelat et al., 2010). In another
lese Foredeep, no geochemical analyses have been published and their well (Well B, close to Dhurnal Field; Fig. 5) further north, however, the
lateral extent is uncertain (Ressetar, 1990). Patala Formation appears to be relatively immature with Tmax values of
The geochemical analysis of fossil plant resins in early Eocene lig- less than 430°C (Fazeelat et al., 2010).
nites from western India (Mallick et al., 2009; Dutta et al., 2011) and 8.2.1.3. Hydrocarbon expulsion and migration. Bottom-hole
Early to Middle Eocene coals from north-eastern India ((Rudra et al., temperature data from drilled wells suggests that the geothermal
2014) indicates that they are probably derived from Dipterocarpacae, a gradient in the Himalayan foothills ranges between 1.86°C to 1.98°C/
family of angiosperms (flowering, plants), trees characteristic of warm, 100 m. On this basis, any hydrocarbon source rock present in the
humid and tropical climate. This suggests that tropical rainforest ve- Subathu and older formations would be sufficiently mature to generate
getation suitable for the accumulation of coaly source rocks was widely hydrocarbons in areas where the overburden is, or was, at least ~3 kms
distributed across the northern India Subcontinent during the Early and thick (Mittal et al., 2006). The Type III and IV kerogens are most likely
Middle Eocene. The abundance of clay mineral assemblages and pre- to have generated gas wherever the coals and carbonaceous shales of
sence of palynomorphs of Palmae family suggests that the basal Sub- the Subathu Formation are developed in the subsurface and are, or were
athu Formation was deposited in hot and humid tropical to subtropical buried, to depths in excess of 6 km. Thermal modelling of the Mohand-1
climatic conditions in marginal marine acidic and low salinity water well in the Dehra Dun recess suggests that the oil generation window is
during the Early Palaeogene hyperthermal events (Hafiz, 2015). deeper than 4750 m and would lie below the Lower Dharamsala
8.2.1.2. Thermal maturity. The low values of HI of the coals and Formation sediments. A balanced cross-section across the Mohand
carbonaceous shales in the Subathu Formation may be, at least in part, Anticline, however, suggests that the Subathu Formation does not
a function of high levels of thermal maturity. Outcrop samples of the extend in this location, effectively eliminating the possibility of any
Subathu Formation across Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hydrocarbon generation in this area (Mishra and Mukhopadhyay,
Uttarakhand are typically mature to highly mature indicating that they 2012). The high thermal maturity of outcrop samples from the
were buried to significant depths in the past or have been over matured Subathu Formation suggests that the present-day outcrops have been
due to thrust tectonics (Fig. 37). Samples analysed from all three tectonically exhumed and deformed. It is likely that any early generated
regions by Mishra et al. (1995) were mature to highly mature with hydrocarbons would have been lost during the subsequent phases of
Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) ranging from 2.75 to 4.0, although deformation and the associated rapid exhumation which will,
other studies have shown slightly lower levels of maturity (TAI 2.25- undoubtedly, have breached original structural traps. The chance of
3.0) for outcrop samples from Himachal Pradesh (e.g., Singh et al., retaining expelled hydrocarbons is probably greater in structural and
1995a,b). Samples from Muttal in Jammu and Kashmir are thermally stratigraphic traps in the ‘inner’ belt of the HFB-Frontal Fold-and-Thrust
very mature with high Tmax (~ 500°C) and vitrinite reflectance (Ro = Belt which may have remained undisturbed during the tectonic
~1%) values (Bhat et al., 2011). evolution of the Himalayan foothills.
The low values of HI of the coals and carbonaceous shales in the The onset of hydrocarbon generation and migration in the Nahan
Subathu Formation may be, at least in part, a function of high levels of Salient is inferred to have taken place at c. 2 Ma, while the majority of
thermal maturity. Outcrop samples of the Subathu Formation across the traps in the Sub-Himalaya Zone had formed by 5 Ma (Najman et al.,
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are typically 2004; Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2012), creating favourable condi-
mature to highly mature indicating that they were buried to significant tions for hydrocarbon entrapment in this part of the NW Himalayan
depths in the past or have been over matured due to thrust tectonics fold-and-thrust belt. Further east, in western Nepal, basin modelling
(Fig. 37). Samples analysed from all three regions by Mishra et al. suggests that the timing of hydrocarbon generation is also relatively
(1995) were mature to highly mature with Thermal Alteration Index recent, probably within the last 5 to 10 million years, and the result of
(TAI) ranging from 2.75 to 4.0, although other studies have shown rapid burial of the pre-Siwalik succession (Kayastha et al., 1988).
slightly lower levels of maturity (TAI 2.25-3.0) for outcrop samples Thermal maturity is predicted to be somewhat higher in the west of this
from Himachal Pradesh (e.g., Singh et al., 1995). Samples from Muttal area relative to the east for any given stratigraphic interval (Nepal
in Jammu and Kashmir are thermally very mature with high Tmax (~ Petroleum, 2010). Although the deformation which created many of the
500°C) and vitrinite reflectance (Ro = ~1%) values (Bhat et al., 2011). structural traps in this area was also the result of the same rapid burial
The coals from the Subathu Formation in the Jammu area are of of the pre-Siwalik succession, oil generation, expulsion and migration
semi-anthracite rank, with high lustre and are microlaminated, prob- are considered to have been contemporaneous with or to have post-
ably due to the tectonic deformation (Pareek, 1976). A sample of coal dated the formation of the traps because of the thermal lag time. This
from the Subathu Formation in Kalakot Nala had a Tmax value of 506°C clearly a key exploration risk.
and a vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) value of 1.37-1.84% (Mittal et al., 8.2.1.4. Conventional and unconventional systems. The Subathu
2006). The Tmax of the Subathu Formation samples ranges from 340°C – Formation constitutes both conventional (true and hybrid) and
607°C, where the younger grey and calcareous shales are thermally unconventional petroleum systems in the HFB in the Jammu area,
immature and the basal shales and coaly shales (in thrusted contact) where, the Subathu Formation shales have the potential to charge
exhibit high TOC and Tmax values and low HI values suggesting over conventional Proterozoic, Palaeogene and Neogene reservoirs, and also

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to form a self-sourcing unconventional reservoir. Additionally, the generation window with hydrocarbon generation and migration be-
conventional reservoirs within the Subathu Formation could be ginning at c.10 Ma.
charged with hydrocarbons from source rocks ranging in age from The equivalent of the Dharamsala Formation in the Jammu area is
Proterozoic to Palaeogene. The interbedded shale and mud rocks in the the Murree Formation and in the Solan area, the Dagshai and Kasauli
Subathu and Murree formations and the cherts and shale beds at formations (Kak et al., 1997). In the Potwar Basin in Pakistan the Oligo-
multiple stratigraphic levels in the SLFm form potent seal rocks Miocene succession consists of fluvial and fluvio-deltaic deposits be-
(Hakhoo et al., 2016a and Hakhoo et al., 2016b). longing to the Rawalpindi Group (Murree and Kamlial formations)
The fractured carbonates of Palaeocene and Early Eocene age in the (Figs. 6 & 8). The Dagshai Formation (correlative of the Dharamsala
Potwar Basin are considered as the main conventional reservoirs. The Formation) in Himachal Pradesh is about 350 m thick, rests un-
Palaeocene Dhak-Pass Formation has been identified as a potential re- conformably on the Subathu Formation and consists predominantly of
servoir in the central part of the basin (Wandrey et al., 2004). red and/or brown alluvial sandstone and shale with extensive develop-
The Subathu Formation shales show fair unconventional reservoir ment of caliche (Bera et al., 2008) deposited by meandering rivers on a
quality (Mani et al., 2014 and Hafiz, 2015). The basal Subathu Formation wide floodplain (Najman et al., 1993). The petrography of the sandstones
shales with high TOC and high thermal maturity are clay dominated and in the Dagshai Formation and the geochemistry of the mudstones both
therefore show low Brittle Index (BI) values as compared to the overlying indicate that the ophiolitic sources from the Indus Suture Zone were
younger shales. The younger shales are typically silty, quartz-rich with much less important than during the deposition of the Subathu Forma-
higher BI values suggesting good fracability that could make them a tion, suggesting that the embryonic Himalayan thrust belt already pro-
potential target for ‘shale gas’ development (Hafiz, 2015). The shales vided a barrier between the foreland basin and the suture zone by this
within the Palaeocene Patala Formation and the Eocene Sakesar For- time. The sandstones in both the Dagshai Formation and the overlying
mation in the Potwar Basin in Pakistan appear to be less thermally ma- Kasauli Formation consist predominantly of metapelitic detritus. The
ture and could be potential targets for ‘shale gas/shale oil’ development, metamorphic grade of the metapelitic lithic grains increases upwards,
although detailed analysis of distribution, lateral variability and geo- from dominantly very low grade at the base of the Oligocene Dagshai
mechanical properties of these shales is currently lacking. Formation to dominantly low grade in the Early Miocene Kasauli For-
mation (Najman and Garzanti, 2000), consistent with a progressive ‘un-
8.2.2. Oligocene to Lower Miocene Dharamsala Formation reservoir, source roofing’ of the Himalayan provenance area. The compositions of garnets
and seal facies from the Kasauli Formation suggest that they are derived from medium-
The Oligocene–Lower Miocene Dharamsala (= Dharmsala) grade metamorphic to amphibolite facies rocks.
Formation overlies the Subathu Formation and consists of typical mo-
lasse facies sediments deposited in the foreland basin formed as a result 8.2.3. Late Eocene–Early Miocene Murree and Kamlial formations
of isostatic loading by the developing Himalaya (Fig. 8). In the outer (Rawalpindi Group)
parts of the Himalayan foothills it often rests directly on the Pre- In the Potwar Basin and the Salt Range, the Early Miocene
cambrian basement rocks of the Indian Shield (Acharyya and Ray, Rawalpindi Group is sub-divided into a lower Muree Formation and an
1982; Fig. 40). The Lower Dharamsala consists predominantly of upper Kamlial Formation (Gee, 1989). There is an important un-
purple, red, grey and green shales with subsidiary sands and sand- conformity at the base of the Lower Miocene Rawalpindi Group in the
stones, deposited in predominantly brackish water environments. The Salt Range which intensifies southwards with the result that Upper
sands and sandstones are fine to very fine grained, well-sorted (Kak Miocene sediments locally rest directly on thin eroded remnants of the
et al., 1997), and show evidence of grain fusion, presumably as a result Eocene strata and locally, in the western part of the Salt Range, directly
of pressure solution. The Upper Dharamsala consists predominantly of on Triassic strata (Fig. 6).
multi-storied, amalgamated, upward-fining fluvial sandstones and The Miocene Murree Formation encompasses the Balakot Formation
greenish, grey and red shales. The formation is exposed locally in in the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis to the north and extends southwards
outcrops and has been encountered in many of the deep wells drilled in into the Kohat and Potwar region and eastwards into India. It is the
the area. It is present only close to the foothills and appears to thicken youngest oil-producing horizon in the Potwar Basin (Fazeelat et al.,
and coarsen towards the north. 2010), where it was deposited by rivers that were predominantly
Geochemical studies of subsurface samples from the Lower draining the Himalayan thrust stack to the south of the Kohistan arc.
Dharamsala Formation in wells such as Suruinsar, Jawalamukhi, Cheri The Murree Formation consists of heavily oxidised red and green mo-
and Nurpur (Fig. 3) generally reveal low TOC (Agarwal et al., 1994). lasse sediments (sandstones and shales) that accumulated in continental
The basal Dharamsala Formation in the Jawalamukhi-1 well (Fig. 3) to shallow marine (tidal flat) environments during the early stages of
contains a few horizons with higher organic content with extractable foredeep subsidence (Burbank and Tahirkheli, 1985). The characteristic
organic matter between 0.05 and 0.81%. Pyrolysis characteristics sug- feature of these sediments is a pervasive cyclicity (~ 20 m thick fining-
gest that these intervals have marginal to good hydrocarbon generation upward cycles) which is interpreted as developing in an environment of
potential. The Lower Dharamsala Formation sediments in the Cheri-1 meandering tidal channels in a continuously subsiding foreland basin
well (Fig. 3) also exhibit moderate to fair organic enrichment (Mishra (Bossart et al., 1988). Sub-aerial exposure of the interchannel and su-
and Mukhopadhyay, 2012). In some wells the distinction between the pratidal areas is reflected in the occurrence of pedogenic carbonates
Dharamsala and Subathu formations is ambiguous because of the ab- and gypsiferous horizons (Bossart and Ottiger, 1989). The thickness of
sence of any diagnostic lithological or fauna markers. the Murree Formation varies from 6 to 7 km in the Hazara-Kashmir
The predominantly argillaceous Lower Dharamsala Formation in Syntaxis where it unconformably overlies Palaeocene deposits con-
the Jwalamukhi-1 well (Fig. 3) has a maximum vitrinite reflectance sisting mainly of the Lockhart Formation limestone and the marls of the
(Ro) value of 0.49%, Tmax in the range of 425-441°C and TAI values of Patala Formation (Bossart et al., 1988). The sediments of the Murree
between 2.5 and 2.75, suggesting that any potential hydrocarbon Formation thicken northwards and have a Himalayan provenance.
source rock intervals in the lower part of the Dharamsala Formation Petrographic analysis of Murree sandstones from the Kashmir-Hazara
(and, by inference, the underlying Subathu Formation) at this location Syntaxis shows that they are predominantly derived from low-grade
would be sufficiently thermally mature to generate hydrocarbons metamorphic rocks, with lesser components coming from volcanic, se-
(Tandon et al., 1998, reported in Mittal et al., 2006). This is supported dimentary and ophiolitic rocks (Critelli and Garzanti, 1994).
by thermal maturation studies (Agarwal et al., 1994; Mishra and The overlying Kamlial Formation in the Potwar Basin, deposited
Mukhopadhyay, 2012) which indicate that the Lower Dharamsala in between 18 and 14 Ma (Johnson et al., 1985), records a major change
Jawalamukhi-B (depth interval 4970-6400 m) is within the oil in sediment provenance as a result of the diversion of the palaeo-Indus

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Fig. 44. Siwalik Group, Himalayan Foothills. Left: Generalised stratigraphic classification of the Siwalik Group and the distribution and main fossil mammal
localities. Right: Plan view of a reconstructed Siwalik fluvial system. 1 = main trunk river shown flowing eastwards. 2 = emergent river with origin in the northern
mountains. 3 = interfan rivers with origins on a broad floodplain. 4 = small floodplain. (Modified after: Patnaik, 2013).

River to its present-day position, crossing the Cretaceous-Eocene Ko- lithostratigraphic units are typically diachronous (Bhat et al., 2008), so
histan arc and the Himalayan ranges, perpendicular to the strike of the regional chronological correlation relies heavily on the use of magnetic
orogen, to debouche directly into the foreland basin and carrying with polarity stratigraphy (e.g., Johnson et al., 1982; Azzaroli and
it sediment from the rapidly exhuming Nanga Parbat Haramosh Massif Napoleone, 1982; Burbank et al., 1996b; Brozović and Burbank, 2000),
and/or from the southern margin of the Asian Plate beyond, together heavy mineral analysis (Sahni and Mathur, 1964; Najman et al., 2009)
with more locally derived material from the Himalayan thrust stack and fission track dating (Johnson et al., 1982; Ranga Rao et al., 1988).
(Najman et al., 2002). The Kamlial Formation is more than 400 m thick The Siwalik Group contains one of the most important and most com-
and is exposed in the Kohat and Potwar Plateau regions, where it prehensively studied Cenozoic vertebrate faunal assemblages in the
consists of alluvial sandstones deposited by a large river, mudstones world (Falconer and Cautley, 1846; Murchison, 1867; Colbert, 1935;
and caliche. In the north, its lower contact with the underlying Murree Samiullah, 2010; Patnaik, 2013; Craig et al., 2014).
Formation is conformable and transitional, but in the south the Murree Pilgrim (1913) was the first to propose a three-fold division of the
Formation is absent and the Kamlial Formation rest directly on Eocene Siwalik succession and suggested division of the Lower, Middle and
marine strata. The Kamlial Formation is conformable overlain by se- Upper Siwalik into the Kamlial, Chinji, Nagri, Dhok Pathan, Tatrot,
diments belonging to the Siwalik Group (Fig. 6). Pinjor and Boulder Conglomerate units (Fig. 44). Sahni and Mathur
(1964) also employed a three-fold division of the Siwalik Group in the
8.2.4. Middle Miocene to Early Pleistocene Siwalik Group NW Himalaya foothills of India with Lower, Middle (both Miocene in
The Siwalik Group of the Himalayan foothills (named after a pil- age) and Upper (Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene in age) divisions resting
grimage site at Haridwar, dedicated to Lord Shiva; Sorkhabi, 2010) unconformably/disconformably on an Upper Eocene to Oligocene pre-
exhibits pronounced lateral variability along the Himalayan Front and Siwalik succession. This sub-division was based on a combination of
is difficult to correlate as a result of its rather limited fossil content. It is lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy and heavy mineral analysis originally
a ~6 km thick succession of sandstones, clays and conglomerates of undertaken during mapping in the Jawalamukhi area which had been
Mid-Miocene to Pleistocene age deposited in a variety of shifting prioritised for oil and gas exploration because of the presence of gas and
piedmont, outwash plain, channel, floodplain and lacustrine environ- brine seeps. These sub-divisions roughly correspond to lithofacies and
ments (Sahni and Mathur, 1964) over a wide area from Pakistan have generally been regarded as chronofacies although, in reality, the
through Nepal to eastern India (Figs. 6, 8, 12, 14 & 32; Table 3). These major facies boundaries vary in age by as much as 2-3 Ma, over dis-
molasse sediments are typically characterised by sheet sandstones de- tances of 20-30 km and are controlled by the interference between a
posited by low-sinuosity, laterally migrating rivers, siltstones with nu- major southeast ward flowing axial river (probably the palaeo-Indus)
merous palaeosol horizons developed on broad, inter-fluvial flood and a major southwest ward flowing transverse river (Brozović and
plains and subsidiary ribbon sandstones deposited by high-sinuosity Burbank, 2000). In the Kohat-Potwar region the Neogene succession
rivers (Burbank and Raynolds, 1984). The lithostratigraphic and bios- comprises the Rawalpindi Group and fluvial sediments of Siwalik Group
tratigraphic units within the Siwalik Basin tend to be localised and the (Fig. 6). The Rawalpindi Group (as discussed previously) is further

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divided into Early Miocene Murree Formation and Middle to Late detritus (Ghosh and Kumar, 2000; Sinha et al., 2007). The heavy mi-
Miocene Kamlial Formation, and the Siwalik Group includes the Chinji, neral assemblage of the Middle and Upper Siwalik succession in the
Nagri, Dhok Pathan and Soan formations and the Lei Conglomerate Potwar Plateau is dominated by blue-green hornblendes derived from
(Bender and Raza, 1995). In the Jammu area of the NW Himalaya of erosion of the Kohistan Arc terrain beginning at around 11 Ma, coin-
India, the ~6 km thick succession of Siwalik strata is spectacularly cident with the boundary between the Chinji and Nagri formations
exposed. The preserved successions of the Lower and Middle Siwalik (Cerveny et al., 1989). Precipitation also increased in the Himalayan
typically only represent deposition in the medial and distal parts of the region at about 10 Ma (Sanyal et al., 2004), suggesting that climate may
foreland basin, the proximal facies generally having been either over- also have played a role in controlling the increase in sedimentation.
thrusted (tectonic bedrock upliftment) or eroded (Burbank et al., 1993). The Middle Siwalik succession consists of a thick conglomerate fa-
The Siwalik Group sediments are the erosional products of the cies that passes laterally into a sandy facies and has yielded numerous
southward–advancing Himalayan thrust sheets (Pennock et al., 1989), vertebrate remains including fossils of Stegodon cautleyi. The Middle
and successively younger units of the Siwalik Group overlap one an- Siwalik consists of light grey, medium to coarse and pebbly sandstones,
other towards the south and west. There is a general coarsening up- generally between 2 m and more than 10 m thick, which are soft and
wards pattern through the Siwalik succession which reflects the rapid friable. The interbedded mudstones are thinner compared with those in
uplift of the Himalaya provenance area (Azzaroli, 1993). Large amounts the Lower Siwalik. The Middle Siwalik is dominated by multi-storied
of Himalayan detritus were transported by major rivers (the palaeo- major sandstone bodies interbedded with minor mudstones. The major
Indus and palaeo-Ganges) to remnant-ocean basins, were it began to sandstone bodies continue along strike for a few kilometers and vary in
accumulate rapidly on the Indus and Bengal fans. The increasing to- thickness between 10 to 35 m (Pandita, 1997). The sandstone bodies
pographic relief of the developing Himalayan mountain chain also led display large scale trough and planar cross bedding and are internally
to the onset of monsoonal circulation with enhanced seasonal rainfall, composed of many storeys stacked both laterally and vertically. Minor
which strengthened markedly from around 8 Ma (Harrison et al., 1993). sandstone and mudstone bodies occur between the major sandstone
The Lower Siwalik consists of fine to medium grained brown, red- bodies. The major sandstone bodies are attributed to deposition within
dish brown, grey and buff fine-grained sandstone interbedded with migrating channel segments of large river system. The vertical stacking
reddish brown to dark brown siltstones and maroon and light brown to of storeys within sandstone bodies reveal superposition of different
chocolate brown clays. The sandstone bodies typically have ribbon and channel belt deposits due to multiple episodes of avulsion and aban-
sheet geometries and occasionally form multistoried bodies. The donment of channel system for a new course in braided river system
sandstones pass gradationally upwards into thick, purple mudstone (Pandita and Bhat, 1999). Across the Middle to Upper Siwalik
units exhibiting features characteristic of soil forming processes in- boundary, dated at c. 5 Ma (Sinha et al., 2007), there is a marked in-
cluding carbonate concretions, rootlets and bioturbation (Sinha et al., crease in mudstone proportion which increases gradually up section.
2007). The Lower Siwalik sediments are generally considered to have These mudstones are mostly laminated and yield fresh water fossil as-
been deposited by high-sinuosity rivers with broad floodplains (Ranga semblages comprising gastropods, bivalves, ostracodes and char-
Rao and Kunte, 1987; Sinha et al., 2007). The stratigraphic accumula- aphytes. Leaf impressions from the Middle Siwalik sediments of Sar-
tion of facies associations and evolution of fluvial style during the de- kaghat in Mandi District, Himachal Pradesh are of species that today
position of these rocks has developed in two stages. The stage first occur in the tropical evergreen to moist deciduous forests of NE India
started with deposition of predominant fine grained facies (mudstone and SE Asia, suggesting that this part of the NW Himalaya had a tropical
and siltstone) followed by dominance of flood flow and crevasse splay humid climate with high precipitation during the Upper Miocene
sediments characterized by lateral accreted cross stratified sandstones (Prasad et al., 2013 and references therein). Permanent forests and
(Pandita and Bhat, 2011). A sequence of fine to very fine sandstones, woodlands with some interspersed woodlands were present at c. 9 Ma,
siltstones, and mudstones overlying the sand-mud dominated associa- after which wooded grasslands became widespread on the floodplains
tion was deposited during these two stages as interfluvial deposition. (Quade et al., 1989 & Quade et al., 1992; Morgan et al., 1994; Basu,
These sediments are interpreted as having been deposited by a river 2004). While studying the carbon isotopic record in the Siwalik Group
system changing from fine grained meandering in the lower part to of Jammu region, Singh et al. (2011) revealed two broad divisions, an
flood flow dominated meandering system in the upper part of the Lower older part (> 7 Ma) characterized by δ13C-depleted isotopic values and
Siwalik Group (Pandita and Bhat, 2011). The sandstones and siltstones a younger part (< 5 Ma) consisting of δ13C-enriched values, indicating
within the Lower Siwalik succession contain well-rounded and gen- exclusive presence of C3 and C4 vegetation, respectively.
erally stable heavy minerals such as zircon and garnet. Rounded peb- The Upper Siwalik succession mostly consists of medium to coarse,
bles of Dharamsala Formation sandstones and Sirban Limestone For- massive and friable sandstones in the lower part, grey and brown
mation carbonates ranging from few cm to more than a metre in mudstones in the middle part and conglomerate in the upper part with a
diameter occur in channel–fill deposits within the Lower Siwalik in the few sand and clay lenses (e.g. Agarwal et al., 1993). The succession
Chenab valley in Jammu and Kashmir State (Sahni and Mathur, 1964) varies laterally across the foreland basin, with the amount of con-
indicating that both these formations were already exposed locally glomerate increasing towards the MBT where they deposited by coa-
during the Miocene. These accumulations have recently been revealed lescing mega-fans in the footwall (Sinha et al., 2007). The interbedded
to be olistrostomes deposited south of the Riasi Thrust (a subsidiary of mudstones are brown and grey in colour. The Upper Siwalik in the
the Himalayan MBT) around the Riasi Allochthon, where these deposits Jawalamukhi area is easily distinguished from the underlying Middle
form steep scarps/escarpments, representing the emergent thrust splays Siwalik by the rapid upward transition from soft massive sandstones to
in the foot-wall zone of the Riasi Thrust (Hakhoo, 2013). The Lower coarse conglomerates containing pebbles of basic volcanic rock with a
Siwalik usually contains thinner and less well amalgamated sand bodies red or orange coloured clay matrix. South of Jawalamukhi, the Upper
than does the overlying Middle Siwalik (Willis, 1993; Pandita, 1997). Siwalik consists of about 100 m of thick sandstones with brown and
The transition from the Lower to the Middle Siwalk succession is grey clays and a 500 m thick succession of conglomerates in the upper
time-transgressive, occurring at about 11 Ma in the Potwar Plateau, 10 part, the clasts of which are derived mainly from the Dharamsala For-
Ma in the Kangra Basin and 9 Ma in Nepal (Sinha et al., 2007). The mation and pre-Tertiary quartzites (Kak et al., 1997). The Upper Si-
boundary between the Lower and Middle Siwalik coincides with the walik typically coarsens upwards and is less well indurated than the
introduction of a more complex heavy mineral suite, including kyanite, underlying strata (Burbank et al., 1993), although the influx of con-
and suggesting that the Central Crystalline Zone of the Himalaya was glomerates is highly diachronous and varies by up to 7 Ma (Brozović
uplifted further at this time in response to reactivation of the MCT, and Burbank, 2000). The Upper Siwalik succession is characterised by a
resulting in increased relief and increased supply of metamorphic very complex suite of heavy minerals including hornblende, sillimanite

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and andalusite, and has yielded a rich vertebrate faunal assemblage Chronostratigraphic studies indicate three distinct episodes of uplift
including fossils of Stegodon ganesa and Stegodon insignis (Khan et al., over the past 5 Ma (3.1, 2.5 and 2.1 Ma) within the Pir Panjal range
1971; Nanda, 2002). (Pandita et al., 2012). The tectonic activity appears to have largely
In the Jammu area, the Upper Siwalik Subgroup is divided into the controlled the drainage and the sedimentation patterns in the region
Purmandal Sandstone (=Purmandal Formation), Nagrota Formation over the last 10 Ma. A break in sedimentation at 6.5 Ma and dip dis-
and Boulder Conglomerate Formation (Ranga Rao et al., 1988; Agarwal cordance between Middle and Upper Siwalik strata at 5.68 Ma (Ranga
et al., 1993) with the formational boundaries being based on mega- Rao, 1993) reflect initiation of activity along the MBT in this area more
vertebrates, palaeomagnetic data and fission track dating of zircon than 6.5 Ma ago. The increased rate of sedimentation between 4.92 and
phenocrysts extracted from bentonitised tuff bands. These three for- 3.41 Ma (Ranga Rao, 1993) clearly reflect post-thrust activity in the
mations represent two distinct depositional styles i.e. a basal fining area only 40-50 km south of MBT. This contradicts the observation of a
upward cycle (Parmandal and Nagrota Formations) followed by a synchronous increase in sediment accumulation rates with the initia-
coarsening upward cycle (Boulder Conglomerate Formation) in an tion of thrusting along the MBT (Burbank and Raynolds, 1984 and
overall coarsening upward megacycle (Bhatia et al., 2001). Acidic Burbank and Raynolds, 1988) and the concept that thrust loading
volcanic ashes were deposited as pyroclastic fallout in the north-wes- causes enhanced subsidence in the distal part of foreland basins.
tern part of the Siwalik Basin during the Late Pliocene, probably By c. 2.5 Ma, the effects of Pir Panjal deformation were beginning to
sourced from the ‘Dasht-e-Nawar’ volcanic complex in East-Central Af- be expressed in the NW Himalaya of India and in the Potwar Plateau
ghanistan, ~1000 km to the NW (Johnson et al., 1982). These ashes are (Burbank et al., 1986), resulting in deceleration of sediment accumu-
now preserved as bentonised tuff bands and tuffaceous mudstones at lation. The growing structures attained surface expressions around 1.5
different stratigraphic levels in the Jammu area (Bhat et al., 2008), in Ma and resulted in post orogenic progradation of gravels across the
the Potwar Plateau/Peshawar Basin (Burbank and Tahirkheli, 1985), region, reflected in palaeocurrent trends, facies variations, provenance
and the Jhelum area (Johnson et al., 1982) in Pakistan and as far as and the time transgressive nature of the gravels (Pandita et al., 2012).
Chandigarh in India (Tandon and Kumar, 1984). A conspicuous and The time transgressive nature of the appearance and culmination of
geographically widespread bentonitised tuff band and associated tuf- gravel deposition also suggest progressive and lateral migration of de-
faceous mudstones of the Late Pliocene age is present in the Nagorta B formation along the thrust. The first incoming of gravel at 1.72 Ma, and
Member of the Upper Siwalik Subgroup in the Jammu area, where it is the last culmination at 0.22 Ma in the area do not coincide with any
an important time marker horizon (2.8 ± 0.56 Ma) roughly coincident dated tectonic activity in the Panjal Thrust and MBT. This strongly
with the Gauss-Matuyama magnetic transition at 2.48 Ma (Ranga Rao suggests ponding of the coarse grained facies adjacent to the active
et al., 1988; Bhat et al., 2008). The bentonised tuff and tuffaceous thrust front and their accelerated progradation into the basin after
mudstones accumulated in a variety of depositional environments in an waning/cessation of thrusting (Heller et al., 1988). The youngest de-
upland interfluvial-lacustrine dominated domain (Bhat et al., 2008). formed gravel bed in the region is 0.22 Ma old. This may be related to a
Bhatia et al. (2001) concluded that there was a permanent standing dramatic pulse of uplift, undoubtedly caused by thrusting along the
water body (a type of alkaline eutrophic lake, 2-6 m deep) in the Na- boundary thrust of the Pir Panjal Range at 0.4 Ma ago which uplifted
grota Formation on the basis of ostracodes and charaphytes assemblage the range by more than 1 km (Burbank and Raynolds, 1988). This major
recovered from the microfossil bearing mudstones immediately below uplift appears to have resulted in cessation of gravel progradation and
the bentonitised tuffaceous mudstone in Bada Khetar area of Jammu. quick progression of deformation southwards across the basin in-
While describing the depositional origin of tuffaceous units in the creasing the basin slope and modifying the drainage system to the si-
Pliocene Upper Siwalik Subgroup in Jammu region, Bhat et al. (2008) tuation that more or less prevails today.
recorded four lake basins along strike for about 45 km. They established While discussing the sedimentation and tectonic history, Raiverman
three distinct depositional settings with different preservation modes et al. (1983) suggested that migration and accumulation of hydro-
for the bentonitised tuff and tuffaceous mudstones which include (1) carbons from the oldest Tertiary and pre-Tertiary source rocks in the
the central plain of the lake, (2) shoreline and delta fronts, and (3) NW Himalaya would have started during the Oligocene and continued
inter-channel areas. Kotwal (2007) and Pandita et al. (2011a, 2011b) into the Pliocene, by which time all the hydrocarbons generated from
have documented that the sediments of the Boulder Conglomerate the potential Tertiary source rocks would have been expelled. They
Formation in the Jammu region were deposited rapidly in recurrent identified the Naoshera, Ramnagar and Kangra depressions in the NW
high energy environment of a gravelly braided river system. The base of Himalaya as potential prospective areas for hydrocarbon accumulations
the Boulder Conglomerate Formation is time transgressive from 1.72 and recommended greater exploration efforts in these areas. Zutshi and
Ma to 0.6 Ma across the underlying Nagrota Formation (Ranga Rao, Panwar (1997) reported the presence of a few gas shows in the Dehar
1993). The Boulder Conglomerate Formation does not contain identi- Khad River near Kotla village, Suruinsar and Mansar Lake areas in
fiable remains of large mammals, but it is unclear whether this is be- Jammu and Kashmir State and from the flank of Sarkaghat anticline in
cause they became extinct, migrated to other areas with more favour- Himachal Pradesh. Although the molasse sediments of the Siwalik and
able habitat, or because the depositional environment was not Rawalpindi groups may contain potential hydrocarbon reservoirs, their
conducive for the preservation of their fossils. The characteristics of the immature nature suggests that reservoir quality is likely to be poor. In
facies associations in the Boulder Conglomerate Formation suggest a addition, the extreme lateral variability of the succession suggests that
transition from a persistent stream flow in laterally migrating braided any such reservoirs, and particularly any associated seals, are unlikely
rivers in the lower and middle stratigraphic intervals to a rapidly de- to be extensive or laterally continuous. The presence of numerous
positing high stream power in proximal gravely braided river systems in surface gas seeps suggest that the accumulations of gas may exist within
the upper stratigraphic intervals (Pandita et al., 2014). the molasse succession in the NW Himalaya foothills, but delineation of
The distinct facies sequences observed and inferred for the Siwalik these would probably require extensive use of 3D seismic data which
Group suggests an up section shift in the drainage patterns from a would be expensive to acquire.
meandering system in Lower Siwalik, to a braided pattern in the Middle
Siwalik, to a meandering system and gravelly braided river system in 8.2.5. Oil and gas seeps
the Upper Siwalik. Pandita and Bhat (1996) documented temporal There are surface oil seeps at several locations in the Potwar Basin
variations in the palaeo-flows in the Middle and Upper Siwalik sub- and the Salt Range Province. These were one of the main drivers for the
groups and suggested syntectonic controlled deposition – a response to early exploration in these areas (Middlemiss, 1919) which led to the
competitive drainage controlled by the episodicity in the syntectonic discovery of the Khaur Oil Field in 1914. The oil seeps occur in a well-
structures and the basin margin activity. defined belt along the foothills of the Margalla and Kala Chitta ranges in

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Fig. 45. Geochemistry (bulk chemical and isotopic compositions) of the gas seeps sampled from the Chenab River bed in Kanthan (Riasi, Jammu).

Pakistan through the Rawalpindi and Attock districts and westwards samples analysed by different labs, eni labs-Milan and NGRI labs-India),
across the Indus River into the former NW Frontier Province, as well as is very ‘dry’ (i.e. no evidence of ‘higher’ hydrocarbons) and contains
in the central and western parts of the Salt Range (Fig. 5). The Khaur oil 0.6% CO2. The absence of higher hydrocarbons and the δ13C values
seep consists of an area of oil impregnated sandstone over an area of suggest a possible shallow source with a biogenic origin (Bhat et al.,
about 90 m2 from which, in the past, the local villagers obtained small 2011) or, possibly, a mixture of shallow biogenic and deeper thermo-
amounts of oil. The ultimate source of most of the oil seeps has been genic gas. The organic rich Subathu Formation shales are considered to
generally assumed to be the organic–rich shales within the Eocene be the primary source of these gases. The gas seepage from the shales in
Sakesar Formation and/or the carbonaceous shales and coals of the all probabilities has been made possible due to the natural fracturing of
Palaeocene Patala Formation (Fig. 6). the shales, concomitant with the prevalence of faults and thrusts in the
Gas seeps are also numerous in the NW Himalayan foreland fold- region which may have produced passages for gas to reach the surface.
and-thrust-belt. The surface gas seeps are typically characterised by a Gas escaping at the surface in other gas seeps at Gopalpur in Kangra
high nitrogen (N2) content, and are either thermogenic or biogenic in district, from the Lower Murree Formation in the Tawi River and from a
origin, while the gases encountered in the wells are typically methane warm water spring near Triyath Village are clearly of thermogenic
(CH4) rich, dry with low N2 concentrations, indicating thermogenic origin based on their C2+ concentration, C1/C2+C3 ratio and the
origin (Mittal et al., 2006). Small quantities of highly inflammable gas carbon isotopic composition of the CH4 (Mittal et al., 2006).
occurs in mines in the Subathu Formation coalfields east of the Chenab The most famous gas seep in the NW Himalaya foothills is at the
River at Kanthan and Muttal (Fig. 13), and in some boreholes drilled in temple of the goddess Jawalamukhi, also called the “Flaming Goddess”
the coalfields water has been ejected up to a height of 3-4 m, probably or “Goddess with the flaming mouth”, in the village of Jawalamukhi-
due to the escape of associated gas (Srivastava and Nanda, 1976). There Baggi (Moorcroft and Trebeck, 1841; Daruwalla and Dilwali, 2011).
are also numerous surface gas seeps in the Chenab River rising from The temple is located in the Beas Valley and is built over natural jets of
discrete holes within the muddy river-bed, along the back-thrusted combustible gas believed to be a manifestation of the goddess Jawala-
contact between the Subathu Formation and the Sirban Limestone mukhi Devi. The gas consists mostly of CH4 (87%) with small amounts of
Formation, on the north side of the Riasi Allochthon. Analysis of sam- CO2, N2 and O2 (Mudiar and Shukla, 1991) and is generally assumed to
ples collected from seeps near Kanthan village (e.g., Sample KA-1, be sourced from coals and carbonaceous shale within the Eocene Sub-
Fig. 45; Table 4) shows that the gas has a very high N2 content of athu Formation. The existence of Jawalamukhi Temple gas seep high-
83.20% (which may reflect atmospheric contamination?), contains lighted the potential prospectivity of the area and the first exploration
16.2% of CH4 with a δ13C value of -51.5‰ or -62.4‰, (different well in the Jawalamukhi area (Jawalamukhi-A, Fig. 3 & Table 1) was

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 Table 4
Geochemistry and isotopic composition (%CH4; %CO2; %N2: %O2; δ13C CO2; δ13C CH4; δDCH4) of the gas samples from seeps and wells in the Kashmir Basin, Himalaya Foothills and the Peshawar Basin of the NW
Himalaya of India and Pakistan.
J. Craig et al.

Sample name Sample date and notes % CH4 %CO2 %N2 %O2 %Ar δ13C CO2 δ13C CH4 δD CH4

Atmosphere (Dry Air) 0 0.039 78.09 20.95 0.93

Kashmir Basin
Barazalla 30th July 1963 70.00 2.90 27.10 No higher hydrocarbons – Marsh gas?
New Secretariat 17th Dec. 1964 50.50 0.60 ? ? The rest of the gas is probably O2 or N2.
Yechgom Well 21st June 1965 6.00 3.80 90.20 0.00 No higher hydrocarbons present in detectable quantity, possibly because of contamination.
Nowgom Well 22nd June 1965 71.40 10.90 18.40 0.20 No higher hydrocarbons present in detectable quantity, possibly because of contamination.
Sopore Well 23rd June 1965 89.6 4.2 6 0.2
Silk Factory Well 6th March 1920 Predominant Loud hissing column of gas which ignited and burned with a petroleum odour. Association of
olefins and ethylene.
Hanga 15th Jan. 1964 Predominant Dirty white oil emulsion.
Sadr-e-Kot: Sample 1. May 2009, Water Well No. 85.69 4.84 9.47 -3.95 -62.97 Possible gas of ‘mixed origin’ from a 38 ft deep ‘water well’; the gas is used for cooking.
1
Sadr-e-Kot: Sample 2. May 2009, Rice Paddy Field 88.37 10.65 0.97 -3.45 -64.22 Sample from rice paddy field – probably Marsh gas (for calibration).
Sadr-e-Kot: Sample 3. May 2009, Water Well No. 58.56 9.42 32.02 -15.05 -64.12 Sample from second ‘water well’; the gas is used for cooking.
2
Sadr-e-Kot: Sample 4. May 2009, Hot Spring 49.57 0.72 49.71 -26.50 -72.46 Possible deep gas from Permo-Triassic Limestone (possible presence of Sulphur)

Peshawar Basin
Iza-Khel Gas Seep 89.27 2.03 0.00 0.64 Contains higher hydrocarbons up to C% (8.08%), suggesting a possible thermogenic origin.

Himalaya Foothills
Kanthan Gas Seep: KA-1 16.20 0.60 83.20 -24.90 -62.40 -182.00 Dry gas; isotopic composition suggest probable biogenic origin.
Kanthan Gas Seep: KA-1 -28.69 -51.47 Analysis carried out at NGRI, Hyderabad, India.
Jawalamukhi Temple Gas 87.00 Contains small amounts of CO2, N2 and O2.
Seep

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J. Craig et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 109–185

drilled in 1957 to test the Jawalamukhi structure. The well reached a position below the Proterozoic rocks in the hanging wall of the MBT, or
total depth of 6720 m, terminating within the Lower Dharamsala and possibly from Proterozoic carbonaceous shales, the thermal maturity of
encountered gas in two shallow zones in the Siwalik Group succession. which may have been enhanced by local volcanic activity (Mittal et al.,
A total of 6 ‘deep’ and 5 ‘structural’ wells (Mittal et al., 2006) were 2006).
eventually drilled in the Jawalamukhi area but, after the Jawalamukhi- There is a similar situation in the Dailekh region of western Nepal,
A ‘discovery’, only the Jawalamukhi-C and-F wells encountered any along strike to the east, where there are oil and gas seeps located 30 km
hydrocarbons (Fig. 3). In both, this amounted to only minor indications north of the MBT. Here 45 separate gas seeps are identified, many of
of gas associated with water. which have temples built over them. The oil seeps are intermittent and
The low production rate and low pressure of the gas encountered in generally occur during the rainy season. Analysis of the gas and oil from
the Jawalamukhi-A has led to the conclusion that the gas may be these seeps suggest that they are derived from a mature source rock at
seeping from a deeper horizon (Mittal et al., 2006). It has been sug- depth and have migrated rapidly to the surface along steep faults in the
gested that the gas observed in the cellar pit of the Jawalamukhi-1 well metamorphic rocks. The oil is light (mature) and severely biodegraded.
probably came from an interval in the Lower Dharamsala at 4031- The presence of C2 and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons in the
4037 m which was over pressured and was not isolated from the well- gases indicates that they are thermogenic and derived either directly
bore with cement (Mudiar and Shukla, 1991, reported in Mittal et al., from a mature source or from cracking of oil. The most likely source for
2006). The cellar pit leakage gas is rich in CH4, dry (i.e., with a very low the oil and gas is considered to be a breached reservoir in the un-
concentration of C2+ hydrocarbons), with a low N2 content and a metamorphosed Palaeogene succession underlying the thrusted meta-
carbon isotopic value of ~ -32‰. The isotopic value and the dryness of morphic rocks at shallow depth (Nepal Petroleum, 2010). The most
the gas suggest that it comes from a deeper, thermally overmature likely ultimate source is, again, the organic-rich shales and coals near
source (Mittal et al., 2006). Gas encountered in the Balh-A (close to the base of the Subathu Formation or its equivalents.
Balh Deep) well in the Himalayan foothills is also CH4 rich, but no Clearly, the presence of gas rich in N2 and with low concentrations
carbon isotope data are available to confirm whether it is from a deep of hydrocarbons in some parts of the Himalayan foothills and the ad-
thermogenic or biogenic source (Mittal et al., 2006). jacent Lesser Himalaya is a significant exploration risk. Inert gases
The Jawalamukhi-A cellar gas, the gas reaching the surface at the (mainly CO2 and N2) are common constituents in gas fields in many
Jawalamukhi Temple and the gas from the Lower Dharamsala parts of Pakistan (e.g. Nazeer et al., 2012) and western India. The
Formation in another well in the Himalayan foothills for which carbon genesis of N2 and the factors controlling the distribution of non-hy-
isotope data have been published (i.e., Nurpur-1: δ13C = -32.5‰) are drocarbon gases in general, are poorly understood. N2 is a common
compositionally similar, suggesting that they are all derived from a constituent of natural gases, particularly in red beds and where the gas
broadly similar source. The most likely source candidate is the ther- is generated from humic (coaly) source rocks (Hunt, 1996; Whiticar,
mally mature to overmature coals and carbonaceous shales within the 1994) and is considered to be an indicator of high levels of thermal
Subathu Formation. maturity (Waples, 1985) involving the metagenic transformation of
It has been suggested that the failure to find a significant hydro- organic N2 and ammonia (NH3). Coals produce as much as 20 litres of
carbon accumulation in the Jawalamukhi structure is because the area N2 in the form of NH3 during maturation from bituminous to anthracite
is located far from the generation kitchen. The small gas pool and as- stages (Klein and Juntgen, 1972). The ammonia typically dissolves in
sociated shows and seep reflect leakage of gas and saline fluids that pore waters and is absorbed by clays and is converted to N2 during
have migrated southwards along a low angle, northeast dipping de- burial through contact with heavy metal oxides or oxygenated meteoric
collment from the kitchen area and then upwards along a series of water (Hunt, 1979). N2 rich gases are generally produced from coals
thrust and backthrust related conduits (Kak et al., 1997). Despite the only during the final stages of gas generation at temperatures in excess
disappointments of drilling in the Jawalamukhi area, subsequent in- of 300°C when CH4 generation has virtually ceased. This is certainly
tegration of the associated geological, geophysical and geochemical consistent with the hypothesis that the hydrocarbon gases and, subse-
data has highlighted the area to the N and NW of Jawalamukhi as still quently the N2, encountered in the subsurface and in many of the
being prospective with the potential for the source rocks within the surface seeps in the NW Himalaya of India are derived from progres-
Subathu Formation. The potential hydrocarbon traps are likely to be sively more deeply buried coals and carbonaceous shales of the Subathu
tip-line folds, blind thrusts, ramp structures and thrust-related anti- Formation. A contribution from overmature carbonaceous source rocks
clines (Kak et al., 1997). in deeper Proterozoic formations is however, also possible. The reason
The gas escaping to the surface in many of the active seeps in the why N2 seems to be more abundant in the surface seeps than in the
NW Himalayan foothills seems to have a very high N2 content, although subsurface is less clear. It may be that the surface seeps are fed from
the published analyses are rarely sufficiently detailed to completely areas where the Subathu Formation is more deeply buried and, there-
eliminate the possibility that the samples are, at least partly, con- fore, more thermally mature, or it may simply be a function of a bias or
taminated with air (~ 78% N2). There appears to be a strong linear contamination in the rather limited sample set.
correlation between the relative concentration of CH4 and N2 in the
Himalayan foredeep gas shows (Mittal et al., 2006) and there are some 8.2.6. Discussion and implications on hydrocarbon prospectivity
gas samples that contain more than 78% N2 that cannot, therefore, be The distribution of the Late Neoproterozoic-Early Cambrian eva-
entirely due to atmospheric contamination. A gas seep near the Him- porites has a fundamental control on the structural configuration and,
riganga Temple, 6 km from Padhar and 30 km north of Mandi town in hence, on the hydrocarbon prospectivity of the NW Himalaya region. In
Himachal Pradesh, for example, is rich in N2 but contains hydrocarbons the Potwar and the Salt Range of Pakistan, the evaporites in the Salt
only at ppm level. The Himriganga gas seepage is unusual, in that it is Range Formation provide a decollement zone for the Salt Range folds
located in the Lesser Himalaya to the east, and in the hanging wall of and thrusts which effectively ‘decouples’ the overlying Phanerozoic
the MBT. The seep is associated with a spring and the gas escapes in- succession from the underlying Precambrian basement. The absence of
termittently in bubbles of varying intensity emerging from fractures in halite in the equivalent Himalayan frontal thrust zone in India (Baker
the Proterozoic Mandi-Darla Volcanic Formation country rocks (Mittal et al., 1988) couples the basement and sedimentary cover together,
et al., 2006). The presence of hydrocarbons up to hexanes in the forming a much narrower thrust belt with higher angle of taper (Smith,
Himriganga gas suggests that it has a thermogenic origin, while the iC4/ 2012). The boundary between these two very different tectonic regimes
nC4 ration of < 1.0 also suggests that it is from a thermally mature is defined by the western limit of the evaporites and appears to corre-
source. The most likely source of the Himriganga gas is considered to be spond with the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis.
deeply buried Subathu Formation sediments located in a sub-thrust The high angle of taper of the orogen in the Indian portion of the

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NW Himalaya results in a steep inclination of the only apparently viable Afghanistan. There is a distinct change in the direction of palaeocur-
hydrocarbon source rock horizon in the Tertiary petroleum system, the rents within the Karewa sediments at around 2.1 to 1.7 Ma which marks
Subathu Formation, beneath the fold-and-thrust belt such that it a switch in the focus of uplift from the Great Himalaya to the Pir Panjal
reaches depths in excess of 6 km within a few kilometres inboard of the when thrusting switched from the Main Mantle Thrust to the MBT
thrust front. This restricts the prospective play fairway to a narrow zone (Burbank and Raynolds, 1984). Rapid uplift of the Pir Panjal Range
along the outer edge of the thrust front where the Subathu Formation during the last 350,000 years has largely terminated widespread sedi-
might still be generating oil and gas. Further inboard the Subathu mentation in the Kashmir Basin and has resulted in the dissection of the
Formation is now overmature. Generation presumably occurred earlier Karewa succession along the north-east flank of the range (Burbank and
in these areas but there is a significantly increased exploration risk here Johnson, 1982). The top of the Karewa succession is time-transgressive,
related to the possibility of an unfavourable relationship between the ranging in age from the close of the second interglacial stage of the
timing of generation and of trap formation and the possibility of sub- Pleistocene to the beginning of the Holocene Period (Bhatt, 1975; Bhatt
sequent uplift and potential breaching of traps. and Chatterji, 1976; Dar and Dubey, 2013).

8.3. Plio-Pleistocene-Recent biogenic gas play 8.3.1.1. Lithostratigraphy. The 1700 m Karewa Group succession has
been divided informally into ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ Karewa formations
The lithostratigraphic and tectonic similarity of the Kashmir Basin (Lydekker, 1878; Fig. 47). The succession is synorogenic, and spans a
and the Peshawar Basin (including the Campbellpore Basin) has long time interval of almost 4 My (Burbank and Johnson, 1982; Sinha et al.,
been recognised (Yeats and Lawrence, 1984). The two synformal de- 2007). It is clearly older than the post-Pliocene glacial deposits, which
pressions share a common evolution, particularly during the late Cen- it underlies in slightly flexured folds with dips sometimes reaching 40°
ozoic and Quaternary, when they are interpreted as having developed or 50°. A pronounced unconformity separates the upper and lower units
as synclinal ‘downfolds’ on opposite sides of the rapidly amplifying and of the Karewa Group, with about 2,000 ft (~610 m) of the succession
uplifting anticlinal ‘upfold’ of the Nanga Parbat syntaxis as a result of having been eroded from the crests of the anticlines in the underlying
lithospheric scale folding (Burg and Podladchikov, 1999) (Fig. 5; Lower Karewa succession (Wadia, 1941). Two long, parallel,
Table 3). The sediment fill of these intermontane basins is characterised asymmetric NW-SE trending low amplitude anticlines with limbs
by proximal alluvial-fan facies, intermediate braided-river systems and dipping between 25° and 45° affect the Lower Karewa succession at
extensive high-sinuosity fluvial and shallow lacustrine sediments that Nilnag and Narigund on the Shaliganga River in the Baramulla District at
extend across the central portions of both basins (Burbank and the foot of the Pir Panjal Range (Wadia, 1941). The Lower Karewa is
Raynolds, 1984). These sequences accumulated in tectonically-ponded about 1,400 m thick and dips up to 40° towards the Kashmir valley on
basins which formed in-board of the advancing deformation front of the the northeastern slope of the Pir Panjal range, but this dip decreases
Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt. towards the northeast and the beds become nearly horizontal in the
centre of the valley. Farooqi and Desai (1974) introduced the terms
8.3.1. Kashmir Basin ‘Pakharpura Formation’ and ‘Shopian Formation’ for the Lower Karewas
The thrust-faulted Pir Panjal Range separates the Kashmir inter- and Upper Karewa, respectively, based on earlier work by De Terra and
montane basin from the Indo-Gangetic foredeep. The Kashmir Basin is Paterson (1939). The Karewa Group is also classified into Hirpur
approximately 140 km long and 60 km wide, oriented NW-southeast Formation (lacustrine Lower Karewa) and Nagum Formation (glacio-
and bounded by the Great Himalayan Range to the northeast and the fluvial to fluvial Upper Karewa), the Hirpur Formation is further
Pir Panjal Range to the southwest (Burbank and Johnson, 1982; Figs. 5 classified into three sub-divisions, viz. Pre-Conglomerate unit (Zone
& 25). It developed on the back of imbricated thrust sheets during the 1), a Conglomerate Unit (Zone 2) and a Post-Conglomerate Unit (Zone
Late Cenozoic. Volcanic ash beds in the lower part of the late Cenozoic 3) (Bhatt, 1979). Finally, Bhatt (1982); Bhatt, 1989) proposed a three-
succession have been dated and show that the infilling of the basin fold division of the Karewa Group into the Hirpur, Nagum and Dilpur
began around 4 Ma (Mid-Pliocene). The presence of a deeply weathered formations, with the Dilpur Formation representing the uppermost
palaeosol below the Late Cenozoic unconformity attests to a long period portion consisting predominantly of wind-blown loess deposits
of sub-aerial exposure during which the shallow marine Eocene lime- interbedded with lithologically variable fluvial sediments and
stones preserved elsewhere in the NW Himalaya were eroded (Burbank organic-rich palaeosol horizons (also in Dar and Dubey, 2013) (Fig. 48).
et al., 1986). The overlying Plio-Pliestocene to Recent sediments, The Kerawa succession rests unconformably on folded Triassic and
known as the Karewa Group (or more informally, simply as the ‘Kar- older strata and consists mainly of grey, blue and buff silt and siltstone,
ewas’ (or ‘Udra’) a term first used by Lydekker in 1878 and meaning compact conglomerate, sandstone, sand, glacial ‘moraine’ and carbo-
‘flat-topped plateau’ in the Kashmiri language) consist of fluvio-lacus- naceous shale (Butt, 1968) containing a wide variety of carbonaceous
trine facies capped with aeolian loess (Farooqi and Desai, 1974; Sahni material, plant and fish remains together with freshwater shells. Low-
and Kotlia, 1985; Bhatt, 1989; Agrawal et al., 1989). Strong uplift along grade lignite horizons occur in the lower part of the Karewa Group. Of
the eastern basin margin caused an influx of conglomerates into the the four lignite horizons identified, the upper two are well developed in
developing intermontane basin sometime between c.4 Ma and c.3 Ma. most parts of the Kashmir Valley, except in the area NW of Handwara
Low-energy lacustrine deposition predominated between c. 3 Ma and where the upper two horizons have been eroded (Srivastava, 1976).
c.0.3-0.4 Ma, but was interrupted by several episodes of high-energy Middlemiss (1924) documented the presence of thin lignite beds in the
fluvial deposition when thick conglomerates were deposited during Lower Karewa, in two disconnected basins some 40 miles (64 km)
periods of rapid uplift of the basin margins. apart, with continuous beds of ~75 cm to ~1.8-2.5 m thick, although
Magnetic polarity stratigraphy and fission-track dating of volcanic elsewhere the lignite beds are usually less than 0.6 m thick. In the
ash beds indicates that there were pulses of uplift between 3.5 and 3.0 Shaliganga area, around the village of Raithan, 24 km south-west of
Ma and again at 2.7, 2.1 and 1.7 Ma (Burbank and Johnson, 1982, Srinagar, at a height of 6,500 to 7,500 ft along the NE foot of the Pir
1983; Sinha et al., 2007) (Fig. 46). Zircons extracted from volcanic Panjal Range, the Shaliganga River cuts through two separate synclinal
ashes within the Karewa Group sediments have yielded a fission-track basins (separated by the NW-trending Narigund Anticline?) both of
age of 2.4 ± 0.3 (Burbank and Johnson, 1982), allowing correlation which contain lignite beds. In the Raithan synclinal basin, to the south-
with the ash beds in the Upper Siwalik succession of the Himalaya west of the Nargund Anticline, the lignite is exposed in the river cliffs
foothills. The ash beds in the Karewa succession, like those in the Si- on both limbs. The basin is about 1.5 km wide and several kilometres in
walik succession, thin progressively from NW to SE suggesting that they length. There are at least four beds of lignite, interbedded with carbo-
originated from the Dasht-e-Nawar volcanic province in the present-day naceous and grey sandy clays, in a sequence that is overlain by

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Fig. 46. Correlation of the magnetic-polarity time scale with the local magnetic-polarity stratigraphy of the Karewa Formation at Romushi and Hirpur in the Kashmir
Basin, where sedimentation was due to rapid-intermittent-pulses of the Pir Panjal Range upliftment (After Burbank and Johnson, 1982).

conglomerates. The lignites are earthy, dark brown to black and give a Anticline contains one ~ 75 cms thick bed of lignite and several more
brown streak. Lignite beds A3 and A4 are massive layers that can be minor beds. The lignite series is thicker than in the Raithan Basin. The
“hacked through and then levered out with a pick in large slabs, of a size and syncline is asymmetric with a steep NE limb dipping at ~40° and more
thickness as much as a man can carry away on his head” (Middlemiss, op. towards the SW to WSW and a gently dipping SW limb inclined at low
cit., p245). The Lanyalab synclinal basin to the east of the Nargund angles to the NE or ENE. The total lignite resource in the Shaliganga

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Fig. 47. Pleistocene Upper Karewa Formation uncemented fluvial facies sands, near Pampore, Kashmir.

area is estimated to be at least 4 million tons (Middlemiss, op. cit., 8.3.1.2. Gas occurrences. There are references to the lignite fields near
p.246). Nichahoma, Handwara in the Kashmir Valley in Kalhana’s Rajtarangini
In the Handwara area, the outcrops of the gently-dipping lignite (Chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, Kalhana (A. Stein, trans.), 1900),
succession are fairly continuous over a distance of about 5 km. The Ain-i-Akbari and other old literature (Middlemiss, 1924). These indicate
lignite succession is overlain by conglomerate. The total thickness of that fires emanating from fissures have undoubtedly occurred at various
the lignite seams is well over 2.4 m. The presence of coal (and possibly times in the past and that the development of the fissures and the
also petroleum) in this area has been known for a long time. Middlemiss consequent escape of inflammable gases may be triggered by
(op. cit) relates a story that during the 1860-1870s the whole area had earthquakes. The ‘Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir’, as translated
been on fire for a year and the then Maharaja’s father had visited the and annotated by Sir A. Stein (A. Constable & Co, London, 1900),
area with other State officials and ‘had their meals cooked over the records that at Svayambhu (also called Suyam, meaning a naturally
burning spots’ (Middlemiss, op. cit., and p.247). This story is consistent carved Shiv-Lingham-Formless Shiva), half a mile (0.8 km) SW of the
with the fact that many of the outcrops are clearly burnt to a bright village of Nichahom near Handwara (74°10’ long., 34°22’ lat.) in the
brick red colour. The estimated lignite resource in the Handwara area is Machipur Pargana, “the self-created fire, rising from the womb of the earth,
some 32 million tons, some of which is sufficiently close to the surface receives with numerous arms of flame the offerings of the sacrificers”.
that it could be worked by opencast. Middlemiss reported that during his 1892 visit to this locality “….brick
Analyses of the lignites indicate that they have a low moisture red colour was still persistent in some of the outcrops”. The reference in
content (averaging ~15%) but a high ash content (c.30%), with about Ain-i-Akbari can be translated roughly as “In the sub-division of Kamraj
55% being ‘combustible material’ and that they burn with a low blue after a lapse of a few years the earth shakes and the ground in some places
flame and without smoke. breaks and from a small fissure fire appears. On that fire, water with rice in
a bowl is put and the contents cooked”.

Fig. 48. Stratigraphy and the classification of the Karewa Group, Kashmir Basin. (Modified after: Bhatt, 1982 & Bhatt, 1989).

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Fig. 49. Hydrogen Index (HI) vs. Tmax plot for the carbonaceous sediments from the Lower Karewa Formation, Nichahoma section, Kashmir (After: Mani et al.,
2014).

The carbonaceous clays and lignites of the Karewa Group sampled responsible for the generation of the gas are generally killed when
from the Nichahoma area of Baramulla District (exposing the thickest temperatures exceed 90°C. The resulting hydrocarbon gas typically
lignites of the Hirpur Formation) have been sampled for source rock consists almost exclusively of CH4 (≥99%) without ‘higher’ hydro-
characterization. These carbonaceous clays and lignites are rich in or- carbons and contain isotopically ‘light’ carbon (δ13 C < 60‰) more
ganic matter with the TOC content up to 29.4 wt. % (Mani et al., 2014). depleted in 13C than thermogenic gas.
HI values are comparatively high, ranging between 109 and 278 mg Natural gas seepages from shallow reservoirs in Kerawa Group
HC/g TOC. The organic matter in majority of samples contains mixed continue to be a common occurrence in the Kashmir Basin, particularly
Type II/III kerogen. The Tmax ranges between 399 and 427 °C sug- in the Baramulla, Bandipora and Ganderbal districts. A typical incident
gesting an immature phase for the hydrocarbon generation (Mani et al., occurred on the 29th May 2009 in Sombora village, Pulwama during
2014; Fig. 49). drilling of a tubewell into an aquifer at a depth of 80 ft. In this instance,
Gas has been encountered by wells drilled through the uppermost the gas ignited during the welding of the tubewell producing a flame
100 to 200 m of the Karewa for nearly a century (Butt, 1968). Gas was 5 ft high that burned continuously for six hours until the borehole was
first encountered in a well drilled in 1920 in the grounds of what was, capped (Mir, 2009).
at the time, the Srinagar silk factory (Middlemiss, 1920) and then in a At least four households in Sadr-E-Kot town-ship in Sopore Tehsil of
series of wells drilled in the vicinity of Srinagar by ONGC in the mid- Baramulla District, about 90 kilometers west of Srinagar use gas en-
1960s, including the Sopore, Yechgom and Nowgom wells (Table 2). countered in the Karewa during the drilling of water wells, for cooking.
The Yechgom well was drilled close to a surface gas seep and the Sopore One of these wells, drilled in December 1996, is 38 ft deep and pro-
and Nowgom wells were both drilled close to water wells that had al- duced a flow of gas which, when the well was cleaned of mud, was
ready produced combustible gas. The gas encountered in the Srinagar ignited and burned with a 10 ft high flame (Ghulam Nabi Bhat, pers.
Silk Factory, Sopore and Nowgom wells consisted predominantly of comm.). A ¾ inch steel pipe was sunk to a depth of 20 ft in the well to
CH4, with low, but significant amounts of CO2 and N2, but the gas re- maintain production. In the early days of production, the gas produced
covered from the Yechgom well was more than 90% N2 and only 6% a flame about 1 m high (consistent with a reservoir pressure of ~1
CH4 (Table 4). There is little evidence of higher hydrocarbons in these atmosphere). The gas from this well is piped into the house through a
gases which suggests that they are predominantly biogenic in origin flexible rubber pipe without a valve and fed to two-ring gas cooker in
except, perhaps, the gas recovered from the Srinagar Silk Factory well the kitchen. This is kept permanently alight during the day. It is dis-
which is reported to have contained an “association of olefins and ethy- connected at night and the gas is vented to the outside through the
lene; no acetylene” (Butt, 1968). Biogenic gas is usually generated at kitchen window to avoid a dangerous build-up of gas in the house
shallow depths (a few 10s to a few 100s of meters) by bacterial activity (Craig et al., 2013; Fig. 50). The gas is odourless and burns with a clear
which peaks at temperatures of between 70°C and 80°C. The bacteria yellow flame (Sample 1). This particular well has now flowed gas

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Fig. 50. Biogenic gas being used for domestic consumption, Sadr-E-Kot, Kashmir Valley, India. (a) Gas piped from the Karewa into the households. (b) Gas (with good
calorific value) being burned for cooking. (c) The gas pipes are disconnected and the excess gas ignited. Background: Google Earth image of the Kashmir Valley.

constantly for more than 16 years with no apparent decrease in flow, (Fig. 51; Table 4), or possibly from ‘degassing’ of the lignites near the
suggesting that it is tapping a gas accumulation of some significant size. base, but there does appear to be a thermogenic component, at least
The sampled gas consists predominantly of CH4 (85.69%) with 9.47% locally, presumably from more thermally mature source rocks within
N2 and 4.84 % CO2. The δ13C value of the CH4 (-62.97‰) suggests that the underlying Mesozoic succession. It is, perhaps, significant that all
the gas is of biogenic origin. Gas from a second nearby well which is the major gas seeps in the Kashmir Valley are located close to the buried
also used by a different household for cooking is only 58.56% CH4 with thrust front along the eastern flank of the basin, and often occur on the
32.02% N2 and 9.42% CO2 and has a carbon isotope value for the CH4 flanks of prominent anticlines in the underlying Triassic strata. All the
of -64.12‰ (Sample 3, Table 4; Fig. 51). gas accumulations found to date in the Kashmir Valley are probably
Gas sampled from a nearby hot water spring (Gandakh Nag meaning ‘non-commercial’ for development on an industrial scale. It is likely,
Sulphur Spring) at Sadr-E-Kot consists of CH4 (49.57%), N2 (49.71%) however, that substantial resources of low pressure gas exist within the
and CO2 (0.72%). The carbon isotope value of the CH4 (δ13C of -72.46, Karewa Group in the Kashmir Basin and it is possible that these re-
δDCH4 – 190, see Fig. 6 inset) again suggests that it is biogenic and the sources could be further developed, on a small scale and at relatively
product of anaerobic organic matter reduction. The CO2 is also biogenic low cost, for local domestic consumption.
(δ13 C value of -26.50), but the N2 is probably atmospheric (N15/N14 is Two wells were drilled by ONGC in the Kashmir Basin in the mid-
about -2) and the result of atmospheric contamination, although a very 1970s, specifically to test the gas prospects of the Karewa Group. The
minor contribution from deeper sources cannot be ruled out (Sample 4, first well was drilled at Suthsookalan in Badgam District in 1975 and
Table 4; Fig. 51) was located on the basis of a sparse 2D seismic grid. No gas was en-
The gas from the Sadr-E-Kot wells and the hot spring has a slightly countered in the well, but it is believed to have produced water from
different composition to rice paddy gas sampled in the nearby fields. the underlying Triassic limestone at a depth of about 1000 m. The
The paddy field gas is mostly CH4, (88.37%) with a δ13C value of -64.22 second well was drilled near Pattan in the Narbal area, of Baramulla
for CH4 and -3.45 for CO2, but with much less N2 (0.97%) and more CO2 District and was apparently located only on the basis of gravity data.
(10.65%) (Sample 2, Table 4; Fig. 51). This might suggest that the some The well terminated in the Panjal Volcanics and was also dry (Kak et al.,
of the gas encountered in the Sadr-E-Kot water wells and reaching the 1997 & Kak et al., 1999; Fig. 3; Table 2).
surface in the hot spring could originate from within older rocks and be Biogenic gas is produced commercially in significant quantities in
carried to the surface by water circulating in faults within the under- several analogous basins around the world, both onshore, for example
lying Triassic limestone bedrock which crops out in the roadside im- in the Pannonian Basin in Hungary (e.g. Bada and Tari, 2012) where
mediately above the hot spring (Craig et al., 2013), although more dry biogenic gas is produced from similar Late Neogene to Quaternary
analysis is required to test this hypothesis. sediments consisting of organic rich floodplain sediments (organic rich
Anticlines are not particularly common within the Karewa, but the shales, lignites and coals) interbedded with clean sand bodies (point-
reservoir properties of the sands within the succession are extremely bars, levee systems) at depths of between 500 and 1,500 m and off-
good and the principal traps are probably mainly stratigraphic (Butt, shore, for example in the Adriatic Sea off the east coast of Italy (e.g.
1968). The gas is predominantly biogenic and is most likely derived Bertello et al., 2008) where gas is produced from terrigenous Plio-
from bacterial decay of organic matter within the Karewa Group Quaternary wedges in the foredeep basin of the Apennines. Experience

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Fig. 51. Isotopic (δDCH4; N15/N14; δ13C; δ13CCH4; C2+) characterization of gas seeps in the Kashmir and Peshawar basins.

from these areas suggests that successful exploration for these shallow, southwards as a largely aseismic detachment beneath the Potwar Pla-
stratigraphic plays requires detailed analysis of high resolution 3D teau to emerge along the southern edge of the Salt Range. The Attock
seismic data. Thrust and the MBT are interpreted to be splays from this detachment
(Seeber and Armbruster, 1979; Seeber et al., 1981). The Peshawar in-
8.3.2. Himalayan Foothills termontane basin formed as a result of uplift of the Attock-Cherat Range
Bacterial gas has been encountered in several surface gas seeps in along its southern margin following a late Miocene to Pliocene interval
the Himalayan foothills, including those at Punjwana, Jambal and of folding and thrusting that affected the pre-existing Muree Formation
Kaloh (Mittal et al., 2006). The gas from these seeps is rich in CH4 and molasse sediments. The Campbellpore Basin similarly formed as a result
has a carbon isotope composition that is well within the bacterial range. of Late Cenozoic uplift of the Kala Chitta-Margalla Range along its
The gas from the seep at Jambal has a high content of CO2 with a southern margin.
carbon isotope composition (-5.00‰) which suggests that the gas was No Upper Miocene and Lower Pliocene sediments that would be the
generated by bacterial fermentation of organic matter (Faber et al., lateral equivalents of the Siwalik molasse of the Potwar Basin have been
1992). observed within the Peshawar Basin (Burbank and Tahirkheli, 1985).
Alluvial fans prograded northwards into the Peshawar Basin from the
8.3.3. Peshawar and Campbellpore basins uplifted southern margin of the basin from c. 2.5 Ma, interfingering
There is also gas in the shallow Plio-Pleistocene sediments, age with low-energy floodplain and floodpond sediments in the western
equivalent to the Karewas, in the Peshawar Basin in Pakistan (Khan part of the basin and lacustrine sediments closer to the centre of the
et al., 2003). This gas also appears to be of biogenic origin on the basis basin. The uplift of the Kala Chitta-Margalla Range which defined the
of carbon isotope data (Figs. 5 & 51; Table 4). The Peshawar Basin southern margin of the Campbellpore Basin is estimated to have com-
contains a succession of Cambrian to mid-Tertiary rocks resting on menced by at least 1.9 Ma (Burbank and Raynolds, 1984). The wide-
Precambrian basement (Pogue et al., 1992), overlain by a > 300 m spread intermontane basin sedimentation in the Peshawar Basin was
thick Plio-Pleistocene to Holocene fill of dominantly fluvial and alluvial terminated by accelerated uplift of the Attock Range after c. 0.6 Ma,
sediments that began to accumulate at least 2.8 million years ago, about which caused folding and dissection of the sediment fill of the basin.
1 million years later than in the Kashmir Basin (Burbank, 1983; Since that time, catastrophic floods have periodically inundated the
Burbank and Tahirkheli, 1985) (Fig. 6). The west-verging asymmetry of basin and the deformation of the basin has continued to the present-day
the Nanga Parbat syntaxis has been suggested to be responsible for the (Burbank and Tahirkheli, 1985).
c. 1 Ma gap between the onset of the sedimentation in the Kashmir The Iza-Khel Gas Seep, located on the southern flank of the
Basin and Peshawar Basin, and the younger onset of deposition and the Peshawar Basin (33° 45’ 40.5”N, 71° 33’ 03.6”E), is in an area where
thinner Plio-Pleistocene succession in the Peshawar Basin compared to Palaeozoic rocks are covered by recent alluvium/terrace deposits. As is
the Kashmir Basin (Burg and Podladchikov, 1999). Earthquake hypo- frequently the case in the Kashmir Basin, the gas was encountered
center distributions suggest that the Peshawar Basin is underlain by a during the drilling of a water well and is used by local households for
sub-horizontal detachment surface which is inferred to extend cooking. In some wells, the gas has been at significant pressure.

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Table 5 and exhumation shaped the foreland (molasse) sedimentary basins in

Geochemical composition of the Iza-Khel gas seeps, NW India and Pakistan. Petroleum system elements were established in
Peshawar Basin, NW Himalaya of Pakistan. these basins at multiple stratigraphic levels, ranging in age from
Iza-Khel Gas Sample Composition Precambrian to Neogene, and comprising both ‘conventional’ (true and
hybrid), and ‘unconventional’ (self-sourcing reservoir) systems (Figs. 6
Contents (mole %) & 8). The Himalayan orogen is traditionally divided into distinct tec-
tono-stratigraphic (geomorphic) zones that are bound by major regional
Methane 89.27
Ethane 1.98 thrust systems, viz. MCT, MBT and the HFT (= SRT in Pakistan). The
Propane 0.62 relationship between the deformation history and critical timing is a
Iso-Butane 0.24 key factor determining the potential of the hydrocarbon systems. The
Normal-Butane 0.25
subsidence of the HFB in NW India occurred at the same time as, and a
Iso-Pentane 0.08
Normal-Pentane 0
direct result of, the initiation of, and peak activity along the major
Hexanes Plus 4.91 regional thrusts in the region. Subsidence rates in the HFB increased
Nitrogen 0 rapidly after 40 Ma with the initiation of the activity along the MCT.
Carbon Dioxide 2.03 Activity peaked around 16-14 Ma, when the Subathu Formation was in
Oxygen/Ar 0.64
the early oil maturation window, and initial generation of the hydro-
Total 100.02
Specific Gravity 0.723 carbons occurred. Peak oil generation occurred at c. 10 Ma, coincident
with the peak activity along the MBT, and the gas window was attained
c. 9-6 Ma. All the structures in the middle and outer belts of the fore-
Analysis of the Iza-Khel gas by the University of Peshawar shows that it land basin formed later, in response to activity along the frontal thrust
consists predominantly of CH4 (89.27%), but with a significant com- (i.e., the HFT) around 1 Ma BP and so have little chance of being
ponent of’ ‘higher’ hydrocarbons up to C5 (~ 8%), together with ~ 2% charged by the hydrocarbons generated from the Subathu Formation at
CO2, but no N2. This suggests that it may have a thermogenic origin, c. 10 Ma BP (Fig. 52). Traps formed during the activity along the re-
possibly derived from the Palaeozoic succession, but in the absence of gional thrusts in the inner belt of the Himalayan orogenic system have
isotopic data this cannot currently be confirmed (Fig. 51; Tables 4 & 5). greater potential for the accumulation of oil and gas and this inner belt
warrants further exploration.
9. Summary and conclusions The NW Himalayan region has long been considered prospective for
hydrocarbon exploration because of its suitable tectono-sedimentary
9.1. Summary environment, the existence of gas shows at the surface, and in the
subsurface, and the presence of commercial oil and gas discoveries in
The tectonic evolution and growth of the Himalaya following the broadly similar structural settings in the eastern (Kohat-Potwar) and
continent-continent collision with associated crustal shortening, uplift western (Assam-Arakan) regions. Although detailed surface geological

Fig. 52. Petroleum system events chart for the timing of the elements and process in the Himalayan Foreland Basin. (Modified after: Verma et al., 2012; DeCelles
et al., 1998; Meigs et al., 1995 - Original Template: AAPG - Magoon and Dow, 1994).

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mapping, the acquisition of large volumes of geological data and the Kashmir Basin and in Zanskar.
drilling of wells has considerably improved the understanding of the The Mesozoic and Early Eocene successions (carbonates, shales and
petroleum geology, structural setting and the hydrocarbon potential of sandstones) of the Tethyan Himalaya were deposited in the shallow
the intervening portion of the Himalayan region (in particular NW southern margin of the Tethys Ocean. In the western Himalaya, the
Himalaya), commercial discoveries of oil and gas have remained elu- Tethyan Himalayan succession is exposed in Kashmir, Zanskar, Chamba
sive. Of particular note is the fact that 90% of the wells drilled in the and Spiti. The Mesozoic successions include thick sequences of organic-
Indian part of the NW Himalaya have failed to reach their intended rich argillaceous sediments. The Jurassic and Triassic strata are gen-
target and/or were dry. In stark contrast, the Kohat-Potwar depression erally poorly developed or absent in the Potwar Basin, but sandstones of
(a classic foredeep basin) in Pakistan has several proven petroleum Jurassic age are proven reservoirs, and potential source rocks are pre-
systems and has been producing hydrocarbons commercially from re- sent as well. The Early Jurassic Datta Formation (Type II/III OM, 1 to
servoirs of Precambrian to Cenozoic age for the last 100 years. Here, 7.5 wt. % -TOC, and 340 to 500 mg HC/gTOC -HI) has produced oil and
continuous exploration has resulted in the discovery of more than 50 oil gas in the Potwar Plateau and in the Kohat Basin. The Mesozoic suc-
and gas fields. cession of the Kashmir Basin is represented by the formations of Triassic
The Precambrian-Cambrian and particularly the Neoproterozoic to age, with the Khunamuh Formation (marine shales and limestones)
Early Cambrian successions in the NW Himalaya, despite being char- overlying the Upper Permian Zewan Formation. Some of the shales (av.
acterised by moderate quality reservoir rocks and over mature source TOC 0.33 wt. %) are rich in organic matter (OM) and could represent
rocks (Mukherjee and Chakrabarti, 1996), contain all the elements re- viable hydrocarbon source rocks, while some of the limestones, dolo-
quired for an active petroleum system, namely source, reservoir or seal mites and sandstones have sufficient porosity and permeability to be
lithologies, together with structures that could form hydrocarbon traps. potential reservoirs. The OM content of the argillaceous sediments
The most important stratigraphic sequences from a hydrocarbon per- within the Mesozoic-Tertiary succession of the Zanskar-Spiti Basin
spective are the Salt Range Formation (Potwar Basin) and the age (Ladakh Himalaya) is sufficient for hydrocarbon generation with
equivalent successions in the Bikaner-Nagaur Basin, and also some se- average TOC content of 1.24 wt. %, 0.94 wt. % and 1.9. wt. % TOC in
quences in the Lesser-and-Sub-Himalaya, such as the Proterozoic Sirban the Early Cretaceous Lamayuru Formation, Cretaceous Nindam
Limestone Formation (SLFm), in the Kashmir and Bhadarwah-Chamba Formation and the Cretaceous–Late Eocene/Early Oligocene Indus
basins in the northeast, and in the Garhwal Group and the Krol belt in Formation, respectively (Awasthi et al., 2011; Mani et al., 2014). The
the southeast. The organic rich shales and oil shales (~30 wt. % TOC shales of the Cretaceous-Eocene Indus Formation appear to be the
and ~879 mgHC/gTOC HI) of the Salt Range Formation have charged prospective as hydrocarbon source rocks.
overlying Cambrian (and potentially younger) reservoirs in the Potwar The Tertiary HFB was deformed by a southward migrating thrust
Basin (Cozzi et al., 2012). The maturity data for the SLFm shales and system during the Late Miocene-Quaternary. The Sub Himalaya Zone
dolostones suggests that the organically lean samples are thermally contains a sequence of Cenozoic sedimentary rocks divided into the
immature to overmature (Craig et al., 2013; Hakhoo et al., 2016b), but Subathu Formation, Dharamsala Formation (=Murree/Rawalpindi
may still be sufficiently mature to generate gas in the areas with ~1 wt. Group) and Siwalik Group. Hydrocarbon source rocks are present in the
% TOC (Hakhoo et al., 2016b). Subathu and Dharamsala formations; while the Lower Siwalik, Kasauli
The Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks of the NW Himalaya are exposed and Dagshai formations contain potential sandstone reservoirs with
within the Lesser Himalaya and the Tethyan Himalaya in the Potwar, moderate to good porosities. The Late Palaeocene - Middle Eocene
Kashmir, Zanskar-Spiti, Kinnaur-Uttarakhand and Kumaon basins. The Subathu Formation is a key exploration target in the NW Himalaya with
Palaeozoic successions have been subjected to low grade meta- both potential hydrocarbon source, and reservoir rocks sealed by a
morphism, and presently have no significant hydrocarbon generation thick clay sequence. The Subathu Formation in the Jammu area con-
potential. The Palaeozoic stratigraphy of the Zanskar Tethyan Himalaya tains shales and coals with TOC values ranging between 0.4 to 42.4 wt.
in northern India is rather similar to that of the Peshawar Basin in % (Hafiz, 2015), while those in the Dharamsala-Dadahu area of Hi-
Pakistan. The thick argillaceous units are the best potential hydro- machal Pradesh have TOC values ranging from 0.11 to 7.20 wt. % (Sain
carbon source rock horizons within the Palaeozoic succession. The et al., 1990). The Subathu Formation constitutes both conventional and
Ordovician-Silurian shales contain a rich and diverse organic walled unconventional, true and hybrid petroleum systems in the HFB in the
microflora (marine plankton along with Amorphous Organic Matter Jammu area (Mani et al., 2014 and Hafiz, 2015). The coeval shales
(AOM) of indeterminate origin) that would have been capable of gen- within the Patala (2 to 8 wt. % TOC – Fazeelat et al., 2010), Nammal
erating hydrocarbons prior to the Himalayan uplift. Hydrocarbons from and Sakesar (~13 wt. % TOC) formations are considered to be the main
this phase may be preserved in favourable tectonic structures. The source rocks in the Potwar Basin, whereas, the fractured carbonates of
Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) of palynomorphs varies from 3.25 to Palaeocene and Early Eocene age are the main reservoirs. The Miocene
3.75 indicating high thermal maturation of the organic matter as a Murree (=Dharamsala) Formation is the youngest oil-producing hor-
result of Himalayan tectonics. In the Potwar Basin the sandstones of the izon in the Potwar Basin.
Cambrian Khewra Formation and those of Permian age are proven The presence of surface oil seeps at several locations in the NW
producing reservoirs, while potential source rocks include shales (TOC Himalaya was the main driver for early oil exploration, initially in the
~ 1wt. %) within the Permian formations (Quadri and Quadri, 1996; shallow Plio-Pleistocene sediments in the Peshawar Basin. There are
Wandrey et al., 2004). The most complete Palaeozoic sequence in Pa- surface oil seeps at several locations in the Potwar Basin and the Salt
kistan is exposed in inliers within, and in the ranges fringing, the Range Province. The surface gas seeps in the NW Himalaya are char-
eastern Peshawar Basin (Pogue et al., 1992) where it has been subjected acterised by a high N2 content, and are either thermogenic or biogenic
to low grade metamorphism and so has no significant remaining hy- in origin, while the gases encountered in the wells are typically CH4
drocarbon potential, although the succession may once have contained rich, dry with low N2 concentrations, indicating a thermogenic origin.
both potential source rocks and reservoirs. In the Kashmir Basin, the There appears to be a strong linear correlation between the relative
Upper Permian Zewan Formation consists of organic-rich shales with concentration of CH4 and N2 in the Himalayan foredeep gas seeps. The
amorphous organic matter predominant amongst the dispersed organic most prolific and famous gas seeps in the NW Himalaya foothills con-
constituents (Tewari et al., 2015). The thick argillaceous successions sists mostly of CH4 (87%) with small amounts of CO2, N2 and O2
within the Lolab, Margan, Syringothyris Limestone and Fenestella Shale (Mudiar and Shukla, 1991) and are generally assumed to be sourced
formations are the best potential hydrocarbon source rock horizons from coals and carbonaceous shale within the Eocene Subathu Forma-
within the Palaeozoic succession of the Kashmir Basin, and are most tion. In the Dailekh region of western Nepal, there are oil and gas seeps
promising targets for future shale gas/shale oil exploration both in the located north of the MBT, and their most likely source is the organic-

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rich shales and coals near the base of the Subathu Formation or its imbricate structures in the fold-thrust-belt, particularly in the
equivalents. There are numerous references to biogenic gas seeps in the Zanskar region have significant exploration potential.
Plio-Pleistocene sediments and lignite fields in the Kashmir Valley Basin • The Eocene Subathu Formation in the HFB, Jammu area (India)
which is lithostratigraphically and tectonically similar to the Peshawar could contain conventional and unconventional, true and hybrid
and Campbellpore basins. petroleum systems. The coeval shales within the Patala, Nammal
In NW Himalaya the evolution and establishment of the key pet- and Sakesar formations are considered to be the main source rocks
roleum system elements, and the associated generation, expulsion, in the Potwar Basin (Pakistan), whereas, the fractured carbonates of
migration and accumulation (entrapment) of hydrocarbons at multiple Palaeocene and Early Eocene age the main reservoirs.
stratigraphic levels, has been controlled by the regional tectonic events. • The surface gas seeps that occur at several locations in the Indian
These events controlled the source rock burial and maturation history, portion of the NW Himalaya fold-and-thrust belt are characterised
coupled with hydrocarbon generation, with ‘peak oil’ and subsequent by a high N2 content, and are either thermogenic or biogenic in
migration occurring concomitantly with the peak activity along the origin, while the gases encountered in the wells are typically CH4
major regional thrusts. The complex and variable structural geometries rich, dry with low N2 concentrations, indicating thermogenic origin.
have resulted in a variety of trap types beneath sections where source The most prolific and famous gas seeps consist mostly of CH4 with
rocks (e.g. Subathu shales) have adequate burial depth, and where traps small amounts of CO2, N2 and O2 and are sourced from the Eocene
have not been breached. The key to understanding the relationship Subathu Formation.
between tectonism and the evolution of a petroleum system in the NW • The relationship between the deformation history and critical
Himalaya is the accurate assessment of the timing of tectonism and that timing is important to understand the potential hydrocarbon sys-
of the hydrocarbon generation, accumulation and the so-called ‘critical tems here. The subsidence history of the foreland basinal systems is
moment’. Success in determining age constraints and the relationship concomitant with the initiation of, and peak activity along the major
between tectonism and petroleum evolution can be achieved through regional thrusts in the region.
the application of both radiometric and basin/tectonic modelling • In NW Himalaya the evolution and establishment of the key petro-
techniques. Exploration in the Indian portion of the NW Himalaya has leum system elements, and the associated generation, expulsion,
been hampered by the structural complexity, difficult terrain, drilling migration and accumulation (entrapment) of hydrocarbons at mul-
complications and poor seismic data quality. Timing of the trap for- tiple stratigraphic levels, has been controlled by the regional tec-
mation vs. hydrocarbon charge, trap integrity, seal presence and ca- tonic events.
pacity, and reservoir quality are the key geological risks here. The ac- • The traps formed during the activity along the regional thrusts in the
quisition of additional seismic data with higher resolution, combined inner belt of the basinal systems have significant potential for the
with advanced processing techniques (e.g. pre-stack depth migration) accumulation of oil and gas and, consequently, the inner belt of the
and appropriate modelling is required in order to define new prospects Himalayan orogen warrants further exploration.
for drilling in the foothills and the foreland basins of the NW Himalaya. • Exploration in the Indian portion of the NW Himalaya fold-and-
thrust belt has been hampered by the structural complexity, difficult
9.2. Conclusions terrain, drilling complications and poor seismic data quality. Timing
of the trap formation vs. hydrocarbon charge, trap integrity, seal
The NW Himalaya is considered prospective for hydrocarbon ex- presence and capacity, and reservoir quality are the key geological
ploration because of the presence of petroleum system elements at risks here.
multiple stratigraphic levels in suitable tectono-sedimentary environ- • Acquisition of additional seismic data with higher resolution, com-
ments, the existence of gas shows and the presence of commercial oil bined with advanced processing techniques and appropriate mod-
and gas discoveries. The following conclusions are drawn: elling is required in order to define new prospects for drilling in the
basins of the NW Himalaya.
• Despite being characterised by moderate quality reservoir rocks and
over mature source rocks, the Precambrian-Cambrian successions Acknowledgements
are still of interest from a hydrocarbon perspective as they contain
the source, reservoir and seals lithologies required for an active The authors acknowledge the contribution of Massimo Pedini of the
petroleum system. The most important is the Salt Range Formation eni Graphics Department, who prepared the figures for this publication.
(Potwar Basin), Pakistan and its age equivalents in India. Naveen Hakhoo acknowledges the research fellowship from the Council
• There is significant risk associated with the hydrocarbon pro- of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India and also from eni-
spectivity of the Precambrian succession and comprehensive source India. Mateen Hafiz acknowledges the research fellowship from the
rock analyses extending over other regions in the NW Himalaya Energy and Geoscience Institute (EGI), University of Utah, USA.
could provide useful insights on the hydrocarbon source potential
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