7001_AWLThomas_ch02p058-121.

qxd 10/1/09 2:33 PM Page 73

2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws 73

Another important property of limits is given by the next theorem. A proof is given in
the next section.

THEOREM 5 If ƒsxd … gsxd for all x in some open interval containing c, except
possibly at x = c itself, and the limits of ƒ and g both exist as x approaches c,
then

lim ƒsxd … lim gsxd .

x:c x:c

The assertion resulting from replacing the less than or equal to (…) inequality by the
strict less than (6) inequality in Theorem 5 is false. Figure 2.14a shows that for u Z 0,
- ƒ u ƒ 6 sin u 6 ƒ u ƒ , but in the limit as u : 0, equality holds.

Exercises 2.2
Limits from Graphs y
1. For the function g(x) graphed here, find the following limits or
y  f(x)
explain why they do not exist. 1
a. lim g sxd b. lim g sxd c. lim g sxd d. lim g sxd
x: 1 x: 2 x: 3 x :2.5
x
–1 1 2
y
–1
y  g(x)
1
4. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒsxd
x graphed here are true, and which are false?
1 2 3
a. lim ƒsxd does not exist.
x :2
2. For the function ƒ(t) graphed here, find the following limits or ex- b. lim ƒsxd = 2
x :2
plain why they do not exist. c. lim ƒsxd does not exist.
x :1
a. lim ƒstd b. lim ƒstd c. lim ƒstd d. lim ƒstd d. lim ƒsxd exists at every point x0 in s -1, 1d .
t : -2 t : -1 t:0 t: -0.5 x :x0

e. lim ƒsxd exists at every point x0 in (1, 3).

s x :x0
y
y  f(x)
1
s  f (t) 1
t x
–2 –1 0 1 –1 1 2 3
–1 –1

–2

3. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒsxd

graphed here are true, and which are false? Existence of Limits
In Exercises 5 and 6, explain why the limits do not exist.
a. lim ƒsxd exists.
x: 0 x 1
b. lim ƒsxd = 0 5. lim 6. lim
x: 0 x :0 ƒxƒ x :1 x - 1
c. lim ƒsxd = 1
x: 0 7. Suppose that a function ƒ(x) is defined for all real values of x ex-
d. lim ƒsxd = 1 cept x = x0 . Can anything be said about the existence of
x: 1
e. lim ƒsxd = 0 limx:x0 ƒsxd ? Give reasons for your answer.
x: 1
f. lim ƒsxd exists at every point x0 in s -1, 1d . 8. Suppose that a function ƒ(x) is defined for all x in [ -1, 1] . Can
x: x0
anything be said about the existence of limx:0 ƒsxd ? Give rea-
g. lim ƒsxd does not exist.
x: 1 sons for your answer.
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74 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

9. If limx:1 ƒsxd = 5 , must ƒ be defined at x = 1 ? If it is, must Using Limit Rules

ƒs1d = 5 ? Can we conclude anything about the values of ƒ at 51. Suppose limx:0 ƒsxd = 1 and limx:0 g sxd = - 5 . Name the
x = 1 ? Explain. rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps (a), (b), and
10. If ƒs1d = 5 , must limx:1 ƒsxd exist? If it does, then must (c) of the following calculation.
limx:1 ƒsxd = 5 ? Can we conclude anything about limx:1 ƒsxd ? lim s2ƒsxd - g sxdd
2ƒsxd - g sxd x :0
Explain. lim = (a)
x :0 sƒsxd + 7d2>3 lim sƒsxd + 7d2>3
x :0

Calculating Limits lim 2ƒsxd - lim g sxd

x :0 x: 0

A lim A ƒsxd + 7 B B 2>3

Find the limits in Exercises 11–22. = (b)
2
11. lim s2x + 5d 12. lim s - x + 5x - 2d x :0
x: -7 x: 2
2 lim ƒsxd - lim g sxd
13. lim 8st - 5dst - 7d 14. lim sx 3 - 2x 2 + 4x + 8d x :0 x :0

A lim ƒ(x) + lim 7 B 2>3

t :6 x: -2
= (c)
x + 3 x :0 x :0
15. lim 16. lim 3ss2s - 1d
x: 2 x + 6 s: 2>3 s2ds1d - s -5d 7
= =
y + 2 s1 + 7d2>3 4
17. lim 3s2x - 1d2 18. lim
x: -1 y: 2y 2 + 5y + 6
19. lim s5 - yd 4>3
20. lim s2z - 8d1>3 52. Let limx:1 hsxd = 5, limx:1 psxd = 1 , and limx:1 r sxd = 2 .
y: -3 z: 0 Name the rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps
3 25h + 4 - 2 (a), (b), and (c) of the following calculation.
21. lim 22. lim
h:0 23h + 1 + 1 h :0 h
lim 25hsxd
25hsxd x :1
Limits of quotients Find the limits in Exercises 23–42. lim = (a)
x :1 psxds4 - rsxdd lim spsxds4 - rsxddd
x :1
x - 5 x + 3
23. lim 24. lim
x: 5 x 2 - 25 x: -3 x 2 + 4x + 3
4xlim
:1
5hsxd

A lim p(x) B A lim A 4 - r(x) B B

x 2 + 3x - 10 x 2 - 7x + 10 = (b)
25. lim 26. lim
x: -5 x + 5 x: 2 x - 2 x :1 x :1
2 2
t + t - 2 t + 3t + 2
27. lim
t :1 t2 - 1
28. lim
t : -1 t2 - t - 2 45xlim
:1
hsxd

A lim p(x) B A lim 4 - lim r (x) B

= (c)
- 2x - 4 5y 3 + 8y 2 x :1 x :1 x :1
29. lim 3 30. lim
x: -2 x + 2x 2 y: 0 3y 4 - 16y 2
1 1 1 2s5ds5d 5
x - 1 x - 1 + x + 1 = =
31. lim 32. lim s1ds4 - 2d 2
x: 1 x - 1 x: 0 x
u - 1 4
y3 - 8 53. Suppose limx:c ƒsxd = 5 and limx:c g sxd = - 2 . Find
33. lim 3 34. lim 4
u:1 u - 1 y : 2 y - 16 a. lim ƒsxdg sxd b. lim 2ƒsxdg sxd
x :c x :c
2x - 3 4x - x 2
35. lim 36. lim ƒsxd
x: 9 x - 9 x: 4 2 - 2x c. lim sƒsxd + 3g sxdd d. lim
x :c x :c ƒsxd - g sxd
x - 1 2x 2 + 8 - 3
37. lim 38. lim 54. Suppose limx:4 ƒsxd = 0 and limx:4 g sxd = - 3 . Find
x: 1 2x + 3 - 2 x: -1 x + 1
a. lim sg sxd + 3d b. lim xƒsxd
2x 2 + 12 - 4 x + 2 x :4 x :4
39. lim 40. lim g sxd
x: 2 x - 2 x: -2 2x + 5 - 3
2
c. lim sg sxdd 2
d. lim
x :4 x :4 ƒsxd - 1
2 - 2x - 5 2
4 - x
41. lim 42. lim
x: -3 x + 3 x: 4 5 - 2x 2 + 9 55. Suppose limx:b ƒsxd = 7 and limx:b g sxd = - 3 . Find
a. lim sƒsxd + g sxdd b. lim ƒsxd # g sxd
Limits with trigonometric functions Find the limits in Exercises x :b x :b
43–50. c. lim 4g sxd d. lim ƒsxd>g sxd
x :b x :b
43. lim (2 sin x - 1) 44. lim sin2 x 56. Suppose that limx:-2 psxd = 4, limx:-2 r sxd = 0 , and
x: 0 x: 0
limx:-2 ssxd = - 3 . Find
45. lim sec x 46. lim tan x
x: 0 x: 0 a. lim spsxd + r sxd + ssxdd
1 + x + sin x x : -2
47. lim 48. lim (x 2 - 1)(2 - cos x) b. lim psxd # r sxd # ssxd
x: 0 3 cos x x: 0
x : -2
49. lim 2x + 4 cos (x + p) 50. lim 27 + sec x 2
c. lim s - 4psxd + 5r sxdd>ssxd
x: -p x: 0 x : -2
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2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws 75

Limits of Average Rates of Change b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing g near
Because of their connection with secant lines, tangents, and instanta- x0 = 22 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on
neous rates, limits of the form the graph as x : 22 .
ƒsx + hd - ƒsxd c. Find limx:22 g sxd algebraically.
lim
h :0 h 69. Let Gsxd = sx + 6d>sx 2 + 4x - 12d .
occur frequently in calculus. In Exercises 57–62, evaluate this limit a. Make a table of the values of G at x = - 5.9, - 5.99, - 5.999,
for the given value of x and function ƒ. and so on. Then estimate limx:-6 Gsxd . What estimate do
57. ƒsxd = x 2, x = 1 58. ƒsxd = x 2, x = -2 you arrive at if you evaluate G at x = - 6.1, -6.01,
59. ƒsxd = 3x - 4, x = 2 60. ƒsxd = 1>x, x = -2 - 6.001, Á instead?
61. ƒsxd = 2x, x = 7 62. ƒsxd = 23x + 1, x = 0 b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing G and
using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on the graph as
Using the Sandwich Theorem x : -6 .
63. If 25 - 2x 2 … ƒsxd … 25 - x 2 for -1 … x … 1, find c. Find limx:-6 Gsxd algebraically.
limx:0 ƒsxd . 70. Let hsxd = sx 2 - 2x - 3d>sx 2 - 4x + 3d .
64. If 2 - x 2 … g sxd … 2 cos x for all x, find limx:0 g sxd . a. Make a table of the values of h at x = 2.9, 2.99, 2.999, and so
65. a. It can be shown that the inequalities on. Then estimate limx:3 hsxd . What estimate do you arrive
x2 x sin x at if you evaluate h at x = 3.1, 3.01, 3.001, Á instead?
1 - 6 6 1
6 2 - 2 cos x b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing h near
hold for all values of x close to zero. What, if anything, does x0 = 3 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on the
this tell you about graph as x : 3 .
x sin x c. Find limx:3 hsxd algebraically.
lim ?
x:02 - 2 cos x 71. Let ƒsxd = sx 2 - 1d>s ƒ x ƒ - 1d .
Give reasons for your answer. a. Make tables of the values of ƒ at values of x that
T b. Graph y = 1 - sx 2>6d, y = sx sin xd>s2 - 2 cos xd, and approach x0 = - 1 from above and below. Then estimate
y = 1 together for - 2 … x … 2 . Comment on the behavior limx:-1 ƒsxd .
of the graphs as x : 0 . b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing ƒ near
66. a. Suppose that the inequalities x0 = - 1 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on
the graph as x : -1 .
1 x2 1 - cos x 1
- 6 6 c. Find limx:-1 ƒsxd algebraically.
2 24 x2 2
72. Let Fsxd = sx 2 + 3x + 2d>s2 - ƒ x ƒ d .
hold for values of x close to zero. (They do, as you will see in
Section 10.9.) What, if anything, does this tell you about a. Make tables of values of F at values of x that
approach x0 = - 2 from above and below. Then estimate
1 - cos x limx:-2 Fsxd .
lim ?
x:0 x2 b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing F near
Give reasons for your answer. x0 = - 2 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on
T b. Graph the equations y = s1>2d - sx 2>24d, the graph as x : -2 .
y = s1 - cos xd>x 2 , and y = 1>2 together for -2 … x … 2 . c. Find limx:-2 Fsxd algebraically.
Comment on the behavior of the graphs as x : 0 . 73. Let g sud = ssin ud>u .
Estimating Limits a. Make a table of the values of g at values of u that approach
T You will find a graphing calculator useful for Exercises 67–76. u0 = 0 from above and below. Then estimate limu:0 g sud .
67. Let ƒsxd = sx 2 - 9d>sx + 3d . b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing g near
a. Make a table of the values of ƒ at the points x = - 3.1, u0 = 0 .
-3.01, - 3.001 , and so on as far as your calculator can go. 74. Let Gstd = s1 - cos td>t 2 .
Then estimate limx:-3 ƒsxd . What estimate do you arrive at if a. Make tables of values of G at values of t that approach t0 = 0
you evaluate ƒ at x = - 2.9, - 2.99, - 2.999, Á instead? from above and below. Then estimate limt:0 Gstd .
b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing ƒ near b. Support your conclusion in part (a) by graphing G near
x0 = - 3 and using Zoom and Trace to estimate y-values on t0 = 0 .
the graph as x : - 3 .
75. Let ƒsxd = x 1>s1 - xd .
c. Find limx:-3 ƒsxd algebraically, as in Example 7.
a. Make tables of values of ƒ at values of x that approach x0 = 1
68. Let g sxd = sx 2 - 2d>(x - 22). from above and below. Does ƒ appear to have a limit as
a. Make a table of the values of g at the points x = 1.4, 1.41, x : 1 ? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
1.414 , and so on through successive decimal approximations b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing ƒ near
of 22 . Estimate limx:22 g sxd . x0 = 1 .
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76 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

76. Let ƒsxd = s3x - 1d>x . ƒsxd - 5

b. If lim = 4 , find lim ƒsxd .
a. Make tables of values of ƒ at values of x that approach x0 = 0 x :2 x - 2 x :2
from above and below. Does ƒ appear to have a limit as ƒsxd
x : 0 ? If so, what is it? If not, why not? 82. If lim = 1 , find
x :0 x2
b. Support your conclusions in part (a) by graphing ƒ near x0 = 0 . ƒsxd
a. lim ƒsxd b. lim x
x :0 x :0
Theory and Examples
77. If x 4 … ƒsxd … x 2 for x in [- 1, 1] and x 2 … ƒsxd … x 4 for T 83. a. Graph g sxd = x sin s1>xd to estimate limx:0 g sxd , zooming
x 6 - 1 and x 7 1 , at what points c do you automatically know in on the origin as necessary.
limx:c ƒsxd ? What can you say about the value of the limit at b. Confirm your estimate in part (a) with a proof.
these points? T 84. a. Graph hsxd = x 2 cos s1>x 3 d to estimate limx:0 hsxd , zooming
78. Suppose that g sxd … ƒsxd … hsxd for all x Z 2 and suppose that in on the origin as necessary.
lim g sxd = lim hsxd = - 5 . b. Confirm your estimate in part (a) with a proof.
x: 2 x:2
Can we conclude anything about the values of ƒ, g, and h at COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
x = 2 ? Could ƒs2d = 0 ? Could limx:2 ƒsxd = 0 ? Give reasons Graphical Estimates of Limits
for your answers. In Exercises 85–90, use a CAS to perform the following steps:
ƒsxd - 5 a. Plot the function near the point x0 being approached.
79. If lim = 1 , find lim ƒsxd .
x: 4 x - 2 x:4
b. From your plot guess the value of the limit.
ƒsxd
80. If lim = 1 , find x 4 - 16 x 3 - x 2 - 5x - 3
x: -2 x2 85. lim 86. lim
x :2 x - 2 x : -1 sx + 1d2
ƒsxd
a. lim ƒsxd b. lim x 2
3
1 + x - 1 x2 - 9
x: -2 x : -2 87. lim x 88. lim
ƒsxd - 5 x :0 x :3 2x 2 + 7 - 4
81. a. If lim = 3 , find lim ƒsxd .
x: 2 x - 2 x:2 1 - cos x 2x 2
89. lim 90. lim
x :0 x sin x x :0 3 - 3 cos x

The Precise Definition of a Limit

2.3
We now turn our attention to the precise definition of a limit. We replace vague phrases
like “gets arbitrarily close to” in the informal definition with specific conditions that can
be applied to any particular example. With a precise definition, we can prove the limit
properties given in the preceding section and establish many important limits.
To show that the limit of ƒ(x) as x : x0 equals the number L, we need to show that the
gap between ƒ(x) and L can be made “as small as we choose” if x is kept “close enough” to
x0 . Let us see what this would require if we specified the size of the gap between ƒ(x) and L.
y
y  2x  1 EXAMPLE 1 Consider the function y = 2x - 1 near x0 = 4. Intuitively it appears that
y is close to 7 when x is close to 4, so limx:4 s2x - 1d = 7. However, how close to
Upper bound: x0 = 4 does x have to be so that y = 2x - 1 differs from 7 by, say, less than 2 units?
y9
⎧9 Solution We are asked: For what values of x is ƒ y - 7 ƒ 6 2? To find the answer we
To satisfy ⎪ first express ƒ y - 7 ƒ in terms of x:
this ⎨7
⎪
⎩5 ƒ y - 7 ƒ = ƒ s2x - 1d - 7 ƒ = ƒ 2x - 8 ƒ .
Lower bound:
y5 The question then becomes: what values of x satisfy the inequality ƒ 2x - 8 ƒ 6 2? To
find out, we solve the inequality:

3 4 5
x ƒ 2x - 8 ƒ 6 2
0
⎧
⎨
⎩

-2 6 2x - 8 6 2
Restrict
to this 6 6 2x 6 10
3 6 x 6 5
FIGURE 2.15 Keeping x within 1 unit of
x0 = 4 will keep y within 2 units of
-1 6 x - 4 6 1.
y0 = 7 (Example 1). Keeping x within 1 unit of x0 = 4 will keep y within 2 units of y0 = 7 (Figure 2.15).
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90 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

Solution
(a) Using the half-angle formula cos h = 1 - 2 sin2 sh>2d, we calculate

cos h - 1 2 sin2 sh>2d

lim = lim -
h:0 h h:0 h
sin u
= - lim sin u Let u = h>2.
u:0 u
Eq. (1) and Example 11a
= - s1ds0d = 0. in Section 2.2

(b) Equation (1) does not apply to the original fraction. We need a 2x in the denominator,
not a 5x. We produce it by multiplying numerator and denominator by 2>5:

sin 2x s2>5d # sin 2x

lim = lim
x:0 5x x:0 s2>5d # 5x

2 sin 2x Now, Eq. (1) applies with

= lim u = 2x.
5 x:0 2x

2 2
= s1d =
5 5
tan t sec 2t
EXAMPLE 6 Find lim .
t:0 3t

Solution From the definition of tan t and sec 2t, we have

tan t sec 2t 1 sin t 1 1
lim = lim t # cos t #
t:0 3t 3 t:0 cos 2t

1 1 Eq. (1) and Example 11b

= (1)(1)(1) = . in Section 2.2
3 3

Exercises 2.4
Finding Limits Graphically y
1. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒsxd y  f(x)
graphed here are true, and which are false?
2
y
y  f (x)
1 1

x
x –1 0 1 2 3
–1 0 1 2

a. lim ƒsxd = 1 b. lim- ƒsxd = 0 a. lim ƒsxd = 1 b. lim ƒsxd does not exist.
x: -1 + x:0 x : -1 + x :2
c. lim- ƒsxd = 1 d. lim- ƒsxd = lim+ ƒsxd c. lim ƒsxd = 2 d. lim- ƒsxd = 2
x: 0 x:0 x :0 x :2 x :1
e. lim ƒsxd exists. f. lim ƒsxd = 0 e. lim+ ƒsxd = 1 f. lim ƒsxd does not exist.
x: 0 x:0 x :1 x :1
g. lim ƒsxd = 1 h. lim ƒsxd = 1 g. lim+ ƒsxd = lim- ƒsxd
x: 0 x:1 x :0 x :0
i. lim ƒsxd = 0 j. lim- ƒsxd = 2 h. lim ƒsxd exists at every c in the open interval s - 1, 1d .
x: 1 x:2
x :c
k. lim - ƒsxd does not exist . l. lim+ ƒsxd = 0 i. lim ƒsxd exists at every c in the open interval (1, 3).
x: -1 x:2
x :c
2. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒsxd j. lim ƒsxd = 0 k. lim+ ƒsxd does not exist.
graphed here are true, and which are false? x : -1 - x :3
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2.4 One-Sided Limits 91

3 - x, x 6 2 6. Let g sxd = 2x sins1>xd .

3. Let ƒsxd = • x
+ 1, x 7 2.
2 y
1 y  x
y

y3x
y  x sin 1x
3
y x1
2 1
2 x
x 0 1 2 1
0 2 4  

a. Find limx:2+ ƒsxd and limx:2- ƒsxd .

b. Does limx:2 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
c. Find limx:4- ƒsxd and limx:4+ ƒsxd . –1 y  –x
d. Does limx:4 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
a. Does limx:0+ g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
3 - x, x 6 2
2, x = 2 b. Does limx:0- g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
4. Let ƒsxd = d
x c. Does limx:0 g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
, x 7 2.
x 3,
7. a. Graph ƒsxd = e
2 x Z 1
0, x = 1.
y b. Find limx:1- ƒsxd and limx:1+ ƒsxd .
c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
y3x
1 - x 2,
8. a. Graph ƒsxd = e
x Z 1
3
2, x = 1.
y x b. Find limx:1+ ƒsxd and limx:1- ƒsxd .
2
x c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
–2 0 2

Graph the functions in Exercises 9 and 10. Then answer these questions.
a. Find limx:2+ ƒsxd, limx:2- ƒsxd , and ƒ(2).
a. What are the domain and range of ƒ?
b. Does limx:2 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
b. At what points c, if any, does limx:c ƒsxd exist?
c. Find limx:-1- ƒsxd and limx:-1+ ƒsxd .
c. At what points does only the left-hand limit exist?
d. Does limx:-1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
d. At what points does only the right-hand limit exist?
0, x … 0 21 - x 2,
5. Let ƒsxd = •
0 … x 6 1
1
sin x , x 7 0. 9. ƒsxd = • 1, 1 … x 6 2
2, x = 2
y x, - 1 … x 6 0, or 0 6 x … 1
10. ƒsxd = • 1, x = 0
1
0, x 6 - 1 or x 7 1

Finding One-Sided Limits Algebraically

Find the limits in Exercises 11–18.
x
0
⎧ x + 2 x - 1
⎪0, x0 11. lim 12. lim+
y⎨ 1 x : -0.5 - A x + 1 x :1 Ax + 2
⎪ sin x , x 0
⎩
lim a ba 2 b
x 2x + 5
–1 13.
x : -2 + x + 1 x + x

14. lim- a ba x ba b
1 x + 6 3 - x
a. Does limx:0+ ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? x :1 x + 1 7
b. Does limx:0- ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? 2h 2 + 4h + 5 - 25
15. lim+
c. Does limx:0 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? h:0 h
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92 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

26 - 25h 2 + 11h + 6 tan u u cot 4u

16. lim- 41. lim 42. lim
h:0 h u :0 u2 cot 3u u :0 sin2 u cot2 2u
ƒx + 2ƒ ƒx + 2ƒ Theory and Examples
17. a. lim +sx + 3d b. lim sx + 3d
x: -2 x + 2 x: -2 - x + 2 43. Once you know limx:a+ ƒsxd and limx:a- ƒsxd at an interior point
22x sx - 1d 22x sx - 1d of the domain of ƒ, do you then know limx:a ƒsxd ? Give reasons
18. a. lim+ b. lim- for your answer.
x: 1 ƒx - 1ƒ x: 1 ƒx - 1ƒ
44. If you know that limx:c ƒsxd exists, can you find its value by cal-
Use the graph of the greatest integer function y = : x ;, Figure 1.10 in culating limx:c+ ƒsxd ? Give reasons for your answer.
Section 1.1, to help you find the limits in Exercises 19 and 20. 45. Suppose that ƒ is an odd function of x. Does knowing that
:u; :u; limx:0+ ƒsxd = 3 tell you anything about limx:0- ƒsxd ? Give rea-
19. a. lim+ b. lim-
u :3 u u: 3 u sons for your answer.
20. a. lim+st - : t ; d b. lim-st - : t; d 46. Suppose that ƒ is an even function of x. Does knowing that
t :4 t :4
limx:2- ƒsxd = 7 tell you anything about either limx:-2- ƒsxd or
sin U limx:-2+ ƒsxd ? Give reasons for your answer.
Using lim  1
U: 0 U
Formal Definitions of One-Sided Limits
Find the limits in Exercises 21–42. 47. Given P 7 0 , find an interval I = s5, 5 + dd, d 7 0 , such that if
sin 22u sin kt x lies in I, then 2x - 5 6 P . What limit is being verified and
21. lim 22. lim t sk constantd
u :0 22u t :0 what is its value?
sin 3y h 48. Given P 7 0 , find an interval I = s4 - d, 4d, d 7 0 , such that if
23. lim 24. lim-
y: 0 4y h :0 sin 3h x lies in I, then 24 - x 6 P . What limit is being verified and
tan 2x 2t what is its value?
25. lim x 26. lim
x: 0 t :0 tan t
Use the definitions of right-hand and left-hand limits to prove the
x csc 2x
27. lim 28. lim 6x 2scot xdscsc 2xd limit statements in Exercises 49 and 50.
x: 0 cos 5x x: 0 x x - 2
49. lim- = -1 50. lim+ = 1
x + x cos x x 2 - x + sin x x :0 ƒ x ƒ x :2 ƒ x - 2 ƒ
29. lim 30. lim
x: 0 sin x cos x x: 0 2x 51. Greatest integer function Find (a) limx:400+ :x ; and
1 - cos u x - x cos x (b) limx:400- :x ; ; then use limit definitions to verify your find-
31. lim 32. lim
u :0 sin 2u x: 0 sin2 3x ings. (c) Based on your conclusions in parts (a) and (b), can you
sin s1 - cos td sin ssin hd say anything about limx:400 :x ; ? Give reasons for your answer.
33. lim 34. lim x 2 sin s1>xd, x 6 0
Let ƒsxd = e
t :0 1 - cos t h :0 sin h
52. One-sided limits
sin u sin 5x 2x, x 7 0.
35. lim 36. lim
u :0 sin 2u x: 0 sin 4x Find (a) limx:0+ ƒsxd and (b) limx:0- ƒsxd ; then use limit defini-
37. lim u cos u 38. lim sin u cot 2u tions to verify your findings. (c) Based on your conclusions in
u :0 u: 0
parts (a) and (b), can you say anything about limx:0 ƒsxd ? Give
tan 3x sin 3y cot 5y
39. lim 40. lim reasons for your answer.
x: 0 sin 8x y: 0 y cot 4y

Continuity
2.5
When we plot function values generated in a laboratory or collected in the field, we often
connect the plotted points with an unbroken curve to show what the function’s values are
likely to have been at the times we did not measure (Figure 2.34). In doing so, we are
assuming that we are working with a continuous function, so its outputs vary continuously
with the inputs and do not jump from one value to another without taking on the values
in between. The limit of a continuous function as x approaches c can be found simply by
calculating the value of the function at c. (We found this to be true for polynomials in
Theorem 2.)
Intuitively, any function y = ƒsxd whose graph can be sketched over its domain in one
continuous motion without lifting the pencil is an example of a continuous function. In
this section we investigate more precisely what it means for a function to be continuous.
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2.5 Continuity 101

function y = 2x + 5. Then ƒ is the sum of the function g and the quadratic function
y = x 2, and the quadratic function is continuous for all values of x. It follows that
ƒ(x) = 22x + 5 + x 2 is continuous on the interval [-5>2, q). By trial and error, we
find the function values ƒ(0) = 25 L 2.24 and ƒ(2) = 29 + 4 = 7, and note that ƒ is
also continuous on the finite closed interval [0, 2] ( [- 5>2, q). Since the value y0 = 4 is
between the numbers 2.24 and 7, by the Intermediate Value Theorem there is a number
c H [0, 2] such that ƒ(c) = 4. That is, the number c solves the original equation.

Exercises 2.5
Continuity from Graphs 5. a. Does ƒs - 1d exist?
In Exercises 1–4, say whether the function graphed is continuous on b. Does limx: -1+ ƒsxd exist?
[ -1, 3] . If not, where does it fail to be continuous and why?
c. Does limx:-1+ ƒsxd = ƒs - 1d ?
1. 2.
d. Is ƒ continuous at x = - 1 ?
y y
6. a. Does ƒ(1) exist?
y  f (x) y  g(x) b. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist?
2 2
c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd = ƒs1d ?
1 1
d. Is ƒ continuous at x = 1 ?
7. a. Is ƒ defined at x = 2 ? (Look at the definition of ƒ.)
x x
–1 0 1 2 3 –1 0 1 2 3 b. Is ƒ continuous at x = 2 ?
3. 4. 8. At what values of x is ƒ continuous?
y y 9. What value should be assigned to ƒ(2) to make the extended func-
tion continuous at x = 2 ?
y  h(x) y  k(x) 10. To what new value should ƒ(1) be changed to remove the discon-
2 2 tinuity?
1 1

x x
Applying the Continuity Test
–1 0 1 2 3 –1 0 1 2 3 At which points do the functions in Exercises 11 and 12 fail to be con-
tinuous? At which points, if any, are the discontinuities removable?
Exercises 5–10 refer to the function Not removable? Give reasons for your answers.
11. Exercise 1, Section 2.4 12. Exercise 2, Section 2.4
x 2 - 1, -1 … x 6 0
2x, 0 6 x 6 1 At what points are the functions in Exercises 13–30 continuous?
ƒsxd = e 1, x = 1
1 1
- 2x + 4, 1 6 x 6 2 13. y = - 3x 14. y = + 4
x - 2 sx + 2d2
0, 2 6 x 6 3
x + 1 x + 3
15. y = 16. y =
graphed in the accompanying figure. x 2 - 4x + 3 x 2 - 3x - 10

y 1 x2
17. y = ƒ x - 1 ƒ + sin x 18. y = -
ƒxƒ + 1 2
y  f (x)
2 (1, 2) cos x x + 2
19. y = x 20. y = cos x
y  2x y  –2x  4 px
21. y = csc 2x 22. y = tan
(1, 1)
2

x x tan x 2x 4 + 1
23. y = 24. y =
–1 0 1 2 3 x2 + 1 1 + sin2 x

y  x2  1 –1 25. y = 22x + 3
4
26. y = 23x - 1

The graph for Exercises 5–10. 27. y = s2x - 1d1>3 28. y = s2 - xd1>5
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102 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

x2 - x - 6 47. For what values of a and b is

29. gsxd = • x - 3
, x Z 3
-2, x … -1
5, x = 3 ƒsxd = • ax - b, -1 6 x 6 1
x3 - 8 3, x Ú 1
, x Z 2, x Z - 2
x2 - 4 continuous at every x?
30. ƒsxd = d
3, x = 2 48. For what values of a and b is
4, x = -2
ax + 2b, x … 0
gsxd = • x 2 + 3a - b, 0 6 x … 2
Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions
3x - 5, x 7 2
Find the limits in Exercises 31–38. Are the functions continuous at the
point being approached? continuous at every x?

32. lim sin a cos stan tdb

p
31. lim sin sx - sin xd
x: p t :0 2 T In Exercises 49–52, graph the function ƒ to see whether it appears to
33. lim sec s y sec2 y - tan2 y - 1d have a continuous extension to the origin. If it does, use Trace and Zoom
y: 1 to find a good candidate for the extended function’s value at x = 0 .
34. lim tan a
p If the function does not appear to have a continuous extension, can it be
cos ssin x 1>3 db extended to be continuous at the origin from the right or from the left?
x: 0 4
If so, what do you think the extended function’s value(s) should be?
35. lim cos a b 36.
p
lim 2csc2 x + 513 tan x 10 x - 1 10 ƒ x ƒ - 1
t :0 219 - 3 sec 2t x: p/6 49. ƒsxd = x 50. ƒsxd = x
37. lim+ sin a e b
p 2x
38. lim cos-1 (ln 2x) 51. ƒsxd =
sin x
52. ƒsxd = s1 + 2xd1>x
x: 0 2 x: 1
ƒxƒ

Continuous Extensions Theory and Examples

39. Define g(3) in a way that extends g sxd = sx 2 - 9d>sx - 3d to be 53. A continuous function y = ƒsxd is known to be negative at x = 0
continuous at x = 3 . and positive at x = 1 . Why does the equation ƒsxd = 0 have at
40. Define h(2) in a way that extends hstd = st 2 + 3t - 10d>st - 2d least one solution between x = 0 and x = 1? Illustrate with a
to be continuous at t = 2 . sketch.
41. Define ƒ(1) in a way that extends ƒssd = ss 3 - 1d>ss 2 - 1d to 54. Explain why the equation cos x = x has at least one solution.
be continuous at s = 1 . 55. Roots of a cubic Show that the equation x 3 - 15x + 1 = 0
42. Define g(4) in a way that extends has three solutions in the interval [- 4, 4] .
g sxd = sx 2 - 16d> sx 2 - 3x - 4d 56. A function value Show that the function Fsxd = sx - ad2 #
sx - bd2 + x takes on the value sa + bd>2 for some value of x.
to be continuous at x = 4 .
57. Solving an equation If ƒsxd = x 3 - 8x + 10 , show that
43. For what value of a is there are values c for which ƒ(c) equals (a) p ; (b) - 23 ;
x 2 - 1,
ƒsxd = e
x 6 3 (c) 5,000,000.
2ax, x Ú 3 58. Explain why the following five statements ask for the same infor-
continuous at every x? mation.
44. For what value of b is a. Find the roots of ƒsxd = x 3 - 3x - 1 .
b. Find the x-coordinates of the points where the curve y = x 3
g sxd = e 2
x, x 6 -2
crosses the line y = 3x + 1 .
bx , x Ú -2
c. Find all the values of x for which x 3 - 3x = 1 .
continuous at every x? d. Find the x-coordinates of the points where the cubic curve
45. For what values of a is y = x 3 - 3x crosses the line y = 1 .
e. Solve the equation x 3 - 3x - 1 = 0 .
a 2x - 2a, x Ú 2
ƒsxd = b 59. Removable discontinuity Give an example of a function ƒ(x)
12, x 6 2
that is continuous for all values of x except x = 2 , where it has
continuous at every x? a removable discontinuity. Explain how you know that ƒ is dis-
46. For what value of b is continuous at x = 2 , and how you know the discontinuity is
removable.
x - b
, x 6 0
gsxd = • b + 1
60. Nonremovable discontinuity Give an example of a function
g(x) that is continuous for all values of x except x = - 1 , where it
x 2 + b, x 7 0
has a nonremovable discontinuity. Explain how you know that g is
continuous at every x? discontinuous there and why the discontinuity is not removable.
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2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs 103

61. A function discontinuous at every point 68. The sign-preserving property of continuous functions Let ƒ
a. Use the fact that every nonempty interval of real numbers be defined on an interval (a, b) and suppose that ƒscd Z 0 at some
contains both rational and irrational numbers to show that the c where ƒ is continuous. Show that there is an interval
function sc - d, c + dd about c where ƒ has the same sign as ƒ(c).
69. Prove that ƒ is continuous at c if and only if
ƒsxd = e
1, if x is rational
0, if x is irrational lim ƒsc + hd = ƒscd .
h:0
is discontinuous at every point.
b. Is ƒ right-continuous or left-continuous at any point? 70. Use Exercise 69 together with the identities
62. If functions ƒ(x) and g(x) are continuous for 0 … x … 1 , could sin sh + cd = sin h cos c + cos h sin c ,
ƒ(x)>g (x) possibly be discontinuous at a point of [0, 1]? Give rea-
cos sh + cd = cos h cos c - sin h sin c
sons for your answer.
63. If the product function hsxd = ƒsxd # g sxd is continuous at x = 0 , to prove that both ƒsxd = sin x and g sxd = cos x are continuous
must ƒ(x) and g(x) be continuous at x = 0 ? Give reasons for your at every point x = c .
answer.
64. Discontinuous composite of continuous functions Give an ex-
ample of functions ƒ and g, both continuous at x = 0 , for which Solving Equations Graphically
the composite ƒ  g is discontinuous at x = 0 . Does this contra- T Use the Intermediate Value Theorem in Exercises 71–78 to prove that
dict Theorem 9? Give reasons for your answer. each equation has a solution. Then use a graphing calculator or com-
puter grapher to solve the equations.
65. Never-zero continuous functions Is it true that a continuous
function that is never zero on an interval never changes sign on 71. x 3 - 3x - 1 = 0
that interval? Give reasons for your answer. 72. 2x 3 - 2x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
66. Stretching a rubber band Is it true that if you stretch a rubber 73. xsx - 1d2 = 1 sone rootd
band by moving one end to the right and the other to the left, x
74. x = 2
some point of the band will end up in its original position? Give
75. 2x + 21 + x = 4
reasons for your answer.
76. x 3 - 15x + 1 = 0 sthree rootsd
67. A fixed point theorem Suppose that a function ƒ is continuous
on the closed interval [0, 1] and that 0 … ƒsxd … 1 for every x in 77. cos x = x sone rootd . Make sure you are using radian mode.
[0, 1]. Show that there must exist a number c in [0, 1] such that 78. 2 sin x = x sthree rootsd . Make sure you are using radian
ƒscd = c (c is called a fixed point of ƒ). mode.

Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs

2.6
In this section we investigate the behavior of a function when the magnitude of the inde-
y
pendent variable x becomes increasingly large, or x : ; q . We further extend the concept
of limit to infinite limits, which are not limits as before, but rather a new use of the term
4
limit. Infinite limits provide useful symbols and language for describing the behavior of
3 functions whose values become arbitrarily large in magnitude. We use these limit ideas to
2 y  1x analyze the graphs of functions having horizontal or vertical asymptotes.
1
x
–1 0 1 2 3 4 Finite Limits as x : —ˆ
–1
The symbol for infinity s q d does not represent a real number. We use q to describe the
behavior of a function when the values in its domain or range outgrow all finite bounds.
For example, the function ƒsxd = 1>x is defined for all x Z 0 (Figure 2.49). When x is
positive and becomes increasingly large, 1>x becomes increasingly small. When x is
negative and its magnitude becomes increasingly large, 1>x again becomes small. We
summarize these observations by saying that ƒsxd = 1>x has limit 0 as x : q or
FIGURE 2.49 The graph of y = 1>x x : - q , or that 0 is a limit of ƒsxd = 1>x at infinity and negative infinity. Here are
approaches 0 as x : q or x : - q . precise definitions.
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114 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

However, calculating more complicated limits involving transcendental functions such as

x
lim a1 + x b
x ln x 1
lim
2x
, lim x , and
x:0 e - 1 x:0 x:0
requires more than simple algebraic techniques. The derivative is exactly the tool we need
to calculate limits in these kinds of cases (see Section 4.5), and this notion is the main sub-
ject of our next chapter.

Exercises 2.6
Finding Limits 1 1
5. g sxd = 6. g sxd =
1. For the function ƒ whose graph is given, determine the following 2 + s1>xd 8 - s5>x 2 d
limits. - 5 + s7>xd 3 - s2>xd
a. lim ƒ(x) b. lim + ƒ(x) c. lim - ƒ(x) 7. hsxd = 2
8. hsxd =
x: 2 x: -3 x: -3 3 - s1>x d 4 + (22>x 2)
d. lim ƒ(x) e. lim+ ƒ(x) f. lim- ƒ(x)
x: -3 x: 0 x:0 Find the limits in Exercises 9–12.
g. lim ƒ(x) h. lim ƒ(x) i. lim ƒ(x)
x:0 x: q x: - q sin 2x cos u
9. lim x 10. lim
y x: q u: -q 3u
2 - t + sin t r + sin r
11. lim 12. lim
t: - q t + cos t r : q 2r + 7 - 5 sin r
3
2 Limits of Rational Functions
f In Exercises 13–22, find the limit of each rational function (a) as
1
x x : q and (b) as x : - q .
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 2x + 3 2x 3 + 7
13. ƒsxd = 14. ƒsxd =
–2 5x + 7 x3 - x2 + x + 7
–3 x + 1 3x + 7
15. ƒsxd = 16. ƒsxd =
x2 + 3 x2 - 2
7x 3 1
2. For the function ƒ whose graph is given, determine the following 17. hsxd = 18. g sxd =
x - 3x 2 + 6x
3
x 3 - 4x + 1
limits.
10x 5 + x 4 + 31 9x 4 + x
a. lim ƒ(x) b. lim+ ƒ(x) c. lim- ƒ(x) 19. g sxd = 20. hsxd =
x: 4 x:2 x:2 x6 2x + 5x 2 - x + 6
4
d. lim ƒ(x) e. lim ƒ(x) f. lim ƒ(x)
x:2 x: -3 + x : -3 - -2x 3 - 2x + 3 -x 4
g. lim ƒ(x) h. lim+ ƒ(x) i. lim- ƒ(x) 21. hsxd = 22. hsxd =
x: -3 x: 0 x: 0 3x 3 + 3x 2 - 5x x - 7x + 7x 2 + 9
4 3

j. lim ƒ(x) k. lim ƒ(x) l. lim ƒ(x)

x: 0 x: q x: - q
Limits as x : ˆ or x :  ˆ
y The process by which we determine limits of rational functions
applies equally well to ratios containing noninteger or negative
3 powers of x: divide numerator and denominator by the highest
f power of x in the denominator and proceed from there. Find the lim-
2
its in Exercises 23–36.
1
1>3
x 8x 2 - 3 x2 + x - 1
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 23. lim 24. lim ¢ ≤
–1 x : q A 2x 2 + x x: -q 8x 2 - 3
–2 5
1 - x3 x 2 - 5x
25. lim ¢ ≤ 26. lim
–3 x: -q x 2 + 7x x: q Ax + x - 2
3

22x + x -1 2 + 2x
27. lim 28. lim
x: q 3x - 7 x: q 2 - 2x
In Exercises 3–8, find the limit of each function (a) as x : q and 5
2x - 2x
3
x -1 + x -4
(b) as x : - q . (You may wish to visualize your answer with a 29. lim 5
30. lim
graphing calculator or computer.)
x: -q 2x + 2x
3 x: q x -2 - x -3

2 2 2x 5>3 - x 1>3 + 7 23
x - 5x + 3
3. ƒsxd = x - 3 4. ƒsxd = p - 31. lim 32. lim
x2 x: q x 8>5 + 3x + 2x x: -q 2x + x 2>3 - 4
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2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs 115

2x 2 + 1 2x 2 + 1 Find the limits in Exercises 59–62.

33. lim 34. lim
59. lim a2 - 1>3 b as
x: q x + 1 x: - q x + 1 3
x - 3 4 - 3x 3 t
35. lim 36. lim a. t : 0 + b. t : 0 -
x: q 24x + 25 2 x: - q 2x 6 + 9
60. lim a
1
+ 7b as
Infinite Limits t 3>5
Find the limits in Exercises 37–48. a. t : 0 + b. t : 0 -
1 5
61. lim a b as
37. lim+ 38. lim- 1 2
x: 0 3x x: 0 2x +
x 2>3 sx - 1d2>3
3 1
39. lim- 40. lim+ a. x : 0 + b. x : 0 -
x: 2 x - 2 x: 3 x - 3
2x 3x c. x : 1+ d. x : 1-
41. lim + 42. lim -
x: -8 x + 8 x: -5 2x + 10
62. lim a b as
1 1
-
4 -1 x 1>3 sx - 1d4>3
43. lim 44. lim 2
x: 7 sx - 7d2 x: 0 x sx + 1d a. x : 0 + b. x : 0 -
2 2 c. x : 1+ d. x : 1-
45. a. lim+ 1>3 b. lim- 1>3
x: 0 3x x : 0 3x
2 2 Graphing Simple Rational Functions
46. a. lim+ 1>5 b. lim- 1>5
x: 0 x x:0 x Graph the rational functions in Exercises 63–68. Include the graphs
4 1 and equations of the asymptotes and dominant terms.
47. lim 48. lim 2>3
x: 0 x 2>5 x: 0 x 1 1
63. y = 64. y =
x - 1 x + 1
Find the limits in Exercises 49–52.
1 -3
65. y = 66. y =
49. lim tan x 50. lim sec x 2x + 4 x - 3
x: sp>2d -
x: s-p>2d +

x + 3 2x
51. lim s1 + csc ud 52. lim s2 - cot ud 67. y = 68. y =
u :0 - u: 0 x + 2 x + 1

Find the limits in Exercises 53–58. Inventing Graphs and Functions

1 In Exercises 69–72, sketch the graph of a function y = ƒsxd that satis-
53. lim 2 as
x - 4 fies the given conditions. No formulas are required—just label the coor-
a. x : 2+ b. x : 2- dinate axes and sketch an appropriate graph. (The answers are not unique,
so your graphs may not be exactly like those in the answer section.)
c. x : -2+ d. x : -2-
x 69. ƒs0d = 0, ƒs1d = 2, ƒs -1d = - 2, lim ƒsxd = - 1, and
54. lim 2 as x: - q
x - 1 lim ƒsxd = 1
x: q
a. x : 1+ b. x : 1-
70. ƒs0d = 0, lim ƒsxd = 0, lim+ ƒsxd = 2, and
c. x : -1+ d. x : - 1- x: ;q x :0
lim- ƒsxd = - 2
55. lim a - x b as
2
x 1 x :0
2
71. ƒs0d = 0, lim ƒsxd = 0, lim- ƒsxd = lim + ƒsxd = q ,
x: ;q x :1 x : -1
a. x : 0 + b. x : 0 -
lim+ ƒsxd = - q , and lim - ƒsxd = - q
c. x : 23
2 d. x : - 1 x :1 x : -1
2 72. ƒs2d = 1, ƒs -1d = 0, lim ƒsxd = 0, lim+ ƒsxd = q ,
x - 1
56. lim as x: q x :0
2x + 4 lim- ƒsxd = - q , and lim ƒsxd = 1
a. x : -2+ b. x : -2- x :0 x: -q

c. x : 1+ d. x : 0 - In Exercises 73–76, find a function that satisfies the given conditions

x 2 - 3x + 2 and sketch its graph. (The answers here are not unique. Any function
57. lim as
x 3 - 2x 2 that satisfies the conditions is acceptable. Feel free to use formulas de-
a. x : 0 +
b. x : 2+ fined in pieces if that will help.)
c. x : 2- d. x : 2 73. lim ƒsxd = 0, lim- ƒsxd = q , and lim+ ƒsxd = q
x: ;q x :2 x :2
e. What, if anything, can be said about the limit as x : 0 ?
74. lim g sxd = 0, lim- g sxd = - q , and lim+ g sxd = q
x 2 - 3x + 2 x: ;q x :3 x :3
58. lim as
x 3 - 4x 75. lim hsxd = - 1, lim hsxd = 1, lim- hsxd = - 1, and
a. x : 2+ b. x : -2+ x: -q x: q x :0

c. x : 0 - d. x : 1+ lim+ hsxd = 1
x :0
e. What, if anything, can be said about the limit as x : 0 ? 76. lim k sxd = 1, lim- k sxd = q , and lim+ k sxd = - q
x: ;q x :1 x :1
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116 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

77. Suppose that ƒ(x) and g(x) are polynomials in x and that Modify the definition to cover the following cases.
limx: q sƒsxd>g sxdd = 2 . Can you conclude anything about a. lim ƒsxd = q
limx:- q sƒsxd>g sxdd ? Give reasons for your answer. x :x0 -

78. Suppose that ƒ(x) and g(x) are polynomials in x. Can the graph of b. lim ƒsxd = - q
x :x0 +
ƒ(x)>g (x) have an asymptote if g(x) is never zero? Give reasons
for your answer. c. lim - ƒsxd = - q
x :x0
79. How many horizontal asymptotes can the graph of a given ra-
tional function have? Give reasons for your answer. Use the formal definitions from Exercise 93 to prove the limit state-
ments in Exercises 94–98.
Finding Limits of Differences when x : ; ˆ 1 1
Find the limits in Exercises 80–86. 94. lim+ x = q 95. lim- x = - q
A 2x + 9 - 2x + 4 B
x :0 x :0
80. lim 1 1
x: q 96. lim- = -q 97. lim+ = q
A 2x 2 + 25 - 2x 2 - 1 B
x :2 x - 2 x :2 x - 2
81. lim 1
x: q 98. lim-
A 2x 2 + 3 + x B
= q
x :1 1 - x 2
82. lim
x: - q
83. lim A 2x + 24x 2 + 3x - 2 B Oblique Asymptotes
x: - q
A 29x - x - 3x B
2 Graph the rational functions in Exercises 99–104. Include the graphs
84. lim
x: q and equations of the asymptotes.
85. lim A 2x 2 + 3x - 2x 2 - 2x B 99. y =
x2
100. y =
x2 + 1
x: q
86. lim A 2x 2 + x - 2x 2 - x B
x - 1 x - 1
x: q x2 - 4 x2 - 1
101. y = 102. y =
x - 1 2x + 4
Using the Formal Definitions
x2 - 1 x3 + 1
Use the formal definitions of limits as x : ; q to establish the limits 103. y = x 104. y =
x2
in Exercises 87 and 88.
87. If ƒ has the constant value ƒsxd = k , then lim ƒsxd = k . Additional Graphing Exercises
x: q
88. If ƒ has the constant value ƒsxd = k , then lim ƒsxd = k . T Graph the curves in Exercises 105–108. Explain the relationship
x: -q
between the curve’s formula and what you see.
Use formal definitions to prove the limit statements in Exercises
x -1
89–92. 105. y = 106. y =
-1 1 24 - x 2
24 - x 2
89. lim 2 = - q 90. lim
108. y = sin a 2 b
= q 1 p
x: 0 x x: 0 ƒ x ƒ 107. y = x 2>3 + 1>3
-2 1 x x + 1
91. lim = -q 92. lim = q
x: 3 sx - 3d2 x: -5 sx + 5d2

93. Here is the definition of infinite right-hand limit. T Graph the functions in Exercises 109 and 110. Then answer the fol-
lowing questions.

We say that ƒ(x) approaches infinity as x approaches x0 a. How does the graph behave as x : 0 +?
from the right, and write b. How does the graph behave as x : ; q ?
lim + ƒsxd = q , c. How does the graph behave near x = 1 and x = - 1?
x: x0
if, for every positive real number B, there exists a corre- Give reasons for your answers.
sponding number d 7 0 such that for all x 2>3 2>3
ax - x b a b
3 1 3 x
x0 6 x 6 x0 + d Q ƒsxd 7 B. 109. y = 110. y =
2 2 x - 1

Chapter 2 Questions to Guide Your Review

1. What is the average rate of change of the function g(t) over the in- 3. Give an informal or intuitive definition of the limit
terval from t = a to t = b ? How is it related to a secant line?
lim ƒsxd = L.
2. What limit must be calculated to find the rate of change of a func- x :x0

tion g(t) at t = t0 ? Why is the definition “informal”? Give examples.

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Chapter 2 Practice Exercises 117

4. Does the existence and value of the limit of a function ƒ(x) as x 13. What does it mean for a function to be right-continuous at a
approaches x0 ever depend on what happens at x = x0 ? Explain point? Left-continuous? How are continuity and one-sided conti-
and give examples. nuity related?
5. What function behaviors might occur for which the limit may fail 14. What does it mean for a function to be continuous on an interval?
to exist? Give examples. Give examples to illustrate the fact that a function that is not con-
6. What theorems are available for calculating limits? Give exam- tinuous on its entire domain may still be continuous on selected
ples of how the theorems are used. intervals within the domain.
7. How are one-sided limits related to limits? How can this relation- 15. What are the basic types of discontinuity? Give an example of
ship sometimes be used to calculate a limit or prove it does not each. What is a removable discontinuity? Give an example.
exist? Give examples. 16. What does it mean for a function to have the Intermediate Value
8. What is the value of lim u:0 sssin ud>ud ? Does it matter whether u Property? What conditions guarantee that a function has this
is measured in degrees or radians? Explain. property over an interval? What are the consequences for graph-
ing and solving the equation ƒsxd = 0 ?
9. What exactly does limx:x0 ƒsxd = L mean? Give an example in
which you find a d 7 0 for a given ƒ, L, x0 , and P 7 0 in the pre- 17. Under what circumstances can you extend a function ƒ(x) to be
cise definition of limit. continuous at a point x = c ? Give an example.
10. Give precise definitions of the following statements. 18. What exactly do limx: q ƒsxd = L and limx:- q ƒsxd = L mean?
Give examples.
a. limx:2- ƒsxd = 5 b. limx:2+ ƒsxd = 5 19. What are limx:; q k (k a constant) and limx:; q s1>xd ? How do
c. limx:2 ƒsxd = q d. limx:2 ƒsxd = - q you extend these results to other functions? Give examples.
11. What conditions must be satisfied by a function if it is to be con- 20. How do you find the limit of a rational function as x : ; q ?
tinuous at an interior point of its domain? At an endpoint? Give examples.
12. How can looking at the graph of a function help you tell where 21. What are horizontal and vertical asymptotes? Give examples.
the function is continuous?

Chapter 2 Practice Exercises

Limits and Continuity e. cos (g(t)) f. ƒ ƒstd ƒ
1. Graph the function g. ƒstd + g std h. 1>ƒ(t)

1, x … -1 4. Suppose the functions ƒ(x) and g(x) are defined for all x and that
- x, -1 6 x 6 0 limx:0 ƒsxd = 1>2 and limx:0 g sxd = 22 . Find the limits as
ƒsxd = e 1, x = 0 x : 0 of the following functions.
- x, 0 6 x 6 1 a. - g sxd b. g sxd # ƒsxd
1, x Ú 1. c. ƒsxd + g sxd d. 1>ƒ(x)
ƒsxd # cos x
Then discuss, in detail, limits, one-sided limits, continuity, and e. x + ƒsxd f.
x - 1
one-sided continuity of ƒ at x = - 1, 0 , and 1. Are any of the dis-
continuities removable? Explain.
In Exercises 5 and 6, find the value that limx:0 g sxd must have if the
2. Repeat the instructions of Exercise 1 for given limit statements hold.

5. lim a b = 1
4 - g sxd
x :0 x
0, x … -1
6. lim ax lim g sxdb = 2
1>x, 0 6 ƒxƒ 6 1
ƒsxd = d x : -4 x :0
0, x = 1
1, x 7 1. 7. On what intervals are the following functions continuous?
a. ƒsxd = x 1>3 b. g sxd = x 3>4
3. Suppose that ƒ(t) and g(t) are defined for all t and that limt:t0 c. hsxd = x -2>3 d. ksxd = x -1>6
ƒstd = - 7 and limt:t0 g std = 0 . Find the limit as t : t0 of the
8. On what intervals are the following functions continuous?
following functions.
a. ƒsxd = tan x b. g sxd = csc x
a. 3ƒ(t) b. sƒstdd2
cos x sin x
ƒstd c. hsxd = x - p d. ksxd = x
c. ƒstd # g std d.
g std - 7
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118 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

Finding Limits x - 1
35. ƒsxd = 4
, a = 1
In Exercises 9–28, find the limit or explain why it does not exist. x - 2x
x 2 - 4x + 4 36. g sud =
5 cos u
, a = p>2
9. lim 4u - 2p
x + 5x 2 - 14x
3

a. as x : 0 b. as x : 2 37. hstd = s1 + ƒ t ƒ d1>t, a = 0

x2 + x x
10. lim 38. k sxd = , a = 0
x + 2x 4 + x 3
5 1 - 2ƒ x ƒ
a. as x : 0 b. as x : - 1
1 - 2x x2 - a2 Roots
11. lim 12. lim
x: 1 1 - x x:a x4 - a4 T 39. Let ƒsxd = x 3 - x - 1 .
sx + hd2 - x 2 sx + hd2 - x 2 a. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that ƒ has a zero
13. lim 14. lim between -1 and 2.
h:0 h x:0 h
1 1 b. Solve the equation ƒsxd = 0 graphically with an error of
2 + x
-
2 s2 + xd3 - 8 magnitude at most 10 -8 .
15. lim x 16. lim x
x: 0 x:0 c. It can be shown that the exact value of the solution in part (b) is
x 1>3 - 1 x 2>3 - 16
269 1>3 269 1>3
a b + a - b .
17. lim 18. lim 1 1
2x - 1
x: 1 x : 64 2x - 8 2
+
18 2 18
tan (2x)
19. lim 20. lim csc x
x: 0 tan (px) x:p- Evaluate this exact answer and compare it with the value you
found in part (b).
21. lim sin a + sin x b
x
22. lim cos2 sx - tan xd T 40. Let ƒsud = u3 - 2u + 2 .
x: p 2 x:p
a. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that ƒ has a zero
8x cos 2x - 1
23. lim 24. lim between -2 and 0.
x: 0 3 sin x - x x:0 sin x
26. lim t 2 ln A 2 - 2t B
b. Solve the equation ƒsud = 0 graphically with an error of
25. lim+ ln (t - 3)
t :3 t:1 magnitude at most 10 -4 .
2e1>z c. It can be shown that the exact value of the solution in part (b) is
27. lim+ 2u ecos (p>u) 28. lim+ 1>z
u :0 z: 0 e + 1
1>3 1>3
a - a
19 19
- 1b + 1b .
A 27 A 27
In Exercises 29–32, find the limit of g (x) as x approaches the indi-
cated value. Evaluate this exact answer and compare it with the value you
1>3
found in part (b).
29. lim+ s4g sxdd = 2
x: 0
1
30. lim = 2 Limits at Infinity
x: 25 x + g sxd Find the limits in Exercises 41–54.
3x 2 + 1 2x + 3 2x2 + 3
31. lim = q 41. lim 42. lim
x: 1 g sxd x : q 5x + 7 x: -q 5x 2 + 7
5 - x2 2
x - 4x + 8 1
32. lim = 0 43. lim 44. lim
x: -2 2g sxd x: -q 3x 3 x: q x 2 - 7x + 1
x 2 - 7x x4 + x3
45. lim 46. lim
x: -q x + 1 x : q 12x 3 + 128
Continuous Extension
sin x sIf you have a grapher, try graphing the function
33. Can ƒsxd = xsx 2 - 1d> ƒ x 2 - 1 ƒ be extended to be continuous at
:x ;
47. lim
x = 1 or - 1 ? Give reasons for your answers. (Graph the func- x: q for -5 … x … 5.d
tion—you will find the graph interesting.) sIf you have a grapher, try graphing
cos u - 1
34. Explain why the function ƒsxd = sin s1>xd has no continuous ex- 48. lim ƒsxd = xscos s1>xd - 1d near the origin to
u: q u
tension to x = 0 . “see” the limit at infinity.d

x + sin x + 22x x 2>3 + x -1

T In Exercises 35–38, graph the function to see whether it appears to 49. lim 50. lim
x: q x + sin x x: q x 2>3 + cos2 x
have a continuous extension to the given point a. If it does, use Trace
52. lim ln a1 + t b
and Zoom to find a good candidate for the extended function’s value 1 1
51. lim e1>x cos x
at a. If the function does not appear to have a continuous extension, x: q t: q

can it be extended to be continuous from the right or left? If so, what 1

53. lim tan-1 x 54. lim e3t sin-1 t
do you think the extended function’s value should be? x: -q t: - q
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Chapter 2 Additional and Advanced Exercises 119

Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes 56. Use limits to determine the equations for all horizontal asymptotes.
55. Use limits to determine the equations for all vertical asymptotes. 1 - x2 2x + 4
2 2 a. y = b. ƒ(x) =
a. y =
x + 4 x - x - 2
b. ƒ(x) = 2 x2 + 1 2x + 4
x - 3 x - 2x + 1
2x + 4
2
x2 + 9
x2 + x - 6 c. g(x) = x d. y =
c. y = A 9x 2 + 1
x 2 + 2x - 8

Chapter 2 Additional and Advanced Exercises

T 1. Assigning a value to 00 The rules of exponents tell us that 4. Controlling the flow from a draining tank Torricelli’s law
a 0 = 1 if a is any number different from zero. They also tell us says that if you drain a tank like the one in the figure shown, the
that 0 n = 0 if n is any positive number. rate y at which water runs out is a constant times the square root of
If we tried to extend these rules to include the case 0 0 , we the water’s depth x. The constant depends on the size and shape of
would get conflicting results. The first rule would say 0 0 = 1 , the exit valve.
whereas the second would say 0 0 = 0 .
We are not dealing with a question of right or wrong here.
Neither rule applies as it stands, so there is no contradiction. We
could, in fact, define 0 0 to have any value we wanted as long as
we could persuade others to agree.
What value would you like 0 0 to have? Here is an example x
that might help you to decide. (See Exercise 2 below for another Exit rate y ft 3兾min
example.)
a. Calculate x x for x = 0.1 , 0.01, 0.001, and so on as far as your
calculator can go. Record the values you get. What pattern do
you see? Suppose that y = 2x>2 for a certain tank. You are trying to
b. Graph the function y = x x for 0 6 x … 1 . Even though the maintain a fairly constant exit rate by adding water to the tank
function is not defined for x … 0 , the graph will approach the with a hose from time to time. How deep must you keep the water
y-axis from the right. Toward what y-value does it seem to be if you want to maintain the exit rate
headed? Zoom in to further support your idea. a. within 0.2 ft3>min of the rate y0 = 1 ft3>min ?
T 2. A reason you might want 00 to be something other than 0 or 1 b. within 0.1 ft3>min of the rate y0 = 1 ft3>min ?
As the number x increases through positive values, the numbers
1>x and 1> (ln x) both approach zero. What happens to the number
5. Thermal expansion in precise equipment As you may know,
most metals expand when heated and contract when cooled. The
1>sln xd
ƒsxd = a x b
1 dimensions of a piece of laboratory equipment are sometimes so
critical that the shop where the equipment is made must be held
as x increases? Here are two ways to find out. at the same temperature as the laboratory where the equipment is
to be used. A typical aluminum bar that is 10 cm wide at 70°F
a. Evaluate ƒ for x = 10 , 100, 1000, and so on as far as your will be
calculator can reasonably go. What pattern do you see?
y = 10 + st - 70d * 10 -4
b. Graph ƒ in a variety of graphing windows, including windows
that contain the origin. What do you see? Trace the y-values centimeters wide at a nearby temperature t. Suppose that you are
along the graph. What do you find? using a bar like this in a gravity wave detector, where its width
must stay within 0.0005 cm of the ideal 10 cm. How close to
3. Lorentz contraction In relativity theory, the length of an ob-
t0 = 70°F must you maintain the temperature to ensure that this
ject, say a rocket, appears to an observer to depend on the speed at
tolerance is not exceeded?
which the object is traveling with respect to the observer. If the
observer measures the rocket’s length as L0 at rest, then at speed y 6. Stripes on a measuring cup The interior of a typical 1-L
the length will appear to be measuring cup is a right circular cylinder of radius 6 cm (see
accompanying figure). The volume of water we put in the cup is
y2 therefore a function of the level h to which the cup is filled, the
L = L0 1 - .
B c2 formula being
This equation is the Lorentz contraction formula. Here, c is the
V = p62h = 36ph .
speed of light in a vacuum, about 3 * 10 8 m>sec . What happens
to L as y increases? Find limy:c- L . Why was the left-hand limit How closely must we measure h to measure out 1 L of water
needed? s1000 cm3 d with an error of no more than 1% s10 cm3 d ?
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120 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

17. A function continuous at only one point Let

ƒsxd = e
x, if x is rational
0, if x is irrational.
a. Show that ƒ is continuous at x = 0 .
Stripes b. Use the fact that every nonempty open interval of real num-
about
1 mm
bers contains both rational and irrational numbers to show
wide that ƒ is not continuous at any nonzero value of x.
18. The Dirichlet ruler function If x is a rational number, then x
(a) can be written in a unique way as a quotient of integers m>n
where n 7 0 and m and n have no common factors greater than 1.
r  6 cm (We say that such a fraction is in lowest terms. For example, 6>4
written in lowest terms is 3>2.) Let ƒ(x) be defined for all x in the
interval [0, 1] by

ƒsxd = e
1>n, if x = m>n is a rational number in lowest terms
0, if x is irrational.
Liquid volume
h V  36h For instance, ƒs0d = ƒs1d = 1, ƒs1>2d = 1>2, ƒs1>3d = ƒ(2>3) =
1>3, ƒs1>4d = ƒs3>4d = 1>4 , and so on.
a. Show that ƒ is discontinuous at every rational number in [0, 1].
b. Show that ƒ is continuous at every irrational number in [0, 1].
(b)
(Hint: If P is a given positive number, show that there are only
finitely many rational numbers r in [0, 1] such that ƒsrd Ú P .)
A 1-L measuring cup (a), modeled as a right circular cylinder (b)
of radius r = 6 cm c. Sketch the graph of ƒ. Why do you think ƒ is called the “ruler
function”?
Precise Definition of Limit 19. Antipodal points Is there any reason to believe that there is al-
In Exercises 7–10, use the formal definition of limit to prove that the ways a pair of antipodal (diametrically opposite) points on Earth’s
function is continuous at x0 . equator where the temperatures are the same? Explain.
7. ƒsxd = x 2 - 7, x0 = 1 8. g sxd = 1>s2xd, x0 = 1>4 20. If lim sƒsxd + g sxdd = 3 and lim sƒsxd - g sxdd = - 1 , find
x :c x :c
9. hsxd = 22x - 3, x0 = 2 10. Fsxd = 29 - x, x0 = 5 lim ƒsxdg sxd .
x :c
11. Uniqueness of limits Show that a function cannot have two dif- 21. Roots of a quadratic equation that is almost linear The equa-
ferent limits at the same point. That is, if limx:x0 ƒsxd = L1 and tion ax 2 + 2x - 1 = 0 , where a is a constant, has two roots if
limx:x0 ƒsxd = L2 , then L1 = L2 . a 7 - 1 and a Z 0 , one positive and one negative:

12. Prove the limit Constant Multiple Rule: - 1 + 21 + a -1 - 21 + a

r+sad = a , r-sad = a .
lim kƒsxd = k lim ƒsxd for any constant k .
x:c x:c
a. What happens to r+sad as a : 0 ? As a : - 1+ ?
13. One-sided limits If limx:0+ ƒsxd = A and limx:0- ƒsxd = B , b. What happens to r-sad as a : 0 ? As a : -1+ ?
find
c. Support your conclusions by graphing r+sad and r-sad as
a. limx:0+ ƒsx 3 - xd b. limx:0- ƒsx 3 - xd functions of a. Describe what you see.
c. limx:0+ ƒsx 2 - x 4 d d. limx:0- ƒsx 2 - x 4 d d. For added support, graph ƒsxd = ax 2 + 2x - 1 simultane-
14. Limits and continuity Which of the following statements are ously for a = 1, 0.5, 0.2, 0.1, and 0.05.
true, and which are false? If true, say why; if false, give a coun- 22. Root of an equation Show that the equation x + 2 cos x = 0
terexample (that is, an example confirming the falsehood). has at least one solution.
a. If limx:a ƒsxd exists but limx:a g sxd does not exist, then 23. Bounded functions A real-valued function ƒ is bounded from
limx:asƒsxd + g sxdd does not exist. above on a set D if there exists a number N such that ƒsxd … N
b. If neither limx:a ƒsxd nor limx:a g sxd exists, then for all x in D. We call N, when it exists, an upper bound for ƒ on
limx:a sƒsxd + g sxdd does not exist. D and say that ƒ is bounded from above by N. In a similar manner,
we say that ƒ is bounded from below on D if there exists a num-
c. If ƒ is continuous at x, then so is ƒ ƒ ƒ .
ber M such that ƒsxd Ú M for all x in D. We call M, when it
d. If ƒ ƒ ƒ is continuous at a, then so is ƒ. exists, a lower bound for ƒ on D and say that ƒ is bounded from
In Exercises 15 and 16, use the formal definition of limit to prove that below by M. We say that ƒ is bounded on D if it is bounded from
the function has a continuous extension to the given value of x. both above and below.

x2 - 1 x 2 - 2x - 3 a. Show that ƒ is bounded on D if and only if there exists a num-

15. ƒsxd = , x = -1 16. g sxd = , x = 3 ber B such that ƒ ƒsxd ƒ … B for all x in D.
x + 1 2x - 6
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Chapter 2 Technology Application Projects 121

b. Suppose that ƒ is bounded from above by N. Show that if sin sx 2 - x - 2d sin sx 2 - x - 2d

limx:x0 ƒsxd = L , then L … N . c. lim = lim #
x : -1 x + 1 x : -1 sx 2 - x - 2d
c. Suppose that ƒ is bounded from below by M. Show that if sx 2 - x - 2d sx + 1dsx - 2d
limx:x0 ƒsxd = L , then L Ú M . lim = 1 # lim = -3
x + 1 x + 1
24. Max 5a, b6 and min 5a, b6
x : -1 x : -1

sin A 1 - 2x B sin A 1 - 2x B 1 - 2x
a. Show that the expression d. lim = lim =
x :1 x - 1 x :1 1 - 2x x - 1
max 5a, b6 =
ƒa - bƒ
A 1 - 2x B A 1 + 2x B
a + b
+
2 2 1 - x 1
1 # lim
sx - 1d A 1 + 2x B sx - 1d A 1 + 2x B
= lim =-
equals a if a Ú b and equals b if b Ú a . In other words, x :1 x:1 2
max {a, b} gives the larger of the two numbers a and b.
b. Find a similar expression for min 5a, b6, the smaller of Find the limits in Exercises 25–30.
a and b. sin s1 - cos xd sin x
25. lim x 26. lim+
x :0 x :0 sin 2x
sin U
Generalized Limits Involving sin ssin xd sin sx 2 + xd
U 27. lim 28. lim
The formula limu:0ssin ud>u = 1 can be generalized. If limx:c x :0 x x :0 x
ƒsxd = 0 and ƒ(x) is never zero in an open interval containing the
sin sx 2 - 4d sin A 2x - 3 B
point x = c , except possibly c itself, then 29. lim 30. lim
x :2 x - 2 x :9 x - 9
sin ƒsxd
lim = 1.
x: c ƒsxd
Oblique Asymptotes
Here are several examples.
Find all possible oblique asymptotes in Exercises 31–34.
sin x 2
a. lim = 1 2x 3>2 + 2x - 3
x: 0 x2 31. y = 32. y = x + x sin (1>x)
2 2 2
2x + 1
sin x sin x x
b. lim x = xlim lim = 1#0 = 0
x: 0 :0 x 2 x:0 x 33. y = 2x 2 + 1 34. y = 2x 2 + 2x

Chapter 2 Technology Application Projects

Mathematica/Maple Modules:
Take It to the Limit
Part I
Part II (Zero Raised to the Power Zero: What Does it Mean?)
Part III (One-Sided Limits)
Visualize and interpret the limit concept through graphical and numerical explorations.
Part IV (What a Difference a Power Makes)
See how sensitive limits can be with various powers of x.
Going to Infinity
Part I (Exploring Function Behavior as x : ˆ or x :  ˆ )
This module provides four examples to explore the behavior of a function as x : q or x : - q .
Part II (Rates of Growth)
Observe graphs that appear to be continuous, yet the function is not continuous. Several issues of continuity are explored to obtain results that you
may find surprising.