Wireless Communication (3171608) Enrollment no – 190430116079

INDEX
Sr.No Experiment Title Page Start End date Signature
date
1 To understand the pathloss 1-11
prediction formula.

2 To understand the effect of 12-16

shadowing on pathloss
formula.

3 To find the 3dB beam 17-22

width of a base station
antenna.
4 To understand the impact 23-27
of shadowing and path loss
exponent on boundary
coverage probability.

5 To understand the concept 28-35

of co-channel interference
and hence SINR (full
frame).

6 To understand the cellular 36-42

frequency reuse concept
fulfilling the following
objectives:

1. Finding the
cochannel cells for
a particular cell.
2. Finding the cell
clusters within
certain geographic
area.

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Wireless Communication (3171608) Enrollment no – 190430116079

7 The aim of the experiment 43-46

is to understand the impact
of many different
parameters which
influence the downlink C/I
ratio.

8 To understand the handoff 47-50

mechanism.

9 To study the outage 51-56

probability, LCR & ADF in
SISO for Selection
Combining and MRC.

10 To study the effect of delay 57-63

spread on frequency
selectivity.

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Wireless Communication (3171608) Enrollment no – 190430116079

PRACTICAL – 1

Aim: - To understand the pathloss prediction formula.

Objective:
1. Calculation of received signal strength as a function of
distance of separation, antenna height and carrier
frequency.
2. To understand the impact of: - o Transmitter Power, o Pathloss exponent, o Carrier
frequency, o Receiver antenna height, o Transmitter antenna height.

Theory:
The design of a communication system involves selection of values for several parameters.
One of the important parameters is the transmit power. Higher transmit power ensures large
allowable separation distance between the transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx). Of course, the
loss in signal power per unit distance depends on the properties of the medium. In case of
wireless communication on one hand it is desired to have a very large coverage (large
allowable separation between Tx and Rx) on the other hand it is also desired that co-channel
interference be as low as possible. An understanding of the large-scale propagation effects is
very important for design of suitable communication system. In terrestrial mobile
communication system, electro-magnetic wave propagation is affected by reflection,
diffraction and scattering. These lead to dynamic variation of signal strength as a function of
time, frequency, distance of separation, antenna height, antenna configuration, local
scattering environment etc. Propagation models are necessary in order to predict the received
signal strength for a given set of parameters as mentioned above. These models can be
broadly considered under: -
• Large scale Fading Model.
• Small Scale Fading Model.

1.1 Large Scale Fading: -

Large Scale Fading is dealt by propagation models that predict the mean received signal
strength for an arbitrary transmitter receiver separation. The large scale fading model gives
such an average with measurements across 4λλ to 40λλ, where λλ is the wavelength. This is
useful for estimating coverage area. Large Scale fading can be broadly classified as: -
• Path Loss.
• Shadowing.

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Wireless Communication (3171608) Enrollment no – 190430116079

Large scale fading is heavily affected by power dissipation and effects of the propagation
channels. The models assume some path loss at a given distance between Tx and Rx i.e. there
is no shadowing. It is useful in getting a quick estimate of the average signal strength, hence
the coverage. These models are used for prediction of signal variation across 100m-1000m.

We begin with Friis Free space propagation loss. The received power at a distance'd' is given
by.

• Pt= Transmitter Power.

• PR(d)= Received power at a distanced'.
• Gt= Transmit antenna power gain.
• Gr= Received antenna power gain.
• Λ Wavelength.
• Ae =Effective aperture related to the physical size of antenna.
• L≥1 System loss factor not related to propagation.
Transmission line, Filter losses, Antenna loss etc.
• D=Tx−Rx separation distance.
PR decrease as square of distance 20 dB/ decade.
Path loss gives a measure of signal attenation. It is usually measured in dB.It is defined as a
difference between the transmitted antenna gains.
The path loss for free space model is

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It may be remembered that Friis free space model is valid for 'd' in the far field of the
transmission antenna. The far field / Fraunhofer region is beyond the far field distance, where

Therefore a close in distance is used which is known as the received power reference point.
Thus PR(d) for d>d0 may be reference to PR(d0) where PR(d0) may be predicted from Friis
free space propagation loss model. It may also be obtained from measurements by using
average of several recordings at distance d0d0. The distance d0>>df but d0 is sufficiently
smaller than practical BS-MS distance.

Where PR(d0) is in watt.

The Value d0d0 in 1-2 GHz.

~1m for indoor condition.
~100m//1km for indoor condition.
The received power predicted by path loss models is influenced by
Reflection: Reflection occurs when the propagation waves impinge on objects with
dimension larger than λ.
Using the famous 2-Ray propagation model [Ref(Rappaport)] . It can be shown that when a
transmitter at height ht transmit with power Pt having antenna gain Gt the receiver signal
power at the receiver located at height hr using an antenna with gain Gr and located at a
distance 'd' from the transmitter given by
In general, the PL and d^-nr is the pathloss exponent. The value of np can be obtained
analytically/emperically.
Emperically models have the advantage of taking all factors into account (both known and
unknown). It is based on actual field measurement.

Its disadvantage is that it is valid for only the measured frequency and location. Generally.

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This experiment is on Path Loss Models: -

1.2 Important Formulas: -
These two formulas are for calculating the received signal strength and path loss exponent.
These two formulas are applicable for EXPT 1A and EXPT 1B.
Where, np=the path loss exponent.
1.3 Advanced Formula: -
This advanced formula given below calculates the path loss for a particular application and
captures the effect of base station antenna height, receiver antenna height and carrier
frequency.

Step1: enter name and start practical

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Step2: Performing Experiment 1A(Calculation of Received Power at a cer-tain Tx-Rx

separation distance)

Step3: Now, calculate the value of the unknown parameter (for e.g.Pr(d)Pr(d))

Step4: Performing Experiment 1B(Calculating the path loss exponent)

Step5: Performing Experiment 1C (Calculating fc)
input parameters needed for calculating the value of fc. You can change the values of transmit
power,transmit antenna height, by receive antenna height by adjusting the sliders.

step6: Performing Experiment 1D(Calculating input parameters needed for calculating the value
of hUT .You can change the values of transmit power ,transmit antenna height by adjusting the
sliders )

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Step7: Performing Experiment 1E(Calculating hBS):

input parameters needed for calculating the value of hBS. You can change the values of
transmit power, receive antenna height, frequency by adjusting the sliders.

Result: -

Conclusion:
By performing this experiment, we learned about pathloss. We learned about various
factors affecting the pathloss and we learned about calculating the received signal
strength.

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PRACTICAL – 2
Aim: - To understand the effect of shadowing on pathloss formula.
Objective:
To calculate pathloss exponent and variance of shadow fading from measurements and
hence find the large-scale propagation's statistical characteristics.
Theory:
The large-scale signal power strength prediction model is useful in predicting the average
signal strength as a function of separation distance the Tx and Rx. This may include
antenna gains, height, frequency of operation etc. The pathloss model does not
discriminate between two locations which are at the same distance from the B.S., but are
at two distinct directions. This is because the P.L. model does not take into account the
local clutter. It rather gives the area mean. However in reality if we consider two locations
in two different directions as is given in g, locA and locB which are at the same distance
'd' from the B.S. but have di event local clutter, then it will be found that the local means
at location A and B are not same. The P.L. model only gives an average value in an area.
If several such local mean signal strength are taken an average is taken and then this result
will match with that predicted by the P.L.

Where `bar(P_r(d))` is predicted using the appropriate( value of `n_p`) path loss model.
In fact, `n_p` is determined using curve fitting. Since the local mean is a random value, the
effect is captured through the shadowing process. Hence the earlier P.L. formula is extended
to take into consideration the local mean variation.

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Where, `X_sigma`is a random variable.

1.1 Example for calculating n and ‘sigma`: -

The received power at a distance d from the transmitter can be calculated using the following
formula

`P_r`is the computed value.

`hat(P_r)`is the calculated value.
Follow the example below to calculate n and`sigma`
Suppose you have the following set of values:-

Assume received power at close-in-reference distance from transmitter =0dBm. Assume

closein-reference distance=100m.
Now calculate received power at 4 locations of the mobile
`P_r(d1)=0-10nlog(200//100)=-3n`
`P_r(d2)=0-10nlog(600//100)=-8n`
J (n) is the sum of squared errors between measured and estimated values.
Now, `J(n)=(-10-(-3n)) ^2+(-30-(-8n)) ^2+(-41-(-9n)) ^2+(-71-(-10n)) ^2=6281-2478n+`
`254n^2` Value of n which minimizes mean square error can be obtained by equating
derivative of J (n) to 0. Now, equating the derivative of J (n) to 0.

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Instruction: -

Step 1:-Enter the values of Gt ,Gr, fc,Tx power in the box provided on the page.Adjust the
slider for fixing the antenna height.These are all initial parametes of the experiment.
Step 2: -Drag the mobile by placing the cursor on it and place it at a certain distance from the
base station tower. Click on the button TAKE READING and record the values of received
power at that position of the mobile and distance of the mobile from the base station, click
on the buttons +10m and -10m to change the position of the mobile and record the values of
received power in dBm and distance. Click on the button FINISH once you finish ta king
readings. Its better if you take 20 readings.

Step 3:-After, clicking on button CHECK you can also view a plot of received power(dBm)
vs distance(m).

Result: -

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Conclusion:
From this experiment we learned about pathloss exponent and variance of shadow
fading. Also, we calculated their values to find out large scale propagation.

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PRACTICAL – 3
Aim: - To find the 3dB beam width of a base station antenna.
Objective:
1. To study horizontal beam pattern and calculate the 3 dB beam width,
2. To study the vertical beam pattern of the Base Station antenna,
3. To calculate the beam width for horizontal beam pattern,
4. To calculate the beam width and tilt angle for vertical beam pattern.

Theory:
The antennas used at the base station of a cellular system play an important role in determine
the coverage area; the interference and hence the quality of service (signal strength)
experienced by the user equipment in downlink it plays a similar role in the uplink. An
omnidirectional antenna in simple to use compared to a directive antenna. Directive antennas
limit the radiated signal power to a specific direction. This helps in reducing spatial
interference and increasing capacity through sectoring

Usually the 3dB (half power) width (as usual) is used as a measure of the beam width.
The horizontal antenna pattern used is specified as:
`A(theta)=-min[12(theta/(theta_(3dB)))^2,A_m]`
1.1 Example of beam width calculation for Expt 3A:-
Calculation of beam width: - suppose at `0^@` received power is -75.47 dBm at `10^@`
received power is -78.47dBm
There is a 3 dBm fall in received power in at `-10^@` and `10^@` so beam width= `(10^@ - ( -
10^@)) = 20^@`

Instruction:

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Performing the Experiment 3A

Step 1: - Place the mobile at different locations from the base station by adjusting the slider.
You can also use the buttons + and - to change the position of the mobile.
Step 2: - Record the values at different positions of the mobile by clicking on the button TAKE
READING. Take 20 readings.

Step 3:-You can observe the plot of power received vs angle on the RHS of the page.
Step 4:-Now note the points where there is 3 dB fall of received power and calculate the
beamwidth by following the example given in procedure section.
Step 5:-Enter your calculated value of beam-width in the box provided in the RHS of the
page.
Step 6:- Click on the button SUBMIT to verify whether your manually calculated value of
beam-width matches the computed value of beam-width. The exact value of beam-width is
returned.

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Result: -

Performing the experiment 3B:

Step 1: - You can choose either random tilt or adjust the tilt value as given in the RHS of the
page.

Drag the mobile and place the mobile at different locations from the base stations by adjusting
the slider. You can also use the buttons + and - to change the position of the mobile.
Step 2: - Record the values at different positions of the mobile by clicking on the button TAKE
READING. Take 20 readings.
Step 3:-Now note the points where there is 3 dB fall of received power and calculate the
beam-width by following the example given in procedure section. Observe the angle value at
which received power is maximum. This is the tilt angle value.

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Step 4:-Enter your calculated value of beam-width and tilt in the box provided in the RHS of
the page.

Result: -

Conclusion:
After performing this experiment, we learned about horizontal and vertical beam
patterns. We calculated the 3dB beam width, beam width for horizontal beam pattern
and beam width and tilt angle for vertical and vertical beam pattern.

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PRACTICAL – 4

Aim: - To understand the impact of shadowing and path loss exponent

on boundary coverage probability.
Objective: -
To calculate boundary coverage probability from measured signal strength.
Theory for Experiment 4:-Boundary Coverage
The circular coverage region of a Base Station is the area defined by a certain radius R with
the Base Station at the center where the mean signal level received at the mobile unit remains
above a specified threshold with certain probability. The probability mentioned above is
decided based on quality-of-service requirement. If there is no shadow fading then the radius
R can be calculated for a region where the signal level crosses the threshold with certainty.
However in real conditions, shadow fading plays an important role in cellular network design.
Due to the random variation of the signal strength received owing to shadow fade, one needs
to find the probability with which received signal strength crosses the predicted threshold.
The detail derivation in the context of % boundary coverage and% area coverage are given
below
1.1 Boundary Coverage:-
The received signal power in log domain at a distance d from the Base Station is given by:
`P_r(d)=P_r(d_0)+10n_plog(d_0/d)+x_(dB)`
1.2 % Area Coverage:-
The % area coverage is determined by the radius `R_gamma` at which the signal level
`gamma` exceeds the sensitivity level with probability Prob `R_gamma` which is the
likelihood of coverage at the cell boundary with
`d=R_gamma`.
`ProbR_gamma=prob[P_r(R_gamma)>gamma]`
Given that
`[P_r(d)>gamma] (prob_(dgamma))` is the probability that the signal the range `0 < d<
R_gamma` exceeds the sensitivity level we can associates this with the probabilty that the
level exceeds `gamma` with in an infinite signal area dA at the range d.
The % of useful area covered with the boundary of the R with the received signal strength
`>=gamma` is
`F_u^(gamma)=1/(piR_(gamma)^2)int[P_r(d)>gamma]dA`
`=1/(piR_(gamma)^2)int_0^(R_gamma) int_0^(2pi)[P_r(d)>gamma]rdrd theta `
The power received can be referenced to the power received at cell boundary

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`bar(P_r(d))=bar(P_r(d_0))+10n_plog(d_0/d)`
`=bar(P_r(d_0))+10n_plog(d_0/R_gamma)+10n_plog(R_gamma/d)`

Instruction: -
Step 1:-Adjust the slider to position your mobile. You can use the +,- buttons also to change
the locations of your mobile.
Step 2:- Click on the button TAKE READING to record the value of Pr(d) dBm and the
angular distance of the mobile from the base station in degrees. You can view the table of
Pr(d) dBm vs Degrees on the RHS of the page. Take 40 readings.

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Step 4:- Now, calculate the probability that the received signal level>=some threshold
(`gamma`) by using the formulas given in the theory section. Enter the values of the manually
calculated unknown parameter in the box provided in the LHS of the page.

Result: -

Conclusion:
After performing this experiment, we learned about boundary coverage and how
various factors such as shadowing and loss exponent impact the boundary coverage.

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PRACTICAL – 5
Aim: - To understand the concept of co-channel interference and hence
SINR (full frame).
Objective: -
1. Downlink:
To calculate & plot SINR vs. distance at the MS for adaptation of the following parameters:
 Shadowing effect

 Vertical Beam Pattern,

 Tilt Angle variation.

2. Uplink:
To calculate & plot SINR vs. distance at the MS for adaptation of the following parameters:
 Shadowing effect

 Vertical Beam Pattern,

 Tilt Angle variation.

SINR: -
In a communication system especially while consider the physical layer are mainly concerned
with signal to noise ratio. However when we look at a system with multipath users or multiple
transmission going on simultaneously then usually we need to reuse the radio resource. This
re-used radio resource causes co-channel interference to the undesired user.
In cellular system offers the carrier frequency is re used in order to increase capacity. This is
explained in details later. So, while one transmitter uses a frequency say and another
transmitter which is physically far away from the rest.
cells for supporting two different active users at the same time. As a result of the simultaneous
transmission on the same carrier frequency, interference occurs.
1.1 Downlink SINR:
If the Mobile Station (MS) is connected to the Base Station 1 (BS1BS1) and Base Station 2
(BS2BS2) is residing in co-channel cells, then, BS1BS1-MS is the desired link and
BS2BS2MS is the interfering link for downlink and vice-versa.
Considering the following,
1. PTx1PTx1is the transmitted signal power from BS1BS1,
2. PTx2PTx2is the transmitted signal power from BS2BS2,

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3. PRx1PRx1is the received signal power by MS from BS1BS1,

4. PRx2PRx2is the received signal power by MS from BS2BS2,
5. PN1PN1is the received noise power by the MS when it is connected to BS1BS1,
6. PN2PN2is the received noise power by the MS when it is connected to BS2BS2,

Figure 1. Illustration of Downlink SINR: d1d1 is the straight line distance parallel to the earth
crust between MS and BS1BS1. d2d2 is the straight line distance parallel to the earth crust
between MS and BS2BS2. θ1θ1 is the angle of the transmission line between MS and
BS1BS1 with the straight line between MS and BS1BS1 parallel to the earth crust. θ2θ2 is
the angle of the transmission line between MS and BS2BS2 with the straight line between
MS and BS2BS2 parallel to the earth crust.

The above Downlink SINR calculation includes the effects of 2 Base Stations at the MS.
Proceeding in a similar fashion, the effects of other Base Stations can be included in the
Downlink SINR calculation for the MS as usually occur in practice for cellular architecture.
1.2 uplink SINR:
If the Base Station 1 (BS1BS1) is connected to Mobile Station A (MSAMSA) and Base
Station 2 (BS2BS2) is connected to Mobile Station B (MSBMSB) and BS1BS1 and BS2BS2
are residing in co- channel cells where MSAMSA and MSBMSB are operating on the same
carrier frequency, then, for Base Station 1, MSA−BS1MSA-BS1 is the desired link and
MSB−BS1MSB-BS1 is the interfering link in uplink and for Base Station 2, MSB−BS2MSB-
BS2 is the desired link and MSA−BS2MSA-BS2 is the interfering link in uplink and vice-
versa.

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Considering the following,

1. PTxAPTxAis the transmit signal power from MSAMSA,
2. PTxBPTxBis the transmit signal power from MSBMSB,
3. PRx1APRx1Ais the received signal power by BS1BS1from MSAMSA,
4. PRx1BPRx1Bis the received signal power by BS1BS1from MSBMSB,
5. PRx2APRx2Ais the received signal power by BS2BS2 from MSAMSA,
6. PRx2BPRx2Bis the received signal power by BS2BS2 from MSBMSB,
7. PN1APN1Ais the received noise power by BS1BS1 when it is connected to
MSAMSA,
8. PN2BPN2Bis the received noise power by BS2BS2 when it is connected to
MSBMSB,
9. PN1BPN1Bis the received noise power by BS1BS1 when it is connected to
MSBMSB,
10. PN2APN2A is the received noise power by BS2BS2 when it is connected to
MSAMSA.

Usually,PRx1A,PRx1B,PRx2A,PRx2B,PN1AandPN2BPRx1A,PRx1B,PRx2A,PRx2B,PN1
A
andPN2B are given in dBm. So, these parameters are converted into equivalent watt. After
obtaining
PRx1A,PRx1B,PRx2A,PRx2B,PN1AandPN2BPRx1A,PRx1B,PRx2A,PRx2B,PN1
AandPN2B parameters in watt, |SINR1A|watt, |SINR1B|watt, |SINR2A|watt and |SINR2B|watt are
calculated using the following formula:

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Then,the corresponding
|SINR1A|dB,|SINR1B|dB,|SINR2A|dBand|SINR2B|dB|SINR1A|dB,|SINR1B|
dB,|SINR2A|dBand|SINR2B|dB are calculated
The above Uplink SINR calculation includes the effects of 2 Mobile Stations at each BS.
Proceeding in a similar fashion, the effects of other Mobile Stations can be included in the
Uplink SINR calculation for each BS as usually occur in practice for cellular architecture.

Instruction: -
Starting Experiment 5A:
Step 1: Drag the mobile and adjust its position from the base stations. You can also use + or
- sign to adjust the position of your mobile. To do the experiment adding the e ect of Vertical
Beam Pattern with Tilt and Shadowing conditions click on the check boxes Vertical Beam
Paern and Shadowing' selecting required Tilt.

Calculate the values of SINR1SINR1 and SINR2SINR2 in dB from the formula given in
theory section. Enter your values in the boxes provided in the RHS of the page.

Step2: Click on the button PLOT to see the plot of SINR versus Distance.

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Result: -

Starting Experiment 5B:

Step 1: Drag the mobile A and mobile B to adjust their positions from the base stations. To do
the experiment adding the e ect of Vertical Beam Pattern with Tilt and Shadowing conditions
click on the check boxes VerticalBeamPaern andShadowing' selecting required Tilt. The
experiment can also be done xing any one mobile by clicking on the FIX button associated with
that mobile.

Step 2: Calculate the values of SINR1A, SINR2A, SINR1BandSINR2BSINR1A, SINR2A,

SINR1BandSINR2B in dB from the formula given in theory section. Enter your manually

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calculated values in the boxes provided for different SINR parameters in the RHS of the
page.
Step3: PLOT to see the plot of SINR versus Distance.

Result: -

Conclusion:
After performing this experiment, we learned about co-channel interference. We
learned about Downlink and Uplink. Also, we plot SINR vs distance at MS graph for
Uplink and Downlink. We also learned about effect of various parameters on
cochannel interference.

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PRACTICAL – 6

Aim: - To understand the cellular frequency reuse concept fulfilling the

following objectives:
1. Finding the co-channel cells for a particular cell.
2. Finding the cell clusters within certain geographic area.
Theory: -
In mobile communication systems a slot of a carrier frequency / code in a carrier frequency
is a radio resource unit. This radio resource unit is assigned to a user in order to support a
call/ session. The number of available such radio resources at a base station thus determines
the number of users who can be supported in the call. Since in wireless channels a signal is
"broadcast" i.e. received by all entities therefore one a resource is allocated to a user it cannot
be reassigned until the user finished the call/ session. Thus the number of users who can be
supported in a wireless system is highly limited.
In order to support a large no. of users within a limited spectrum in a region the concept of
frequency re-use is used.
The signal radiated from the transmitter antenna gets attenuated with increasing distance. At
a certain distance the signal strength falls below noise threshold and is no longer identifiable.
In this context the minimum adjacent set cells which use different frequencies each is calls a
cluster.
The cellular concept is the major solution of the problem of spectral congestion and user
capacity. Cellular radio relies on an intelligent allocation and channel reuse throughout a large
geographical coverage region.
1.1 Cellular Frequency Reuse:

Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used within a small
geographic area called a cell. Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel groups
which contain completely different channels than neighboring cells. Base station antennas
are designed to achieve the desired coverage within a particular cell. By limiting the coverage
area within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of channels may be used to cover different
cells that are separated from one another by geographic distances large enough to keep
interference levels within tolerable limits. The design process of selecting and allocating
channel groups for all cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse or
frequency planning.
1.2 Hexagonal Cell Structure:
In figure 1, cells labeled with the same letter use the same group of channels. The hexagonal
cell shape is conceptual and is the simplistic model of the radio coverage for each base station.

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It has been universally adopted since the hexagon permits easy and manageable analysis of a
cellular system. The actual radio coverage of a system is known as the footprint and is
determined from old measurements and propagation prediction models. Although the real
footprint is amorphous in nature, a regular cell shape is needed for systematic system design
and adaptation for future growth.
Base station transmitters are situated either at the center of the cell (center-excited cells) or at
three of the six cell vertices (edge-excited cells). Normally, omnidirectional antennas are used in
center-exited cells and sectored directional antennas are used in edge-exited cells. Practical
system design considerations permit a base station to be positioned up to one-fourth the cell
radius away from the ideal location.
1.3 Cell Cluster:
Considering a cellular system that has a total of S duplex radio channels. If each cell is
allocated a group of k channels and `(k < S)` if the S channels are divided among N cells into
unique and disjoint channel groups of same number of channels, then, `S=kN`
The N cells that collectively use the complete set of available frequencies are called a cluster.
If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of duplex channels or
capacity, `C=MkN=MS`

1.4 Co-channel Cells:

A larger cluster size causes the ratio between the cell radius and the distance between
cochannel cells to decrease reducing co-channel interference. The value of N is a function of
how much interference a mobile or base station can tolerate while maintaining a sufficient
quality of communications. Since each hexagonal cell has six equidistant neighbors and the
line joining the centers of any cell and each of its neighbors are separated by multiples of 60
degrees, only certain cluster sizes and cell layouts are possible. To connect without gaps
between adjacent cells, the geometry of hexagons is such that the numbers of cells per cluster,
N, can only have values that satisfy, `N=i^2+ij+j^2`

Instruction: -
Step 1: Choose the value of Cell Radius, i and j.
Step 2: Click on the button Show Cells. For the given parameters, the value of Cluster-size N
is shown in the LHS of the page and the generated cells are shown on the RHS of the page.

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Step 3: Within the generated cells the center cell is shown in pink colour. Select the Co-
channel cells in orange colour for the center cell by finding the Co-channel cells from the
formula given in the theory section.

Step 4: Click on the button CHECK to see whether your manually selected Co-channel cells
match with the correct Co-channel cells. If your manually selected cells do not match with
the correct Co-channel cells then the correct Co-channel cells are displayed in sky blue
colour. If your manually selected Co-channel cells match with the correct Co-channel cells
then the correct Co-channel cells are over-marked in green colour.

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Result: -

Performing Experiment 6B: -

Step1: Choose the value of Cell Radius and Cell Cluster.
Step 2: Click on the button Show Cells. The generated cells are shown on the RHS of the
page.

Step 3: Within the generated cells the two extreme cells within the cell cluster is shown in
pink colour. Select other cells within the cell cluster in orange colour.
Step 4: Click on the button CHECK to see whether your manually selected cluster cells match
with the correct cells of the cluster. If your manually selected cells do not match with the
correct cells of the cluster then the correct cells of the cluster are displayed in sky blue colour.

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If the manually selected cells of the cluster match with the correct cells of the cluster then the
correct cells of the cluster are over-marked in green colour.

Result: -

Conclusion:
After performing this experiment, we learned about cellular frequency reuse. We
learned about hexagonal cell structure and cell cluster. We also learned about finding
co-channels for a particular cell and cell clusters for a particular geographic area.

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PRACTICAL – 7

Aim: - The aim of the experiment is to understand the impact of many

different parameters which influence the downlink C/I ratio.
Objectives: -
Study distribution of downlink C/I due to different parameters such as:
1. Cell radios,
2. Tx power of B.S.,
3. Frequency reuse,
4. Sectoring,
5. Shadowing effect,
6. B.S. height,
7. Path loss exponent,
8. 8. Vertical beam tilt.
This experiment is better needed to be guided by a teacher. A teacher can limit the variable
and give a specific task to the students. For example, an experiment can, be designed by
fixing all parameters expects the transmit power.
Now the students may be asked to find the Tx power of the B.S at which the ten percentile
SIR is greater than say 0dB

Theory: -
Experiments 1 through 6 cover the fundamental aspects required to understand cellular
mobile communication system. Concepts of path loss, shadowing, antenna height, horizontal
beam pattern, vertical beam tilt, boundary coverage probability and calculation of SINR have
been explained in details. Along with these, the concept of clustering and frequency reuse has
also been explained. This particular experiment combines all the previous concepts which
together comprise a basic cellular mobile communication system. Therefore it is a pre-
requisite that all previous experiments be completed before starting on this.
One of the concepts introduced here is sectoring. By means of sectoring a cell is split into 3
sectors each covering `120^o`.
It can be easily seen that the number of interfering sites drastically reduce for a given reuse
factor. In effect, the carrier to interference ratio at a cell edge in downlink becomes.
`(P_T*d^(-n_p))/(P_Tsum_(i=1)^2 d_i)`
whereas for Omni directional cell the C/I is
`(P_T*d^(-n_p))/(P_Tsum_(i=1)^6 d_i)`

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Thus there in a 3 folds increase in C/I by virtue of sectoring.

Thus SINR at cell edge can be improved. Since a service does not require an SINR greater
than a certain threshold, therefore by using sectoring the cluster size can be reduced thereby
increasing capacity.

Instruction: -
Step1: Select the parameters (e.g: Reuse ,Environment, Beamwidth,Carrier frequency etc.)

Step2:- Click on "CDF plot" button to get plot of CDF vs SINR(dB)

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Result: -

Conclusion:
After performing this experiment, we learned about how different parameters such as
cell radios, Tx power of B.S., Frequency reuse, Sectoring etc will affect the downlink
C/I ratio.

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PRACTICAL – 8
Aim: - To understand the handoff mechanism.
Objectives: -
To study the effect of handover threshold and margin on SINR and call drop probability and
handoff probability.

Theory: -
Consider the figure below Initially say the mobile M is quite close to the base station A and
hence receives signal strength from A `P_(r_x)^A > P_(r_x)^B` .As the mobile moves away
from the base station. A and goes towards B then the signal strength from A keeps
falling(pathloss increases).Let there be a minimum sensibility level `P_(r_x)^0` for the
mobile, i.e. if the signal from the B.S.to which the mobile is connected falls below
`P_(r_x)^0` then the call drops. In order to prevent call drop the mobile monitors receive
signal strength from the neighboring 3-6 B.S.. These neighboring 3-6 B.S. also monitor Rx
signal strength from the M.S.

The mobile should get connected to B.S. which has the highest signal strength. However if
the M.S.continuously attaches itself to the B.S. with instantaneous height signal strength then
the h/o rate may very high in server condition.
One would like to minimize the no of handoff events as well as minimize call drop probability.
The experiment provides opportunity to study the inherent of these three parameter on h/o .
Further the averaging window for calculating `P_(r_x)^T` and `P_(r_x)^c` also plays a role
in the process. In the experiment small scale fading is not considered and hence the averaging
taken into account only shadowing.
The person conducting the experiment is expected to study the impact of these on h/0. He/She
is encouraged to respect the experiment for several sets of values of these parameters these
draw conclusion.

Instruction: -
Step1: Select the parameters (e.g.: Reuse, Environment, Beamwidth, Carrier frequency etc.)

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Step2: Click on START button and observe No. of Call Drops and No. of Handoffs.
Step3: Enter your observation in the OBSERVATION box and Click on SUBMIT button.
Step4: Finally, click on REPORT to generate PDF report of the experiment.

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Result: -

Conclusion:
After performing this experiment, we learned about the handoff mechanism, how
handoff is performed.

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PRACTICAL – 9
Aim: - To study the outage probability, LCR & ADF in SISO for
Selection Combining and MRC.
Theory: -
Small scale fading characterizes the fluctuation of signal (strength) over a spatial distance of
fraction of wavelength.
The variation of signal (strength) at the receiver is due to random interference between the
different copies of the transmitted signal. The interference is sometimes constructive and
sometimes destructive. The multiple copies of the transmitted signal are generated due to
scattering, reflection and diffraction due to obstacle present in the path of radio signal between
the Tx and Rx movement of the Tx and Rx or the obstacle cause time domain variation of the
signal (strength) and the phenomenon is called Doppler effect. Since each path of the radio wave
may exhibit difference doppler its cumulative effect results in spread of the carrier/ frequency
content of the signal and hence is also known as Doppler spread.
If v is the maximum velocity (m/s) then the maximum Doppler shift is given by
`f_m=(upsilon(m//s))/c`
Where,
• `c= velocity light =3**10^8m//s.`
• `f_c= carrier frequency.`
Coherence time is defined as interval in time over which the signal remains correlated. It is
defined as
`T_c=9/(16Pif_m) (s)`
If symbol duration Ts << Tc it experience slow fading while if `T_s > T_c` it experience fast
fading. The enveloped level crossing rate is defined as the rate at which the signal envelope
crosses a specified level R in the positive (or negative) going direction.
It requires the joint pdf `(alpha,dot alpha)` of the enveloped level `alpha=|r|` and enveloped
slope `dot alpha=|r|`

`L_R=sqrt(2pi(k+1))f_m rho e^(-k-(k+1)rho^2) I_0(2 rho sqrt(k(k+1)))

rho=R/sqrt(Omega_p)=R/R_(rms)`
`R_(rms)=sqrt(Omega_p)` is the enveloped level
`L_r=f_m sqrt(pi)M gamma/sqrt(sigma) exp(-gamma^2/(2sigma)) [1-
exp(gamma^2/(2sigma))]^(M-1)`
Where,
• `f_m` is the Maximum doppler frequency.
• `sigma` is the r.m.s value of the received signal voltage.

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• `gamma` is the threshold voltage.

• M = No. of channels
Level Crossing Rate for MRC Combining
The mean value `r_(mean)` of rayleigh distribution is given by
`r_(mean)=E[r]=int_0^oo rp(r)dr=sigma sqrt(pi/2)=1.2533sigma`
`sigma_r^2=E[r^2]-E^2[r]=int_0^oo r^2p(r)dr-(sigma^2pi)/2` `=sigma^2(2-
pi/2)=0.4292sigma^2`

Instruction: -

Step1: Enter the input parameters value. Then click on "RESET" Button. Observed the
waveform.

Step2: - Enter value of LCR Exp and ADF Exp in both MRC and SC from the waveform.
Then Click on "SUBMIT" Button.

Result: -

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Conclusion:
After performing this experiment, we learned about outage probability, LCR & ADF
in SISO for selection combining and MRC.

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PRACTICAL – 10
Aim: To study the effect of delay spread on frequency selectivity.

Theory: -
In an urban environment, the height of the mobile antennas is well below the height of the
surrounding structures. As a result, a Line of Sight (LOS) propagation path may or may not
exist between the Base Station (BS) and the Mobile Station (MS). The radio waves
transmitted from the BS, therefore, arrive at the MS after reflection, diffraction and scattering
from the natural and man-made objects situated between the BS and the MS. The incoming
radio waves arriving from different directions have different propagation delays. These
multipath components, having randomly distributed amplitudes, phases and angles of arrival,
combine vectorially at the receiver antenna causing the received signal to distort or fade.
Thus, fading is the rapid fluctuations in the amplitude phase and the multipath delays of a
radio signal over a short period of time so that large scale path loss effects can be neglected.
Even when the MS is stationary, fading is caused by the movement of the surrounding objects.
The changes in the environment or the motion of the MS result in spatial variations of
amplitudes and phases manifest themselves as temporal variations. The mobile radio channel
can be modeled as a linear filter having a time varying impulse response h(t, `tau` ) . The
filtering nature of the channel is caused by the summation of amplitudes and delays of
multiples arriving waves at the same instant of time.

Fig.1 shows different snapshots of `h(t,tau)` where t varies into the page and the multipath
delay axis is quantized into excess delay bins of width `Deltat`. Excess delay is the relative
delay of the ith multipath component as compared to the first arriving component and is
denoted by i. The first arriving multipath component has an excess time delay `tau_0=0` the
propagation delay between the transmitter and the `tau_i=iDeltat`. Any number of multipath
signals received within the ith bin is represented by a single resolvable multipath component
having the delay i. The maximum excess delay of the channel is given by N, where N is the
total number of multipath components. The baseband impulse response of a multipath
channel can be expressed as the vector sum of a series of delayed, phase shifted replicas of
the transmitted signal. Hence,
`h(t,tau)=sum_(i=0)^(N-1) a_i(t,tau)exp[j(theta_t)(t,tau)] delta(t-tau_i(t))`

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Power Delay Profile : For small scale channel modeling, the power delay profile gives the
average power at the channel output as a function of the time delay `tau`. It is obtained by
taking the spatial average of `|h(t,tau)|^2` over a local area. By making several local area
measurements of `|h(t,tau)|^2` in di?erent locations, it is possible to build an ensemble of
power delay profile, each one representing a possible small-scale multipath channel state.
The power delay profile at time `t_0` for a probing pulse p(t) at the channel input is given by
Root Mean Square Delay: The rms delay spread is the square root of the second central
moment of the power delay profile and is defined as
` sigma_(tau)=sqrt(bar(tau^2)-
bar(tau)^2)` where
`bar tau=(sum_k a_k^2 t_k^2)/(sum_k a_k^2)=(sum_k P(tau_k)tau_k^2)/(sum_k P(tau_k))`
These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal arriving at the receiver at `tau_0
= 0`. It is also important to note that rms delay spread and mean excess delay are defined from a
single power delay profile which is the temporal or spatial average of consecutive impulse
response measurements collected and averaged over a local area.
Maximum Excess Delay:
The maximum excess delay of the power delay profile is defined as the time delay during
which the multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum. It is defines as `tau_x-tau_0`,
where `tau_0` is the first arriving signal and `tau_x` is the maximum delay at which a
multipath component is within X dB of the strongest multipath signal.
Fig.2 illustrates the computation of the time dispersive parameters of the multipath channel.

Coherence Bandwidth: The delay spread parameters are used to characterize the channel in
the time domain. In the frequency domain the channel is characterized by the coherence
bandwidth, Bc which is the range of frequencies over which the signal strength remains more
or less unchanged. This implies that two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc
are affected quite differently by the channel.

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If the coherence bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation
function is above 0.9, then it can be mathematically obtained as
`B_c~~1/(50sigma_tau)`
The coherence bandwidth for frequency correlation above 0.5 is given by
`B_c~~1/(5sigma_tau)`
Frequency Selective Fading:
The type of fading experienced by a signal propagating through a mobile radio channel
depends on the nature of the transmitted signal with respect to the characteristics of the
channel. If the bandwidth of the transmitted signal has a bandwidth greater than bandwidth
over which the frequency response of a wireless channel has a constant gain and linear phase,
then it undergoes frequency selective fading. In such cases, the multipath delay spread is
greater than the symbol interval. Consequently, the received signal contains multiple versions
of the transmitted waveform which are attenuated and delayed in time and hence the received
signal is distorted. Thus, frequency selective fading is a result of the time dispersion of the
transmitted symbol within the channel. The symbol gets spread out in time resulting in
Intersymbol Interference (ISI). In the frequency domain, it is observed that different
components have different gain than the others. Fig.3 illustrates the characteristics of a
frequency selective fading channel.

Thus, a channel undergoes frequency selective fading if

`B_s > B_c` and `T_s < sigma_T`
The path geometry for a multipath fading channel is given in Fig.4. Consider only single
reflections, all scatterers that are associated with a particular path length are located on an
ellipse with the transmitter and the receiver located at the foci. Di?erent delays correspond to
di?erent confocal ellipses.

Frequency selective channels have strong scatterers that are located on several ellipses that
correspond to di?erential delays that are significant compared to symbol duration. In urban
and suburban macro cellular systems, these strong scatterers usually correspond to high-rise
buildings or perhaps large distant terrain features such as mountains.
The article is based on [1], [2], [3].

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Instruction: -
Step1: enter the values of the parameter given here, then click on the "SUBMIT' button.

Result: -

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Conclusion:
After performing this experiment, we learned about effect of delay spread on
frequency selectivity.

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