THE NATURE OF

PROBLEM SOLVING 1

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1.3 Scientific Notation and Estimation

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Scientific Notation and Estimation
How big is the cosmos? There is a dynamic Web site
demonstrating the answer to this question.

Figure 1.14 illustrates the size of the known cosmos.

Size of the universe. Each successive cube is a thousand times as wide and a billion times as
voluminous as the one before it.
Figure 1.14
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Scientific Notation and Estimation
How can the human mind comprehend such numbers?
Scientists often work with very large numbers.

Distances such as those in Figure 1.14 are measured in

terms of the distance that light, moving at 186,000 miles
per second, travels in a year.

In this section, we turn to patterns to see if there is an easy

way to deal with very large and very small numbers.

We will also discuss estimation as a problem-solving

technique.
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Exponential Notation

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Exponential Notation
We often encounter expressions that comprise multiplication
of the same numbers.

For example,
10  10  10 or 6666666 or
15  15  15  15  15  15  15  15  15  15  15  15  15  15

These numbers can be written more concisely using what is

called exponential notation:

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Exponential Notation
How would you use exponential notation for the product of
the 15s? Answer: 15 14.

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Example 1 – Write numbers without exponents

Write without exponents.

a. 10 5 b. 6 2 c. 7 5 d. 2 63 e. 3 –2 f. 8.9 0

Solution:
a. 10 5 = 10  10  10  10  10 = 100,000

b. 6 2 = 6  6 = 36

c. 7 5 = 7  7  7  7  7 or 16,807

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

d. 2 63 = 2  2  2  ….  2  2 or 9,223,372,036,854,775,808

Note:
You are not expected to find the form at the right; the
factored form is acceptable.

e. 3 –2

f. 8.9 0 = 1 By definition, any nonzero number

to the zero power is 1.

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Exponential Notation
Since an exponent indicates a multiplication, the proper
procedure is first to simplify the exponent, and then to carry
out the multiplication.

This leads to an extended order-of-operations

agreement.

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Scientific Notation

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Scientific Notation
There is a pattern for multiplications of any number by a
power of 10. Consider the following examples, and notice
what happens to the decimal point.

9.42  101 = 94.2 We find these answers by direct multiplication.

9.42  102 = 942.

9.42  103 = 9,420.

9.42  104 = 94,200.

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Scientific Notation
Look at the decimal point (which is included for emphasis).
If we multiply 9.42  105, how many places to the right will
the decimal point be moved?

9.42  105 = 9 42,000.

Using this pattern, can you multiply the following without

direct calculation?
9.42  1012 = 9,420,000,000,000
This answer is found by observing the pattern, not by direct multiplication.

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Scientific Notation
The pattern also extends to smaller numbers:
9.42  10 –1 = 0.942 These numbers are found by direct multiplication.
9.42  10 –2 = 0.0942 For example,

9.42  10 –3 = 0.00942 9.42  10–2 = 9.42  = 9.42  0.01 = 0.0942

Do you see that the same pattern also holds for multiplying
by 10 with a negative exponent? Can you multiply the
following without direct calculation?

9.42  10 –6 = 0. 000009 42

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Scientific Notation
These patterns lead to a useful way for writing large and
small numbers, called scientific notation.

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Example 2 – Write in scientific notation
Write the given numbers in scientific notation.
a. 123,400 b. 0.000035 c. 1,000,000,000,000 d. 7.35

Solution:
a. 123,400 = 1.234  105

b. 0.000035 = 3.5  10 –5

c. 1,000,000,000,000 = 1012; technically, this is 1  1012

with the 1 understood.

d. 7.35 (or 7.35  100) is in scientific notation.

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Example 3 – Miles in a light-year
Assuming that light travels at 186,000 miles per second,
what is the distance (in miles) that light travels in 1 year?
This is the unit of length known as a light-year. Give your
answer in scientific notation.

Solution:
One year is 365.25 days = 365.25  24 hours
= 365.25  24  60 minutes
= 365.25  24  60  60 seconds
= 31,557,600 seconds

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Since light travels 186,000 miles each second and there

are 31,557,600 seconds in 1 year, we have

186,000  31,557,600 = 5,869,713,600,000  5.87  1012

Thus, light travels about 5.87  1012 miles in 1 year.

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Calculators

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Calculators
Calculators are classified according to their ability to
perform different types of calculations, as well as by the
type of logic they use to do the calculations.

The problem of selecting a calculator is further complicated

by the multiplicity of brands from which to choose.

Therefore, choosing a calculator and learning to use it

require some sort of instruction.

For most nonscientific purposes, a four-function calculator

with memory is sufficient for everyday use.
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Calculators
If you anticipate taking several mathematics and/or science
courses, you will find that a scientific calculator is a
worthwhile investment.

These calculators use essentially three types of logic:

arithmetic, algebraic, and RPN. Consider the correct order
of operations of 2 + 3  4 for which the correct value is 14
(multiply first).

An algebraic calculator will “know” this and will give the

correct answer, whereas an arithmetic calculator will simply
work from left to right and obtain the incorrect answer, 20.
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Calculators
Therefore, if you have an arithmetic-logic calculator, you
will need to be careful about the order of operations.

Some arithmetic-logic calculators provide parentheses

so that operations can be grouped, as in

but then you must remember to insert the parentheses.

The last type of logic is RPN. A calculator using this logic is

characterized by or keys and does not
have an equal key .
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Calculators
With an RPN calculator, the operation symbol is entered
after the numbers have been entered.

These three types of logic can be illustrated by the problem

2 + 3  4:

Arithmetic logic: Input to match order of operations.

Algebraic logic: input is the same as the problem.

RPN logic: Operations input last.

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Example 5 – Mixed operations using a calculator

Show the calculator steps and display for 4 + 3  5 – 7.

Solution:

If you have an algebraic-logic calculator, your machine will

perform the correct order of operations.

If it is an arithmetic-logic calculator, it will give the incorrect

answer 28 unless you input the numbers using the
order-of-operations agreement.

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Calculators
Scientific notation is represented in a slightly different form
on many calculators and computers, and this new form is
sometimes called floating-point form.

When representing very large or very small answers, most

calculators will automatically output the answers in
floating-point notation.

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Example 7 – Find scientific and calculator notation

Write each given number in scientific notation and in

calculator notation.

a. 745

b. 1,230,000,000

c. 0.00573

d. 0.00000 06239

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Example 7 – Solution
The form given in this example is sometimes called
fixed-point form or decimal notation to distinguish it from
the other forms.

a. 745 7.45  10 2 7.45 02

b. 1,230,000,000 1.23  10 9 1.23 09

c. 0.00573 5.73  10 –3 5.73 –03

d. 0.00000 06239 6.239  10 –7 6.239 –07

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Estimation

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Estimation
Part of problem solving is using common sense about the
answers you obtain.

This is even more important when using a calculator,

because there is a misconception that if a calculator or
computer displays an answer, “it must be correct.” Reading
and understanding the problem are parts of the process of
problem solving.

When problem solving, you must ask whether the answer

you have found is reasonable.

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Estimation
One aspect of looking back is using common sense to
make sure the answer is reasonable.

The ability to recognize the difference between reasonable

answers and unreasonable ones is important not only in
mathematics, but whenever you are problem solving.

This ability is even more important when you use a

calculator, because pressing the incorrect key can often
cause outrageously unreasonable answers.

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Estimation
Whenever you try to find an answer, you should ask
yourself whether the answer is reasonable.

How do you decide whether an answer is reasonable? One

way is to estimate an answer.

Webster’s New World Dictionary tells us that as a verb, to

estimate means “to form an opinion or a judgment about” or
to “calculate approximately.”

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Estimation
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics emphases
the importance of estimation:

The broad mathematical context for an estimate is usually

one of the following types:
A. An exact value is known but for some reason an
estimate is used.

B. An exact value is possible but is not known and an

estimate is used.

C. An exact value is impossible.

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Example 9 – Estimate map distance
Use the map in Figure 1.16 to estimate the distance from
Orlando International Airport to Disney World.

Map around Walt Disney World

Figure 1.16 33
Example 9 – Solution
Note that the scale is 10 miles to 1 in.

Looking at the map, you will note that it is approximately

1.5 in. from the airport to Disney World.

This means that we estimate the distance to be 15 miles.

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Laws of Exponents

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Laws of Exponents
Consider
10  10  10  10  10 = 10 5
and
102  103 = (10  10)  (10  10  10) = 105

When we multiply powers of the same base, we add

exponents. This is called the addition law of exponents.
23  24 = (2  2  2)  (2  2  2  2)

= 23 + 4
= 27
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Laws of Exponents
Suppose we wish to raise a power to a power. We can
apply the addition law of exponents.
Consider

(23)2 = 23  23 = 23 + 3 = 22  3 = 26

(102) 3 = 102  102  102 = 102 + 2 + 2 = 103  2 = 106

When we raise a power to a power, we multiply the

exponents. This is called the multiplication law of
exponents.

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Laws of Exponents
A third law is needed to raise products to powers.
Consider
(2  3)2 = (2  3)  (2  3)
= (2  2)  (3  3)
= 22  32

Thus, (2  3)2 = 22  32.

Another result, called the distributive law of exponents,

says that to raise a product to a power, raise each factor to
that power and then multiply. For example,
(3  104)2 = 32  (104)2 = 32  108 = 9  108 38
Laws of Exponents
Similar patterns can be observed for quotients. We now
summarize the five laws of exponents.

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Example 10 – Estimate a speed
Under impulse power, the starship Enterprise will travel
1 million kilometers (km) in 3 minutes. Compare full
impulse power with the speed of light, which is
approximately 1.08  109 kilometers per hour (km/hr).

Solution:
We use Pólya’s problem-solving guidelines for this
example.

Understand the Problem. You might say, “I don’t know

anything about Star Trek,” but with most problem solving in
the real world, the problems you are asked to solve are
often about situations with which you are unfamiliar.
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Example 10 – Solution cont’d

Finding the necessary information to understand the

question is part of the process.

We assume that full impulse is the same as 1 impulse

power, so that if we multiply impulse power by we will
obtain full impulse power.

Devise a Plan. We will calculate the distance traveled (in

kilometers) in one hour under power, and then we’ll
multiply that result by to obtain the distance in kilometers
per hour under full impulse power.

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Example 10 – Solution cont’d

Carry Out the Plan.

Given

Multiply by 1 = to change 3
minutes to 60 minutes.

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Example 10 – Solution cont’d

We now multiply both sides by to find the distance under

full impulse.

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Example 10 – Solution cont’d

Comparing this to the speed of light, we see

Look Back. We see that full impulse power is about 2.5%

of the speed of light.
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Comprehending Large Numbers

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Comprehending Large Numbers
A million is a fairly modest number, 106. Yet if we were to
count one number per second, nonstop, it would take us
about 278 hours or approximately days to count to a
million.

Not a million days have elapsed since the birth of Christ (a

million days is about 2,700 years).

A large book of about 700 pages contains about a million

letters. How large a room would it take to hold 1,000,000
inflated balloons?

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Comprehending Large Numbers
The next big number is a billion, which is defined to be
1,000 millions. However, with the U.S. government bailout
in early 2009 we have entered the age of trillions.

How large is a trillion? How long would it take you to count

to a trillion?

But a trillion is only 1012, a mere nothing when compared

with the real giants. Keep these magnitudes (sizes) in
mind.

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Comprehending Large Numbers
We noticed that a cube containing our solar neighborhood is
9.2  1011 miles on a side. (See Figure 1.14.)
This is less than a billion times the size of the earth.
(Actually, it is 9.2  1011  7,927  1.2  108.)

Size of the universe. Each successive cube is a thousand times as wide and a billion times
as voluminous as the one before it.
Figure 1.14
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Example 11 – Estimate a large number
Estimate the magnitude of the grains of wheat on the last
square of a chessboard.

Solution:
We use Pólya’s problem-solving guidelines for this
example.

Understand the Problem. Each square on the chessboard

has grains of wheat placed on it. To answer this question,
you need to know that a chessboard has 64 squares.

The first square has 1 = 20 grains, the next has 2 = 21

grains, the next 4 = 22, and so on.
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Example 11 – Solution cont’d

Thus, the king needed 263 grains of wheat for the last
square alone. We showed this number in Example 1d.

Devise a Plan. We know (from Example 1) that

263  9.22337  1018. We need to find the size of a grain of
wheat, and then convert 263 grains into bushels.

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Example 11 – Solution cont’d

Finally, we need to state this answer in terms we can

understand.

Carry Out the Plan. I went to a health food store,

purchased some raw wheat, and found that there are about
250 grains per cubic inch (in.3).

I also went to a dictionary and found that a bushel is

2,150 in.3. Thus, the number of grains of wheat in a bushel
is
2,150  250 = 537,500

= 5.375  105
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Example 11 – Solution cont’d

To find the number of bushels in 263 grains, we need to

divide:
(9.922337  1018)  (5.375  105) =  1018–5

 1.72  1013

Look Back. This answer does not mean a thing without

looking back and putting it in terms we can understand.

In 2001 the U.S. wheat production was 2,281,763,000

bushels.

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Example 11 – Solution cont’d

To find the number of years it would take the United States

to produce the necessary wheat for the last square of the
chessboard, we need to divide the production into the
amount needed:

 1013–9

 0.75  104 or 7.5  103

This is 7,500 years!

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Comprehending Large Numbers
Recently we have heard about the national debt, which
exceeds $18 trillion. Table 1.1 shows some large numbers.

Some Large Numbers

Table 1.1
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Comprehending Large Numbers cont’d

Some Large Numbers

Table 1.1
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