Module TOPIC No.

of Course
hours outcomes

1.1 General purpose machine tools – types and classification of 1 CO3

machine tools –Lathe – types and classification of lathe –
specification for a lathe –

Feed,depth of cut, speed-methods of holding work and tool – 3 CO1

lathe accessories and attachments –lathe operations and tools
used for each operations -

1.2 Brief study of the machine and the nature and type of jobs 3 CO2
handled by the following: - tool room lathe – duplicate lathe –
capstan and turret lathe –horizontal and vertical-single
spindle and multi spindle screw machines.

1.3 Shaping, Plaining and Slotting machines – Types and 1 CO3

specifications – quick return motion –hydraulic feed and its
advantages - automatic feed – speed,feed and depth of cut–
Work holding devices-types of operations and examples of
work done- surface roughness obtainable indexing (Self
learning portion, discretion of faculty, fundamentals to be
explained in the class)

1.4 Drilling and boring Machines – Types and specifications – 1 CO3

Brief descriptions about the machines and nature, types of job

1.5 -Drill bit nomenclature- cutting forces in drilling– tool and

work holding devices-boring tools and reamers.
General purpose machine tools
A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by
cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformation. Machine tools employ some
sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping.
The machine tool has following four characteristics.
1. They are power driven.
2. Provide means to hold tool.
3. Provide means to hold workpiece.
4. Provide means for relative motions between workpiece and tool for machining process.
Basic general purposes machine tools
• Lathes
• Drilling machines
• Shaping machines
• Planning machines
• Slotting machines
• Milling machines
• Boring machines
• Hobbing machines
• Gear shaping machines
• Broaching machines
• Grinding machines
Each one of the machine tools, mentioned above, can be further classified into several types
depending upon size, shape, automation, etc.
Principle and operation of lathe
Working Principle: The lathe is a machine tool which holds the workpiece between two rigid and
strong supports called centers or in a chuck or face plate which revolves. The cutting tool is rigidly
held and supported in a tool post which is fed against the revolving work. The normal cutting
operations are performed with the cutting tool fed either parallel or at right angles to the axis of
the work. It is the father of all machine tools. Generally single point cutting tool is used.

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Types of lathes and size specification
Lathes are very versatile of wide use and are classified according to several aspects:
(1) According to configuration
a. Horizontal (Most common for ergonomic conveniences)
b. Vertical (Occupies less floor space, only some large lathes are of this type).
(2) According to purpose of use
a. General purpose (Very versatile, almost all possible types of operations are carried
out on wide ranges of size, shape and materials of jobs; example: centre lathes)
b. Single purpose (Only one (occasionally two) type of operation is done on limited
ranges of size and material of jobs; example – facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.)
c. Special purpose (Definite number and type of operations are done repeatedly over
long time on a specific type of blank; example: gear blank machining lathe etc.)
(3) According to size or capacity
a. Small (low duty up to 1.1 kW) only small and medium size jobs of generally soft
and easily machinable materials are machined
b. Medium (medium duty nearly up to 11 kW) Versatile Power lathes commonly used
c. Large (heavy duty)
d. Mini or micro lathe These are tiny table-top lathes used for extremely small size
jobs and precision work; example: swiss type automatic lathe
(4) According to degree of automation
a. Non-automatic (Handling operations are done manually; example: centre lathes)
b. Semi-automatic (Nearly half of the handling operations, irrespective of the
processing operations, are done automatically and rest manually; example: capstan
lathe, turret lathe, copying lathe relieving lathe etc.)
c. Automatic (Almost all the handling operations are done automatically; example –
single spindle automatic lathe, swiss type automatic lathe, etc.)
(5) According to type of automation
a. Fixed automation (Example-single spindle automat, swiss type automatic lathe etc.)
b. Flexible automation (Modern; example CNC lathe, turning centre etc.)
(6) According to configuration of the jobs being handled
a. Bar type (Slender rod like jobs being held in collets)
b. Chucking type (Disc type jobs being held in chucks)
c. Housing type (Odd shape jobs, being held in face plate)
(7) According to precision
a. Ordinary
b. Precision (lathes) meant for high accuracy and finish relatively more expensive.
(8) According to number of spindles
a. Single spindle (Common)
b. Multi-spindle (2, 4, 6 or 8 spindles) Such uncommon lathes are suitably used for
fast and mass production of small size and simple shaped jobs.

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Common types of lathes
Engine Lathe:
The most common form of lathe, motor driven and comes in large variety of sizes and shapes.
Engine lathes are named so because the early lathes were driven by steam engines. As the turning
operations are performed by holding the work piece between two centers, it is also known as centre
lathe. Engine lathes are widely used in industries.
Bench Lathe:
Bench lathe is a small lathe generally mounted on a bench. It consists of all the parts of a engine
lathe. It is used for small works like machining tiny and precise parts.
Tool room lathe
A tool room lathe has similar features of an engine lathe but is accurately built and has wide range
of spindle speeds to perform precise operations and different feeds. It is costlier than a centre lathe.
This is mainly used for precision works like manufacturing tools, dies, jigs, fixtures and gauges.
Automatic Lathe: CNC
The lathe in which the work piece is automatically fed and removed without use of an operator.
Cutting operations are automatically controlled by a sequencer of some form. Highly automated
lathes, where cutting, loading, tool changing, and part unloading are automatically controlled by
computer coding.
Semi-automatic lathe
Turret and Capstan lathes are known as semi-automatic lathes. These lathes are used for
production work where large quantities of identical work pieces are manufactured. The lathes
which have multiple tools mounted on turret either attached to the tailstock or the cross-slide,
which allows for quick changes in tooling and cutting operations.
Special purpose lathe
Special purpose lathes are used for special purposes and for jobs, which cannot be accommodated
and conveniently machined on a standard lathe. Wheel lathe, ‘T’ lathe, duplicating lathe are some
examples of special purpose lathe.
Lathe specifications

 Distance between centers

 Swing over the bed
 Swing over the cross slide
 Horse power of the motor
 Number of speeds
 Number of feeds

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Main parts of a lathe
 Bed: The bed is a heavy, rugged casting in which are mounted the working parts of the lathe.
It carries the headstock and tail stock and provides a base for the movement of carriage
 Headstock and spindle: The headstock is clamped on the left-hand side of the bed and it
serves as housing for the driving pulleys, back gears, headstock spindle, live centre and the
feed reverse gear. The headstock spindle is a hollow cylindrical shaft that provides a drive from
the motor to work holding devices. The front end of the spindle is threaded on which chucks,
faceplate, driving plate and catch plate are screwed.
1. Bed
2. Headstock
3. Spindle
4. Tailstock
5. Carriage
a. Saddle
b. Apron
c. Cross-slide
d. Compound rest
e. Compound slide
f. Tool post
6. Feed mechanism
7. Leadscrew
8. Feed rod
9. Thread cutting
mechanism
 Tailstock:
The tailstock is used to support the end of the work piece with a center, or to hold tools for
drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. The tailstock is located opposite the headstock
on the ways of the bed.

Tail stock head stock spindle

The uses of tailstock
 It supports the other end of the long work piece when it is machined between centres.
 It is useful in holding tools like drills, reamers and taps when performing drilling, reaming
and tapping.
 The dead centre is offset by a small distance from the axis of the lathe to turn tapers

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 Gear Box: The quick-change gear-box is placed below the headstock to vary speed and torque
 Carriage: The carriage is located between the headstock and tailstock and serves the purpose
of supporting, guiding and feeding the tool against the job during operation.
The main parts of carriage are:
a) The saddle is an H-shaped casting mounted on the top of lathe ways to support cross-slide,
compound rest and tool post.
b) The cross slide mounted on the top of saddle provides cross movement for the cutting tool.
c) The compound rest is fitted on the top of cross slide to support the tool post and tool.
d) The tool post is mounted on the compound rest for the rigid clamping of cutting tool
e) The apron is fastened to the saddle and it houses the gears, clutches and levers required to
move the carriage or cross slide.

Carriage
 Feed mechanism
The movement of the tool relative to the work piece is termed as “feed”. The lathe tool can be
given three types of feed, namely, longitudinal, cross and angular. When the tool moves
parallel to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called longitudinal feed. This is achieved by
moving the carriage. When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of the lathe, the movement
is called cross feed. This is achieved by moving the cross slide. When the tool moves at an
angle to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called angular feed.
 Feed rod
The feed rod transmits power to the apron to drive the longitudinal feed and cross feed
mechanisms. The feed rod is driven by the spindle through a train of gears. The ratio of feed
rod speed to spindle speed can be varied by using change gears to produce various rates of
feed.
 Lead screw
The lead screw is used for thread cutting. It has accurately cut Acme threads along its length that engage
the threads of half-nuts in the apron when the half-nuts are clamped over it. The lead screw is driven
by the spindle through a gear train. Therefore, the rotation of the lead screw bears a direct relation to
the rotation of the spindle. When the half-nuts are engaged, the longitudinal movement of the carriage
is controlled directly by the spindle rotation. Consequently, the cutting tool is moved a definite distance
along the work for each revolution that the spindle makes.

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Spindle drive mechanism in lathe (Headstock driving mechanisms)
There are two types of headstock driving mechanisms as follows:
1. Back geared headstock (belt or gear drive)
2. All geared headstock.
The spindle is located in the headstock and it receives the driving power from the motor. The
spindle speed should be changed to suit different machining conditions like type of material to be
cut, the diameter and the length of the work, type of operation, the type of cutting tool material
used, the type of finish desired and the capacity of the machine.
Back geared headstock
Step cone pulley drive
It is simple in construction. The belt is arranged on the four different steps of the cone pulley to
obtain four different speeds.
Back gear mechanism
The spindle can get drive either from the cone pulley or through back gears. Cone pulley with gear
P1 is free rotate on spindle shaft. By engaging G1 to cone pulley direct drive to the spindle and
another drive through back gears through P1-B1-B2-G1. (Explanation of working is given in general
notes. Refer if required)

All geared headstock

Modern lathes are equipped with all geared
headstocks to obtain different spindle speeds
quickly. All geared headstock has three shafts
(1,2& 3) mounted within it. The intermediate
shaft (2) has got three gears D, E and F as a
single unit and rotate at the same speeds. By
altering the positions of the six gears namely
A, B, C, G, H I, the following arrangements
can be made within the headstock. Nine
different spindle speeds are obtained.
(Explanation given in general notes)

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Feed mechanism in lathe
Movement of the tool relative to work-piece is termed as feed. Three types of feed in lathe are
longitudinal feed, cross feed and angular feed (combined longitudinal and cross movement)
Feed drive mechanism
The feed mechanism is used to transmit power from the spindle to the carriage. It also converts
rotary motion of the spindle into linear motion of the carriage. There are different drive
mechanisms for the carriage and cross-slide to move and to change the direction of their movement
automatically.
Feeding mechanism has the following units
1. End of bed gearing
2. Feed gear box
3. Feed rod and lead screw
4. Apron mechanism

End of bed gearing

The gearing at the end of bed transmits the rotary motion of headstock spindle to the feed gear
box. Through the feed gear box the motion is further transmitted either to the feed shaft or lead
screw, depending on whether the lathe machine is being used for plain turning or screw cutting.
Tumbler gear mechanism or bevel gear reversing mechanism for the direction change of carrier is
also incorporated.
Tumbler gear mechanism
Tumbler gear mechanism is used to change the direction of lead screw and feed rod. Tumbler gears
are located in the headstock just below the spindle gear. The tumbler gear unit has two pinions (A
and B) is mounted on a bracket. The position of the bracket can be arranged in three different
positions namely i) neutral ii) forward & iii) reverse. Gear ‘C’ is a spindle gear attached to the
lathe spindle. By changing the gear B and A to gear C using the bracket lever the direction of gear
will be changed which changes the carriage movement forward and backward.

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Feed gear box
The feed gear box contains a number of different sizes of gears. The feed gear box provides a
means to alter the rate of feed, and the ration between revolutions of the headstock spindle and the
movement of carriage for thread cutting by changing the speed of rotation of the feed rod or lead
screw. Different types gear box design is used in lathes. The quick-change gearbox allows you to
change gears quickly and easily by shifting levers (shown above).

Apron mechanism
The apron is attached to the front of the carriage and contains the mechanism that controls the movement
of the carriage and the cross slide. It contains gears and clutches to transmit motion from the feed
rod to the carriage, and the half nut which engages with the lead screw during cutting threads.
 Apron contains gears and mechanism to move carriage manually and automatically.
 Half nut lever to engage the lead screw and carriage during threading operation
 The feed selection lever can be kept in neutral, up and down positions to obtain the following
 Hand feed to the carriage and cross slide
 Power feed to the carriage and to the cross slide
 Engaging G2 to G3 for automatic longitudinal feed
 Engaging G2 to G6 for automatic cross feed

The feed rod transmits power to the apron to drive the longitudinal feed and cross
feed mechanisms. The feed rod is driven by the spindle through a train of gears, and
the ratio of its speed to that of the spindle can be varied by changing gears
to produce various rates of feed. The rotating feed rod drives gears in the apron
These gears in turn drive the longitudinal feed and cross- feed mechanisms through friction
clutches. As the feed rod rotates, the carriage will automatically move along the axis of the lathe.
Both longitudinal and cross feed can be reversed by operating the tumbler gear mechanism.

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Main operations of lathe
The engine lathe is an accurate and versatile machine on which many operations can be performed.
These operations are:
1. Turning – produces straight, conical, curved, or grooved work pieces
2. Facing – produces a flat surface at the end of the part
3. Boring – to enlarge a hole
4. Drilling - to produce a hole
5. Cutting off – to cut off a work piece
6. Threading – to produce threads
7. Knurling – produces a regularly shaped roughness
8. Forming -
9. Chamfering
10. Taper Turning
Knurling is a manufacturing process, typically conducted on a lathe, whereby a pattern of straight,
angled or crossed lines is cut or rolled into the material

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Work holding Devices for Lathes:
The job or blank and the cutting tools essentially need to be properly mounted in the machine tool
for achieving desired performance of the machining system. The work holding devices are used
to hold and rotate the job along with the spindle. The correct work holding selection can increase
manufacturing process stability, efficiency and safety. Different work holding devices are used
according to the shape, length, diameter and weight of the work piece.
Factors while mounting the job or blank in the machine tool
Appropriate selection of work holding device depending upon;
1. Type of tool and operation on lathe
2. Shape, size, length and weight of the blank (work)
3. Kind of machining work to be done
4. Dimensional accuracy desired
5. Volume (number of same job) of production
6. Ease of loading and unloading from work holding device
7. Correct and rigid clamping of the blank against the cutting and other forces
Work holding devices in lathe
Work pieces can be held by various methods
1. Work piece mounted between centers
2. Work piece mounted within a single chuck
3. Work piece mounted within a collet
4. Work piece mounted on a faceplate
5. Using steady rests
Important work holding devices
1. Chucks
2. Face plate
3. Driving plate
4. Mandrels
5. Centres
6. Rests
Chuck
Chuck is a work holding devices in lathe most commonly used. Work pieces of short length, large
diameter and irregular shapes, which cannot be mounted between centres, are held quickly and
rigidly in chuck. There are different types of chucks namely,
Types of chucks
a. Three jaw chuck or self-centering chuck
b. Four jaw chuck or independent chuck
c. Air or hydraulic operated chuck
d. Magnetic chuck
e. Collet chuck

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Three jaw chuck (or) self-centering chuck
The three jaws fitted in the three slots may be made to slide at the same time by an equal amount
by rotating any one of the three pinions by a chuck key. This type of chuck is suitable for holding
and rotating regular shaped work pieces like round or hexagonal rods about the axis of the lathe.
Work pieces of irregular shapes cannot be held by this chuck. The work is held quickly and easily
as the three jaws move at the same time

three jaw four jaw

Advantages
1. Centering process is not necessary as all the jaws moves at a time
2. Consumes less time for mounting and un mounting the work piece.
Disadvantages
1. Grip is not so high as only three jobs are employed
2. All type of jobs cannot be mounted on these chucks, as they are useful in machining only
axis symmetrical objects
Four jaws or independent chuck
There are four jaws in this chuck. Each jaw is moved independently by rotating a screw with the
help of a chuck key. A particular jaw may be moved according to the shape of the work. Hence
this type of chuck can hold woks of irregular shapes. But it requires more time to set the work
aligned with the lathe axis. Experienced turners can set the work about the axis quickly. Concentric
circles are inscribed on the face of the chuck to enable quick centering of the work piece
Advantages Disadvantages
a) Any type work piece can be held easily a) Centering is a little difficult
b) High grip is possible as four jaws b) Semi-skilled labor is required

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Collet chuck
This type of chuck is used when the work to be held is very long in size. Collet chuck has a
cylindrical bushing known as collet. It is made of spring steel and has slots cut lengthwise on its
circumference. It holds the work with more grip. Collet chucks are used in capstan lathes and
automatic lathes for holding bar stock in production work.

Face plates
Face plate is used to hold large, heavy and irregular shaped work pieces which cannot be
conveniently held between centres. It is a circular disc bored out and threaded to fit to the nose of
the lathe spindle. It is provided with radial plain and ‘T’ – slots for holding the work by bolts and
clamps. For turning, facing, boring, threading and similar operations, jobs of odd shape and size
are usually mounted on large face plate (instead of chuck) being fitted on the spindle nose.

Driving plate
The driving plate is used to drive a workpiece when it is held between centres. It is a circular disc
screwed to the nose of the lathe spindle. It is provided with small bolts or pins on its face.

Mandrels
This type of work holding devices are employed for holding previously drilled or bored hole so
as to facilitate effective outer surface machining. The work is loaded over the mandrels between
the centers. Effective gripping of the mandrel in the chuck or any other holding device is used.
Various types of mandrels are in usage.

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Rests
Rest is a work holding device, which is used to hold the work piece when the work piece of very
long length are to be held. When a long work piece is to be turned without any defection, support
is necessary in between.
Various Rest types
1. Steady rest
2. Follower rest
Steady rest
The main function of steady rest is to provide support to a long slender work either at the end or
in the middle. Three adjustable jaws 120° apart mount in the frame. The top part of the frame is
hinged so that setting and removal of the work piece without disturbing the position of the steady
rest. It can be moved along the bed and clamped in position. It is also used to support the free end
of a long work piece while drilling, boring and tapping etc. The carriage cannot be fed to the full
length of the work when steady rest is used.
Follower rest
“C” like casting having two adjustable jaws which support the work piece. The rest is bolted to
the back of the carriage and moves with it. The tool is set slightly in advanced position than the
jaws. It keeps the work piece from deflecting by supporting it in the immediate area of the cut.

Tool holding devices

Lathe tool holders are designed to securely and rigidly hold the tool at a fixed angle for properly
machining a work piece. Single bolt, four bolt, open side and four-way tool post are main types of
tool post used to hold the tool.
Factors considered while mounting the tools
1. Orientation of the tool
2. Accurate mounting of tool
3. Easy and quick mounting and change
4. Un-obstructed chip flow and cutting fluid action

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Taper turning methods and attachment
A taper may be turned by any one of the following methods:
o By a broad nose form tool.
o By setting over the tailstock centre.
o By swiveling the compound rest.
o By a taper turning attachment.
o By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe.

Form tool method

This is one of the simplest methods to produce short taper. This method is shown in the above
figure. To the required angle the form is grounded. The tool is fed perpendicular to the lathe axis,
when the work piece rotates.

By setting over the tailstock Centre

The tool moves at an angle to the axis of the work, producing a taper. Therefore, to turn a taper,
the work must either be mounted in a lathe so that the axis upon which it turns is at an angle to the
axis of the lathe, or cause the cutting tool to move at an angle to the axis of the lathe.

By swiveling the compound rest

Generally short and steep taper will be produced will be produced using this method. In this
method the work piece will be held in the chuck and it will be rotated about the lathe axis. The
compound rest is swiveled to the required angle and then it will be clamped in position.

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Taper turning attachments
The principle of turning taper by a taper attachment is to guide the tool in a straight path set at
an angle to the axis of rotation of the work piece.
Normally, a lathe machines only parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the lathe spindle. A taper
attachment allows a lathe to cut a taper by causing the carriage and the cross slide to move at the
same time. As the carriage moves parallel with the machine axis, the cross-slide moves
perpendicular to that axis.

Taper turning attachment Combined feed

A taper turning attachment consists essentially of a bracket or frame which is attached to the rear
end of the lathe bed and supports a guide plate pivoted at the centre. The plate having graduations
in degrees may be swivelled on either side of the zero graduation and is set at the desired angle
with the lathe axis. When the longitudinal feed is engaged, the tool mounted on the cross slide will
follow the angular path, as the guide block will slide on the guide plate set at an angle to the lathe
axis.
The angle of swiveling the guide plate can be determined from equation.
Tan ά = (D-d) / 2L.
Large diameter (D), Small diameter (d), and the taper length (L)
Advantages of Taper Turning Attachment
1. The alignment of live and dead centres being not disturbed, both straight and taper
turning may be performed on a work piece in one setting without losing much time.
2. Once the taper is set, any length of a piece of work may be taper turned
3. Accurate taper on a large number of work pieces may be turned.
4. Internal tapers can be turned with ease.
By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe
Both longitudinal and cross feeds may be engaged simultaneously causing the tool to follow a
diagonal path. This is the resultant of the magnitudes of the two feeds.

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Thread cutting attachment
Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed in a lathe.
The principle of thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface by
feeding the tool longitudinally when the job is revolved between centres or by a chuck. The
longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per revolution of the work
piece. This is affected by change gears arranged between the spindle and the lead screw or by the
change gear.

1. Half nut lever is engaged to transmit power to carriage through lead screw
2. Selection of gears so that for every rotation of spindle, the carriage should move a distance equal
to pitch of the thread to be cut.
3. When the cut is made for the required length, the half nut lever is disengaged. The carriage is
brought back to its original position and the above procedure is repeated until the required
depth of the thread is achieved
4. The position of the tumbler gears is adjusted according to the type of the thread (right hand or
left hand).

Calculation for change gear ratio for cutting metric thread on a centre lathe with a metric lead
screw is as follows;

The pitch of the lead screw is 12 mm, and the pitch of the thread to be cut is 3 mm. For this
condition the change gear ratio is as follows

Therefore, the driver gear will have 20 teeth and the driven gear will have 80 teeth.

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Cutting speed refers to the speed at which the tool point of the cutter moves with respect to the
work measured in feet per minute.
In turning, it is given by the surface speed of the work piece,
V = π DoN in m/min
where Do is the diameter of the work piece in meter
N is the RPM of work or spindle speed
Feed – advancement of tool through the work piece in one rotation of spindle, (f mm/rev)
Depth of cut – distance by which tool penetrates in the work-piece (d, mm)
(Do-Df)/2
Df= dia of finished work piece
Cutting rate or MRR = volume / time
Volume of material removes = length * width * depth of the chip
In orthogonal cutting
Thickness of cut= feed
Width of cut= depth of cut
Material removal rate
MRR = v f d
Where v = cutting speed;
f = feed;
d = depth of cut
Machining time in turning process
𝐿
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑁𝑆𝑐 ∗ 𝑛𝑝 for finishing the work (total number of passes)
𝑜
where, LC = actual length of cut
=L+A+O
A, O = approach and over run as shown
N = spindle speed, rpm
So = feed (tool), mm/rev
np = number of passes required
𝐷1 − 𝐷2
𝑛𝑝 =
2𝑡
where, t = depth of cut in one pass, mm.

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Semiautomatic and Automatic Lathes
Automation is incorporated in a machine tool or machining system as a whole for higher
productivity with consistent quality aiming meeting the large requirements and overall
economy. Such automation enables quick and accurate auxiliary motions, i.e., handling
operations like tool – work mounting, bar feeding, tool indexing etc. repeatably with minimum
human intervention but with the help of special or additional mechanism and control systems.
These systems may be of mechanical, electro-mechanical, hydraulic or electronic type or their
combination.
It is already mentioned that according to degree of automation machine tools are classified as,
• Non automatic where most of the handling operations irrespective of processing
operations, are done manually, like centre lathes etc.
• Semiautomatic
• Automatic where all the handling or auxilliary operations as well as the processing
operations are carried out automatically.
Main limitations of centre lathes
 The setting time for the job in terms of holding the job is large.
 Only one tool can be used in the normal course.
 The idle times involved in the setting and movement of tools between the cuts is large.
 Precise movement of the tools to destined places is difficult to achieve if proper care is
not taken by the operator.
The conventional general purpose automated lathes can be classified as
Semi-automatic
(a) capstan lathe (ram type turret lathe)
(b) turret lathe
(c) multiple spindle turret lathe
(d) copying (hydraulic) lathe
Automatic
(a) Automatic cutting off lathe
(b) Single spindle automatic lathe
(c) Swiss type automatic lathe
(d) multiple spindle automatic lathes
Semi-automatics machine tools
Semi-automatics are employed for machining work from separate blanks. The operator loads
and clamps the blanks, starts the machine and unloads the finished work. The characteristic
features of semi - automatic lathes are:
 Some major auxiliary motions and handling operations like bar feeding, speed change,
tool change etc. are done quickly and consistently with lesser human involvement.
 The operators need lesser skill and putting lesser effort and attention.
 Suitable for batch or small lot production.
 Costlier than centre lathes of same capacity.
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Classification of semi-automatics
Depending upon the number of work spindle, these machines are classified as:
 Single spindle semi-automatics
 Multi spindle semi-automatics
The machine may also be built in two designs:
 Centre type.
 Chucking type.
Capstan and Turret lathes
The semiautomatic lathes, capstan lathe and turret lathe are very similar in construction,
operation and application.

(a) Bed
(b) Headstock
(c) Cross slide and saddle
(d) Turret
The turret is a hexagonal-shaped tool holder intended for holding six or more tools. Each
face of the turret is accurately machined. Through the centre of each face accurately bored
holes are provided for accommodating shanks of different tool holders. The centre line of
each hole coincides with the axis of the lathe when aligned with the headstock spindle. In
26

addition to these holes, there are four tapped holes on each face of the turret for securing
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different tool holding attachments.

Working principle of capstan and turret lathes
The work pieces are held in collets or chucks. A bar feeding mechanism is used for automatic
feeding of bar stock. At least eleven tools can be set at a time in turret and capstan lathes. Six
tools are held on the turret faces, four tools in front square tool post and one parting off tool at
the rear tool post. While machining, the turret head moves forward towards the job. After each
operation, the turret head goes back. The turret head is indexed automatically and the next tool
comes into machining position. The indexing is done by an indexing mechanism. The
longitudinal movement of the turret corresponding to each of the turret position can be
controlled independently. By holding different tools in the turret faces, the operations like
drilling, boring, reaming, counter boring, turning and threading can be done on the component.
Four tools held on the front tool post are used for different operations like necking, chamfering,
form turning and knurling. The parting off tool in the rear tool post is used for cutting off the
work piece. The cross wise movements of the rear and front tool posts are controlled by pre-
stops.

Comparison of centre lathe and Turret and capstan lathes

Capstan and turret lathes are production lathes used to manufacture any number of identical
pieces in the minimum time. These lathes are development of centre lathes.
In contrast to centre lathes, capstan and turret lathes:
 Are relatively costlier.
 Are requires less skilled operator.
 Possess an axially movable indexable turret (mostly hexagonal) in place of tailstock
 Holds large number of cutting tools; up to four in indexable tool post on the front slide,
one in the rear slide and up to six in the turret (if hexagonal) as indicated in the
schematic diagrams.
 Are more productive for quick engagement and overlapped functioning of the tools in
addition to faster mounting and feeding of the job and rapid speed change.
 Enable repetitive production of same job requiring less involvement, effort and
attention of the operator for pre-setting of work-speed and feed rate and length of travel
of the cutting tools.
 Are suitable and economically viable for batch production or small lot production.
 Capable of taking multiple cuts and combined cuts at the same time.
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Automatic lathes
Automatics as their name implies are machine tools with a fully automatic work cycle.
Automation is incorporated in machine tool systems to enable faster and consistently accurate
processing operations for increasing productivity and reducing manufacturing cost in batch and
mass production. The reduction in number of set ups and total machining time enables the parts
to be produced at an economical cost in an automatic lathe.
These are machine tools in which the components are machined automatically. The working
cycle is fully automatic that is repeated to produce identical parts without participation of the
operator. All the working and idle operations are performed in a definite sequence by the
control system adopted in the automats which is set up to suit a given work.
Advantages of automats over conventional lathes
1. Mass production of identical parts.
2. High accuracy is maintained.
3. Time of production is minimized.
4. Unskilled labor is enough. It minimizes the labor cost.
5. One operator can be utilized to operate more than one machine.
6. Scrap loss is reduced by eliminating operator error.

Automatic lathe working

Runs fully automatically continuously over a long duration repeating the same machining cycle for
each product. Provided with up-to five radial tool slides which are moved by cams mounted on a cam
shaft and with higher spindle speeds.
1. Automatic Bar/stock/work piece feeding after the completion of one product
2. Indexing of tool
3. Cam or hydraulic drive for cross slide etc.
Advantage
1. It is used to manufacture precision turning of small parts.
2. It has many tool slides.
3. Wide range of speed is available.
4. It is rigid in construction.
5. Simple design of can is enough.
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6. Many working stations are available.

7. Micro-meter tool setting is possible
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Automatic lathes are also classified into some distinguished categories based on constructional
features, operational characteristics, number of spindles.
• Single spindle
o Automatic cutting off lathes
o Automatic (screw cutting) lathe
o Swiss type automatic lathe
• Multi-spindle automatic lathe
Single and multi-spindle machines.
These machines have only one spindle. So, one component can be machined at a time. These
cross slides (cross feed of tool) are operated by disc cams or hydraulic mechanism which draws
the power from the main spindle through cycle time change gears. Spindle speeds are changed
to suit work piece diameter/material requirements by means of change gears in the headstock.
Essentially used for large volume of production of relatively smaller size.

Description of above figure

The required length of work piece (stock) is fed out with a cam mechanism, up to the stock
stop which is automatically advanced in line with the spindle axis, at the end of each cycle.
The stock is held in the collect chuck of the rotating spindle. The machining is done by tools
held in cross slides operating only in the crosswise direction. The form tool held in the front
tool slide produces the required shape of the component. The parting off tool in the rear tool
slide is used to cut off the component after machining.
Single spindle automatic screw type machine
This is very similar to capstan and turret lathes with reference to tool layout, but all the tool
movements are cam controlled, such that full automation in manufacturing is achieved. This is
designed for machining complex external and internal surfaces on parts made of bar stock or
of separate blanks.
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The bar stock is held in a collet chuck and advanced by a feed finger after each piece is finished
and cut off. All movements of the machine units are actuated by cams mounted on the camshaft.
The bar stock is pushed through stock tube in a bracket and its leading end is clamped in
rotating spindle by means of a collet chuck. The bar is then fed out for the next part by stock
feeding mechanism. Longitudinal turning and machining of the central hole are performed by
tools mounted on turret slide. The cut off and form tools are mounted on the cross-slides. At
the end of each cut, turret slide is withdrawn automatically and indexed to bring the next tool
into position. One revolution of camshaft produces one component. It is used for producing
small jobs, screws, stepped pins, taper pins, bolts, etc.
Multi-spindle machines
The multi spindle automats are the fastest type of production machines and are made in a
variety of models with 2, 4, 5, 6 or 8 spindles. Each of the spindles is provided with its own set
of tools for operation. As a result, more than one work piece can be machined simultaneously
in these machines. In contrast to the single spindle automat, where one turret face at a time is
working on one spindle, the multi spindle automat has all turret faces working on all spindles
at the same time. The production rate of a multi spindle automat, however, is less than that of
the corresponding number of single spindle automats. Machining of the inner and outer races in
mass production of ball bearings are, for instance, machined in multi-spindle automatic lathes.

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 Reciprocating machines
Reciprocating machine
In lathes the work piece is rotated while the cutting tool is moved axially to produce
cylindrical surfaces. But in reciprocating machine tools the single point cutting tool is
reciprocating and produces flat surfaces. The flat surfaces produced may be horizontal,
vertical or inclined at an angle. These machine tools can also be arranged for machining
contoured surfaces, slots, grooves and other recesses. The major machine tools that fall in this
type are: Shaper, Planer and Slotter. The main characteristic of this type of machine tools is
that they are simple in construction and are thus economical in operation
Shaping machine
The work is held firmly on the table and the ram is allowed to reciprocate over it. A single
point cutting tool is attached to the ram. When the ram moves horizontally in the forward
direction, the tool removes metal from the work. On the return stroke, metal is not removed.
The ram moves at a slow speed during forward stroke. But during return stroke, the ram
moves at a faster speed. Though the distances of ram movement during the forward and
return stroke remain the same, the time taken by the return stroke is less as it is faster.
The main function of the shaper is to produce flat surfaces in different planes. Because of the
poor productivity and process capability the shapers are not widely used nowadays for
production work. The shaper is a low cost machine tool and is used for initial rough
machining of the blanks
Principal parts

Base
The base is hollow and is made of cast iron. It provides the necessary support for all the other
parts of the machine. It is rigidly bolted to the floor of the workshop.
Column
It is a box like casting mounted vertically on top of the base. Two accurate guideways are
machined on the top of the column. The ram reciprocates on these guideways. The front face
of the column is provided with two vertical guideways. They act as guideways for the cross
rail. Cross rail moves vertically along these guideways. The column encloses the ram
reciprocating mechanism and the mechanism for stroke length adjustment.
Cross rail
It is mounted on the front vertical guideways of the column. The table may be raised or
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lowered by adjusting the cross rail vertically. A horizontal cross feed screw is fitted within
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the cross rail.

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Table
It is an important part useful in holding the work firmly on it. It is mounted on the saddle
which is located above the cross rail. The top and sides of the table are accurately machined
and have T-slots. Work pieces are held on the table with the help of shaper vise, clamps and
straps.
Ram
Ram supports the tool head on its front. It reciprocates on the accurately machined guideways
on the top of the column. It is connected to the reciprocating mechanism placed inside the
column. The position of ram reciprocation may be adjusted according to the location of the
work on the table.
Tool head
The tool head is fitted on the face of the ram and holds the tool rigidly. It provides vertical
and angular feed movement of the tool. The swivel tool head can be positioned at any
required angle and the vertical slide can be moved vertically or at any desired angle to
machine vertical or inclined surfaces.
Types
The shaping machines are classified as follows:
A. According to the type of driving mechanism
1. Crank type
2. Hydraulic type
3. Geared type
B. According to the design of the table
1. Plain shaper/Standard shaper: table has only two movement
2. Heavy duty shaper
3. Universal shaper: table can have swiveled also
C. According to the position and travel of ram
1. Horizontal shaper: tool reciprocates in horizontal axis
2. Vertical shaper
3. Travelling head type
D. According to the type of cutting stroke
1. Push cut shaper: cutting in forward stroke
2. Draw cut shaper: cutting in backward stroke
Crank type shaper
Crank and slotted link mechanism of a crank type shaper converts the rotation of an electric
motor into reciprocating movement of the ram. Though the lengths of both the forward and
return strokes are equal, the ram travels at a faster speed during return stroke. This quick
return is incorporated in almost all types of shaper.
Hydraulic shaper
The ram of a hydraulic shaper is connected to a piston. Oil at high pressure is pumped to the
cylinder of the hydraulic system. As the oil pushes the piston, the ram reciprocates.
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Hydraulic shapers are high power machines and are used for heavy duty work.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Geared type shaper
The reciprocating motion of the ram is some type of shaper is effect by means of a rack and
pinion. The rack teeth which are cut directly below the ram mesh with a spur gear. The pinion
meshing with the rack is driven by a gear train. The speed and the direction in which the ram
will traverse depend on the number of gears in the gear train. This type of shaper is not very
widely used.
Universal shaper
The universal shaper has a special type of table which can be swiveled and positioned at any
angle about a horizontal axis. Apart from the cross and vertical travel, the table of a universal
shaper can be swiveled to any angle to machine inclined surfaces. These machines are
utilized in precision workshops
Horizontal shaper
In a horizontal shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis. Horizontal
shapers are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.
Vertical shaper
In a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis. The work table of
a vertical shaper can be given cross, longitudinal, and rotary movement. Vertical shapers are
very convenient for machining internal surfaces, keyways, slots or grooves. The vertical
shaper which is specially designed for machining internal keyway.
Travelling Head Shaper
In this type of shaper, the ram while it reciprocates, also moves crosswise to give the required feed.

Push type shaper

This is the most general type of shaper used in common practice. The metal is removed when
the ram moves away from the column, i.e. pushes the work.
Draw type shaper
In this type, the metal is removed when the ram moves towards the column of the machine,
i.e. draws the work towards the machine. The tool is set in a reversed direction to that of a
standard shaper. In this shaper the cutting pressure acts towards the column which relieves
the cross rail and other bearings from excessive loading and allows to take deep cuts.
Vibration in these machines is practically eliminated.
Size
The size of a shaper is determined by the maximum length of stroke it can make. Shapers
with maximum stroke length of 175mm to 900mm are available. Machines with maximum
stroke length of 300mm, 450mm and 600mm are used widely.
To specify the machine further, the following points are to be provided.
1. The type of drive (Individual motor, Belt driven)
2. The method of obtaining different speeds
3. Horse power of the motor
4. Cutting to return stroke ratio
5. Number and range of speed arrangement
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6. The type of the table

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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Drive mechanism of a shaper (Mechanism of shaping process)
1. Drive Mechanism for reciprocating movement of ram (with quick return mechanism)
2. Drive Mechanism for table to movement automatically
In a shaper, rotary movement of the drive is converted into reciprocating movement of the
ram by the mechanism contained within the column of the machine. In a standard shaper
metal is remove the forward cutting stroke and during the return stroke no metal cutting is
taking place.
The shaper mechanism should be so designed that it can allow the ram to forward cutting
stroke and during the return stoke it can allow the ram to move at a faster rate to reduce the
idle return time. This mechanism is known as quick return mechanism. The total machining
time decreases and the rate of production increases.
The reciprocating and the quick return of the ram are usually obtained by using any one of
the following mechanisms.
1. Crank and slotted link mechanism
2. Hydraulic mechanism
3. Whitworth mechanism
Crank and slotted link mechanism
Motor runs the driving pinion at a uniform speed which makes the bull gear to rotate. A
slotted link having a long slot along its length is pivoted about the point ‘K’ and sliding block
is fitted inside the slot and slides along the length of the slotted link. OP can be considered as
a crank length. When the bull gear rotates, the sliding block slides and also rotates in the
crank pin circle. As the top of the slotted link is connected to the ram, the ram reciprocates
horizontally.

The rotation of the crank ‘OP’ in clockwise direction through the angle P1RP2(α) refers to the
forward cutting stroke. The rotation of the crank in the same direction through the angle
P2LP1(β) refers to the return stroke. As the angle P2LP1 is smaller than the angle P1RP2, the
time taken for the return stroke is less than that of forward stroke. So, it is evident that the
speed at which the ram travels during return stroke is more
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Adjustment of Stroke length shaping machine
The stroke length of a ram is the distance the ram moves forward or backward. Since the
length of a job varies, provision is made on shapers to change the stroke is required.It
depends upon the distance between the centre of the bull gear and the centre of the sliding
block which can be changed as shown.

Crank pin adjusting to change the stroke length changing the position of stroke
Adjusting the position of stroke
It is the fixing the start point and end point of stroke. The position of the ram relative to the
work can also be adjusted. The ram block which is mounted upon the screwed shaft acts as a
nut. By turning the hand wheel as shown in figure, the ram block position can be changed.
Hydraulic drive quick return mechanism
A constant speed motor drives a hydraulic pump which delivers oil at a constant pressure to
the line. A regulating valve admits oil under pressure to each end on the piston alternately, at
the same time allowing oil from the opposite end of the piston to return to the reservoir.

The control valve will admit the oil to the other side of the piston and the motion of the ram
will get reversed. The return stroke is quicker since the piston area on which the oil pressure
acts is greater as compared to the other end for which area reduced because of the piston rod
Advantages of Hydraulic drive
1. Does not make any noise and operates very quietly
2. Ability to stall against an obstruction without damage to the tool or the machine
3. Ability to change length and position of stroke or speed while the machine is running
4. The cutting and return speeds are practically constant throughout the stroke. This
permits the cutting tool to work uniformly during cutting stroke.
5. The reversal of the ram is obtained quickly without any shock as the oil on the other
end of the cylinder provides cushioning effect
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6. Offers great flexibility of speed and feed and the control is easier.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Whitworth quick return mechanism
The Whitworth quick return mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion, but
unlike the crank and slider, the forward reciprocating motion is at a different rate than the
backward stroke. At the bottom of the drive arm, the peg only has to move through a few
degrees to sweep the arm from left to right, but it takes the remainder of the revolution to
bring the arm back. This mechanism is most commonly seen as the drive for a shaping
machine

Feed mechanism of a shaper

The horizontal movement of table is called cross feed is used to machine a flat horizontal
surface. The cross feed of the table is affected by rotating the cross feed screw. This screw is
engaged with a nut fitted in the table. Rotation of the cross feed screw causes the table
mounted upon the saddle to move sideways on the cross rail. Cross feed is given either by
hand or power. If this screw is rotated manually by handle, then it is called hand feed.

Ratchet and Pawl mechanism (Automatic feed mechanism for the table)
If this screw is rotated by power using a ratchet wheel called automatic feed. The table of a
shaping machine travels in a cross direction when the cross feed screw is rotated. The cross
feed screw is attached to the ratchet wheel. When power feed is not necessary for the table,
the pawl is disengaged from the ratchet wheel.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Work holding devices
The top side of the table is having T-slots for clamping the work piece. The work piece may
be supported by any one of the following work holding devices depending upon the geometry
of the work piece and nature of the operation to be performed.
 Machine vise.
 Clamping work on the table using T bolts, stop pin etc
 Angle plate.
 V-blocks.
 Shaper centre
Machine vise
Vise is the most common and simple work holding device used in a shaper. Different types
of vises are used in a shaping machine according to the need like plain and swivel vise etc

Clamping work on the table

T – Bolts are fitted into the T – slots of the table. The work is placed on the table. The work is
supported by a rectangular strip at one end and by a stop pin at the other side. The screw is
tightened to secure the work properly on the machine table.

T-bolts, Clamp and Step Blocks

The step blocks are used in combination with T-bolts and clamps to hold the work directly on
the machine table. T-bolts are fitted in the T-slots of the machine table. One side of the clamp
holds the work and the other side rests on a step of the step block. The different steps of the
block are useful in levelling the clamp when holding works of different heights.
Angle Plate
It is accurately machined two sides at right angles. Slots are provided on both the sides. One
of the sides is bolted to the machine table and the work pieces are held on the other side.
V – Block
V- block is a metal block having a ‘V’ shaped groove on it. It is used for holding cylindrical
work pieces. Operations like keyway cutting, slot cutting and machining flat surfaces can be
performed on the cylindrical work pieces held on a ‘V’ block.
Shaper centre
This is a special attachment used for cutting equally spaced grooves or splines and gears. A
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shaper centre consists of a headstock and a tailstock, and the work is mounted between two
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centres

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Shaper Tools
Shaper cutting tools are single point tools similar to lathe tools and are frequently held in the
same type of holders. Shaper tools are of two basic kinds: forged tools and tool bits. Tool bits
are more widely used than forged tools because of their economy, cutting life and the ease
with which they are sharpened.
Shaper tool bits may be made up of high speed steel cast alloy or cemented carbide. Since
high speed steel has greater impact toughness than cast alloy or cemented carbide, tool bits
made of high-speed steel are used most often.
Types of shaper cutting tool
According to the shape:
 Straight tool.
 Cranked tool.
 Goose necked tool.
According to the direction of cutting:
 Left hand tool. (when the table moves left to right)
 Right hand tool. (when the tool moves from right to left)
According to the finish required:
 Roughing tool.
 Finishing tool.
According to the type of operation
 Down cutting tool.
 Parting off tool.
 Squaring tool.
 Side recessing tool.
According to the shape of the cutting edge
 Round nose tool.
 Square nose tool.

Shaper and planer cutting tools similar in shape to lathe tools but differ mainly in their relief
angles. These tools are held practically square with the work and do not feed during the cut;
therefore, relief angles are much less than those in turning operations. The little difference
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which a shaper tool has from a lathe, tool is because of the, fact that whereas a lathe tool has

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

a constant, fairly uniform cutting pressure exerted on is a shaper tool is subjected to a series
of sudden shocks caused by its repeated hammering into the work. To withstand these shocks,
it is necessary that the shaper tools have a larger nose radius than the lathe tools have. In
many cases the back rake, angle of the shaper tool is negatively ground so that the shock of
each successive cut is taken on the solid part of the tool rather than on its point. Moreover, a
shaper tool is more rigid than a lathe tool. The nomenclature of shaper and planer tools is the
same as that for lathe tools.
Operations performed
Different types of operations are performed in a shaping machine are broadly classified as
1. Regular operations
a. Machining flat surfaces in different planes (horizontal, vertical and angular
planes)
2. Special operations
a) Making features like slots, steps etc.
b) Forming grooves
c) Cutting external and internal keyways
d) Machining of external gears

Advantages of shaping process

1. Simple cutting tool
2. Easy work holding method
3. Easy to change the setting of operation according to the work change
4. Fragile and thin work can be machined
5. Economical cutting
Operational parameters
Cutting speed
It is defined as the average linear speed of the tool during the cutting stroke in m/min. This is
expressed in meter per minute. It depends on the length of stroke and number of stroke per
minute. Cutting stroke means one forward stroke and return stroke.

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒

𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒
10

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 (𝐿) 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

time taken by cutting stroke =
𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑉)𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟/min
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒
𝐿 𝑚𝐿
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 = +
𝑉 𝑉
𝐿
𝑖𝑒 = (1 + 𝑚)
𝑉

If the rpm of bull gear is N, then N number of strokes takes place per minute. So the time taken for
one stroke and cutting speed can be expressed as below
1 𝐿
𝑖𝑒 = (1 + 𝑚 ) 𝒊𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 (𝑽) = 𝑵𝑳(𝟏 + 𝒎)
𝑁 𝑉
L  length of cutting stroke
L  Lw  A  O
Lw  length of job
A  approch length
O  over run length
m  ratio between return time to cutting time (2 : 3)
time of return stroke
m
time of cutting stroke
N  rpm of bull gear
V  cutting speed (m / min ute)
w  width of work
f  feed
Total machining time for entire machining
𝑤
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑓
𝑳 𝒘
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 = (𝟏 + 𝒎) ∗ (𝒎𝒊𝒏)
𝑽 𝒇
Depth of cut
Depth of cut (t) is the thickness of metal that is removed during machining. It is the
perpendicular distance measured between the machined surface and the uncut surface of the
work piece. It is expressed in mm or in inches.
Feed
Feed (S) is the relative movement of the work or tool in a direction perpendicular to the axis
of reciprocation of the ram per double stroke. It is expressed in mm per stroke
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

 Slotting machines
Slotter can simply be considered as vertical shaper where the single point (straight or formed)
cutting tool reciprocates vertically and the work piece, being mounted on the table, is given
slow longitudinal and / or rotary feed. The work piece is held stationary. The slotting
machine has a vertical ram and a hand or power operated rotary table. A slotter removes
materials during the down ward cutting stroke only.
The slotting machine is used for cutting grooves, keys and slots of various shapes making
regular and irregular surfaces both internal and external cutting internal and external gears
and profiles The slotter machine can be used on any type of work where vertical tool
movement is considered essential and advantageous. However, it has to be borne in mind that
productivity and process capability of slotting machines are very poor and hence used mostly
for piece production required by maintenance and repair in small industries.
Slotting machines are characterised by:
 Vertical tool reciprocation
 Longer stroke length
 Less strong and rigid
 An additional rotary feed motion of the work table
 Used mostly for machining internal surfaces.
Principal parts of slotter machine
Base
It is rigidly built to take up all the cutting forces and entire load of the machine. The top of
the bed is accurately finished to provide guide ways on which the saddle is mounted. The
guide ways are perpendicular to the column face
Column
It is the vertical member which is cast integral with the base and houses driving mechanism
of the ram and feeding mechanism. The front vertical face of the column is accurately
finished for providing ways on which the ram reciprocates.
Saddle
It is mounted upon the guide ways and may be moved toward or away from the column either
by power or manual control to supply longitudinal feed to the work. The top face of the
saddle is finished to provide guide ways for the cross slide.
Cross slide
It is mounted upon the guide ways of the saddle and may be moved parallel to the face of the
column. The movement of the slide may be controlled either by hand or power to supply
Rotary table
It is a circular table which is mounted on the top of the cross slide. The table may be rotated
by rotating a worm which meshes with a worm gear connected to the underside of the table.
The rotation of the table may be effected either by hand or power
Ram
It is the reciprocating member of the machine mounted on the guide ways of the column. It is
connected to the reciprocating mechanism contained within the column. A slot is cut on the
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body of the ram for changing the position of the stroke. It carries the tool head at its bottom
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Tool head
It holds the tool rigidly. In some machines, special types of tool holders are provided to
relieve the tool during its return stroke.

Working principle of a slotter

The vertical ram holding the cutting tool is reciprocated by a ram drive mechanism. The work
piece, to be machined is mounted directly or in a vice on the work table. In slotter, in addition
to the longitudinal and cross feeds, a rotary feed motion is also provided in the work table.
The intermittent rotation of the feed rod is derived from the driving shaft with the help of an
automatic feed mechanism.
Types of slotter
The different types of slotter which are most commonly used are:
1. Puncher slotter.
2. Precision tool room slotter.
3. General Production Slotter
Puncher slotter
It is a heavy, rigid machine designed for removal of a large amount of metal from large
forging or castings. The length of a puncher slotter is sufficiently large. It may be as long as
1800 to 2000 mm. length of stroke is large. Ram is driven by rack and pinion drive.
Precision tool room slotter
It is a lighter machine and is operated at high speeds. The machine is designed to take light
cuts giving accurate finish. Using special jigs, the machine can handle a number of identical
works on a production basis. The precision machines are also used for general purpose work
and are usually fitted with Whitworth quick return mechanism.
General Production Slotter
This is widely used for general purpose production work. This may be divided into two
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classes. These are having solid body construction or having arrangements to tilt the body of
the machine about 10O forward and backward for machining accurate internal and external
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tapers.

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Quick return mechanism for slotter (Ram)
A slotter removes metal during downward cutting stroke only whereas during upward return
stroke no metal is removed. To reduce the idle return time, quick return mechanism is
incorporated in the machine. The reciprocating movement and the quick return of the ram are
usually obtained by using any one of the following mechanisms
1. Whitworth quick return mechanism
The Whitworth quick return mechanism is most widely used in a medium sized slotter for
driving the ram. The same mechanism has been described previous topic can be used.
Circular motion into variable alternating rectilinear motion, by the wrist or crank-pin on
the rotating disk working in the slot of the bell-crank lever. The mechanism which has
been explained is slightly modified in the case of slotter as shown in figure. But the basic
principle and line diagram of Whitworth is the same.

2. Hydraulic drive quick return mechanism (Same as shaping machine)

3. Variable speed reversible electric motor drive
Same as explained in planing machine (Planning machine that mechanism is used for
to and fro movement of table. But in slotter machine, that mechanism is for cutting
tool reciprocating motion)
Feed mechanism of a slotter
In a slotter, the feed is given by the table. Like a shaper or a planer, the feed movement of a
slotter is intermittent and supplied at the beginning of the cutting stroke. The feed movement
may be provided either by hand or power. If the feed screws are rotated manually by a
handle, then it called hand feed. If the feed screws are rotated by power, then it is called
automatic feed
Automatic feed
The power feed mechanism makes use of a ratchet and pawl mechanism. A groove for the cam
is cut on the face of the bull gear of the driving mechanism of the slotter. A roller follower
slides in this groove. The lever is pivoted in the middle and the other end of the lever has a
slot.
The rocking movement of the lever 3 is transmitted to the ratchet and pawl mechanism 6 and
8, so that the ratchet 8 will move in one direction only during this short period of time. The
ratchet wheel is mounted on a feed shaft which may be engaged with cross, longitudinal or
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rotary feed screws individually or together to impart power feed movement to the table.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Work holding devices used in a slotter
1. Vise,
2. T-bolts and clamps
3. Directly on the top the sliding bed with the help of clamps etc.
4. on the rotary table or in the chuck
5. occasionally in the fixture which is clamped on the flat bed or face plate
6. Special fixtures.
7. Face plate
Operations performed in slotting machine
1. The slotting machine can be used to cut slots, splines and keyways for both
internal and external jobs such as machining internal and external gears.
2. It can be used for works as machining concave, circular, semi-circular surfaces.
3. It can be used for machining vertical surfaces, machining inclined surfaces,
machining of shapes which are difficult to produce on a shaper machine
4. It can be used for internal machining of blind holes
5. Internal keyways and splines, straight tooth of internal spur gears, internal curved
surfaces, and internal oil grooves etc
6. Internal grooves and slots of rectangular and curved section
Specifications or size of a slotter
The slotter is specified by the following parameters:
 The maximum stroke length.
 Diameter of rotary table.
 Maximum travel of saddle and cross-slide
 Type of drive used.
 Power of the motor.
 Number and amount of feeds.
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 Floor area required.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Slotter tools
A slotter tool differs widely from a shaper tool as the tool in a slotter removes metal during
its vertical cutting stroke. This changes the cutting condition. In a shaper tool the cutting
pressure acts perpendicular to the tool length, whereas in a slotter tool the pressure acts along
the length of the tool. The slotter tools are robust in cross section and usually forged type.
Round nose tools are used for machining contoured surfaces. Square nose tools are used for
machining flat surfaces. The rake angle and clearance angle of a slotter tool look different
from a shaper tool.

Cutting speed feed and depth of cut definition is same as before. The machining time
calculation is also same as shaping process

Difference between shaper and slotting machine

shaper machine slotting machine

used for horizontal surface grovees, slots and key ways etc

used for rigid work used for light work

stroke length is more stroke length is less

reactangular table round table with additional rotary motion

tool moves mostly horizontally tool moves verticaly

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 Planning machines
Planing machine
Like shaping machines, planing machines are also basically used for producing flat surfaces
in different planes. But planers are very large and massive compared to the shapers. Planers
are generally used for machining large work pieces which cannot be held in a shaper. Work
which is supported on the table reciprocates past the stationary cutting tool and the feed is
supplied by the lateral movement of the tool.

This machine tool also does the same operations like shaping machine but the major
differences are:
 In planing the job reciprocates for cutting motion and the tool moves slowly for the
feed motions unlike in shaping machine.
 Planing machines are usually very large in size and used for large jobs and heavy duty
work
 In planing machine, the work piece is mounted on the reciprocating table and the tool
is mounted on the horizontal rail which, again, can move vertically up and down
along the vertical rails.
 Planing machines are more productive (than shaping machines) for longer and faster
stroke, heavy cuts (high feed and depth of cut) possible and simultaneous use of a
number of tools.

Advantages of planning process

1. Large work can be handled
2. Heavy cut can be performed
3. Good work support
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4. No tool overhang
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

The principle parts of the planer
 Bed
 Table
 Column
 Cross rail
 Tool head
Bed
 The bed of a planer is large in size and heavy in weight
 It supports the column and all other moving parts of the machine
 It is made slightly longer than twice the length of the table so that the full-length of
the table maybe moved on it
Table
 The table supports the work and reciprocates along the ways of the bed
 The top face of the table is accurately finished in order to locate the work correctly
 T-slots are provided on the entire length of the table so that the work and work
holding devices may be bolted upon it
Column
 These are rigid box-like vertical structures placed on each side of the bed and are
fastened to the sides of the bed
 The cross rail may be made to slide up and down for accommodating different heights
of work
Cross rail
 It is a rigid box-like casting connecting the two columns
 It may be raised or lowered on the face of the housing and can be clamped at a desired
position by manual or electrical clamping devices
Tool head
 Tool heads are mounted on the cross rail by a saddle
 The saddle may be made to move transversely on the cross rail to give cross feed
Classification of Planer
Planers are generally divided into 5 types:
1. Double Housing Planer
2. Open Side Planer
3. Edge Type Planer
4. Divide Table Planer
5. Pit Type Planer
Double Housing Planer
It is the most common type of planer. It consists of mainly a massive bed on which the work
table reciprocates, and two vertical columns or housing, one on each side of the bed. Each
column carries a tool head that can be slide up and down on the column. A cross rail fitted
between the two columns may carry one or two tool heads that can slide horizontally on the
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cross rail. All the tool heads can be clamped in position, and can be used collectively or
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individually depending on the requirements.

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Open Side Planer
Open side planer consists of only one vertical column or housing on which the cross rail is
mounted. The column and the cross rail carry single and double tool heads respectively. This
type of machine permits machining of wide work pieces

Edge Type Planer

This type of machine is used for machining the edges of heavy work pieces. The work piece
is clamped on the bed and the side mounted carriage supporting the cutting tool is
reciprocated along the edge of the work piece. Cutting can take place during both directions
of carriage travel
Divide Type Planer
It is also called tandem planer and consists of two work tables, which may be reciprocated
together or separately. In such cases, divided table planer can be used, where in, one
worktable can be used for setting up a new work piece, while the second worktable carrying
work piece is being machined. The two tables can be joined together to hold large work
pieces. Setting time for work can be reduced.

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Pit Type Planer
A pit type planer differs from other planer in the sense that, the table and the work piece
resting on it remain stationary and the tool reciprocates across the work surface. This type of
machine is preferred for very large work, where the weight of the work piece and the tool
required table would make reciprocating movement difficult. The job is either mounted on a
stationary table, or on the floor inside a pit, and hence the name pit type planer. One or two
tool heads can be mounted on the cross rail and two side tool posts the housings, if required.
The entire unit travels along the horizontal ways and fro and, thus the tool moves past the
work surface during operation

The common operations performed in a planer

1. Planning flat horizontal surfaces.
2. Planning vertical surfaces.
3. Planning at an angle and machining dovetails.
4. Planning curved surfaces.
5. Planning slots and grooves
Comparison between shaper and planer

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Drive mechanism of a planer
Two important mechanism of a planer
1. Table drive mechanism
2. Feeding mechanism
The different mechanism used to drive the table are:
1. Open and cross belt drive
2. Reversible motor drive
3. Hydraulic drive
Open and cross belt drive quick return mechanism
In this mechanism the movement of the table is effect by an open belt and a cross belt drive.
The open belt connects the smaller loose pulley, so no motion is transmitted by the open belt
to the main shaft.

During cutting stroke cross belt connects the larger fast pulley, so the motion is transmitted
by the cross belt to the main shaft. The greater arc of contact of the cross belt gives greater
power and the speed is reduced as the belt connects smaller diameter pulley on the counter
shaft and larger diameter pulley on the main shaft. At the end of the forward stroke a trip dog
pushes the belt shifter through a lever arrangement. The belt shifter shifts both the belts to the
right side
The open belt is shifted to the smaller fast pulley and the cross belt is shifted to the larger
loose pulley. Now the motion is transmitted to the main shaft through the open belt and no
motion is transmitted to the main shaft by the cross belt. The direction of rotation of the main
shaft is reversed. The return stroke of the table takes place. The speed during return stroke is
increased as the open belt connects the larger diameter pulley on the counter shaft with the
smaller diameter pulley on the main shaft. Thus a quick return motion is obtained by the
mechanism. At the end of the return stroke, the belts are shifted to the left side by another trip
dog. So the cycle is repeated. The length and position of the stroke may be adjusted by
shifting the position of trip dogs.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Reversible motor drive quick return mechanism
All modern planers are equipped with variable speed electric motor which drives the bull gear
through a gear train

This system consists of an AC motor which is coupled with a DC generator, a DC motor and
a reversing switch. When the AC motor runs, the DC motor will receive power from the DC
generator. At that time, the table moves in forward direction. At the end of this stroke, a trip
dog actuates an electrical reversing switch. Due to this action, it reverses the direction of
current in DC generator with increased current strength. Now, the motor rotates in reverse
direction with higher speed. So, the table moves in the reverse direction to take the return
stroke with comparatively high speed.
The distinct advantages of electrical drive over a belt drive are:
1. Cutting speed, stroke length and stroke position can be adjusted without stopping the
machine.
2. Large number of cutting speeds and return speeds are available.
3. Quick and accurate control
Return speed can be greatly increased reducing idle time.
Hydraulic drive quick return mechanism
The hydraulic drive is quite similar to that used for a horizontal shaper. More than one
hydraulic cylinder may be used to give a wide range of speeds. The main drawback of the
hydraulic drive on long planers is irregular movement of the table due to the compressibility
of the hydraulic fluid.

Feed mechanism of a planer

In a planer the feed is provided intermittently and at the end of the return stroke similar to a
shaper. The feed of a planer, both down feed and cross feed, is given by the tool head. The
down feed is applied while machining a vertical or angular surface by rotating the down feed
screw of the tool head. The cross feed is given while machining horizontal surface by rotating
the cross feed screw passes through a nut in the tool head.
 Down feed: Bevel gear meshes with other bevel gear slides on the splined shaft
 Cross feed: The spur gear meshes with another spur gear which is keyed to the cross feed
screw. The power from the splined shaft is transmitted to the cross feed screw. Then the
rotation is transmitted to the tool head through a nut. The tool head moves horizontally. It
is known a cross feed. At the end of the time, the pawl slips over the ratchet. The ratchet
wheel does not rotate.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Automatic feed mechanism
The power feed may be applied by
 Friction disc
 Electrical drive
Modern planers which are equipped with electrical drive. It uses a separate motor to operate
the feed mechanism with reversing mechanism.
Cutting tools for planer
Cutting tool used on planers are all single point cutting tools. They are in general similar in
shapes and tool angles to those used on a lathe and shaping machine. As a planer tool has to
take up heavy cut and coarse feed during a long cutting stroke, the tools are made heavier and
larger in cross section. Planner tools may be solid, forged type or bit type. Bits are made of
high speed steel, satellite or cemented carbide and they may be brazed, welded or clamped on
a mild steel shank. Cemented carbide tipped tools are used for production work. A planer tool
may also be classified as right hand or left hand and roughing or finishing

Size of planer machine/Specifications of a planer

 Size of the largest rectangular solid that can reciprocate under the tool
 Maximum length of the table and maximum stroke length of table.
 Power of the motor.
 Range of speeds and feeds available.
 Type of feed and type of drives required.
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 Horizontal distance between two vertical housings.

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 Net weight of machine and Floor area required.

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

Work holding devices used in a planer
A planer table is used to hold very large, heavy and intricate work pieces, and in many cases,
large number of identical work pieces. The work should be rigidly fixed on table and work
surface should be in proper position. The work piece may be held on a planer table by the
following methods:
1. By standard clamping.
2. By special fixtures.
Standard clamping devices
The standard clamping devices are as follows:
1. Heavy duty vises.
2. T-bolts, step blocks and clamps.
3. Stop pins and toe dogs.
4. Angle plates.
5. Planer jacks.
6. Planer centres (similar to shaper centre)
7. V-blocks
(Explanation is same as before)
Cutting speed of a planning operation is the rate at which metal is removed during the
cutting stroke expressed in meter/min
Feed in planning process is the distance the tool head travels at cross ward for next cut
expressed in mm per double stroke.
Depth of cut is the thickness of material removed in one cut measured between the machined
and un-machined surface expressed in mm
Machining time
Calculation of machining time is as same as shaping process.
Operations performed in planning machine
1. Planing flat horizontal/vertical/inclined surface
2. Slots and grooves
3. Curved surface etc
Surface roughness obtainable with machining process
Surface roughness is caused, due to the short wavelength irregularities in the surface.
The surface roughness is defined as a quantitative measure of the process marks
developed during the creation of the surface and other factors like the structure of the
component.
The surface roughness is denoted by Ra. The unit of surface roughness is
“m” (micron meter (or) microns
Since machining is often the manufacturing process that determines the final geometry and
dimensions of the part, it’s also determines the part’s surface texture. Surface roughness of a
machined surface depends on:
Factors Affecting the surface finish
The following factors affect the surface finish during machining.
(a) The machining variables
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1. Cutting speed
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2. Feed

Department of Mechanical Engineering SSET

 3. Depth of cut
(b) The tool geometry also influences the surface finish.
1. Nose radius
2. Rake angle
3. Side cutting-edge angle
4. Cutting edge
(c) Properties of work piece and tool materials
(d) Type of the machine tool
(e) Quality of the machine tool

The two most important factors affecting the surface finish are tool geometry (nose radius)
and the feed and cutting speed. In slotting operations or in the shaping of internal surfaces
when there is substantial overhang of the tool or tool holder, the aspect of rigidity comes into
picture. Surface roughness plays an important role in determining how a real object will
interact with its environment. Rough surfaces usually wear more quickly and have higher
friction coefficients than smooth surfaces. Roughness is often a good predictor of the
performance of a mechanical component, since irregularities in the surface may form
nucleation sites for cracks or corrosion. Although roughness is usually undesirable, it is
difficult and expensive to control in manufacturing. Decreasing the roughness of a surface
will usually increase exponentially its manufacturing costs.

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 Drilling Machines
Drilling is the process of originating holes in the work piece by using a rotating cutter called drill.
The machine used for this purpose is called drilling machine. In a drilling machine holes may be
drilled quickly and at a low cost.
The base made of cast iron may rest on a bench, or floor depending upon the design. Larger and
heavy duty machines are grounded on the floor. The column is mounted vertically upon the base.
It is accurately machined and the table can be moved up and down on it. The mechanism meant
for driving the spindle at different speeds are mounted on the top of the column. Power is
transmitted from the electric motor to the spindle through a flat belt or a ‘V’ belt.
The basic parts of drilling
machine are the
1. Base
2. Column
3. Table
4. Drill head

Base
The base is made of cast iron and so can withstand vibrations. It may be mounted on a bench or
on the floor. It supports all the other parts of the machine on it.
Column
The column stands vertically on the base at one end. It supports the work table and the drill head.
The drill head has drill spindle and the driving motor on either side of the column.
Table
The table is mounted on the vertical column and can be adjusted up and down on it. The table has
‘T’-slots on it for holding the work pieces or to hold any other work holding device. The table can
be adjusted vertically to accommodate work pieces of different heights and can be clamped at the
required position.
Drill head
Drill head is mounted on the top side of the column. The drill spindle and the driving motor are
connected by means of a V-belt and cone pulleys. The motion is transmitted to the spindle from
the motor by the belt. The pinion attached to the handle meshes with the rack on the sleeve of the
spindle for providing the drill the required down feed. There is no power feed arrangement in this
machine. The spindle rotates at a speed ranging from 50 to 2000 rpm

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Types of drilling machines
Drilling machines are manufactured in different types and sizes according to the type of operation,
amount of feed, depth of cut, spindle speeds, method of spindle movement and accuracy.
The different types of drilling machine which are most commonly used are
1. Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine
2. Sensitive drilling machine (or) Bench drilling machine
3. Upright drilling machine
4. Radial drilling machine
5. Gang drilling machine
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
7. Deep hole drilling machine
Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine
It is used for drilling holes on work pieces in
any position, which is not possible in a
standard drilling machine. The entire drilling
mechanism is compact and small in size.
These machines can use drills from 12mm to
18 mm diameter. Portable drilling machines
are operated at higher speeds.
Sensitive drilling machine
It is designed for drilling small holes at high speeds in light jobs. High speed and hand feed are
necessary for drilling small holes. The base of the machine is mounted either on a bench or on the
floor by means of bolts and nuts. It can handle drills up to 15.5mm of diameter. The drill is fed
into the work purely by hand. The operator can sense the progress of the drill into the work because
of hand feed. The machine is named so because of this reason.
Upright drilling machine
The upright drilling machine is designed for
handling medium sized work pieces. It is
larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling
machine. Holes of diameter upto 50mm can
be made with this type of machine. Besides,
it is supplied with power feed arrangement.
For drilling different types of work, the
machine is provided with a number of spindle
speeds and feed. Vertical adjustment
obtained by the rack on the column and a
pinion in the table. Circular adjustment about
its own axis in round section.

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There are two different types of upright drilling machines according to the cross-section of the
column and they are
1. Round column section upright drilling machine-
2. Box column section upright drilling machine
The round column section upright drilling machine consists of a round column whereas the upright
drilling machine has box column section. The other constructional features of both are same. Box
column machines possess more machine strength and rigidity as compared to those having round
section column to handle heavy drilling operations.
Radial drilling machine
The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling on medium to large and heavy work pieces. It
has a heavy round column mounted on a large base.
The column supports a
radial arm, which can be
raised or lowered to enable
the table to accommodate
work pieces of different
heights. The arm, which has
the drill head on it, can be
swung around to any
position. The drill head can
be made to slide on the
radial arm. The machine is
named so because of this
reason. It consists of parts
like base, column, radial
arm, drill head and driving
mechanism.
Radial arm
The radial arm is mounted on the column parallel to the base and can be adjusted vertically. The
vertical front surface is accurately machined to provide guideways for the drill head. The drill head
can be adjusted along these guideways according to the location of the work. In some machines, a
separate motor is provided for this movement. The arm may be swung around the column. It can
also be moved up and down to suit work pieces of different heights.
Drill head
The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and houses all mechanism for driving the drill at
different speeds and at different feed. A motor is mounted on top of the drill head for this purpose.
To adjust the position of drill spindle with respect to the work, the drill head may be made to slide
on the guideways of the arm. The drill head can be clamped in position after the spindle is properly
adjusted.

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Gang drilling machine
In gang drilling machine, a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side
by side on a common base and have a common worktable. A series of operation like drilling,
reaming, counter boring and tapping may be performed on the job by shifting the work from one
position to the other on the worktable. This type of machine is mainly used for production work.
Four to six drill heads are placed side by side with a common table and base. The drill heads have
separate driving motors. Each spindle is set with different tools for different operations.

Multiple-Spindle Drilling Machine

A multiple spindle drilling machine also has several spindles. This machine is used for drilling a
number of holes in a work piece simultaneously and for reproducing the same pattern of holes in
a number of identical pieces. A single motor using a set of gears drives all the spindles. All the
spindles holding the drills are fed into the work at the same time. The distances between the
spindles can be altered according to the locations where holes are to be drilled.
Deep hole drilling machine
A special machine and drills are required to drill deeper holes in barrels of gun, spindles and
connecting rods. The machine designed for this purpose is known as deep hole drilling machine.
High cutting speeds and less feed are necessary to drill deep holes. A non-rotating drill is fed
slowly into the rotating work at high speeds. Coolant should be used while drilling in this machine.
There are two different types of deep hole drilling machines vertical and horizontal.
Turret (type) drilling machine
Turret drilling machines are structurally rigid
column type but are more productive like
gang drill by having a pentagon or hexagon
turret. The turret bearing a number of drills
and similar tools is indexed and moved up
and down to perform quickly the desired
series of operations progressively. These
drilling machines are available with varying
degree of automation both fixed and flexible
type.

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Work holding devices
The work should be held firmly on the machine table before performing any operation on it. As
the drill exerts very high quantity of torque while rotating, the work should not be held by hand.
The devices used for holding the work in a drilling machine are
1. Drill vise
2. T - bolts and clamps
3. Step block
4. V - block
5. Angle plate
6. Drill jigs
Drill vise
Vise is one of the important devices used for holding work pieces on a drilling machine table. The
work is clamped between a fixed jaw and a movable jaw. Parallel blocks are placed below the
work so that the drill may completely pass through the work without damaging the table. Different
types of vises are used for holding different types of work and for performing different operations.

Vise T-clamps
T- bolts and clamps
The work pieces can be held directly on the machine table by means of ‘T’ - bolts and clamps. The
top of the machine table has ‘T’ - slots into which ‘T’ - bolts may be fitted. The clamps are made
of mild steel. The clamp is made to rest horizontally on the work surface by placing a suitable step
block at the other end of the work.
V - block
V- blocks are used for holding cylindrical work pieces. The work may be supported on two or
three ‘V’ - blocks according to the length of the work. The work is held on the ‘V’ groove and is
clamped by straps and bolts. They are made of cast iron or steel and are accurately machined
Angle plate
Angle plates have two faces at right angle to each other and are made of cast iron. All the sides
of an angle plate are machined accurately. Slots and holes are provided on both the faces of the
angle plate. Work is clamped on one of its faces by means of bolts and nuts
Drill Jig
Drill jigs are used in mass production process. A jig is specially designed to hold the work securely
and to guide the tool at any desired position. Holes may be drilled at the same relative positions

Page | 22
on each of the identical work pieces. The work is clamped and removed easily. The cost of making
a drill jig is more but a low order of skill is sufficient to work with a drill

Size of a drilling machine (Specification of drilling machine)

a) Maximum size of the drill that the machine can operate
b) Diameter of the table,
c) Maximum travel of the spindle
d) Numbers and range of spindle speeds
e) Floor space required,
f) Power input
 Radial drilling machine is specified by diameter of the column and length of radical arm.
 Portable drilling machine is specified by maximum diameter of the drill that can handle.
 Sensitive and Upright drilling machines is specified by the size of the largest work piece
Spindle drive mechanism
The spindle is a vertical shaft which holds the drill. It receives its motion from the top shaft though
bevel gears. The spindle drive mechanism of a drilling machine incorporates an arrangement for
obtaining multiple speed of the spindle similar to a lathe to suit different operating condition
Multiple speed of the spindle may be obtained as follows:
1. By step cone pulley drive.
2. By step cone pulley drive with one or more back gears.
3. By gearing
Feed mechanism
In a drilling machine, the feed is effect by the
vertical movement of the drill into the work.
The feed movement of the drill may be
controlled by hand or power. A long keyway
is cut on the spindle and a sliding key
connects it with a bevel gear or a stepped
cone pulley. It receives motion from the
driving motor. The spindle rotates within a
non-rotating sleeve known as quill. The
spindle and the sleeve are connected by a
thrust bearing.

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Tool holding devices
Different tools are used for performing different operations. They are fitted into the drill spindle
by different methods. They are
(1) By directly fitting in the spindle
(2) By a sleeve
(3) By a socket
(4) By a chuck
(5) Tapping attachment
Spindle
Almost all drilling machines have their spindle bored out to a standard taper (1:20) to receive the
taper shank of the tool. While fitting the tool, the shank of the drill (or any other tool) is forced
into the tapered hole and the tool is gripped by friction. The tool may be rotated with the spindle
by friction between the tapered surface and the spindle. But to ensure a positive drive, the tang of
the tool fits into a slot at the end of the taper hole. The tool may be removed by pressing a tapered
wedge known as drift into the slotted hole of the spindle.
Sleeve
The drill spindle is suitable for holding only one size of tool shank. If the shank of the tool is
smaller than the taper in the spindle hole, a taper sleeve is used. The outside taper of the sleeve
conforms to the spindle taper and the inside taper holds the shanks of the smaller size tools. The
sleeve has a flattened end or tang which fits into the slot of the spindle. Different size of the tool
shanks may be held in the spindle by using different sizes of drill sleeves

Drill socket
Drill sockets are much longer in size than the drill sleeves. A socket consists of a solid shank
attached to the end of a cylindrical body. The taper shank of the socket conforms to the taper of
the drill spindle and fits into it. The body of the socket has a tapered hole larger than the drill
spindle taper into which the taper shank of any tool may be fitted. Socket to provides more
flexibility when adapting to various taper sizes of drill shank.

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Drill chuck
The chucks are especially intended for holding smaller size drills are any other tools. This type of
chuck is particularly adapted for holding tools having straight shanks. The drill chuck has a taper
shank which fits into the taper hole of the spindle. The most common type of drill chuck used is
three jaw self- centering drill chuck.

Drill chuck Tapping attachment

Tapping attachment
It serves as a flexible connection between the spindle and the tap. The taper shank of the attachment
is fitted into the drill spindle. The tap is fitted at the bottom of the attachment. The tap is fed into
the specific hole by the spindle, rotating it in clockwise direction. After the threads are cut, the
spindle is released from the hole. The bottom of the attachment rotates in anti-clockwise direction
causing no damage to the tapped hole. Tapping attachments are used during production work.
Drill drifts
Drill drifts are flat, tapered keys with one rounded edge that are designed to fit into a spindle
chuck’s slot to force a tapered shank drill loose. The rounded top of the small end of the drill drift
is designed to face upward while inserting the drift into the slot. The standard drift must be inserted
into the chuck’s slot and then struck with a soft hammer to jar the taper shank drill loose. The drill
will fall quickly if not held by the hand and could break or cause injury.

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Twist drill nomenclature (drill bit)
Body: The body of the twist drill spiral grooves cut on it. These grooves serve to offer clearance
to the chips formed at the cutting edge. They also permit the cutting fluid to spread to the cutting
edges.
Shank: It is a part that gets fitted into the drill chuck or sleeve. The taper shank brings the tang at
the end of shank. This fits into a slot in the machine spindle, sleeve or socket and gives a positive
grip.
Neck: It is the undercut portion between the body and the shank.
Land or Margin: It is a narrow strip. It ranges back on the edge of the drill flutes. Land retains the
drill aligned.
Chisel edge: The intersection of flank forms the chisel edge. This acts as a flat drill. It cuts a small
hole in the work piece at the beginning. Cutting edges removes further materials to complete the
hole.
Cutting edge: The cutting edges of a drill are known as lips.
Heel: The edge which is formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance

Point angle
It is the angle between the cutting edges. It is generally 118 degrees. Its value depends upon the
hardness of the work piece to be drilled. For harder material, larger angles are used.
Helix angle
Angle between the leading edge of the land and the axis of the drill. Also called as rake angle.
Lip clearance angle
It is the angle formed by the portion of the flank adjacent to the land and a plane at right angles
to the drill axis measured at the periphery of the drill.
Chisel edge angle
It is the obtuse angle between the chisel edge and the lip.

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Machining time in drilling
Cutting speed
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑉 = 1000 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where D is in mm, N is in rev/min.
Feed
The feed in a drilling machine refers to the distance moved by the drill in one revolution expressed
as mm/rev.
Depth of cut
The depth of cut in drilling refers to the radius of the drill being used expressed in mm.
𝐷
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚
2
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙
Machining time in drilling is given by
𝐿𝑐
𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑓𝑁
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚/𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑁 = 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁 (𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑝𝑚)
𝜋𝐷𝐿
∴ 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1000𝑉𝑐 𝑓 min
𝑐
Material removal rate
𝜋𝐷 2 𝑚𝑚3
𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑓𝑁
4 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙
For drilling a through hole
LC = Lh + A + O + C
A, O = approach and over run
𝐷
𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜌
2
D = diameter of the hole, i.e., drill
ρ = half of the drill point angle.
N =rpm
f = feed in mm/rev
𝜋𝐷𝐿𝑐
∴ 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
1000𝑉𝑐 𝑓

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Cutting forces in drilling
The removal of materials in conventional drilling is accomplished by the two main sharp cutting
edge and a small chip edge connecting them.
In drilling only 2 forces are experienced. These forces vary accordingly to the work piece
characteristics and the cutting conditions applied.
1. A force in the opposite direction to the actual drill rotation direction (torque)
2. Force in the opposite direction to the direction of feed (thrust force). Radial force is absent.

Pair of tangential forces Pz produces the torque

𝐷
𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑃𝑧 ∗
2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙
𝑁 = 𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑥 + 𝑃𝑥
To investigate the performance of drill bit during drilling process, the measurements of cutting
forces are essential.
This helps in analyzing:
1) the effects of speed and feed on the cutting action of the drill,
2) the effects of mechanical properties of work material on the drilling forces, and
3) forces exerted on Drilling machine parts, jigs and fixtures, and the effect of these forces
on the dimensional accuracies of the drilled holes

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Drill machine operations
Though drilling is the primary operation performed in a drilling machine, a number of similar
operations are also performed on holes using different tools. The different operations that can be
performed in a drilling machine are:
1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counter boring
5. Countersinking
6. Spot facing
7. Tapping
8. Trepanning
Tools used in a drilling machine
Different tools are used for performing different types of operations. The most commonly used
tools in a drilling machine are
1. Drill
2. Reamer
3. Counter-bore
4. Countersink
5. Tap

****************************************************************

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 General notes

Explanation of back gear drive on lathe

Back gear mechanism is housed within the headstock of the lathe. A step cone pulley having steps
and a small pinion ‘P1’ are mounted on the spindle and rotates freely on it. The gear ‘G1’ is keyed
to the headstock spindle. So, the spindle will rotate only when the gear ‘G1’ rotates. The step cone
pulley and the gear ‘P1’ can be kept separately or made as one unit with the help of a lock pin.
When the pin is disengaged, the cone pulley along with the gear P1 will rotate freely on the spindle
and the spindle will not rotate. There is another shaft parallel to the spindle axis having back gears
B1 and B2 mounted on it. These back gears can be made to mesh with gears P1 and G1 or kept
disengaged from them. The spindle can get drive either from the cone pulley or through back gears
All geared headstock
Modern lathes are equipped with all geared headstocks to obtain different spindle speeds quickly.
All geared headstock has three shafts (1,2& 3) mounted within it. The intermediate shaft (2) has
got three gears D, E and F as a single unit and rotate at the same speeds. The splined shaft (1)
which is above the intermediate shaft has got three gears A, B and C mounted on it by keys. These
three gears can be made to slide on the shaft with the help of a lever. This movement enables the
gear A to have contact with the gear D or the gear B with gear E or the gear C with the gear F.
Likewise, the spindle shaft (3) which is also splined has three gears G, H and I. With the help of a
lever, these three gears can be made to slide on the shaft. This sliding movement enables the gear
G to have contact with gear D or the gear H with the gear E or the gear I with the gear F. By
altering the positions of the six gears namely A, B, C, G, H and I the following arrangements can
be made within the headstock. Nine different spindle speeds are obtained.
Tumbler gear mechanism
Tumbler gear mechanism is used to change the direction of lead screw and feed rod. Tumbler gears
are located in the headstock just below the spindle gear. The tumbler gear unit has two pinions (A
and B) is mounted on a bracket. The position of the bracket can be arranged in three different
positions namely i) neutral ii) forward & iii) reverse. Gear ‘C’ is a spindle gear attached to the
lathe spindle. Gear ‘D’ is the stud gear.

When the lever is shifted upward position, the gear ‘A’ is engaged with spindle gear ‘C’ and the
power is transmitted through C-A-D. During this position, lead screw will rotate in the same
direction as spindle rotates. Now, the carriage moves towards the headstock. When the lever is
shifted downward, the gear ‘B’ is engaged with spindle gear ‘C’ and the power is transmitted
through C-B-A-D. Hence, the lead screw will rotate in the opposite direction of the spindle. Now,
the carriage moves towards tailstock. When the bracket is in neutral position, the engagement of
tumbler gears is disconnected with the spindle gear and no power transmission to lead screw.

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Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism
The tumbler gear mechanism being a non-rigid construction cannot be used in a modern heavy
duty lathe. The clutch operated bevel gear feed reversing mechanism incorporated below the head
stock or in apron provides sufficient rigidity in construction. By changing the lever (9) to left and
right the direction of rotation of driver gear (3) is changed, thus rotation of lead screw.

Feed gear box

The feed gear box contains a number of different sizes of gears. The feed gear box provides a
means to alter the rate of feed, and the ration between revolutions of the headstock spindle and the
movement of carriage for thread cutting by changing the speed of rotation of the feed rod or lead
screw.
The movement of the carriage is timed with the rotation of the spindle, causing the carriage to move a
specific distance every time the spindle completes a revolution. The feed gear box or quick change
gear box is fitted directly below the head stock assemble. Power from the lathe spindle is
transmitted through gears to the quick change gear box. This gear box contains a number of
different sizes of gears which provides a means to change the rate of feed and the ratio between
the revolution of the head stock spindle and the movement of the carriage for thread cutting by
altering the rotation of the lead screw or feed rod. The quick-change gearbox allows you to change
gears quickly and easily by shifting levers.
Taper cutting attachment working concept

Magnetic chuck
In this chuck, magnetic force is used for holding the work piece. Only magnetic materials can be
held on this chuck

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