ISS0065 Control Instrumentation Lecture 8

1 Controller Tuning
To implement continuous control we should assemble a control loop which consists of the pro-
cess/object, controller, sensors and actuators.

Information about the control loop

Find, read or write documentation which describes work of the control loop: Process Control
Philosophy.
Where the next information can be found:

• Process description and relationship with other parts;

• Goals and requirements;

• Staff: knowledge, skills, roles, responsibilities, duties, training;

• Loop architecture: signals, parameters, sampling time, database management, rules, software
tools;

• Control techniques, procedures, time interval.

Control loop should be designed for a specific project, to implement control a controller should be
tuned.
NB! Tuning of the SISO control is a basic knowledge in automation. Simply experimenting
with P, I, and D parameter values is tedious at best and dangerous at worst! Do not do it if you
have no understanding of what each type of control action is useful for, and the limitations of each
control action.

1.1 Controller tuning

To tune a controller you need carry out the next procedures

1. Check loop devices: sensors, actuators, etc.

• range, calibration, dynamics;

• find a problem and solve it.
do not tune controller in worthless loop!

2. Derive a process model

• trial-error method also gives some results;

• autotuning also needs some initial parameters.

3. Describe needs, requirements, goals

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• accuracy, speed, robustness.

4. Choose the algorithm: PI, PID, etc.

5. Tune the controller

• there are a lot of acceptable methods, choose the best;

• take into account that feedback loop has its own limits that cannot be exceeded.

6. Simulate the loop, make sure it works with SV change, different loads and disturbances.

7. Observe work of the control loop

• discover: differences, unexpectedness;

• document the results: test, parameters, etc.
• observe control loop in the future
process, as equipment changes.

1.2 PID controller tuning

Controller has several free parameters (tuning parameters). Changing them controller can be pre-
pared for work with a

• given process,

• according to requirements.

Sad Statistics

• 50% of controllers badly tuned, 1/3 oscillates,

• just 4% of tuned parameters are changed during last two years.

Badly tuned controller still works...

Control performance can be evaluated.

What are important features in controller work?

Well-tuned controller saves energy and materials, increases quality of the product.

How to tune a controller?

1. Use your knowledge and experience from the similar projects

empirical equations, guidance;

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ISS0065 Control Instrumentation Lecture 8

2. Use model of the process/object

set a goal, synthesize a controller;

3. Autotuning.

Different methods give similar but not matching results.

1.3 Tuning equations and rules

If process properties is not known do the test:

• Step response

test with a stable object.

• Frequency response

assemble control loop, observe oscillations.

How are rules and equations obtained? A lot of tests and simulations have been done with dif-
ferent objects and controllers (P, PI, PID), thus closed system properties were found out. Rules and
equations are derived from the obtained data, which associates the controller parameters (Kp , Ti , Td )
with test or model parameters (K, T, τ ) and system properties. Those equations are approximate
and can be applied to parameters with a limited range.

2 Trial-and-Error Tuning
Trial-and-error tuning is used to determine the PID controller parameters by studying the dynamic
behavior of the process output. It is very important to understand the effects of the behavior of the
process output for the successful tuning. The PID controller shows the following dynamic behavior
for the step setpoint change [7].
Usually majority of the controllers are still tuned by traditional trial-and-error procedures. The
performance of the control loop is assessed from the response to change in one of the inputs. It
could be set point change or load (disturbance) change.
The following sequence must be observed when setting up the controller parameters.

1. Set integral Ti and derivative τd control actions to minimum effect.

2. Increase controller gain Kc until desired performance is attained (ignore the offset).

3. Adjust the integral time Ti to eliminate the offset. Stated performance objective should be
maintained.

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4. Adjust the derivative time τd to give as large stability margin as possible (least degree of
oscillations).

5. Adjust controller gain Kc to maintain the selected performance objective.

2.1 Proportional gain

Case 1 If process output shows big oscillation (see figure 1a), then value of the proportional gain
Kc should be decreased.

Case 2 If process output shows an overdamped response (see figure 1b), then value of the propor-
tional gain Kc should be increased.
process output

process output
1.0 1.0

0 5 10 15 t 0 5 10 15 t

(a) large proportional gain (b) small proportional gain

Figure 1: Typical closed-loop responses for different Kc

2.2 Integral Time

Case 3 If the process output oscillates and output stays above the SP longer than under SP for
a positive setpoint change (see figure 2a), then integral time Ti value should be increased
(integral action is too strong).

Case 4 If the process output oscillates and output stays under the SP longer than above SP for
a positive setpoint change (see figure 2b), then integral time Ti value should be decreased
(integral action is too weak).

2.3 Derivative time

Case 5 If process output shows a high-frequency oscillation (many peaks)(see figure 3), then deriva-
tive time Td value should be decreased (too strong amplification).

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ISS0065 Control Instrumentation Lecture 8

process output

process output
1.0 1.0

0 5 10 15 t 0 5 10 15 t

(a)small integral (b) large integral

with good Kc and Td with good Kc and Td

Figure 2: Typical closed-loop responses for different Ti

process output

1.0

0 5 10 15 t

Figure 3: Typical closed-loop responses for too large Td

So, the operator can tune the PID controller using trial-and-error technique by adjusting the
Kc , Ti , and Td parameters on order to avoid the above mentioned dynamic behaviors.

3 Open-Loop Methods
The open-loop tuning methods execute the process test with the controller on manual. The test
data consist of the response in the process variable to a known change in the controller output.
The most common problem in applying an open - loop tuning method is that the process test is
not executed properly.

3.1 Ziegler-Nichols method: Reaction Curve Method

First systematic approach to tune PID controllers. The Ziegler-Nichols methods (open-loop and
closed-loop) provide quarter wave decay tuning for most types of process loops. This tuning does not

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necessarily provide the best ISE or IAE tuning but does provide stable tuning that is a reasonable
compromise among the various objectives.
Because of their simplicity and because they provides adequate tuning for most loops, the
Ziegler-Nichols methods (1942) are still widely used.

step

+
controller valve process
-

measurement

Figure 4: The open loop reaction curve method

After making the step-change in output signal with the controller in manual mode, the process
variable trend is closely analyzed for two salient features: the reaction lag and the reaction rate.
Reaction lag is the amount of time delay between the output step-change and the first indication of
process variable change. Reaction rate is the maximum rate at which the process variable changes
following the output step-change (the maximum time-derivative of the process variable).

OUT Δu
y
PV

L
A t

Figure 5: Characteristic "S-shaped" reaction curve

Substitute the values of the reaction lag and reaction rate into the tuning equations in Table 1.

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Table 1: Open-loop Ziegler-Nichols tuning method

controller Kc Ti Td
∆u
P - -
A
∆u
PI 0.9 3.33L -
A
∆u
PID-series 1.2 2.0L 0.5L
A
1.5
PID-parallel 2.5L 0.4L
A

Where ∆u is a controller output step-change magnitude while testing in open-loop mode. If

1 T
FOPDT model is known, then = . To give a response with a quarter decay ratio,
A Kp · τ
Ziegler–Nichols proposed the tuning equations in Table 1. Ziegler–Nichols only provided the coeffi-
cients for the series form of the PID (the parallel form could not be implemented in the pneumatic
controllers available in 1942).

Some comments

• Applicable to stable object with no oscillations;

• Easy to use;

• Some processes do not permit step response tests or it gives a little information about the
process, the step input applied should be small enough for the response to stay within the
bounds of linearity;

• Tuning criterion is a speed-oriented, aggressive, strongly oscillating process, not robust pro-
cess, sensitive to changes;

• Reaction on disturbances.

This method [3, 5, 6] was a basis for developing of the following methods.

3.2 Cohen-Coon
Method is similar to the Ziegler-Nichols reaction rate method in that it makes use of the FOPDT
model to develop the tuning parameters. The Cohen-Coon method will result in a slightly higher
gain than the Ziegler-Nichols method. For most loops it will provide tuning closer to quarter wave
decay and with a lower ISE index than the Ziegler-Nichols open loop method [5]. More precise
equations with a grater delay τ .

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Table 2: Open-loop Cohen-Coon tuning method

controller Kc · Kp Ti /τ Td /τ
 
T 1τ
P 1+ - -
τ 3T
 
T 9 1 τ 30 + 3(τ /T )
PI + -
τ 10 12 T 9 + 20(τ /T )
 
T 4 1τ 32 + 6τ /T 4
PID +
τ 3 4T 13 + 8(τ /T ) 11 + 2τ /T

3.3 Chien–Hrones–Reswick PID Tuning Algorithm

The Chien–Hrones–Reswick (CHR) was developed from the Ziegler-Nichols’s method for implemen-
tation of certain quality requirements of open systems. It emphasizes the set-point regulation (see
Table 3) or disturbance rejection (see Table 4). In addition one qualitative specifications on the
response speed and overshoot can be accommodated.
The more heavily damped closed-loop response, which ensures, for the ideal process model, the
quickest aperiodic response is labeled “with 0% overshoot”, and the quickest oscillatory process is
labeled “with 20% overshoot”.

Table 3: CHR tuning for set point regulation

controller with σ = 0% with σ = 20%

type Kc Ti Td Kc Ti Td
T T
P 0.3 - - 0.7 - -
Kp · τ Kp · τ
T T
PI 0.35 1.2T - 0.6 T -
Kp · τ Kp · τ
T T
PID 0.6 T 0.5τ 0.95 1.4T 0.47τ
Kp · τ Kp · τ

3.4 Lopez IAE-ISE

A method of selecting tuning coefficients to minimize the IAE or ISE criteria for disturbances was
developed by Lopez, et. al. Tests show that the parameters provide results close to the minimum
IAE or ISE, particularly when the actual process dynamics are similar to the FOPDT model. When
the process has multiple lags the equations do not provide the best possible tuning, but they still
provide better tuning (lower IAE and ISE indices) than the other methods [5].

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Table 4: CHR tuning for disturbance rejection

controller with σ = 0% with σ = 20%

type Kc Ti Td Kc Ti Td
T T
P 0.3 - - 0.7 - -
Kp · τ Kp · τ
T T
PI 0.6 4τ - 0.7 2.3τ -
Kp · τ Kp · τ
T T
PID 0.95 2.4τ 0.42τ 1.2 2τ 0.42τ
Kp · τ Kp · τ

Table 5: Open-loop Lopez ISE tuning method

controller Kc · Kp Ti Td

P 1.411τ /T −0.917 - -

PI 1.305τ /T −0.959 (T /0.492)(τ /T )0.739 -

PID 1.495τ /T −0.945 (T /1.101)(τ /T )0.771 0.56T (τ /T )1.006

4 Closed-loop Methods

Closed-loop refers to the operation of a control system with the controller in “automatic” mode,
where the flow of the information represents a continuous (“closed”) feedback loop. If the total
amount of signal amplification provided by the instruments is too much, the feedback loop will
self-oscillate. While oscillation is almost always considered undesirable in a control system, it may
be used as an exploratory test of process dynamics [3].

+
controller process
-

Figure 6: The closed-loop method

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4.1 Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop: Ultimate gain

The Ziegler–Nichols closed-loop method calculates the controller tuning parameters from the ulti-
mate gain Ku and the ultimate period Pu for proportional-only control of the process. The ultimate
gain is the amount of controller gain (proportional action) resulting in self-sustaining oscillations
of constant amplitude.

y(t)
A u(t)
t

Pu

Figure 7: Constant amplitude oscillation

Ziegler–Nichols recommended the direct testing approach:

1. With all reset and derivative action removed from the controller, adjust the controller gain
until the loop cycles continuously. Note the value of the controller gain (the ultimate gain
Ku ) and the period of the cycle (the ultimate period Pu ).

2. Substitute the values of the ultimate gain and the ultimate period into the tuning equations
in Table 6 to compute values for the controller tuning coefficients that give a response with a
quarter decay ratio.

Table 6: Closed-loop Ziegler-Nichols tuning method

controller Kc Ti Td

P Kc = 0.5Ku - -

PI Kc = 0.45Ku Ti = Pu /1.2 -

PID Kc = 0.6Ku Ti = 0.5Pu Td = Pu /8

Care should be taken to protect the system from external disturbances whilst the tests are being
carried out so as not to distort the results.

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An important caveat with any tuning procedure based on ultimate gain is the potential to cause
trouble in a process while experimentally determining the ultimate gain. The problem with this
is, one never knows for certain when ultimate gain is achieved until this critical value has been
exceeded, as evidenced by ever-growing oscillations. Thus, for many loops, the severity of such a
test is unacceptable [3].
The nature of the Zeigler and Nichols formulae needs some explanation. First published in
1941, they are used extensively in industry and have stood the test of time. The formulae are
empirical, although they do have a rational theoretical explanation. They predict settings that are
optimum on the basis of a decay ratio of 1/4. However, because the formulae are empirical, they
do not predict the optimum settings precisely, and further tuning of a trial and error nature may
be required [4].

4.2 Åström-Hägglund method: Relay Feedback

The appropriate oscillation can be generated by relay feedback. To obtain process dynamics set
controller into ON-OFF mode (K = ∞, controller output is saturated: ±u0 ). Notice that the
process input and output have opposite phase.

u(t)
+u0
A
t
-u0
Pu y(t)

Figure 8: Constant amplitude oscillation

It is sufficient to consider the first harmonic component of the input only. The input and the
output then have opposite phase, which means that the frequency of the oscillation is the ultimate
frequency. If u0 is the relay amplitude, the first harmonic of the square wave has amplitude
Uh1 = 4u0 /π. Let a be the amplitude of the oscillation in the process output.

aπ
Ku = (1)
4u0

Notice that the relay experiment is easily automated. Since the amplitude of the oscillation is
proportional to the relay output, it is easy to control it by adjusting the relay output. It is basis
for many autotuning algorithms [1].

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Table 7: Closed-loop Åström-Hägglund tuning method

controller Kc Ti Td

P Kc = 0.45/Ku - -

PI Kc = 0.67/Ku Ti = Pu -

PID Kc = 0.67/Ku Ti = Pu Td = Pu /6

The above mentioned methods for tuning used the following information:

• Process is known: FOPDT model or test data;

• Requirements are known: minimal error, time, etc;

• Controller type is known: P, PI, PID.

5 Analytical Tuning Methods

There are several analytical tuning methods where the controller transfer function is obtained from
the specifications by a direct calculation. Let Wp and Wc be the transfer functions of the process
and the controller. The closed-loop transfer function obtained with error feedback is then
Wc · W p
W0 = (2)
1 + Wc · W p
If the closed-loop transfer function W0 is specified and Wp is known, it is thus easy to compute Wc
1 W0
Wc = · (3)
W p 1 − W0
The key problem is to find reasonable ways to determine W0 based on engineering specifications of
the system.

5.1 Lambda Tuning Method

It is essentially a synthesis method; that is, the controller is designed specifically for the process.
The method called λ-tuning was developed for processes with long delay time τ . Consider a process
with the transfer function
Kp e−τ ·s
Wp = (4)
1+T ·s
Assume that the desired closed-loop transfer function is specified as
e−τ ·s
W0 = , (5)
1+T ·λ·s

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where λ is a tuning parameter. The time constants of the open- and closed-loop systems are the
same when λ = 1. The closed-loop system responds faster than the open-loop system if λ < 1. It
is slower when λ > 1 [1].

Table 8: Lambda tuning method

controller Kc Ti Td
T
PI Kc · Kp = Ti = T -
λ+τ
T
PID-series Kc · Kp = Ti = T1 Td = T2
λ+τ
T1 + T2 T1 T2
PID-parallel Kc · Kp = Ti = T1 + T2 Td =
λ+τ T1 + T2

The Lambda method is not constrained to yield a PI or PID equation for the controller. But
for the simple models typically used for controller tuning, the control equation from the design
procedure turns out to be

• PI when the model is time-constant-plus-dead-time.

• PID when the model is two-time-constants-plus-dead-time.

For these models, the design procedure yields the tuning equations in Table 8. The value for λ is
usually within the following range: τ < λ < T [6].

5.2 IMC Tuning Method

Lambda tuning is an example of internal model control (IMC) tuning. It was developed using
technique called a direct synthesis. It can be applied to higher order processes and to all types of
controllers [2].
When the process contains delay time, the IMC control equation provides for dead time com-
pensation. But when the delay is small relative to the process time constant, an approximation can
be substituted for the delay to give tuning equations for the following controllers:

• PI control for a time-constant-plus-dead-time model.

• PID control for a time-constant-plus-dead-time model (a different approximation is used for

the dead time).

The IMC equations can be used to obtain the tuning equations in Table 9 for an integrating
process. For an integrating process, the closed-loop time constant λ affects the controller gain, the
reset time, and the derivative time (except for the series PID) [6].

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Lecture 8 ISS0065 Control Instrumentation

Table 9: IMC tuning formulas

controller Self-regulating Integrating

type Kc Ti Td Kc Ti Td
T 2λ + τ
PI Kp · Kc = T - Kp · Kc = 2λ + τ -
λ+τ (λ + τ )2
τ
2T τ 2λ + τ τ
PID-series Kp · Kc = T Kp · Kc = 2 2λ +
2λ + τ 2 τ 2 2
(λ + )2
2
τ
2T + τ τ T ·τ 2 τ (λ + )
PID-parallel Kp · Kc = T+ Kp · Kc = 2λ + τ 4
2λ + τ 2 2T + τ τ 2λ + τ
λ+
2

To tune a loop, one can still start with λ = τ , and then increase λ until the desired performance
is obtained. But as λ is changed, all tuning coefficients must be recomputed.
IMC controller works well for tracking the set value, but works poorly for disturbance rejection.
Closed-loop system time constant λ can be chosen:
λ > 0.8τ ; λ > 0.1T - limits;
2τ (agressive)< λ < 2(T + τ ) (robust) - recommended.

5.3 Skogestad’s method

Very often accurate tuning is not needed. One simple compromise rule is so-called "Skogestad’s
IMC" works well for many processes.

Table 10: Skogestad’s tuning method

controller process Kc Ti Td
Kp e−τ ·s T
PI Kc · Kp = min[T, c(λ + τ )] -
1+T ·s λ+τ
Kp e−τ ·s T
PID Kc · Kp = c(λ + τ ) T
(1 + T · s)s λ+τ
Kp e−τ ·s T
PID Kc · Kp = min[T1 , c(λ + τ )] T2
(1 + T1 · s)(1 + T2 · s) λ+τ

Originally, Skogestad defined the factor c = 4. This gives good set-point tracking. To ob-
tain faster disturbance compensation c should be decreased, bad point of such reduction is grater
overshoot in the set-point during the step response.

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5.4 Autotuning
In the 1960s, with applying the computers to process control a developing of automatic tuning
began. Considerable effort was directed to this technology but with little concrete results. It was
not until the 1990s that automatic tuning became a common feature in commercial control products.
But despite that, most controllers are tuned by the traditional trial-and-error approach, the
reasons being:
• Automatic tuners only work in those loops that you can tune. There are untunable loops,
and in those loops, bad tuning is not the problem but indicator.

• As compared with an automatic tuner, anyone skilled in tuning can tune a PI controller in a
comparable time and obtain comparable results.

• The simple (not computer based) tuning methods will not consistently and effectively tune
PID controllers.
As for automatic tuning, it is certainly good to have this technology available, but in reality, its
effect on the practice of process control has been minimal.
Tuning PID controllers in slow-temperature loops where tuning assistance would be of great
value. The regression methods are capable of tuning such loops, provided a quality test can be
performed on the process. But once the decision is made to invest the time and effort to conduct
a process test, two options are now possible:
1. Apply regression techniques to the data and derive a SOPDT model. Using model parameters
calculate the tuning parameters for a PID controller.

2. Use the test data as the basis for developing a model predictive controller (MPC) for the loop.
If option 2 is selected, a test other than a step response may be conducted, but the overall effort
is about the same [6].

Provide a good performance of control process.

• Collect data, observe and measure important parameters;

• Calculate indicators, compare with the necessary ones

follow the business performance indications.

• Direct yours energies to ... (data shows what is needed)

repair, calibration, tuning, modifying.

• Substantiate with results

formulate problem in terms of business, show the results.

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Bibliography

[1] Åström, K. and Hägglund, T. PID Controllers: Theory, Design, and Tuning, ISA: The Instru-
mentation, Systems, and Automation Society; 2 Sub edition, 1995.

[2] Myke King, Process Control: a Practical Approach, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., UK, 2011.

[3] Tony R. Kuphaldt, Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, URL:http://www.pacontrol.com/

industrial-instrumentation.html, 2012.

[4] Jonathan Love, Process Automation Handbook: A Guide to Theory and Practice. Springer-
Verlag London Limited, 2007.

[5] John A. Shaw, The PID Control Algorithm How it works, how to tune it, and how to use it,
Process Control Solutions, 2nd Edition, 2006.

[6] Cecil L. Smith, Practical process control: tuning and troubleshooting, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Hoboken, New Jersey, 2009.

[7] Su Whan Sung, and Jietae Lee, and In-Beum Lee, Process Identification and PID control, John
Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, Singapore, 2009.

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