Module1: Nature and Principles of Development Learning Maturation

 process of  process of
Why do we study Human Growth and acquiring becoming mature
Development? knowledge, skills, or developed, both
 To gain better understanding of one owns life and behaviors mentally and
experiences. through physically
 To help understands others of what they are experience, training  both mental and
going through and education physical
 To understand relationship between society and  mainly a mental development
individual growth process  occurs through
 Lead more effectively  happens through individual growth
 Support physical and mental health experience,  does not need any
practice, training or external stimuli
 Human development is a wide-reaching and education
ever-changing discipline. A knowledge of  happens because
human development can be invaluable to of external stimuli
people personally as they continue to learn and
grow throughout their lives and professionally Development
as they learn to apply what they’ve learned to  is a process that creates growth, progress,
their careers. positive change or the addition of physical,
economic, environmental, social and
Important terms in the study of Development demographic components
 Growth
 process of increasing physical size Human Development
 indicates that the human mind becomes
 Aging efficient to perform task of highly skilled nature
 is a normal developmental factor and a when proper education is provided to them and
continuous lifelong process (birth-death) a healthy life style is available
 accumulation of changes in a human being  is a branch of psychology with the goal of
over time, encompassing physical, understanding people
psychological, and social change  is the scientific study of patterns and growth
and change throughout life
 Maturation
 biological evolution of a private per an The Processes in Development (3)
inspiration contained within the genes (the Areas of Growth Development
hereditary characteristics) Development
 female (30-32), male (40-43) Physical  growth and  kid develops
Development changes their bodily
 Learning within the function skills
 process of acquiring new understanding, body and  involves
brain grievers with
knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,
 increase in and changes
attitudes, and preferences
the size of a within the
baby body and
 Setting  fine and brain, the
 refers to all or any external physical and gross motor senses, motor
social conditions and events which will have skills skills, and
an effect on us from jammed quarters to health and
stimulating social interactions welfare
 increasing
coordination
of the fine
and gross
motor skills
 brain
development
 Cognitive  construction of thought ends at maturity
Development processes as well as memory,  attainment of the
drawback-solving, and deciding only level of
from childhood through information
adolescence to adulthood  independence
 involves learning, attention, from parents
memory, language, thinking,  sexual
reasoning, and ability relationships
 infants and toddlers' language 6. Young 20 years - 45  career and
development Adulthood years family
Psychosocial  baby learns to act with others development
Development around them 7. Midlife 45 years - 65  career reaches
 gain skills to speak with people years the only level
and method their actions  self-assessment
 temperament and attachment  "empty nest"
square measure significant crisis
 various plays and interaction  retirement
with different kids is vital 8. Late Life 65 years -  enjoys family
 involves emotions, death achievements
temperament, shallowness,  dependency
and relationships  widowhood
 new roles and forming their  poor health
own identities with peers
 finding a partner and building The Life Views
family
 outlined as human development determined by
 developmental problems
multiple aspects and frameworks
 retirement
 there are completely different life views and
The Periods in Development (8) assumptions regarding development (Baltes,
Stages Age Period Major Features
Lindenburger & Staudinger 2006)
1. Prenatal Conception  physical
to birth development 7 Characteristics of Life Views
2. Infancy Birth - 18  locomotion 1. Development is womb-to-tomb
months established  no age dominating development
 rudimentary
language 2. Development is multidirectional
 social  show gains in alternative areas of
attachment development (physical, cognitive, and
3. Early 18 months -  language well- psychosocial)
Childhood 6 years established
 sex-typing 3. Development is third-dimensional
 cluster play  3 areas of development:
 ends with
 psychological feature
readiness for
schooling
 biological
4. Late 6 years - 13  many
 socio-emotional dimensions
Childhood years psychological
feature 4. Development is multidisciplinary
processes  study of human development needs
become adult analysis, theory, and knowledge of the
except in speed many tutorial fields
of operation,
and term play 5. Development is characterized by physical
property
 capability to vary in response to positive or
negative experiences

5. 13 years - 20  begins with 6. Development is influenced and formed by

Adolescence years pubescence - historical and cultural context
  an individual's development is influenced  curious
and tormented by the history and culture he  active beings
or she grew up in  were formed by their surroundings
through exploration within the world
7. Development involves growth, maturation, around them since the terribly real
and regulation sense orchestrates their development
 3 goals of human development:
 growth 4. Continuity and Separation
 maturation Discontinuity Theories Continuity Theories
 regulation  course of  read human
 the goals of people change among organic development as a development as a
sort of a series of method that happens
process stages
support steps, every in little steps, while
of which elevates the not fast changes
Basic Problems in Understanding Development individual to a brand
1. Assumptions regarding attribute new (and
a. Original Sins: Philosopher (1568-1679) presumptively a lot of
 represented youngster as: advance) level of
 inherently egotistical (self-centered) functioning
and dangerous
 society’s task to regulate their
egotistical and aggressive impulses 2 Varieties of Changes
and to show them to behave in Quantitative Changes Qualitative Changes
positive ways  changes in degree  changes within the
and indicate kind and
b. Inherently Good: Jean Jacques continuity (an recommend
individual becomes discontinuity-
Rousseau (1712-1778) taller, is aware of a changes that create
 argued that youngsters were: lot of vocabulary the individual
 innately smart words, or interacts essentially
 born with an intuitive understanding with friends a lot of completely different
of right and wrong, which they or less frequently) in a way than he or
develop in positive directions as long she was before (a
as society failed to interfere with nonverbal babe into
their natural tendencies a speaking tot, or a
prepubescent kid
into a sexually
c. Tabula Rasa: Locke (1632-1704)
mature adolescent)
 believed that youngster were:
 neither innately smart nor dangerous
 they may develop in any variety of 5. Generality and Contextuality
directions betting on their own  the extent to which organic process
experiences changes are common to everybody
(universal) or completely different from
2. Nature and Nurture person to person (context- specific).
 Nature - behavior and characteristics
manifested due to the influence of biological
forces (heredity and biologically-based
dispositions)
 Nurture - influences led to by the exposure
to the surroundings (includes learning
experiences, child-rearing ways, social
changes, and culture)
 most psychologists believe that it's AN
interaction between these 2 forces that
causes development

3. Activity and Passivity Module 2: Prenatal Development

 some theorist believed that youngsters are:
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
 "natal" - birth ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM
 it refers to the process in which a baby (OUTER (MIDDLE (INNER
develops from a single cell after conception into LAYER) LAYER) LAYER)
an embryo and later on, to a fetus.  Nervous  Bones  Lining of
system  Muscles digestive
 Brain  Blood and tract urinary
THE BEGINNING OF LIFE bladder
 Spinal blood vessels
 Human life begins at conception cord,  Reproductive  Lining of
 The union of a sperm cell and egg cell to form a nerves, and excretory trachea,
new organism. sense systems bronchi,
 38 weeks or approximately nine months of organs  Inner layer of lungs
gestation commonly known as "Pregnancy"  Epidermis skin (dermis)  Liver,
 From the beginning as a one-cell structure to of skin  Connective pancreas,
 Hair, nails, tissue thyroid,
your birth, your pre-natal development occured
sweat parathyroid,
in an orderly and delicate sequence. thymus
gland,
 Germinal, Embryonic and Fetal Stage lens of the
eye
THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. GERMINAL STAGE (0-2 WEEKS)  The process of differentiation takes place over
 The first stage of the pre-natal development a period of week with different structures
measured from the moment of conception. forming simultaneously.
 Conception occurs when a sperm  Some of the major events that occur during the
penetrates an ovum (egg) and the genetic embryonic stage are as follows:
material fuse together to make a single cell
called ZYGOTE. Week 3 Week 4
 The egg of the ovum slowly travels through  Beginning  Beginning
the fallopian tube and the sperm are present development of the: development of:
in that location. One of this sperm may unite  Brain  Bones
with the ovum in the process called  Heart  Facial structures
FERTILIZATION.  Blood Cells  Limbs (presence
 The fertilized egg which we call the zygote  Circulatory of arm and leg
is a single cell but it's soon begins to divide. system buds)
 Spinal cord  Continuing
 The first division to produce two cells takes
 Digestive system development of
place within 24 -36 hours after fertilization. the heart (which
 The cells divide first to form a ball of cells begins to beat),
called MORULA which then develops into brain and
the BLASTOCYST that involves of the nervous tissue.
cavity within the morula. Week 5 Week 6
 The cells in the course of diving, travel  Beginning  Beginning
down the fallopian tube and enter the womb development of: development of:
where the blastocyst implants itself into the  Eyes  Hands
walls of the uterus.  Nose  Feet and digits
 Kidneys  Continuing
 Once it does the next stage begins.
 Lungs development of
 Continuing brain, heart and
2. EMBRYONIC STAGE (3-8 WEEKS) circulation
development of
 The second stage of the Pre-Natal the heart system.
Development, measured from the (formation of
implantation until the end of the 8th week valves), brain
after conception. nervous tissue
 Soon after implantation, the cells continue and digestive
to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin tract.
to take on different function called
DIFFERENTIATION.
 A process gastrulation leads to the
formation of the distinct germ layers. Week 7 Week 8
 Beginning  Development of:
 development of:  Facial features  The fetus reaches approximately 20 cm
 Hair follicles more distinct (8 inch) in length.
 Nipples  Internal organs  Lanugo begins to cover all skin
 Eyelids well developed surfaces, and fat begins to develop
 Sex organ (testes  The brain can under the skin.
or ovaries) signal for  Features such as finger and toenails,
 First formation of muscles to move,
eyebrows, and eyelashes appear.
urine in the heart
development
 The fetus become more active, and the
kidney
 External sex mother can sometimes begin to feel
 First evidence of
brain waves organs begin to fetal movements at this age.
form
WEEK 21-24 (6 MONTHS)
 By the end of the Embryonic stage, all  The fetus reaches approximately 28.5
essential, external and internal structures cm (11.2 inch) in length and weighs
have been formed, thus it is considered the approximately 0.7 kg (1 lb. 10 oz.)
most important stage of Fetal Development.  Hair grows longer on the head, and the
 The embryo is now referred to as a FETUS. eyebrows and eye lashes finish forming.
 The lungs continue to develop with the
3. FETAL STAGE (9 WEEKS - BIRTH) formation of air sac (alveoli)
 The third stage of Pre-natal development  The eyes finish developing. A startle
measured from the end of the week until reflex develops at this time.
birth.
WEEK 25-28 (7 MONTHS)
 This stage is a period of extensive growth
 The fetus reaches approximately 38 cm
as well as development and maturation of
(15 inch) in length and weigh
organ systems that we’re developed in the
approximately 1.2 kg (2 lb. 11 oz.)
embryonic period.
 The next few weeks mark a period of
 Growth and development continue
rapid brain and nervous system
dramatically during this period.
development. The fetus gains greater
 Example of some major features of fetal control over movements such as
development by week are as follows: opening and closing eyelids and certain
body functions.
WEEK 9-12  The lungs have developed sufficiently
 The fetus reaches approximately 8 cm that air breathing is possible.
(3.2 inch) in length
 The head is approximately half the size WEEK 29-32 (8 MONTHS)
of the fetus.  The fetus reaches approximately 38-40
 External features such as the face, cm (15-17 inch) in length and weighs
neck, eyelids, limbs, digits and genitals approximately 2 kg (4 lb. 6 oz.)
are well formed.  Fat deposits become more pronounced
 The beginnings of teeth appear, and red under the skin.
blood cells begin to produced in the  The lungs remain immature but
liver. The fetus is able to make a fist. breathing movements begin. The fetus
bones are developed but not yet
WEEK 13-16 (4 MONTHS) hardened.
 The fetus reaches approximately 15 cm
(6 inch) in length. WEEK 33-36 (9 MONTHS)
 Fine hair called LANUGO first develops  The fetus reaches 41. 48 cm (16.19
on the head. inch) in length and weigh 2.6-3.0 kg (5
 Structures such as the lungs, sweat lb. 12 oz. to 6 lb. 12 oz)
glands, muscles, and  Body fat continues to increase, lanugo
 Bones continue to develop. the fetus is begins to disappear, and fingernails are
able to swallow and make sucking fully grown.
motions.  The fetus has gained a high degree of
control over body functions.
WEEK 17-20 (5 MONTHS) WEEK 37-40 (FULL-TERM)
  The fetus reaches 48. 53 cm (19.21  Exposure of caffeine during pregnancy has
inch) in length is considered to be full- already been linked to an increased risk of
term by the end of this period. spontaneous abortion and low birth weight.
 Lanugo has mostly disappeared and is  A study in Denmark found that the risk of
replaced with thicker hair on the head. stillbirth more than doubled in women who
 Fingernails have grown past the tips of drank eight cups of coffee or more each day
the fingers. compared with women who didn't drink
 In a healthy fetus, all organ systems are coffee.
functioning.
 The internal and external features 7. ALCOHOL
continue to grow until the baby is fully  If used heavily and frequently, it may cause
developed and can survive outside the mental retardation, hyperactivity, and
mother’s body. undersized child.
 May also have abnormally small heads and
FACTORS AFFECTING PRENATAL brains, as well as heart, spine and other
DEVELOPMENT anatomical defects. The central nervous
1. MATERNAL NUTRITION system damage may include mental
 The mother must be well-nourished, that is retardation, delays in physical development,
her diet must contain adequate food vision and hearing problems, and a variety
nutrients. of behavioral problems.
 Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, E and K are very
much needed for prenatal development. 8. CIGARETTES AND TOBACCO
 If smoking is heavy and frequent, it may
2. MATERNAL HEALTH cause premature delivery, undersized child
 If the mother is healthy, generally, the and fetal death.
unborn child is healthy. Conversely, if the  Babies whose mother smoked in the first
mother is unhealthy, the child is unhealthy. trimester of pregnancy are more likely to
 The pregnant mother should be free from have a heart defect at birth.
any illness.  Children of pregnant smokers are especially
likely to have learning disorders, behavioral
3. DRUGS problems, and relatively low IQs.
 Overdose of drugs and medicines may
cause physical and mental damage to the 9. X-RAY
unborn child.  May cause malformation of vital organs
 Large dose of Aspirin may cause bleeding. such as the brain, heart, and lungs.
 Probihited drugs may cause abortion; birth  Radiation exposure before birth can
defects, and neurological problems. increase a person's risk of getting cancer
later in life.
4. INSECTICIDES AND HERBICIDES
 They may cause mental retardation and 10. MATERNAL EMOTIONS
possible stillbirths.  Maternal stress and anxiety during
pregnancy has been associated with:
5. HEAVY METAL  Shorter gestation and higher incidence of
 Heavy metals such as arsenic may cause preterm birth.
mental retardation and development  Smaller birth weight and length
disability in new born baby.  Increased risk of miscarriage
 Lead during pregnancy can cause a
miscarriage, premature birth, low birth
weight and if affects development of fatuous
brain and growth of new born baby also
retarded.

6. CAFFEIN 11. UTERINE CROWDING

  Overcrowding in the mother's uterus is Module 3: The Stages of Development and
caused by the presence of twins, triplets or Developmental Task
quadruplets.
 Fetal activity and growth and development The Stages of Development and Developmental
are limited. Task
 May cause the death of one or more than  For every developmental stage, there is an
one of them. expected developmental task.
 Unborn child is undersized.  By understanding these concepts, it can help
future teachers in helping learners achieve
12. HEAVY SEDATION these developmental tasks.
 Occurs during the labor process.
 Brain damage, asphyxiation or even death STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
may result due to heavy sedation. ROBERT HAVIGHURST
 June 5, 1900 – January 31, 1991
13. RH FACTOR  Professor, Physicist, Educator and Expert on
 If a woman is Rh-negative and her baby is aging.
Rh-positive, then her body will determine  Both his father and mother had been educators
the Rh-positive protein to be foreign. This in Lawrence University (US)
means that if blood cells from the baby  Books: “Developmental tasks and education”
cross into the mother's bloodstream, which  Havighurst’s Theory of Development
can happen during pregnancy, labor and
delivery, her immune system will make ROBERT HAVIGHURST
antibodies against the baby's red blood (STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT)
cells. Antibodies are part of your body's 1. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5 years)
immune system that destroys foreign 2. Middle Childhood (6-12 years)
substances. 3. Adoloscence (13-18 years)
4. Early Adulthood (19-29 years)
14. POLLUTION 5. Middle Adulthood (30-60 years)
 Heavy and frequent air pollution 6. Later Maturity (61 years and above)
experienced by the mother may indirectly
affect the unborn child's weight, brain JOHN SANTROCK
development, physical abnormalities and  Professor of Psychology at the University of
sometimes increases birth mortality. Texas at Dallas
 Author of several bestselling human
development programs, including Life-Span
Development, Essentials of Life-Span
Development, Children, and Adolescence.

JOHN SANTROCK
(STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT)
1. Prenatal Period (from conception to birth)
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months)
3. Early Childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years
or Grade 1)
4. Middle and Late Childhood (6-11 years of
age or in elementary school years)
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age up to 18-22
years of age)
6. Early Adulthood (from late teens to early 20's
lasting through the 30's)
7. Middle Adulthood (40-60 years of age)
8. Late Adulthood (60 years of age and above)
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK (from late teens to and economic
 In each stage of development, a certain task or early 20's lasting independence
tasks are expected of every individual. through the 30's)  Career development
 Planning of building a
 Arises at a certain period in life, the successful
family
achievement of which leads to happiness and 7. Middle Adulthood  Expanding personal
success with later tasks while failure leads to (40-60 years of age) and social
unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty involvement
with later tasks. (Havighurst, 1972) responsibility
 Assisting next
 Developmental tasks as described by Santrock, generation
2002:  Maintaining
satisfaction in career
DEVELOPMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL 8. Late Adulthood  Life review
STAGES TASKS (60's and above)  Retirement
1. Prenatal Period  It involves  Adjustment to new
(from conception to tremendous growth- social roles
birth) from a single cell to
an organism  According to Havighurst theory of
complete with brain Developmental Task there are 6 stages of
and behavioral developmental task this includes are the
capabilities. following:
2. Infancy (from birth to  A time of extreme
18-24 months) dependence on DEVELOPMENTA DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
adults. Many L STAGES
psychological 1. Infancy and  Learning to walk.
activities are just Early  Learning to take solid
beginning-language, Childhood (0-5 foods.
symbolic thought, years)  Learning to talk.
sensorimotor  Learning to control the
coordination and elimination of body wastes.
social learning.  Learning sex differences
3. Early Childhood  These are the and sexual modesty.
(end of infancy to 5-6 preschool years.  Forming concepts and
years or Grade 1) Young children learn learning language to
to become more self- describe social and
sufficient and to care physical reality.
for themselves,  Getting ready to read.
develop school 2. Middle  Learning physical skills
readiness skills and Childhood (6- necessary for ordinary
spend many hours in 12 years) games.
play with peers.  Building wholesome
4. Middle and Late  The fundamental attitudes toward oneself as
Childhood (6-11 skills of reading, a growing organism.
years of age or in writing and arithmetic  Learning to get along with
elementary school are mastered. The age-mates.
years) child is formally  Learning an appropriate
exposed to the larger masculine or feminine
world and its culture. social role.
Achievement  Developing fundamental
becomes a more skills in reading, writing,
central theme of the and calculating.
child's world and self-  Developing concepts
control increases. necessary for everyday
5. Adolescence (10-12  It begins rapidly on living.
years of age up to physical changes.  Developing conscience,
18-22 years of age)  Thoughts are more morality, and a scale of
radical and idealistic values.
 Spends more time  Achieving personal
outside independence.
6. Early Adulthood  Establishing personal 3. Adolescence  Achieving new and more
 (13-18 years) mature relations with age- 1. NATURE VS. NURTURE
mates of both sexes.  Nature refers to an individual's biological
 Achieving a masculine or inheritance.
feminine social role.
 Nurture refers to environmental
 Accepting one’s physique
and using the body experiences.
effectively.
 Achieving emotional 2. STABILITY VS. CHANGE
independence of parents  Persistence of early traits and
and other adults. characteristics
 Preparing for marriage and
family life Preparing for an 3. CONTINUITY VS. DISCONTINUITY
economic career.  Continuity refers to gradual and cumulative
 Acquiring a set of values
and an ethical system as a
change.
guide to behavior;  Discontinuity refers to abrupt or distinct
developing an ideology. changes in development.
 Desiring and achieving
socially responsible
behavior.
4. Early  Selecting a mate
Adulthood (19-  Learning to live with a
29 years) partner
 Starting a family
 Rearing children
 Managing a home
 Starting an occupation
 Assuming civic
responsibility
5. Middle  Helping teenage children to
Adulthood (30- become happy and
60 years) responsible adults
 Achieving adult social and
civil responsibility
 Satisfactory career
achievement
 Developing adult leisure
time activities
 Relating to one's spouse as
a person
 Accepting the physiological
changes of middle age
 Adjusting to aging parent
6. Later Maturity  Adjusting to decreasing
(61 years and strength and health
above)  Adjusting to retirement and
reduced income
 Adjusting to death of
spouse
 Establishing relations with
one's own age group
 Meeting social and civic
obligations
 Establishing satisfactory
living quarters

ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Module 4: Perspective and Approaches in Study CLASSICAL CONDITIONING VS. OPERANT
of Human Development CONDITIONING

INTRODUCTION Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

 How people explain development depends on  Was introduced by  was found by Burrhus
how they view the fundamental nature of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov Frederic Skinner in
human beings. Different thinkers, looking in the early 1900s. 1983.
through different lenses, have resulted in  based on involuntary  involves voluntary
reflexive behavior. behavioral outcomes.
various explanations or theories as to why
 studies individual’s Studies behavioral
people behave the way they do. patterns that take
behavior in relation to
various internal or place in response to
THEORY external stimuli. numerous rewards
 is a group of statements related to data or  Pavlov’s world- and outcomes.
information that is obtained through research. famous dog  Skinner’s rat box
Scientists use theories to help integrate data or experiment helped to experiment helped to
to make sense of it and then predict what data establish the theory. prove this theory.
might be obtained under certain conditions.
 So, theories are important to help scientists SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
explain, interpret, and predict behavior both (BANDURA)
research and theory are important. The detailed  Social cognitive theory is used in psychology,
theory contributes, little by little, to expand the education, and communication.
general body of knowledge. Theories help  Holds that portions of an individual's knowledge
researchers to find a coherent structure in the acquisition can be directly related to observing
data, to go beyond isolated investigations and others within the context of social interactions,
make generalizations. experiences, and outside media influences.

LEARNING PARADIGM
 Work on the assumption that people undergo
the stages of development through the process
of interaction with one’s environment via
observation, conditioning, reward, and
punishment system.
 The major premise of the learning theories
generally revolves around the understanding of
the relationship of stimulus and response.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PAVLOV)

 A learning process that occurs when two stimuli
are repeatedly paired: a response that is at first SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORIES
elicited by the second stimulus is eventually  Highlight the collective experiences of people
elicited by the first stimulus alone. found in the same cultural orientation. It
assumes the centrality of culture, such as
OPERANT CONDITIONING (B.F. SKINNER) language or communication, as well as social
 Sometimes referred to as instrumental norms in the development process.
conditioning.  They become the lenses that shadow the
 Is a method of learning that uses rewards and affective, cognitive, and behavioral experiences
punishment to modify behavior. and changes within the individual.
 Through operant conditioning, behavior that is  This is highly evident in the kind of values one
rewarded is likely to be repeated, and behavior learns through interaction with other culture
that is punished will rarely occur. bearers, such as family, school personnel and
community members.
SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY OF LEV 3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
VYGOTSKY  Better understanding of mental
 Emphasizes the important role of social operations.
interaction particularly in facilitating cognitive  Begin thinking logically about concrete
development of children. events but have difficulty understanding
abstract or hypothetical concepts.
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)  Begin to solve problems based on
 Is a term used by Vygotsky to signify a point in concrete experience, understand new
which certain tasks are too hard for the child to concepts through the use of familiar
do alone but can manage well with guidance. examples.
 Begin to understand conservation
SCAFFOLDING concepts.
 An assistance given by a more knowledgeable
(MKO). 4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
 Develop the ability to think about
B. THE COGNITIVE THEORY OF abstract concepts. Skills such as logical
DEVELOPMENT OF JEAN PIAGET thought, deductive reasoning, and
 Highlights the cognitive stimulation that adults systematic planning also emerge during
provide in the movement through the 4 stages this stage.
of cognitive development:  Understand multiple viewpoints that may
1. Sensorimotor Stage differ from their own and consider
2. Preoperational Stage hypothetical "what's ifs."
3. Concrete Operational Stage  Use symbols and abstract ideas without
4. Formal Operational Stage having to experience firsthand. (e.g..,
solve mathematical equation)
 In providing cognitive stimulation, content,
materials, and activities these adults reflect the ETHOLOGY
culture and their corresponding artifacts.  It comes from the Greek word “ethos” which
means character.
1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (from birth to  Latin word “ethologia” meaning mimicry (art of
about two years of age) depicting characters by copying behaviors)
 Development of object permanence is
one of the most important EVOLUTIONARY AND SOCIO-BIOLOGICAL
accomplishments at this age of  Accounts genetic and adaptation to one’s
development. environment.
 Due to the process of maturation, inherited
2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE characteristics unfold according to one’s
 Language development is one of the readiness.
hallmarks of this period.  Changes brought about by development are a
 Children in this stage do not yet result of one’s need to adapt, therefore, they
understand concrete logic, cannot serve survival function.
mentally manipulate information, and
are unable to take the point of view of ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
other people, which he termed  Behavior is strongly influenced by biology and
egocentrism. tied to evolution.
 Children become increasingly adept at  Characterized by critical/sensitive periods.
using symbols, as evidenced by the  It claims our behavior is part of our biological
increase in playing and pretending. structure.
KONRAD LORENZ’S THEORY KONRAD JOHN BOWLBY
LORENZ (1903 – 1989)  British child Psychiatrist & Psychoanalyst.
 Born on November 7, 1903  First attachment theorist
 He loves animals and is interested in the study  He described attachment as a “lasting
of animals. psychological connectedness between human
 He discovered evolution by reading a book by beings.”
Wilhelm Bolsche.
 He helped in bringing Ethology to prominence. THE ATTACHMENT STYLES (MARY
AINSWORTH)
KONRAD LORENZ’S THEORY 1. Secure
According to his THEORY:  Is attuned to emotions.
 Species are genetically constructed in order to  Can communicate upsets directly.
process certain information, giving readiness to  Leads with cooperative and flexible
almost all species to respond to their needs, behavior in relationships.
most especially those that are physiological in
nature. 2. Anxious -Resistant insecure Attachment
 Similar to animal behavior patterns are the  Children feel insecure and do not trust their
reflexive actions of infants which are essential caregivers.
to communicate their needs. In doing so,  Such children can demonstrate
caregivers can respond better in providing the helplessness and anger.
needs of infants.
3. Anxious - Avoidant Insecure Attachment
LORENZ’S EXPERIMENT  Their caregivers cannot be trusted to fulfill
Explanation: their needs.
 Studied the behavior of graylag geese, which  The children are anxious on the inside, but
will follow their mother as soon as they hatch. their behavior is indifferent to their
 He separated the eggs laid by one goose into caregiver’s presence or absence.
two groups.
1. One group he returned to the goose to be 4. Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
hatched by mother goose.  These are children who don’t fit in any of the
2. The other group was hatched in an categories.
incubator.  Could act depressed, angry and can be
3. He marked the goslings and then placed unpredictable.
both groups under a box. Mother goose and  The caregiver tends to sway from being
“mother” Lorenz aside as the box lifted. passive to being aggressive at the drop of a
4. Each group of goslings went directly to its hat.
mother. Lorenz called this process
IMPRINTING. SYSTEM APPROACH
 Contextualism Theory
IMPRINTING  Ecological System Theory
 It is the rapid, innate learning that involves  It has various views about human
attachment to the first moving object seen. development.
 A theory that stated when an animal is born, the  A person is the product of the interaction
first moving object they see within the first 36 between nature and nurture.
hours is believed by them to be their parent and
they will bond with that moving object. NATURE
 Factors that come naturally.
ATTAINMENT THEORIES  Heredity
 Children Develop a sense of emotional bond  Natural development
with the immediate caregiver, most especially
the mother, who becomes a prototype in NURTURE
developing social connections in the future.  Refers to the environment.
 The ability to initiate, sustain and end social  Circumstances
relationships are based on the quality of initial  Situations
relationships the mother has established.
NATURE AND NURTURE BRONFRENBRENER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
 They may oppose and help each other in THEORY
human development.  American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner
 Sample questions: formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to
 A child whose parents are both cum laude is explain how social environments affect
the top of his class. children’s development. This theory
 A child whose family resides in a remote emphasizes the importance of studying children
community didn’t have the opportunity to in multiple environments, known as ecological
pursue her studies. systems, in the attempt to understand their
 Development is shaped by factors such as: development.
 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes
GENES contexts of development into five nested levels
 known as the carriers of heredity. of external influence: Microsystem,
Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, and
CULTURE Chronosystem.
 a person grows and interacts with his or
her environment. BRONFRENBRENER ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
THEORY
LEARNING 1. MICROSYSTEM
 the more a person becomes  Direct environment that we have in our
knowledgeable, the more developed he lives. Family, Friends, classmates, teachers,
or she becomes. neighbors, and other people who have a
direct contact with you, are included in your
 An individual is the product of the context in microsystem.
which he or she is situated.  It says that children from unfortunate
backgrounds are more likely to experience
CONTEXT problematic family structures.
 Refers to the environment.
 Different circumstances or situations in which a 2. MESOSYSTEM
person is situated.  Encompasses the interaction of the different
microsystem which children find themselves
CONTEXTUALISM THEORY in. It involves the relationship between
 This theory highlights the embeddedness of the microsystems in one’s life.
individual within his or her context.
 An individual’s behavior is greatly influenced by 3. EXOSYSTEM
his or her context or environment.  It is the setting which there is a link between
 Human beings are the product of their the context where in the person does not
experiences. have any active role, and context where is
 In order to understand our learners, we should actively participating.
know the situation they are in or their personal
circumstances. 4. MACROSYSTEM
 To efficiently cater to their needs.  It is the actual culture of an individual. This
 Sample situations: focuses on how cultural elements affect a
 A student who is always late to class.
child’s development, such as
 A student who is the joker of the class.
socioeconomic status, wealth, and poverty.
 A student who is affectionate to his or her
teachers and classmates. 5. CHRONOSYSTEM
 This system consists of all the
 A student who is active in class is suddenly
getting low grades. environmental changes that occur over the
lifetime that influence development.
CONTEXTUALISM THEORY
 It is expected that development will have
variations among individuals.
 People grew up in different contexts.
 Module 5: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory  The primary conflict at this age is weaning
process:
PSYCHOANALYSIS  If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
 Our past experiences influence our present believed the individual would have
behavior. issues with dependency or aggression.
Oral fixation can result in problems with
SIGMUND FREUD drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.
 Austrian neurologist
 Created psychoanalysis to treat ORAL STAGE: FIXATION MIGHT HAVE 2
psychopathology (symptoms that are EFFECTS
psychological in nature. A. Neglected child might become a psychologically
dependent adult continually seeking the oral
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY stimulation denied in infancy, thereby becoming
1. ID a manipulative person in fulfilling his/her own
 1st to develop. needs, rather than maturing to independence.
 Basic instinct (seeking pleasure, avoiding B. The over-protected child might resist maturation
pain and suffering) and return to dependence upon others in
 Pleasure Principle fulfilling his or her needs. Theoretically, oral-
 In our unconscious the part of our mind that stage fixations are manifested as garrulousness
we are not aware of. (talkativeness), smoking, continual oral stimulus
(eating, chewing objects), and alcoholism.
2. EGO
 Reality principle 2. ANAL STAGE: 18 MONTHS TO 3 YEARS
 Mostly in the conscious (we are aware of it) EROGENOUS ZONE: BOWEL AND
partly unconscious. BLADDER CONTROL
 During the anal stage, Freud believed that the
3. SUPER EGO primary focus of the libido was on controlling
 Moral principle bladder and bowel movements. The major
 Conscience (what is right from wrong). conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child
 Ego ideal (what and how we want to be). has to learn to control his or her bodily needs.
 Both in the conscious and unconscious  Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.
STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT  According to Freud, inappropriate parental
FREUD STAGES OF PERSONALITY responses can result in negative outcomes.
DEVELOPMENT  If parents take an approach that is too lenient,
 The theory of psychosexual development was Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
proposed by the famous psychoanalyst personality could develop in which the
Sigmund Freud and described how personality individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive
developed over the course of childhood. personality.
 Psychoanalytic theory suggested that  If parents are too strict or begin toilet training
personality is mostly established by the age too early, Freud believed that an anal- retentive
of five. personality develops in which the individual is
 Early experiences play a large role in stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
personality development and continue to
influence behavior later in life.

1. ORAL STAGE: BIRTH TO 18 MONTHS

EROGENOUS ZONE: MOUTH
 During the oral stage, the infant's primary
source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important.
 The mouth is vital for eating and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation
through gratifying activities such as tasting
and sucking.
3. PHALLIC STAGE: 3 – 6 YEARS CRITICISMS OF THE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
EROGENOUS ZONE: GENITALS OF DEVELOPMENT
 During the phallic stage, the primary focus of  The theory is focused almost entirely on male
the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children development with little mention of female
also begin to discover the differences between psychosexual development.
males and females & become aware of  His theories are difficult to test scientifically.
sexuality. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to
 Oedipus Complex (boys) measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The
 Begin to view their father as a rival for the research that has been conducted tends to
mother's affection. discredit Freud's theory.
 Feeling of wanting to possess the mother  Future predictions are too vague. How can we
and desire to replace the father. know that a current behavior was caused
 Simultaneously fears the dad- "castration specifically by a childhood experience? The
anxiety." length of time between the cause and the effect
is too long to assume that there is a relationship
4. LATENCY STAGE: 6 – 12 YEARS between the two variables.
A. EROGENOUS ZONE: SEXUAL FEELINGS  Freud's theory is based on case studies and not
ARE INACTIVE empirical research. Also, Freud based his
 During the elementary school years, the theory on the recollections of his adult patients,
focus changes from egocentrism to not on actual observation and study of children.
more interests in group activities,
learning and socialization with peers. IGNORES HOMOSEXUALITY
 The latent period is a time of exploration  Another criticism of the psychosexual stages is
in which the sexual energy is still that the theory focuses primarily on
present, but it is directed into other heterosexual development, and largely ignores
areas such as intellectual pursuits and homosexual development.
social interactions.
 If fixation occurs at this stage, it will lead
to inability to conceptualize, lack of
motivation in school or job.

5. GENITAL STAGE: 13 TO ADULT

 During the final stage of psychosexual
development, the individual develops a
strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last
throughout the rest of a person's life.
 If the other stages have been completed
successfully, the individual should now be
well- balanced, and caring. The goal of this
stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas.
 Module 6: Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory  An infant's caregivers create a safe
Development environment in which the infant feels
protected.
ERIK ERIKSON  A mother or father is attentive to their baby's
 An ego psychologist needs (the baby is fed regularly, given
 Developed one of the most popular and affection consistently, etc.).
influential theories of development  A parent reassures their infant when the
infant is scared.

 The following are examples of what builds

mistrust between an infant and caregiver:
 When an infant cries out, their caregiver
isn't available to meet their needs.
 A mother or father is inconsistent in feeding
their infant.
 A caregiver doesn't comfort the infant when
they are scared or uncomfortable.
 The caregiver allows the infant's
 Erikson believed that personality developed in a environment to become unsafe, and as a
series of stages. result, the infant feels unsafe.
 Erikson's theory described the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan. HOW TO BUILD TRUST
 The primary way you can build trust with your
EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE baby is to respond when they try to
 suggests that people grow in a sequence that communicate with you.
occurs over time and in the context of a larger  Because babies can't use words to express
community themselves, they use nonverbal strategies to
communicate what they're thinking and feeling
CONFLICT DURING EACH STAGE at all times.
 Erikson believed people experience a conflict
that serves as a turning point in development.  Affection: Erikson believed that an infant's
 In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered cries communicated an important message
on either developing a psychological quality or to caregivers.
failing to develop that quality.  Comfort: It is important for caregivers to
 Mastery Leads to Ego Strength provide comfort to an infant by holding them
closely and securely.
STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST (INFANCY  Food: Erikson also believed that feeding
FROM BIRTH TO 18 MONTHS) played a pivotal role in the development of
 The most important period of a child's life, as it trust. By feeding an infant when the child is
shapes their view of the world as well as their hungry, they learn that they can trust their
overall personality need for nourishment will be met.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRUST CONSEQUENCES OF MISTRUST

 Babies are almost entirely dependent on their  Trusting personality seems to be at least in part
caregivers. So, the ways that parents interact genetic, while a mistrustful or distrusting
with their babies have a profound effect on a personality seems to be learned from family
child Erikson's Trust vs. Mistrust Stage Children and other social influences
who learn to trust caregivers in infancy will be  Children and adults with low levels of trust may
more likely to form trusting relationships with be more likely to:
others throughout the course of their lives.  Be depressed
 Be socially disengaged
 Children who learn to trust caregivers in infancy
 Be suspicious of others
will be more likely to form trusting relationships
 Experience loneliness
with others throughout the course of their lives.
 Face peer rejection
 The following are examples of what builds trust
between an infant and caregiver:
CONSEQUENCES OF OVER-TRUSTING  When a child tries to dress themselves or tie
 The following are ways that may help you on their shoes on their own, a caregiver loses
your journey of shifting your mindset into a patience and simply completes the task for
more trusting one: them.
 Show compassion: Showing yourself and
others compassion and understanding may CONSEQUENCES OF SHAME AND DOUBT
be helpful in improving trust. Compassion is  Shame is defined as a "self-conscious" emotion
a tool that serves to remind us: We are all that results when a person feels there is
human, and we all struggle at times. something dishonorable about themselves or
 Try mindfulness: Mindfulness practices their conduct.
such as meditation can teach you how Autto
feel your emotions without judging them.  Self-doubt is linked with low self-esteem levels,
 Process feelings: Journaling, confiding in a as well as greater nervousness in regard to
trusted loved one, and letting yourself cry performance.
are just a few ways of emotional processing.  Anxiety
 Consider your environment: When  Depression
healing from trauma, try to make your  Lower academic achievement
environment as safe as possible, and
interact with people who support you. OVERCOME SHAME
 Shame can feel overwhelming at times. But
STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT there are ways to address shame and the
(TODDLER YEARS FROM 18 MONTHS TO harmful effects it may have on your life:
THREE YEARS)  Acknowledge your feelings: The first step
 This stage occurs between the age of 18 is acknowledging when you feel shame.
months and around age 2 or 3 years. Start to notice situations or circumstances
 According to Erikson, children at this stage are that trigger your shame.
focused on developing a greater sense of self-  Reflect on what causes shame:
control. Autonomy - the right or condition of Sometimes, you can pinpoint an experience
self-government. or interaction that directly led to shame.
 Address mental health: Shame may be
WHY AUTONOMY MATTERS exacerbated by mental health conditions
 Autonomy is an important part of development such as anxiety, depression, obsessive-
for children. compulsive disorder (OCD)
 Autonomy allows children to:  Seek help: If you are coping with shame,
 Exercise their critical thinking skills it's often helpful to speak to a mental health
 Feel comfortable in their bodies professional such as a therapist. For
 Gain a greater sense of their identity instance, cognitive behavioral therapy
 Learn from their own mistakes (CBT) may teach you ways to self-soothe,
and how to reframe your shame into a more
EXAMPLES OF AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND adaptive mindset.
DOUBT  Develop compassion: Having compassion
 There are a number of different ways in which toward yourself and others can help
parents may encourage autonomy: alleviate shame. Remember, most people
 A parent allows their child to pick out their own experience shame in their lives, and you
clothes to wear to preschool— even if the can overcome your difficult feelings.
clothes are mismatched.
 A caregiver toilet-trains their child and the child
gains a sense of independence.
 A mom or dad lets their child choose which
snacks they'd like along with lunch.
 There are following ways in which parents
(even unknowingly) discourage autonomy:
 A parent consistently rejects their child's
ideas.
 A caregiver doesn't allow a child to make
any of their own choices.
STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (BETWEEN  When they make direct efforts toward
THE AGES OF 3 AND 5) something, they may feel that they are doing
 Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik something wrong.
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development.
This stage occurs during the preschool years, STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
between the ages of 3 and 5. During the (BETWEEN THE AGES OF 6 AND 11)
initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to  During the stage of industry vs. inferiority, a
assert their power and control over the world child is learning new skills. When they
through directing play and other social productively navigate this stage, they feel useful
interactions. Children assert themselves more and develop a sense of self-worth. The fourth
frequently through directing play and other stage occurs during childhood between the
social interaction. ages of six and 11.

WHAT IS INITIATIVE? INDUSTRY

 This looks like the enthusiastic desire to attempt  If children are encouraged by parents and
new tasks, join or come up with activities with teachers to develop skills, they gain a sense of
friends, and use new skills in play. The child industry - a feeling of competence and belief in
begins to learn that they can exert power over their skills.
themselves and the world.
INFERIORITY
BENEFITS OF INITIATIVE  On the other hand, if children receive negative
 Kids who develop initiative are eager to try new feedback or are not allowed to demonstrate
activities and experiences without excessive their skills, they may develop a sense of
fear of failure. inferiority.

WHAT IS GUILT? SOCIAL WORLD EXPANDS

 Guilt is shame over failing to complete a task  Through proficiency at play and schoolwork,
successfully, provoking irritation in adults, children are able to develop a sense of
and/or otherwise feeling embarrassed over competence and pride in their abilities.
attempting something.
 Children who experience guilt interpret SKILLS ARE EVALUATED
mistakes as a sign of personal failure and feel  Through proficiency at play and schoolwork,
that they are somehow "bad” children are able to develop a sense of
 A child who feels more guilt than initiative at this competence and pride in their abilities.
stage learns to resist trying new things for fear
of failing. IMPACT OF INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
 According to Erikson, this stage is vital in
HOW TO LIMIT GUILT developing self-confidence.
 To help prevent feelings of guilt, caregivers can  Kids who do well and are encouraged in school
encourage children to see their mistakes as and other activities are more likely to develop a
learning opportunities. It's very important that sense of competence and confidence.
parents and teachers avoid excessive criticism,  When a child is supported during this stage,
ridicule, and dismissiveness at this stage and they develop a greater sense of self- esteem.
encourage children to keep trying through  Self-esteem is linked with many benefits,
practice and persistence. including:
 Better mental health and physical health
SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN STAGE 3  Confidence in abilities
 Success in this stage relies on a healthy  Higher perception of success
balance between initiative and guilt. Initiative  Positive self-image
leads to a sense of purpose and can help
develop leadership skills; failure results in guilt.
 Essentially, kids who don't develop initiative at
this stage may become fearful of trying new
things.
 Children who struggle in school and other WHAT IS INTIMACY?
activities, and aren't supported in developing  According to Erickson, intimacy is a loving
their unique skills and abilities, may be left with relationship of any sort. It requires sharing
feelings of inadequacy and inferiority— both of yourself with others. It can help you develop
which contribute to levels of low self-esteem. deeply personal connections.
 Low self-esteem is linked with difficulties such
as: WHAT IS ISOLATION?
 Antisocial behavior  This may be because you fear commitment or
 Anxiety are hesitant to open yourself up in an intimate
 Depression way to anyone
 Lower levels of academic or job
performance INTIMACY
 Substance use  Strong and deep romantic relationships
 Suicidal ideation  Close relationships with friends and family
Strong social support network
STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS CONFUSION
(BETWEEN THE AGES OF 12 AND 18) ISOLATION
 Stage is characterized by the adolescent  Poor romantic relationships and no deep
question of “Who am I,” during which time they intimacy
are conflicted with dozens of values and ideas  Few or no relationships with friend and family
of who they should be and what they should Weak social support network
think.
GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
WHAT IS IDENTITY?
 Generativity - refers to "making your mark" on
 It involves the experiences, relationships,
the world by caring for others, as well as
beliefs, values, and memories that make up a
through creating and accomplishing things that
person's subjective sense of self. •
make the world a better place.
 Erikson defines identity as a “fundamental
organizing principal which develops constantly
CHARACTERISTICS:
throughout the lifespan.”
 Developing relationships with family
STAGES OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT  Making commitments to other people
 Influenced in part by Erikson's theory,  Mentoring others
psychologist James Marcia described four  Contributing to the next generation
identity statuses.
1. Identity diffusion (role confusion) STAGNATION
2. Identity foreclosure  refers to the failure to find a way to contribute.
3. Identity moratorium Stagnant individuals may feel disconnected or
4. Identity achievement uninvolved with their community or with society
as a whole.
WHAT IS ROLE CONFUSION?
 Involves the individual not being sure about CHARACTERISTICS:
themselves or their place in society.  Being self-centered (neuroticism)
 This could mean being unsure about one’s  Failing to get involved with others
place in the world, values, and future direction.  No efforts to improve the self
They may struggle to identify their purpose or  Placing one's concerns above all else
path, leading to confusion about their personal
identity. INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR
 Integrity - Also known as ego integrity, refers to
STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (18 to 45) a person's ability to look back on their life with a
 Young adults need to form intimate, loving sense of accomplishment and fulfillment.
relationships with other people. Success leads
to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the
period of early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships
CHARACTERISTICS: Module 7: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
 Acceptance Development
 A sense of wholeness
 A sense of success MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 Feelings of wisdom and acceptance  Focuses on the emergence, change, and
understanding of morality from infancy through
DESPAIR adulthood.
 according to Erikson, refers to looking back on  Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is a
life with feelings of regret, shame, or theory that focuses on how children develop
disappointment morality and moral reasoning.

CHARACTERISTICS: MORALITY
 Bitterness  Rightness or Goodness
 Regret  Morality is what society treats as right and
 Feeling unproductive acceptable.
 Depression  As human evolve and learn new things, our
 Hopelessness morals change.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
 1927-1986
 Psychologist
 Bronxville, New York
 Worked in psychology in Chicago during
graduate years
 Become interested in the work of Jean Piaget
 1958 – Revealed his stage theory of moral
development One of his works:
 1981 – The Philosophy of Moral Development
and Essays on Moral Development

THE HEINZ DILLEMA

 The most famous moral dilemma
 Kohlberg interview boys between ages of 10
and 16
 Used to analyze their justify of their decision

6 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality
Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment)
 At this stage of moral reasoning, the individual
acts from a belief that if they do something
wrong they will be punished, so that the best
reason for avoiding doing wrong is to avoid
punishment.

Stage 2 (Self-interest)
 At this stage of moral reasoning, the individual
will act from a belief that is may be okay to do
something “wrong” if there is “something in it for
me.”
Level 2: Conventional Morality LEVEL 2
Stage 3 (Interpersonal Accord and Conformity)  Stage 3: Children begin to think more about the
 At this stage of moral reasoning, the individual other people around them. They consider how
acts in order to fulfill prespecified social roles, their behavior affects other people and how
such as the desire to be a “good girl” or “good other people perceive them.
boy.”  Stage 4: Children do their part to maintain
order by reflecting on the impact of their words
Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order) and actions.
 This stage is focused on ensuring that social
order is maintained. At this stage of moral  It is a good idea to introduce classroom
development, people begin to consider society activities that encourage cooperation between
as a whole when making judgments. students. Plan group projects where students
work together toward the understanding of
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality curriculum Give students the opportunity to help
Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights) create a classroom code of conduct.
 The ideas cause people in the next stage to
begin to account for the differing values, LEVEL 3
opinions, and beliefs of other people.  Stage 5: Students begin to value the will of the
majority
Section 6 (Universal Principles)  Stage 6: Students developed their own set of
 Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is moral guidelines which may or may not fit the
based on universal ethical principles and law.
abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow
these internalized principles of justice, even if  Allow enough time for group projects and
they conflict with laws and rule. activities that give students at different stages
 The rule of law is a durable system of laws, of development the opportunity to work together
institutions, norms, and community commitment and to learn how their behaviors affect others in
that delivers four universal principles: a social context.
accountability, just law, open government, and
accessible and impartial justice. CRITICISMS FOR KOHLBERGE’S THEORY OF
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
APPLICATIONS FOR KOHLBERG’S THEORY  Kohlberg's theory played an important role in
 Kohlberg’s model of moral development is an the development of moral psychology. While
excellent tool for understanding children at the theory has been highly influential, aspects
different stages of moral understanding. of the theory have been critiqued for a number
Teachers and other educators can also apply of reasons:
Kohlberg's theory in the classroom, providing
additional moral guidance. MORAL REASONING DOES NOT EQUAL
MORAL BEHAVIOR
LEVEL 1  Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral
 Stage 1: Young children are primarily motivated thinking, but there is a big difference between
to behave appropriately simply to avoid being knowing what we ought to do versus our actual
punished for misbehaving. actions. Moral reasoning, therefore, may not
 Stage 2: Young children become more lead to moral behavior.
motivated to behave and follow the rules if they
are offered a reward for doing so. OVEREMPHASIZES JUSTICE
 Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory
 At this level, teachers can help to guide their of moral development overemphasizes the
student’s moral development by setting a code concept of justice when making moral choices.
of conduct for the classroom to encourage good Factors such as compassion, caring, and other
behavior. It is important to set clear guidelines interpersonal feelings may play an important
for behavior, and clear consequences for part in moral reasoning.
misbehavior.
CULTURAL BIAS
 Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights,
while collectivist cultures stress the importance
of society and community. Eastern, collectivist
cultures may have different moral outlooks that
Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.

AGE BIAS
 Most of his subjects were children under the
age of 16 who obviously had no experience
with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may have
been too abstract for these children to
understand, and a scenario more applicable to
their everyday concerns might have led to
different results.

GENDER BIAS
 Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have
suggested that Kohlberg's theory was gender-
biased since all of the subjects in his sample
were male. Kohlberg believed that women
tended to remain at the third level of moral
development because they place a stronger
emphasis on things such as social relationships
and the welfare of others.