School of Computer Sciences, USM 2011-12 Bachelor of Computer science Course Code: CPT114 Course Title: LOGIC &

APPLICATIONS Units: 4 DEDUCTION CLASSICAL LOGIC (also called Aristotelian Logic)

The theory of Classical Logic was initiated by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BCE 322 BCE). We are concerned here with deductive arguments. We recall that an argument whose premises are claimed to provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion is called a deductive argument. The theory of deduction explains the relations of premises and conclusion in valid arguments and also provides techniques for distinguishing between valid and invalid arguments.

Classes and Categorical propositions

CLASS: A class or category is the collection of all objects that have some specified characteristic in common. Two classes can be related in the following three ways: 1. All (members) of one class may be included in all (members) of another class. 2. Some (but not all) members of one class may be included in another class. 3. Two classes may have no members in common. Example: i) ii) iii) All the students of the School of Computer sciences are students of USM. Some students of the School of Mathematics are students of the course CPT114 of the School of Computer sciences. No students of the School of Biology are students of the course CPT114 of the School of Computer sciences.

CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION These are the fundamental elements of an argument in deductive logic. A proposition that expresses a relation between one class or category and another class or category, is called a categorical proposition.

For instance, the three propositions in the example mentioned above are categorical propositions. The first one is about two classes, with one class being all the students of the School of Computer Sciences and another class being the students of USM. The relation that all members of the former are in the latter , is exhibited in the categorical proposition (i). The second proposition (ii) involves the class of Students of School of mathematics and the class of students of the course CPT114 of the School of Computer Sciences and mentions that some members of the former class are in the latter. Likewise the third proposition (iii) has two classes, namely , the class of students of the School of Biology and the class of students of the course CPT114 of the School of Computer Sciences and states that no member of the former class is in the latter class. Four Kinds of standard-form Categorical Propositions: 1. 2. 3. 4. Universal affirmative propositions Universal negative propositions Particular affirmative propositions Particular negative propositions

Universal affirmative proposition: It asserts that every member of one class is a member of another class. In other words, the whole of one class is included or contained in another class A universal affirmative proposition is written schematically as All S is P. S is called the subject class and P , the Predicate class. Such a proposition is also called A proposition. Categorical propositions are represented by diagrams called Venn diagrams (invented by the English Logician and Mathematician John Venn (1834 1923)) where S labels one circle and P, another circle. The A proposition is diagrammed as follows: S P

The portion of S which is outside P is shaded out, indicating there are no members of S that are not members of P. Such a proposition affirms that the relation of class inclusion holds between the two classes that the inclusion is complete or universal. Example: All doctors are wealthy people. Here S is the class of all doctors; P is the class of wealthy people. The proposition affirms that the class of all doctors is included in the class of wealthy people. Universal negative proposition : It tells that no members of the whole of one class are members of another class.

A universal negative proposition is written schematically as No S is P. Such a proposition is called E proposition. It is diagrammed as follows: S P

Here the overlapping portion of the two circles is shaded out, indicating that no member of S is a member of P. This kind of proposition denies the relation of inclusion between the two classes and denies it universally. Example: No scientists are liars. Here S is the class of all scientists; P is the class of liars. The proposition denies that the class of all scientists is included in the class of liars. A particular affirmative proposition is written schematically as Some S is P. Such a proposition is called I proposition. It is diagrammed as follows:

S x

The diagram indicates that there is at least one member of S that is also a member of P by placing an x in the region in which the two circles overlap. This proposition affirms that the relation of class inclusion holds, but does not affirm it of the first class universally i.e. it is affirmed of some member or members of the first class. Example: Some historians are liars. Here S is the class of historians; P is the class of liars. The proposition affirms that some members of the class of historians are members of the class of liars. It does not affirm this of historians universally. A particular negative proposition is written schematically as Some S is not P. Such a proposition is called O proposition. It is diagrammed as follows: S x P

The diagram indicates that there is at least one member of S that is not a member of P by placing an x in the region of S that is outside of P. This proposition denies that the relation of class inclusion holds, but does not deny it of the first class universally . Example: Some insects are not pests. (pest is an animal or plant detrimental to humans). Here S is the class of insects; P is the class of pests. The proposition denies that insects are pests. The denial is not universal.

The four A,E,I,O propositions are the building blocks of deductive arguments. Summary of standard-form Categorical Propositions Proposition Form Name and Type Example

___________________________________________________________________________________ All S is P. No S is P. Some is P. Some S is not P A Universal Affirmative E Universal Negative I Particular Affirmative All mammals are vertebrates. No birds are invertebrates. Some bacteria are harmless. Some lawyers are not wealthy.

O Particular Negative

QUALITY, QUANTITY, DISTRIBUTION Quality: Every standard-form categorical proposition either affirms or denies, some class relation. Quality is an attribute of every categorical proposition, determined by whether the proposition affirms or denies class inclusion. Thus every categorical proposition is affirmative in quality or negative in quality, irrespective of it is complete or partial. A and I propositions (All S is P; some S is P) are affirmative in quality. E and O propositions (No S is P; Some S is not P) are negative in quality. Note that A, I come from the Latin word AffIrmo (I affirm) and nEgO (I deny) Quantity: This is an attribute of every categorical proposition, determined by whether the proposition refers to ALL members or only to SOME members of the class designated by its subject term. Thus every categorical proposition is either universal in quantity or particular in quantity. In other words, if the proposition refers to ALL members of the class designated by its

subject term, its quantity is universal; If the proposition refers only to some members of the class designated by its subject term, its quantity is particular. A and E propositions (All S is P; No S is P) are universal in quantity. I and O propositions (Some S is P; Some S is not P) are particular in quantity. General Schema of Standard-form Categorical Propositions Quantifier (subject term) copula (predicate term) Here Quantifier is ALL or SOME; copula refers to the verb to be (in different forms) connecting the subject term and predicate term. For example, in the categorical propositions: No triangle is a rectangle; All soldiers are brave; Some lawyers are liars; Some soldiers will not be heroes; All rectangles are not squares the verbs : is, are, will not be, are not are all copula. DISTRIBUTION A proposition distributes a term if it refers to all members of the class designated by that term.
In A,E,I,O propositions the terms are distributed as follows: A proposition: The subject term is distributed, but the predicate term is undistributed. Example: All apples are fruits. Here the subject term is apples and this proposition is about all apples but it does not refer to all fruits i.e. this A proposition refers to all members of the class designated by the subject term but not by the predicate term. E proposition: The subject term and the predicate term are both distributed. Example: No judges are liars. Here the subject term judges is distributed because the whole class of judges is excluded from the class of liars. Also, in doing this, the whole class of liars is excluded from the class of judges i.e. the proposition says that each and every liar is not a judge. So in this E proposition, the predicate term liars is also distributed. I proposition: The subject term and the predicate term are both undistributed. Example: Some soldiers are cowards.

In this proposition, no assertion is made about all soldiers and no assertion is made about all cowards i.e. neither class is wholly included or wholly excluded from the other. So in this I proposition both the subject term soldiers and the predicate term cowards are undistributed. O proposition: The subject term is not distributed, but the predicate term is distributed. Example: Some politicians are not liars. The proposition refers to some members of the class designated by the subject term politicians, and says that they are excluded from the whole of the class of liars, which is the predicate term. So the subject term is not distributed but the predicate term is distributed. The distributions are presented in the following diagram: Predicate term Predicate term Undistributed Distributed _______________________________________ A: All S is P E: No S is P _______________________________________ I: Some S is P O: Some S is not P ________________________________________

Subject term distributed Subject term undistributed

SUMMARY
Proposition Name Quantity Quality Distribution

All S is P No S is P Some S is P Some S is not P

A E I O

Universal Universal Particular Particular

Affirmative Negative Affirmative Negative

S only S and P Neither S nor P P only

OPPOSITION
Standard-form categorical propositions having the same subject terms and the same predicate terms may differ from each other in quality, quantity or both. Such a kind of differing is called opposition. In other words, opposition is the logical relation that exists between any two categorical propositions that differ in quantity, quality or other respects. We now study various kinds of opposition.

CONTRADICTORIES Two propositions are contradictories if one is the denial or negation of the other i.e. if they cannot both be true and cannot both be false. For example, A and O propositions are contradictories; E and I propositions are contradictories. i.e. The propositions All S is P and Some S is not P differ both in quantity (one is universal and the other is particular) and in quality (one is affirmative and the other is negative) and so they cannot both be true or both be false. Example: The propositions All surgeons are doctors and Some surgeons are not doctors are contradictories, with one of these being True and the other False. The propositions No doctors are surgeons and Some doctors are surgeons are also contradictories, again with one of these being True and the other False. CONTRARIES Two propositions are contraries if they cannot both be true but both can be false. Example: Malaysia will win the coming football match with Indonesia and Indonesia will win the coming football match with Malaysia are contraries. If one of these is True, the other will be false and so both cannot be true. But both can be false as the match may result in a draw.

Contingent Proposition: Propositions that are neither necessarily true nor necessarily false are said to be contingent. For example, the A proposition All squares are rectangles is necessarily true. So this proposition is not a contingent proposition. But the A proposition All poets are dreamers need not necessarily be true or necessarily false. Such a proposition is a contingent proposition. An A proposition that is a contingent proposition and the E proposition having the same subject and the same predicate are contraries. Example: All poets are dreamers is an A proposition. No poets are dreamers is an E proposition. These two cannot both be true but both can be false. Hence both are contraries. SUBCONTRARIES Two propositions are subcontraries if they cannot both be false, although they may both be true.

Example; An I proposition that is a contingent proposition and the O proposition having the same subject and predicate terms but differing in quality, are subcontraries. some doctors are surgeons and Some doctors are not surgeons are subcontraries, as both cannot be false but both can be true. SUBALTERNATION Two propositions having the same subject and the same predicate terms and agreeing in quality but differing in quantity are called corresponding propositions. This form of opposition is called a subalternation. The universal proposition in such corresponding propositions is called superaltern and the particular propositions is called subaltern.

Example: All birds have feathers and Some birds have feathers constitute a subalternatiion. The superaltern is All birds have feathers and the subaltern is Some birds have feathers . THE TRADITIONAL SQUARE OF OPPOSITION The four forms of opposition, contradictories, contraries, subcontraries, subalternation are represented as in the following diagram which is called the square of opposition.

All S is P
Superaltern Contraries

No S is P
Superaltern

Subalternation

contradictories

subalternation

Subaltern Some S is P

Subcontraries

Subaltern Some S is not P

Note that when a conclusion is drawn from only one premise, the inference is said to be immediate. When a conclusion is drawn from more than one premise, then the inference is said to be mediate. Some examples of inferences drawn from the Square of opposition If an A proposition is the premise, then the corresponding I proposition is true, by subalternation. If an E proposition is given as true, then A is false being contraries; I is false being contradictories; O is true by subalternation. If I is given as true, E is false; A and O are undetermined. Three other kinds of Immediate Inferences CONVERSION This is an inference that proceeds by interchanging the subject and predicate terms of a proposition. The derived proposition is called converse of the original proposition, which is called convertend. Example: Conversion is valid for all E propositions and for all I propositions. Conversion of an O proposition is not valid. For an A proposition, conversion by limitation is valid. No judges are liars is an E proposition. The converse is No liars are judges. This is a valid inference. Some women are journalists is an I proposition. The converse is Some journalists are women which is a valid inference. Some animals are not dogs is an O proposition. The proposition Some dogs are not animals is not a valid conversion. All dogs are animals is an A proposition. Some dogs are animals is an inference by subalternation. Some animals are dogs is a valid inference and is called conversion by limitation. VALID CONVERSIONS A SUMMARY CONVERTEND A: All S is P E: No S is P I: Some S is P O: Some S is not P CONVERSE I: Some P is S (by limitation) E: No P is S I: Some P is S Conversion is not valid

COMPLEMENT OF A CLASS Recall: A class is the collection of all objects that have a certain common attribute, known as classdefining characteristic. The complement of a class is the collection of all things that do not belong to the original class. Example: The complement of the class of all animals is the class of non-animals (that are not animals). Relative Complement of a class This is complement of a class within some other class. In the class of Children of a person, the class of the daughters of the person is the relative complement of the class of sons of the same person. OBVERSION Obversion is an immediate inference from a proposition. In order to obtain a proposition q by obversion from another proposition p, we change the quality of p and replace the predicate term with its complement, but the subject term and quantity of the proposition are not changed. Obversion is a valid immediate inference when applied to any of the standard-form categorical proposition A, E,I or O. For example. The obverse of the A proposition All residents are voters is the E proposition No residents are non-voters. OBVERSIONS A summary Obvertend A: All S is P E: No S is P I: Some S is P O: Some S is not P Obverse E: No S is non-P A: All S is non-P O: Some S is not non-P I: Some S is non-P

CONTRAPOSITION Contraposition can be reduced to conversion and obversion. To form the contrapositive of a given proposition, we replace its subject term with the complement of its predicate term and replace its predicate term with the complement of its subject term. The quality and quantity of the proposition are not changed.

Contraposition is a valid form of immediate inference when applied to A and O propositions but not for I propositions. For E propositions, we infer an O proposition by contraposition by limitation. Example: The contrapositive of the A proposition, All surgeons are doctors is the A proposition All nondoctors are nonsurgeons. Contraposition - A summary Premise A: All S is P E: No S is P I: Some S is P O: Some S is not P Contrapositive A: All non-P is non-S. O: Some non-P is not non-S (by limitation) (Contraposition not valid) O: Some non-P is not non-S