g Curvature 91. Definition! Let P and Q be two adjacent points on a curve and A bea fixed point on it, such that are AP=s and arc AQ=s+8s. Further let tangents at P and Q make angles # and Y-+3$ with the positive direction of a fixed straight line OX. Then the angle between the | tangents PT and OT" is 3¢. Thus 5 denotes the angle through which the tangent at P turns, as the point P moves along the curve to Q through a:distance 85. Fig. 91. The curvature of the curve at a point P is defined as the rate of change of angle between the tangents with respect to arc 5s,as the Point Q approaches point P along the curve. Thus 5 by Curvature =: Lt ae = Lt -—) orp 9s aso 8S 216217 CURVATURE Thus furvature Note. This formul. acurve is given in terms of s and $. Find curvature of the curve s=e logsec ¥ at any is applicable only when the equation of Example 1. point(s, ¥)- Sol. Here c log sec } : as =, 1 = a dp = * see g SCC H tan $= ctan Y - dy : ” Tds ~~ Ct 1 Hence curvature=— cot 4 92. Gurvature of a Circle Consider a circle with radius r and centre C. Let P and Q ircle and tangents at these points be two adjacent points on the ci make angle $ and ¥-+8 respectively with OX. Then we have ZPCO=S8, Let A be a fixed point on the circle such that AP=s and AQ=s43s Naw 3s=PO=r ay Y218 ENGINEERING Martin, EMAT} e of circle at P by By = Lt = Lt pp ato “Se asso rh of a circle at all points 1 x =—___——" CUryeY = Reais By definition, curvatur Thus we see that curvatur 9°3. Radius of Curvature urvature (if it is mot zero) of a curve The reciprocal of c1 f curvature at that point and is d point is defined as radius 0} bye. Thus at an lenoted, ‘Thus the radius of curvature of a circle at any point i it radius. ¥ Polnt is same as 94. Radius of Curvature (Cartesian Curves) Let the equation of the curve be in explicit form yf) We know, tan y= : Differentiating both sides with respect to s, we get d fdy\, dx dx \ ax } “ds ay, __ de V1+(B) ae Cy seed CRY orCURVATURE 219 or Note 1. Conventionally is always taken positive, whereas 4 nay be positive or negative. ° Note 2, The definition of curv: ature shows, that it is independent of the choice of the axes. Thus interchanging x and y-axes, we have ly" dy? This formula is especially useful when tangent is parallel to . op aX yaxis, for which = =o, Example 1. Find the radius of curvature at a point (x, y} on the parabola Y=4 ax. L Sol. Here y=4 ax ~() 2y Ba ta 7 dy 2 a ae o2a 2a [from 1) ay dx { [ + ayy" i Now estedENGINEERING MATHEMATICS a \3I2 2x31? =— ( I+ AR =- wo (x+a)F, Hence Pp x-ba)s!?, [taking positive sign] Vv Example 2. The normal at a point P on the curve 2abx=bx*+-ay*, meets the axis of x at G. Show that at the point P, Sol. Here 2abx=bx?-+ay? Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get 2ab=2bx-+2ayy" — 5 (a—x) W ay y(—1)—y' (a—x) ar EL r+ Senor J] trom 11 or ey pr lay*+b (a—x)*] [ay*—2abx-+bx? +a] 5 (a2b) [%" ay?+bx?—2abx=0 from equation of the curve] [taking +ve sign] 2 a latyt tb (a- ee ay . or lary + b°(a— a)" (2) Now PG=Length of normal to curve at P ayV ity? B 2 Re -»[ 1+ Pare] [8 8°7 Gi]og uaveTUne 221 Teas Pam fatyt.02 (aap -@) From (2) and (3), we get Pa p=. BF E xample. 3. Show that radius of curvature Sor the curve = (44 e-#10) ie he normal it 1 to the portion of t ‘mal intercepted betwee " is equal TS and it varies as the square of the ordinate n the eurve and the . gol. Here v= $F (er!te-*) wl) : yest (et! e210) yoteneensy pe by _ bE (ers y AL. (ete a doe (etlebeein ~2a)2]3/2 2a _[4-b(e2—e-F'9yep pe een 2a [(er/@te-*/e)*] 8 (e*-pe-2!2) _ a, (ritt heey =F ene =a) a fe 7 ¢ 2164 e- Bla)? — a [from 1] Hence e varies as the square of the ordinate. yi i+y? Hy TE ee (§ 87 Gi =3 NERF HH (Cte), _ p=length of normal = [from 1] a | Nie NI =—=e s| Hence p=p. 95.” Radius of Curvature, (Parametric curves) Let the equation of the curve be x=f(0). y= #(0-NG ay Th Now . | dx dp =x ] dy \Hy _ Now DH E)T" [u(zyp diy ~ a See [? - Sez Example 1, Find radius of cury, iL is oycloid x=q (t-+sin 1), peal a). TMaiNrs aE any point ¢ the Sel. Wehave x’=a(1-+cos 1), =a sin t | x= —g sin t y¥’=a cos ¢. haw _ (xh yaya PS Pe — la" +e0s 14.0? sin? 72 ~ [a(i-Feas 4) COS (Fa sin® 7] — [a +008 14a? ps2 ©” Ta%(cos 1-Feos* + sin? 7] "TJ 4-2 cos ¢+ cos? rsin? 1}? @Icos t+} — 12! +608 OF — (+cos 7) 2. (2)? . [1+cos 17? = fT -Feos rf =a(2)? . (1+cos 1)'/2 =a. 28. 218 cos 4/2 1 [= 1+cos =2 cos? £] . =4a cos t/2. Hence p==4a cos ¢ 2.CURVATURE 4223 Example 2. Prove that for the ellipse X=acost, y=b sint, an P p being length of perpendicular from the centre upon the tangent r (a cost, & sin ft). e Sol. Here x=a cos t, y=bsint “ x’=~—a sins, y’=b cost xv’=—a cost, y’=—b sin t. a et er (a? sin* 1-+5? cos? 1)°7 Now xy yx ab (sin? t+ cos* r) (a? sin? t+ 5? cos™ 1)" | or ee (1) Slope of the tangent at the given point to curve, dy av boost dx ~ x ~~ asint Now equation of tangent to the curve at the given point —b cost asint or bcost.x+asint. y=ab ++(2) y—b sin t= (x—a cos 1) Let p be the length of perpendicular from (0, 0) the centre of the ellipse on (2). ab “ PT @ sin? 15? cos* ©. (a? sin? 1+? cos* rn 5 or (a? sin? 1.5? cos? 1° = = 1) From (1) and (3), we have ab? = Hence Example 3. If CP and CD be a pair of conjugate semi- diameters of an ellipse224 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS rove that the radius of curvature at P is CD°/ab, where a and b are the lengths of the semi-axes of the ellipse. Sol. Parametric squations of the ellipse are x=a cos ft, y=6 sin tr. _ (a? sin® ¢+5" cos* 1)?!" “ ne (1) [See example 2] Now P and D are the ends of semi conjugate diameters, and P (acos t, b sin r), D [acos($ ++ ). sia (F +t y] or D(—a sin t, b cos t) - Now C (0, 0) is the centre of the ellipse. a? sin® 1-+5* cos* f a? sin? t-+5% cos? 1)3/3 -Q) ar From (1) and (2), we have cD* °— ab Example 4. Obtain the formula giving the curvature of the ellipse x=4 cos t, y=3 sin t at any point. At what points on the ellipse does the curvature has greatest and least numerical values Zz What are their magnitudes ? Sol. From previous example, we have 1_ 12 P [16 sin® +9 cos? 1}? [ve “a4, b=3] —. 12 16 sin? 7+ 9 —s' Therefore, Curvature oP aa 12 (9+7 sin® 2}87 which is least when sin® ¢ is greatest, i.e. t=90°, 270° and is greatest when sin* ¢=0 i.e. t=0, 180°. The required points are (0, +3) and (£4, 0), respectively. Further, the greatest value of curvature, —12 _4 oe 9v9 19cuRVATURE 225 and least value of curvature =m —l2_ _ 3. 16V16 16 __ EXERCISE 9 (a) 1, Find the curvature of the parabola y?=2x at the point 2, 2). 2. Show that the curvature of x*+)°=3axy at the point _ ; 3a 3a). _ 8Vv2 2° 2 )8 Fa Find the radius of curvature of the following curves at the given points. 3. y?(2—x)=>x* at the point (1, 1) 4. y=log x at the point (1, 0). Find the points on the following curves at which the curvature is maximum. ~ 5. @ Vet yH4a | Gi) y=log x ay Gii) ye 4 6. Find the point on the curve y=c? at which the curvature js maximum and show that the tangent at this point forms with the coordinate axes a triangle whose sides arc in the ratio 1 : V2: 73. Find the radius of curvature at any point ‘t’ on the following curves. I xat, yah. des 8. x=a cos? 1, y=b sin t. 9. x=a(t—sin 1), y=a(1—cos £). 40. x=a (cos ft+Jog tan f/2), y=a sin ft. 11, The tangents at two points P and Qon the cycloid x=a(6—sin 6), y=a(1—cos 8) are at right angles. Show that if e, and pp are radii of curvature at these points, then 23+ 16a. 12, If-p and p’ be the radii of curvature at the extremities of ih two conjugate diameters of an ellipse, prove that (otf e'8)(ab) aah Bt, 13. Prove that for the-parabola x=al?, y==2at, the square of radius of curvature at any point P varies as (SP), where S is the focus of the parabola.226 t,t 3 | ENGINEERING MATHEMATIcg 14. If py and py are the radii of curvature at the extermities of a focal chord of a parabola whose semi latus rectum is /, prove that (03)? (9) 2/8 = (1-2/3 14, Prove that the radius of curvature at the point 9 on the curve whose equations are x=a sin 26 (1-++cos 26), y=a cos 28 (1—cos 28) is 4a cos 30. ~ 16. Prove that the radius of curvature at any point (x, y) of the curve x°/*+y"!®=a*/, is three times the length of the perpend. | \ from the origin to the tangent at (x, y). cular ’ “(4.M.LE. May 1960, 63) 17, For the curve y=—9*_, if p is the radius of curvature at any point (x, y) show that . | (2)"(2)4GY 18. Show that for the curve le, (A.M.L.E: May 1962) s=ae en iV GRE where p is the radius of curvature. 19. A railway track has the form of the curve, = x3, where x and y are expressea in kilometres. At what rate will the engine be changing direction with respect to the distance when pass- jing through the point (2. 8) ? 20., Show that for the catenary x=e log ls+VS+e], pov ste Pte’. : (Dethi 1982) e Pp 96. Radius of Curvature at the Origin \Newton’s Method) To show that tor curve passing through the origin and having x-axis as a tangent there at, e= Lt »?/2y. 70 Here since tangent is x-axis at the origin, vo=( 2 Jig oy=0 val)) CURVATURE 227 ww, let us consider Lt No x0 2 x=0=y at origin] Applying L-Hospital's rule we have 2x n =lt >= (0/0) x20 2y ‘ [~ x=0 and y’=0 from 1] : =u t x-0 ¥ : Sl *. oh 2y ~~ ¥(0) ~@) Ut yr OPE 30) _ +0 1 “ =O ~¥O ~@ From (2) and (3), we have Now e 30) = 0} =u em eno 2y Similarly we can show that if-tangent at the origin to the curve is y-axis then Example 1. Find the radius of curvature at the origin, for the curve 3xty— 3x +2y9+3x"— 3y"— 9 =0. Sol. The given curve passes through the origin and tangent at the origin is y=0. This is obtained by equating the lowest degree term in the equation to zero. Dividing the given equation by 9, we get x? Let x0, then Lt =p x0 2y a 6e—9=0 o e=3/2. Example 2. Find the radius of curvature-a: the origin for the curve, i 43x2y— dy + y"—6x=0.seo OC Sol. The given curve passes through the origin and tangey, atthe origin is x=0, fe. y-axis. Dividing the given equation by x, we get xt43xy—4y, 24 Zao x x 2 = As y>0, then a ae Pe oO —8.0.9+2e—6=0 A e=3. __ BRERGISE 9 (6) 1.” Show that the radius of curvature at the origin for the * a :. 3a curve x*-+y"=3axy is —-- Find the radius of curvature at the origin for the following curves. 2, y?=4ax. 3. x*—=4ay. 4, 8—y—2x2+ 6y= 0. 5. yar—x)=aex. 6. Show that the radius of curvature of y= x*(at+x)/(a—>) at the origin is a2. 7; Find the radius of curvature of the curve 2 = @?(2a— at (2a, 0). yma a— x) (A.M.LE. May, 1967) [Hint. Shift the origin at (2a, 0)] 97. Radius of Curvature (Polar Curves) Let the equation of the curve be r=f(4)_ From the figure, we have t > vy (2 Fig 93. | 4yATURE \ | cur 229 tf ast ab* . ae ed “ a -@ sD # ae dé s ds ca i .a0/ oF 14-3 dy ot se =( (aie 4) yT" . ® ale+(Sy +(% al es 9 We know tan g=r S- = a ro (§ 8°10) | a Differentiating both sides with mee to 9, we get . e sec? $ ag (te) “Cay ae ao as_(ae) -* So . (4 y sect gd _ (ae) = (4) c+tan “ { a a 14 men [v9 ¢= aaa] or db. ( ae (0) -" r Se "do “(S)y+"] dr yer | ~Q)ag ftom (2) in ty, h # (. we have dv ( 7 or ze =| Ld ae = ‘ae ay [42 (He) a ds [= dr \* az (3) ] 2 dr \? dr 1 _[- +2 (4) vr See | or ° Pog (ae) pe L+(%))) EMsyT o pe ae dr\? ar [+2 (4)-- | os Denoting by ry ana by r2, we have —__ & +9292 .) — GE Forte)’ | . Example 1. Find the radius of curvature at any point (r, 4 on the curve a/r cos 6|2—a,. (A.M.I.E. May 1972, Dec. 1974) P: Sol. Here 47 cos soda r cos® 3 =, 29 or r=a sec*> 6 m=a sect > tan => 6 =r tan 3 . [- r=a seo | e o ra=r, tan st} r sec? > 2. 6 oT... =r ton] =r tant £44 seotd [vrs rae? gdr 2 231 curva : | pater Now r'+2re cry substituting the values, we get e=s (r?-Er? tani? 6/2)?! F2r* tan* 8/2—r(r tan® 6/2 +47 sec" 6/2) 7°(1 + tan? 9/2)0/2 ~ FEE tant 072= ¥ sec® 672 * sec? (0,2) “Fa =o 9/2) —4r* sec*O/2 r® sect (8/2) 7 sec? (612) —Ar sec® (12) —_r? sec? (6/2) 7 HF? seck (62) —=2F see 0/2=2r Arla [2 ra sec? 6/2] . e=2rd 7a. : Example 2. Show that for the cardioid r=a(1-+reos 8), is (A.M.ILE Nov. 1960) constant. Sol. Here r=a(1-+cos 6) . r,=—a sin 6 and re=—a cos 6 (Gee la Now =p orion, [a*(1+cos 6)*+a" sin® 6}°/? "C+ eos 8)*-+2a" sin? 6-Fa*(1-Fcos B)cos 6 —_@ [201 +608 6}! 3a*(I-Fcos 6) = 2V2 4. (teos 6). a= Sa. (1+cos 9) ' = s aur. Us r=a(itcos 6)] a a eas ==constant r 9 98, Radius of Curvature (Pedal Curves) We have seen in previous article, p=b+hade or and or EES OTE ANT I 5 | ae dg db -* ds ds “ ds so) Also porsing (6 813) Differentiating both sides with respect to r, we have dp Bs si Gr = 608 oa sin ¢ Br cos $4 . 44 4 sin g sal) 0 Now = sing=r a dr cos $= 7 6 815) From (2), we have dp ae db, ds 5, db dr ' ds ds adr ds dé, do _, (db, do =r as tas as tae y =r {from 1] . dy 1 dp 7 ds Fr ar 1_1 a ra dr . ear. Fe Note. It is always easy to convert the equation of a pola, curve to pedal form and then apply the above formula, Example 1. Find the radius of curvature at the Point (p, r) on the lemniscate r*=a"p. or or Sol. Here r=a'p Example 2, Find the radius of curvature for the parabola ' 24 27 4.c058. rCURVATURE 233 Sol. The pedal equation of the curve is p*=ar. ol A [Example 2 $8. 14] Bing Now 2p pa. . eo “ dr Op ste oe dar 2 i ; {from 1) SE 9 (c) Find the-radius curvature at point (r, ) on cach of the follow- ing curves : 1. r=acos 8. 2. r=asin 4, 3. r=a(1—cos 8). 4, r"=a" sin n6. 5. (a) Show that at any point (r, 8) on the equiangular spiral reac cote, the radius of curvature is r cosec «. (4) If the equiangutar spiral meets the radius vector in points whose vectorial angles are of the form @+2Kx, K=0, 1,2 and if Pm and en denote radii of curvatures at points corresponding to K=m and n respectively, show that aay 8 [e} is constant. Find the radius of curvature ata point (p,r) on cach of the following curves : 2 = s- (A.M.LE. May 1961) 8. Show that for r? cos? @=a?, ual 18° 3 : pate (AMIE. May 1963, Nov. 1969)234 . ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS pH Tove that for the curve o=V Gey cost 4, Va, Bint: Pad FP ar, tanger @ —VEFHAIa, and p=r sin ¢=V (F?—a*) e=r = etc.] ~ 9°9. Circle of Curvature Let APB be a curve and P(x, y) be .any point on it, and PT be tangent at P. Let K be a circle on the same side of the tangent as the curve, with its centre at C and having the same curvature as the curve at the point P: ~ This circle is called the K 18 Fig. 9.4. circle of curvature of the given curve at P, and C is known as centre of curvature. Any chord of the circle of curvature through the point of contact P is called the chord of curvature of the given curve at P. 9°10, Centre of Curvature Let C(%,3) be the centre of curvature of the curve at point P(x, y) and tangent to the curve at P make an angle with the positive direction of the x-axis. Draw CM and PN perpendicular to x-axis. Let CP.be normal to the curve at point P and be equal to p. Obviously 2PCL=4. Now %=ON—MN=x—LP23> From QPCL, we have = asin v LP=p sin F=x—p sin =x— Gaye . Te [tan y=y" * sin b= or y , ity’ zox — ty). Also J=MLt+LC =PN+LC=y+ Le Now from APCL, we have EE cos ¥ LC=p cos } “ J=yte cos =y+ ay yen 1 Vat+y?) : Le tan pey’, .. cos =i] 1 - aot r aty") or gave 3 y at+y") Example 1. Find the contre of curvature of: the curve Bbaytop=o at G, 3)ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Sol. Here x3+xy*— Gt : pra BSxt20? _ =a) (6x) 2(6— ay “(6=xF- xe _ 9x2 3/8 (6-3) “ Yea» 2 ne 27 vO —xyP ts oe "ts 1 Fox Jr 43107 part 5 7 U+y")=3+5=8 Hence the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature are (—7, 8). Example 2. Find the centre of curvature of the parabola y'=4ax, at the point (a, 2a). Sol. Here ye=4ax or yard aVx . —_1 5 y= 2 —= w=2da. TTS . 1 ai* eT ME “ Y'ta, = 1 . = Yo ta, 20 = 2a Fox- a (1492) =a4 201+) =Sa yayt 2) 2a—2a (1+1)=—2a. Hence the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature are (Sa, —2a). 911, Chord ‘of Curvature Through the Origin Let OPE be the circle of curvature at the point P of a curve APBand PQ be chord of curvature at P,.through the origin O.(CURVATURE 237 Further Iet PE be the diameter of the circle and angle between OP and PT be ¢. *t 8 oO T x Fig. 9°6. Now £PEQ=¢ and ZPQE=90°, being angle in a semicircle, Also PE=2p.. From APEQ, we have Chord PQ _.. PE sing or Chord PO=PE sin ¢. Chord of curvature=2; sing. 912, Chord of Curvature Parallel to x-axis if chord does not pass through the origin but is Parallel to x-axis, then clearly $=), { “Chord of curvature parallel to x-axis=2p sin v. 913. Chord of Curvatvre Parallel to y-axis If chord does not pass through the origin, but is Darallel to y-axis, then clearly $=90—w, Chord of curvature Parallel to y-axis =2p sin (90—W) =2p cos ¥. Example 1. Show that the chord of curvature parallel to axis of yfor the curve y=c log sec is of constant length. Sol. Chord of curvature Parallel to y-axis =2p cos p. Here y=e log sec x'c238 ENGINEERING ' i MATHENAT, , yistan x6 Cs =X sec? = “( yee seo" . (1 a+y® y e=- yr (-+tan? x!c)3= , =—Tje. sect xje © * $6 Xe. _ Now the chord of curvature =2p cos Y =2e. sec x/c. cos Also oe =y,=tan x/c, [from V tan Y=tan x/e 7 cos ¥=cos x/¢ [ “S cos- b=. 1 Tia] From (2), we have . Required chord=2e sec x/e . cos x,c=2c (constant), Example 2. Find the chord of curvature through t the cardioid r=a (1-+cos 6). gh the ‘pole of Sol. Here r=a(I+cos 9). : — 2V2ar . * = _ [See example 2, p. 231] Chord of curvature through the pole a (1+cos 8)?-Fa® sin® @ asin] do w(2)er 239 cuavaTURE le 3. If Cz and Cy be the chords of curvature parallel : Ed y-axis respectively ai any point of the curve y=ae7!*, a grow Hat yg Ty + GF Gay Sol. Here pre yok erie Now Ce=2e sind 9:12) 20 ty yt y Vi+y +. gin bee : [ J sin Veep as tan v=y'| = 2vaty)_ = 7 _ negro) =24(1-+et*!2) A yzte a =2a( 14%, Ur ele=yia] aye s 62 CIM 1) Now Cy=2e cos ( 9°13) _ 2+y ” VIF , [ since tan P=y’, cos =“ Ts] _ 20+y") _ 2+!) ~ y L gzya . » z =2q Cit" ld =e Ula) C= 2ae+y¥")_ 2. +-@) From (1) and (2), we get o y Weryy + aaryy 1 (a?+ y*) 1 aay WED —sloy tt Ld. (CF +E) Gat) soy Ca? + CF240 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS, EXERCISE 9 (d) Find the coordinates of the centre of curvature of the following curves at the given points : 1. y'=x* at the point (1, 1). 2. y=e* at the point (0, 1). 3, = fol at the point (a, B). | 4. x2-+y2=1 at the point (a, B). ! 5. x=31, p=t*—6 at the point (a, 5). 6. Find the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature of the curve y=x log x, at the point where tangent is parallel to x-axis. 7. If ce and cy be the chords of curvature parallel to the axes at any point of the catenary yc cosh x/c, prove that 4c*(ca*+ cy) = crt. 8. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole of the curve : r™=0™ cos m6 is 2r/Gn-+1). 9:14 Concavity and Gonvexity. Let P(x, ») be a point ona curve and PT the tangent (not parallel to y-axis) to itat the point P. Thecurve is said tobe concave upward or convex downward at P, according as a portion of the curve, howsoever small, on both sides of P, }ics above the tangent PT. However, if these portions of curve lie below the tangent PT, we say the curve is concave downward or convex upward at P. If the two portions of the curve on both sides of P, lie un different sides of PY i.e, the curve crosses the tangent PT at P then the point P is said to be a point of inflexion. 4 y 1 oc P Fig. $7. Fig. 9° 8.9 x Fig. 9.9. The curve in Fig. 9°7 is concave upward or convex downward. The curve in Fig. 9°8 is concave downward or convex upward. The point P in Fig. 9°9 is a point of inflexion on the curve. 915 Criteria for Concavity or Convexity at a Point Let P(x, 3) and O(x+h, y+k) be two adjacent-points ona! curve Y= fix). | oT MLM: XxX °. Fig. 9°10. Draw ordinates PL and OM. Let the ordinate QM mect the tangent PT at QO’. . Let (¥, ¥) be current co-ordinates of a Point on the tangent PT. The equation of tangent at P is, Y—y=f lav =x) eth t Putting ¥=x+h, in the equations of the tangent (1), we get . MO=ry+filxh or ee MOQ =f(N+f (hn | i242 ENGINEERING MATHEMATIC; o M tL M x ou” | | | Also MQ =f(x+h) . or Me-FOI+ If + FOF, (4 (By Taylor’s Theorem] From (2) and (3), we have mo—mo'=[ fir C435 FC) : + Servw+ At resz'on ie DAA ae oo (4) ra pe or MOQ-MO'=37S"O+ 35 Taking h to be small cnough and if f’’(x) #0, then the sign of expression on right hand side of (4) depends upon the first term, ie. hf’ (x). Since /? is always positive, the sign depends upon f'(x) only. Now the curve is concave upward or concave downward as Q'Q is positive or negative i.e. according as f”'(x) is or negative. . Hence the given curve is concave upward at Pif /’(x)is positive and concave downward if f’’(x) is negative. Iff"(x)=C and f’’(x)30, then the sign of expression on right hand side of (4), depends upon #* f’""(x). Hence the sign of Q’Q will change with i. Thus the curve will be concave upward on one side of Pand concave downward on the other side. Hence there is inficxion at point P or P is a point of inflexion on the curve. 916. Concavity or Convexity with Respect to a Line Let P(x, ») be a given’ point_on_a curve y=f(x) and La line not passing through ?. The curve is said to be concave or convex at ?, with respect to L, according a small portion of the curve on bothCURVATURE 243 Fig. 9°13. sides of # and con P, lies entirely wit! or without the acute angle formed by the given line ZL and tangent PT to the curve at P. It is being assumed that tangent PT jot parallel to yraxis. Oo x Fig. 9°14, However, if the portion of the curve on one side of Pi cave and on other side is convex, then P is a point of inflexion. Thus the curve in Fig. 9°12, is concave at P and in Fig. 913, is convex with respect to the line L; in Fig. 9°14, Pisa point of inflexion. 9°17. A Test of Concavity and Convexity with Respect to the x-axis con- (1) A curve lying above x-axis is concave or convex with res- pect to x-axis according as it is concave downwardor coprave upward i.e. according asf” (x) is negative or positive. (Art. 15) (ii) A curve lying below the x-axis is concave or convex with Tespect to x-axis according as it is concave upward or concave- downward i.e. according as f" (x) is positive or negative.——_ ENGINEERING MALHEMATICS Both the above cases can be stated as under, A curve is concave or convex, with respect to x-axis, according rf" (x) is negative or positive. Exam =e i. Ple 1. Show that the curve y=e7® is concave upward at every point, ~ Sol. Here yee and 2 yp Now oe is positive everywhere. Hence the given curve is concave upward. Example 2. Find the range of vais of x in which the curve p=3x— 409 +-3K—20 is concave upward or downward. Also find the points of inflexion. : Sol. Here y=3x5—40x"+3x—20 o e =15x*—120x24+-3=3 (5x'—40x7+ 1) -=3 :20x7= 80x) = 60x (x"—4) i= =60x (x - 2)(x +2). Now dty'dx® is positive, when —22, is negative, when x<—2 dnd also when O “QI =S54x+49)_ oints of inflexion which are collinear. at tlie origin is a point of inflexion on the curve © aty=x" and greater than 2. that the points of inflexion of the curve (26—sind), y=a(2—cos 8) ae given by 0=2n=+ r/3, where n is an integer. Fi show th 38 three PI 8. pe 084 im 9, Prove jnd the points of inflexion and determine the ii onvexitY ‘and concavity of the curve. e the intervals of < yoe™. U.T.E. Nov. 1971)ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS. a) corr ( —£.8in 9). Gi) cot (Te cos 3. 90° (orthogonally) 5. 90° (orthogonally) 6 90° (orthogonally) 7. 90° (orthogonally) 8. 90° (orthogonally) 9, (i) S.T.=2a sin® 0/2 sec 6/2 S.N.=a sin 8 10. S.T.=2 cosec 8, S.N.=a tan 6/2 sect 6/2. _ (a+b cos 6)? bd ui. s.7. SSE Sr, S.N.=b sin 0 13. S.T.=r tan «, S.N.=r cot a. Exercise 8 (e) (Page 212) 4, 90° (orthogonally) 1. ptear. 2 P= nae. 3. r+3p*= 5. plete 7. r3=2 ap* 8. r'=(6—a?-+2ar) p* 9. rete amp. Tat f ise 10. Ite J ‘Exercise 8 (£) (Page 215) 1. 2a sin 6/2. 2 avit+e 3. av sec2@ 4. rcosec % Exercise 9 (a) (Page 225 — 226) _v5 . SVS 1. -¥ a: VS (a a 4. 22 s. (4 4) wo (Jy —Hog 2) (it) (—4 1082, Y) v2 7, tatorter , atone 6. (-+ toe 2, %. 3 sin ¢ cos ¢ (a? cos? t-+5* sin? 1)*/? 8. _ 116. 9. 4asin 10. acot t. 19. 0°0069 radian/Km Exercise 9 (b) (Page 228) 2. 2a 3. 2a10. A WAYNE 2 505 3 3 a 2 oF a 4 Exercise 9 (c) (Page 233) + 2 4. 2 "2 2 iar _ iViar 4, a 2 ane a P Exercise 9 (d) (Page 240) 4) 2. (2,3) fee, 5 9} {e432 BAP, 843078 BLY {-4a20+0"), o+( Ste} {4} Exercise 9 (e) (Page 246) f2bv2, sdava ety 2” 2 e } 2—V2,3-2V2 .—@-vD and 4 e } ©, 0), (= + 343) for concavity (473 ee js xl 1 ) + interval wr” yr’ convex outside this interval. Exercise 10 (a) (Page 255) VERT PEO, x+1=0 +1, p43 =2x, y—3x=2 » Y=xt1, Y+xX=0 } 2 y+xt1=0, 2ytx=1 y=, aaa yox+ $=0, y—3xt+-5=0, 2y+x+3=0 y=0, pheno 8. y=0, x=1, yort2