Single-Phase Transformers 79

CHAPTER

Single-Phase Transformers 2
Chapter Objectives
After the completion of this unit, students/readers will be able to understand:
What is a transformer and its necessity in power system?
How a transformer transfers electric power from one circuit to the other i.e., what is basic
principle of a transformer.
What is core of a transformer, what is its material, why cruciform cores are considered better
than square or rectangular cross-section?
What are transformer windings, how their material and their size selected. How these wound
and placed over the core?
Why bushings are necessary for transformers?
What is the construction of small rating transformers?
How does a transformer behave? When is it considered to be an ideal one?
What are the various factors on which emf induced in a transformer winding depends?
How does a transformer behave when it is at no-load?
What is exciting current and how is it affected by magnetisation?
Why is there sudden inrush of magnetising current when a transformer is connected to the lines
although it may be at no-load?
How does a transformer behave when it is loaded?
How to draw phasor diagrams of a transformer to represent various alternating quantities (neglecting
resistance and reactance ampere-turns balance)?
How does resistance of transformer windings affect its performance?
What are mutual and leakage fluxes in a transformer?
How does inductive reactance appear in a transformer due to leakage fluxes?
How to determine equivalent resistance and reactance of transformer windings on its either
side?
How to draw an equivalent circuit of a transformer and how to simplify it?
What is voltage regulation of a trans-former ?
How power factor affects the regulation of a transformer?
What are the major losses in a transformer?
What are the effects of voltage and frequency variation on iron losses in a transformer?
How is efficiency of a transformer calculated at various loads?
How to determine the conditions at which a transformer works at maximum efficiency?
 80 Electrical Machines

How efficiency of a transformer is affected by load and p.f.?

How to conduct various tests such as polarity test, voltage ratio test, open circuit test, short
circuit test, back-to-back test etc., on a transformer?
How transformers are classified on the basis of their application?
What is the necessity of putting the transformers in parallel and what conditions are to be
maintained while putting them in parallel?
When the transformers are put in parallel, how do they share the load?
What is an auto-transformer?
How can auto-transformer is different to a potential divider?
What are the advantage and disadvantages of an auto-transformer in comparison to an ordinary
two-winding transformer?
Why cannot ordinary two-winding transformers be replaced by auto-transformers?
How to draw equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of an auto-transformer?
Can we convert a two winding transformer into an auto-transformer?
What are the major applications of auto-transformers?

Introduction
Transformer is considered to be a backbone of a power system.
For generation, transmission and distribution of electric power, AC system is adopted instead of
DC system because voltage level can be changed comfortably by using a transformer. For economic
reasons, high voltages are required for transmission whereas, for safety reasons, low voltages are
required for utilisation. Transformer is an essential part of power system. Hence, it is rightly said that
transformer is a backbone of a power system. In this chapter, we shall discuss the general features
and principle of operation of single-phase transformers.

2.1 Transformer
A transformer is a static device that transfers AC electrical power from one circuit to the other at
the same frequency but the voltage level is usually changed.
The block diagram of a transformer is shown in Fig. 2.1(a). When the voltage is raised on the output
side (V2 > V1), the transformer is called a step up transformer, whereas, the transformer in which the
voltages is lowered on the output side (V2 < V1) is called a step down transformer.

Fig. 2.1 (a) Block diagram of a single-phase transformer

 Single-Phase Transformers 81

Necessity
In our country, usually electric power is generated at 11 kV. The voltage level is raised to 220 kV, 400
kV or 750 kV by employing step-up transformers for transmitting the power to long distances. Then
to feed different areas, as per their need, the voltage level is lowered down to 66 kV, 33 kV or 11 kV
by employing step-down transformers. Ultimately for utilisation of electrical power, the voltage is
stepped down to 400/230 V for safety reasons.
Thus, transformer plays an important role in the power system. The pictorial view of a power
transformer is shown in Fig. 2.2 (b). The important accessories are labelled on it.

Fig. 2.1 (b) Transformer

Applications
Main applications of the transformers are given below:
(a) To change the level of voltage and current in electric power systems.
(b) As impedance-matching device for maximum power transfer in low-power electronic and control
circuits.
(c) As a coupling device is electronic circuits
(d) To isolate one circuit from another, since primary and secondary are not electrically connected.
(e) To measure voltage and currents; these are known as instrument transformers.
Transformers are extensively used in AC power systems because of the following reasons:
1. Electric energy can be generated at the most economic level (11–33 kV)
2. Stepping up the generated voltage to high voltage, extra high voltage EHV (voltage above 230
kV), or to even ultra high voltage UHV (750 kV and above) to suit the power transmission
requirement to minimise losses and increase transmission capacity of lines.
3. The transmission voltage is stepped down in many stages for distribution and utilisation for
domestic, commercial and industrial consumers.
 82 Electrical Machines

2.2 Working Principle of a Transformer

The basic principle of a transformer is electromagnetic induction.
A single-phase transformer consists of two windings placed over a laminated silicon steel core.
The winding having less number of turns is called low-voltage winding and the winding having more
number of turns is called high voltage winding.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.2 (a) Single-phase transformer (core and windings) (b) Flux linking with primary and secondary

Also, the winding to which AC supply is connected is called a primary winding and the other one
is called a secondary winding to which load is connected. Once AC supply of voltage V1 is given to
primary winding, an alternating flux is set-up in the magnetic core which links with the primary and
secondary winding. Consequently, self-induced emf E1 and mutually-induced emf E2 are induced in
primary and secondary, respectively. These induced emf’s are developed in phase opposition to V1 as
per Lenz’s law. The self-induced emf in the primary is also called back emf since it acts in opposite
direction to the applied voltage.
Although, there is no electrical connection between primary and secondary winding, still electric
power is transferred from one circuit (primary side) to the other circuit (secondary side). It is all
because of magnetic coupling, i.e., the alternating flux which is set-up in the core linking with both the
windings. The magnitude of induced emf in a coil depends upon rate of change of flux linkages i.e., e
v N. since, the rate of change of flux for both the winding is the same, the magnitude of induced emf
in primary and secondary will depend upon their number of turns, i.e., primary induced emf E1 v N1
and secondary induced emf E2 v N2. When N2 > N1, the transformer is called a step-up transformer,
on the other hand, when N2< N1 the transformer is called step-down transformer.
Turn ratio: The ratio of primary to secondary turns is called turn ratio, i.e., turn ratio
= N1/ N2.
Transformation ratio: The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is called voltage
transformation ratio of the transformer. It is represented by K.
E2 N 2
K= = (since E2 v N2 and E1 v N1) …(2.1)
E1 N1

2.3 Construction of Transformer

The following are the major elements of a transformer:
 Single-Phase Transformers 83

(i) Magnetic circuit mainly comprises of transformer core having limbs and yokes.
(ii) Electric circuits mainly comprises of windings, insulation and bushings.
(iii) Tank mainly comprises of cooling devices, conservator and ancillary apparatus.
The construction of a transformer depends largely on its size and the duty which it is to perform.
Designers make necessary changes as per the requirement. In practice, continuous improvements
are being made in the construction of transformers.

2.3.1 Core Material

For core construction sheets of alloy steels are used. The main constituents of alloy steel are silicon
and carbon in small quantities which increases the permeability at low flux densities and reduces
the hysteresis loss to large extent. Addition of silicon also reduces the eddy currents to some extent
because it increases the resistivity. In addition to this, these constituents also increase the mechanical
strength of the core.
Now-a-days cold rolled grain oriented steel (CRGOS) sheets are used for core construction because
of their excellent magnetic properties in the direction of rolling. This material allows flux density
as high as 2.8 Wb/m2.

2.3.2 Core Construction

In order to reduce eddy current loss, the core of the transformer is laminated. Since eddy current
losses are proportional to the square of the thickness of laminations, every effort is made to reduce
their thickness as small as possible. But there is a practical limit beyond which the thickness of
laminations cannot be decreased further on account of mechanical considerations. This practical
limit of thickness of each lamination is 0.3 mm. The laminations are usually made of 0.33 to 0.5 mm
thick. These laminations are insulated from each other by a thin layer of oxide coating or varnish.

Core Cross-Section
Small transformers have rectangular section limbs with rectangular coils or square section limbs
with circular coils as shown in Figs. 2.3(a) and (b).

Fig. 2.3 Core and windings

 84 Electrical Machines

As the size of the transformer increases, it becomes wasteful to use rectangular cores. For this
purpose the cores are square shaped as shown in Fig. 2.4(a). The circle represents the inner surface of
the tubular former carrying the windings. This circle is known as the circumscribing circle. Clearly
a lot of useful space is wasted, the length of circumference of circumscribing circle being large in
a comparison to its cross-section. This means that the length of mean turn of winding is increased
giving rise to higher I2 R losses and conductor cost.
Circular coils are preferred for winding a transformer as they can be easily wound on machines
on a former, conductors can easily be bent and winding does not bulge out due to radial forces
developed during operation.
With larger transformers, cruciform cores, which utilise the space better, are used as shown in
Fig. 2.4(b). As the space utilisation is better with cruciform cores, the diameter of circumscribing
circle is smaller than with square cores of the same area. Thus the length of mean turn of copper
is reduced with consequent reduction in cost of copper. It should be kept in mind that two different
sizes of laminations are used in cruciform cores.
With large transformers, further steps are introduced as shown in Figs. 2.4(c) and (d) to utilise the
core space which reduces the length of mean turn with consequent reduction in both cost of copper
and copper loss.

Fig. 2.4 Cruciform core section

By increasing the number of steps, the area of circumscribing circle is more effectively utilised.
The most economical dimensions of various steps for a multi-stepped core can be calculated. The
results are tabulated in the following Table:

Area percentage of
Square Cruciform Three stepped Four stepped
circumscribing circle
Gross core area Agc 64 79 84 87
Net core area Ai = kiAgc 58 71 75 78
Ratio Ai /d 2 0.45 0.56 0.6 0.62

Laminations of the core and insulation between the laminations have the effect of reducing the
effective or net area of the core. The net core cross-sectional area is about 10% less than the gross-
sectional area due to the laminations of the core and insulation such as paper or varnish. The ratio
 Single-Phase Transformers 85

of the net cross-sectional area to gross cross sectional area is called the iron space factor or simply
iron factor Ki.
Ai
Ki = …(2.2) (Ki < unity nearly 0.9 to 0.99)
Agc
Ai = Iron Area or iron’s net cross-sectional area of the core
Agc = Overall Area or gross cross-sectional area of the core.

2.3.3 Transformer Winding

Transformer windings may be classified into two groups viz. concentric winding and sandwiched
winding. Concentric windings are used in core type transformers as shown in Fig. 2.5(a). Sandwiched
windings are almost exclusively used in shell type transformers as shown in Fig. 2.5(b).

Fig. 2.5 Single-phase transformer (sectional view)

The positioning of the H.V. and L.V. windings with respect to the core is also very important from
the point of view of insulation requirement. The low-voltage winding is placed nearer to the core in
the case of concentric windings and on the outside positions in the case of sandwiched windings as
shown in Figs. 2.5(a) and (b) on account of less and easier insulation facilities.

Concentric Windings
The concentric windings may be classified into four major groups, viz.
1. Spiral windings.
2. Helical winding.
3. Crossover winding.
4. Continuous disc winding.
Spiral Winding: The spiral coils are suitable only for windings which carry current more than 100
A. Usually these are employed for LV windings. However, these are also used for HV windings when
the winding is to carry current more than 100 A.
 86 Electrical Machines

Spiral coils normally consists of layers wound continuously

from top to bottom of the coil and a composite conductor of coil
may consist of a number of square or rectangular strips in parallel.
These coils are mechanical very strong and are usually former
wound or wound directly on to solid insulating cylinder.
The spiral coils may be wound in single layer or multilayer.
In small transformers, sometimes, it is difficult to arrange them
satisfactorily in single layer, then these are wound in multilayer.
A typical two layer spiral coil is shown in Fig. 2.6.
When more than is required to be arranged in radial direction,
it becomes necessary to introduce transpositioning throughout the
length of winding to keep the resistance and leakage reactance of
each conductors to be the same.
Helical Winding: The helical coils cover the intermediate range
of current which falls between the range of high current range of
spiral coils and low current range of multi-conductor disc coil.
This coil is wound in the form of helix where each conductor
may consist of a number of rectangular strips wound in parallel Fig. 2.6 Spiral winding
radially. Helical winding is mostly suitable for low-voltage (11
kV to 33 kV) windings of large transformers.
In general, simple single layer helical coils are used for LV
side of large transformers. The cross-sectional view of a typical
single layer helical coil is shown in Fig. 2.7. However, multiplayer
helical coils may be used for high-voltage windings.
Crossover Winding: The crossover coils are suitable only
for windings which carry current less than 20 A. These are
largely used for high voltage windings of comparatively small
transformers. These coils are usually wound on formers.
Generally, each coil consists of several layers and each layer
carries several turns. The conductor may be of round (wire) or
rectangular (strip) shape, insulated with cotton or paper covering.
The cross-sectional and isometric view of a typical crossover
coil is shown in Fig. 2.8(a) and (b) respectively. The complete
winding assembly employing crossover coils consists of a number
of such coils connected in series. This assembly in placed over the
limb of the core. The coils are usually spaced apart by means of
insulating key sector to facilitate free oil circulation for cooling.
Fig. 2.7 Helical winding
Continuous Disc Winding: The continuous disc coils are most
suitable for high voltage (low current) large power transformers.
As the name suggests, these coils consist of a number of discs. Each disc consist of a number of turns
wound radially over one another from inside outwards and outside inwards alternately and conductors
 Single-Phase Transformers 87

pass uninterruptedly from disc to disc. Generally, rectangular strip conductors are used and they are
wound on the flat side so that each disc becomes mechanically very strong.

Fig. 2.8 Cross-over winding

The cross-sectional and isometric view of a typical disc coil is shown in Figs. 2.9(a) and (b), respectively.
While using multiple strips, transpositioning of conductors has to be taken core so that uniform
resistance and inductance can be ensured. The discs are wound on to an insulating cylinder and a
spacer is provided between the discs when arranged vertically to ensure proper circulation of oil.

Fig. 2.9 Continuous disc winding

 88 Electrical Machines

Sandwiched Winding
The schematic diagram of a sandwiched winding is shown in Fig. 2.10. Sandwiched windings are
commonly employed for shell-type transformers. The leakage reactance of the windings can be easily
controlled by employing sandwiched winding. The nearer are the high voltage and low voltage coils,
the less is the leakage flux. Leakage can be further reduced by subdividing the high voltage and
low voltage coils. The high voltage sections lie between two consecutive low voltage sections. The
two end sections are low-voltage sections and contain half the turns of other low-voltage sections.
Each normal section, whether high voltage or low voltage, has equal number of ampere-turns
in order to balance the mmf of adjacent sections. Lower values of reactance can be obtained by
increasing the number of subdivisions.

Fig. 2.10 Sandwiched winding

2.3.4 Insulation
The insulation employed in a transformer may be classified into two major groups e.g., major and
mirror insulation.
Major insulation: The insulating cylinders between the low voltage winding and the core and those
between the high voltage and the low voltage windings, the insulating barriers which are inserted
between adjacent limbs when necessary and the insulation between the coils and the core yokes etc.,
fall into the category of major insulation. These insulating cylinders and barriers are usually made
of pressboard or synthetic resin bonded paper. These cylinders are made in such a way that they are
not only excellent insulators but also mechanically strong. The permittivity of insulating cylinders
is about 4. The major insulation is transformer oil which has a permittivity of 2.2.
Minor Insulation : This is the insulation on individual turns and between layers. The conductor
insulation may be of paper, cotton or glass tape, the latter being used for air insulated transformers
only. The insulation is wrapped round the conductor without overlap of adjacent turns.
The windings of the transformers are generally impregnated. Now-a-days transformer oil has
greatly replaced varnish as an impregnant. In general there are three main stages in preparing the
windings for oil impregnation. In the first stage the pre-drying and shrinking of the coils are done.
 Single-Phase Transformers 89

In the second stage, further drying is carried out until the required insulation resistance is obtained.
These two stages are usually accomplished by circulation of hot air at atmospheric pressure in an
oven while making sure that the oxidation of the winding does not take place. In the final stage, the
vapour and gas are removed from the assembled core and the windings prior to oil impregnation. This
process must be carried out at a temperature of approximately 100°C and a vacuum of at least 0.5
mm. The windings of the power transformers are generally impregnated after assembly on the core.

Note: Never provide excessive insulation, it not only increases the cost but it also makes heat
transfer poor.

2.3.5 Bushings
The core and winding assembly is placed in the transformer tank. The winding terminals are to be
connected to the external conductors (transmission lines) or bus-bars where conductor has to pass
through the top cover of the tank which is earthed on account of safety.
These outgoing terminals of a transformer are provided with bushings.
For system voltages upto 66 kV, non-condenser bushings such as porcelain or oil-filled bushings
are used whereas for system voltages more than 66 kV, condenser bushings are employed for economic
reasons.
The oil filled bushings carry a hollow tube conductor placed in the centre of a hollow porcelain
cylinder. The space between the conductor and the porcelain is filled with insulating oil. Normally,
there is a glass chamber at the top of the bushing to indicate the oil level which also acts as an expansion
chamber for the oil when the temperature of the bushing rises. Under the influence of the electric
field, dust or metallic particles present in the oil have a tendency to align themselves in the direction
of the electric field, giving rise to paths of low dielectric strength which may lead to breakdown of
the bushing. To break up these chains, sometimes concentric bakelite tubes are used as insulating
barriers in between the porcelain and the conductor. Fig. 2.11(a) shows a typical oil filled bushing.
The body of a condenser type bushing shown in Fig. 2.11(b) is formed by inserting aluminium foil
layers into a paper winding at predetermined radii. The conducting layers take the form of co-axial
cylinders in such a way that the electrical stress in the radial direction does not exceed 7.5 kV/mm
for synthetic resin bonded paper (s.r.b.p.) or 20 kV/mm for oil impregnated paper (o.i.p.) and the axial
stress does not exceed 0.4 kV/mm for air and 0.65 kV/mm for oil. The capacitances between adjacent
pair of conducting surfaces are known as partial capacitances between adjacent pair of conducting
surfaces are known as partial capacitances. The thickness of the partial capacitances and the values of
the partial capacitances are made equal by properly proportioning the axial length of the conducting
layers. Consequently, the insulating layers are equally stressed and the dielectric stresses are kept
within the limits for the insulating material used. A typical condenser bushing is shown in Fig. 2.12.
For use in outdoor substations, the bushing is covered by a porcelain rain-shed which is outwardly
very similar to a porcelain bushing. The space between the rain shed and the bushing assembly is
filled with insulating oil. The rain sheds are designed to increase the creepage length taking into
consideration the electric field distribution and thus reduce the tendency to flashover under dry as
well as wet conditions.
 90 Electrical Machines

(a) Porcelain bushing (oil filled) (b) Condenser bushing

Fig. 2.11 Transformer bushings

The bushings are mounted in localised projections from the transformer tank known as turrets
and current transformers are often housed in turrets around the flange barrels of the bushings. The
size of the transformer tank is also greatly influenced by the portion of the lower end of the bushing
inserted into the tank.

2.3.6 Transformer Tank

In modern transformers, depending upon the size, the following types of tanks are mainly used:
(i) Plain Sheet Steel Tank
(ii) Tubed Tanks
(iii) Corrugated Tanks
(iv) Radiator Tanks
(v) Tanks with Separate Coolers.
 Single-Phase Transformers 91

2.4 Simple Construction of Single-phase Small Rating

(SAY 2 kVA) TRANSFORMERS
On the basis of core construction and the arrangement to windings, the transformers are named as
(i) core type transformers (ii) shell type and Berry-type transformers.

Fig. 2.12 Single-phase small transformers used with electrical gadgets

Core-type Transformers
In Such transformers the magnetic core is built up of laminations to form a rectangular frame. The
laminations are cut in the form of L-shape strips as shown in Fig. 2.13(a). To eliminate high reluctance
continuous joint, the laminations are placed alternately as shown in Fig. 2.13(b).
The upper horizontal portion of the core is known a yoke and the vertical portion, as shown
in Fig. 2.14(b), which carries windings is called limb. Usually, the cross-sectional area of yoke is
kept 15 to 20% more than the limbs because it reduces the flux density and consequently reduces
the iron losses.

(a) L-shaped strips for core (b) Joints kept alternately (c) Staggering of stampings

Fig. 2.13

In actual transformer construction, the primary and secondary windings are interleaved to reduce
the leakage flux. Half of each winding is placed side by side or concentrically on either limb or leg
of the core as shown in Fig. 2.14. However, for simplicity, the two windings are shown in Fig. 2.2(a)
located on separate limbs of the core.
 92 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.14 Placing of coils over core-type transformers

While placing these windings, an insulation layer (Bakelite former) is provided between core
and lower winding and between the two windings. To reduce the insulation, low voltage winding is
always placed nearer the core as shown in Fig. 2.14(a). The windings used are form wound (usually
cylindrical in shape) and the laminations are inserted later on.

Shell-type Transformers
In such transformers, each lamination is cut in the shape of E’s and I’s as shown in Fig. 2.15. To eliminate
high reluctance continuous joint, the laminations are placed alternately as shown in Fig. 2.16(a).

Fig. 2.15 Laminations of E and I-shapes.

In a shell-type transformer, the core has three limbs. The central limb carries whole of the flux,
whereas the side limbs carry half of the flux. Therefore, the width of the central limb is about double
to that of the outer limbs.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.16 Placing of coils over shell-type transformer
 Single-Phase Transformers 93

Both the primary and secondary windings are placed on the central limb side by side or
concentrically (see Fig. 2.16). The low voltage winding is placed nearer the core and high voltage
winding is placed outside the low voltage winding to reduce the cost of insulation placed between
core and low voltage winding. In this case also the windings are form wound is cylindrical shape
and the core laminations are inserted later on.
The whole assembly i.e., core and winding is then usually placed in tank filled with transformer
oil. The transformer oil provides better cooling to the transformer and acts as a dielectric medium
between winding and outer tank which further reduces the size of outer tank of the transformer.

Comparison between Core-type and Shell type Transformers:

Sr. No. Core-type transformer Shell-type transformer
1. The windings surround a considerable portion The core surrounds considerable portion of the
of the core. windings.
2. Windings are of form-wound, and are of Winding are of sandwich-type. The coils are first
cylindrical-type. wound in the form of pancakes, and complete
winding consists of stacked discs.
3. More suitable for highvoltage transformers. More suitable and economical for low voltage
transformers.
4. Mean length of coil turn is shorter. Mean length of coil turn is longer.
5. Core has two limbs to carry the windings. Core has three or more limbs but the central
limb carries the windings.

Berry-type Transformer
A berry type transformer is a specially designed shell type transformer and is named after its designer.
The transformer core consists of laminations arranged in groups which radiate from the centre as
shown (as top view) in Fig. 2.17.

Fig. 2.17 Berry type transformer

In order to avoid possible insulating damage due to movement of strips and winding, the core and
coil of the transformer are provided with rigid mechanical bracing. Good bracing reduces vibration
and the objectionable noise-a humming sound - during operation.
 94 Electrical Machines

2.5 An Ideal Transformer

To understand the theory, operation and applications of a transformer, it is better to view a transformer
first as an ideal device. For this, the following assumptions are made:
(i) Its coefficient of coupling (k) is unity.
(ii) Its primary and secondary windings are pure inductors having infinitely large value.
(iii) Its leakage flux and leakage inductances are zero.
(iv) Its self and mutual inductances are zero having no reactance or resistance.
(v) Its efficiency is 100 percent having no loss due to resistance, hysteresis or eddy current.
(vi) Its transformation ratio (or turn ratio) is equal to the ratio of its secondary to primary terminal
voltage and also as the ratio of its primary to secondary current.
(vii) Its core has permeability (P) of infinite value.
Thus, a transformer is said to be an ideal one, if it has no ohmic resistances, moreover whole of
the flux set-up in the core is considered to be linking with its primary and secondary turns, i.e., it
carries no leakage flux. In other words, a transformer is said to be ideal one, when it has no losses,
i.e., copper or iron losses. In actual practice, such a transformer cannot exist, but to begin with it
may be considered so.
For an ideal transformer, the output must be equal to input (since it has no losses), therefore.
E2 I1
i.e., E2 l2 cos I = E1 I1 cos I or E2 I2 = E1 I2 or =
E1 I 2
since E2 vN2; E1 v N1 and E1 # V1; E2 # V2

V2 E N I
= 2 = 2 = 1 = K (transformation ratio) …(2.3)
V1 E1 N1 I 2
Hence, primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.
Transformation ratio: The ratio of secondary to primary turns is called transformation ratio. It
is usually devoted by letter ‘K’.

Behaviour and Phasor Diagram

Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary is open, as shown in Fig. 2.18(a). When its primary
winding is connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1, a current Imag flows through it. Since
the primary coil is pure inductive, the current Imag lags behind the applied voltage V1 by 90°. This
current sets up alternating flux (or mutual flux Im) in the core and magnetises it. Hence it is called
magnetising current. Flux is in phase with Imag as shown in the phasor diagram and wave diagram
in Figs. 2.18(b) and (c), respectively. The alternating flux links with both primary and secondary
windings. When it links with primary, it produces self-induced emf E1 in opposite direction to that
of applied voltage V2. When it links with secondary winding, it produces mutually-induced emf
E2 in opposite direction to that of applied voltage. Both the emfs. E1 and E2 are shown in phasor
diagram in Fig. 2.18(b).
 Single-Phase Transformers 95

Fig. 2.18 Ideal transformer

A transformer is analogous to mechanical gear drive because of the following facts:

Sr. No. Mech. Gear Drive Transformer

1. It transfers mechanical power from one shaft to It transfers electrical power from one circuit to
the other shaft. the other.
2. There is perfect ratio between the number of There is perfect ratio between the number of
teeth and the speeds of the two gears, i.e., turns and the induced emf or current of the two
T1 N 2 windings. i.e.,
=
T2 N1 N2 E I
= 2 = 1
N1 E 1 I2
where T1 = No. of teeth of gear 1
T2 = No. of teeth of gear 2 where N2 = No. of secondary turns
N2 = Speed of gear 2 N1 = No. of primary turns
N1 = Speed of gear 1 E2 = EMF in secondary
E1 = EMF is primary
I1 = Current in primary
I2 = Current in secondary
3. Power is transferred through mechanical mesh. Power is transferred through magnetic flux.

2.6 Transformer on DC
A transformer cannot work on DC. The basic working principle of a transformer is electro-magnetic
induction, i.e, when flux linking with a coil changes an emf is induced in it. If DC is applied to one of
the winding (primary) of a transformer, it will set a constant magnetic field in magnetic core. Hence
no emf will be induced either in primary or secondary. Then electric power cannot be transformed
from one circuit (primary) to the other (secondary).
Moreover, if rated DC voltage is applied to its primary, high current will be drawn by it since
there is any counter (self) induced emf which limits the current. Consequently, heaving heat will be
produced and winding insulation will burn.
Hence, a transformer cannot work on DC and it is never put-on rated DC supply.
 96 Electrical Machines

2.7 emf Equation

When sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a
transformer, a sinusoidal flux, as shown in Fig. 2.19. is set up in
the iron core which links with primary and secondary winding.
Let, Im = Maximum value of flux in Wb;
f = supply frequency in Hz (or c/s);
N1 = No. of turns in primary;
N2 = No. of turns in secondary.
As shown in Fig. 2.19, flux changes from + Im to – Im in half
Fig. 2.19 Wave diagram of flux
a cycle i.e., 1 second,
2f
fm - ( -fm )
Average rate of change of flux = = 4 f fm Wb/s
1/2 f
Now, the rate of change of flux per turn is the average induced emf per turn in volt.

? Average emf induced per turn = 4 f Im volt

R.M.S. value
For a sinusoidal wave, = Form factor = 1 ◊ 11
Average value
? R.M.S. value of emf induced/turn, E = 1.11 × 4 f Im = 4.44 f Im volt

Since primary and secondary have N1 and N2 turns, respectively.

? R.M.S. value of emf induced in primary,

E1 = (emf induced/turn) × No. of primary turns

= 4·44 N1 f Im volt …(2.4)

Similarly, r.m.s. value of emf induced in secondary,

E2 = 4·44 N2 f Im volt …(2.5)

E1
From eq. (i), we get, = 4.44 fIm volt/turn …(2.6)
N1
E2
From eq. (ii), we get, = 4.44 fIm volt/turn …(2.7)
N2
Equation (2.6) and (2.7) clearly show that emf induced per turn on both the sides i.e., primary
and secondary is the same.

Again, we can find the voltage ratio,

E2 4·44 N 2 f fm E N
= or 2 = 2 = K (transformation ratio)
E1 4·44 N1 f fm E1 N1
 Single-Phase Transformers 97

Equation (i) and (ii) can be written in the form of maximum flux density Bm using relation,

Im = Bm × Ai (where Ai is iron area)

? E1 = 4·44 N1 f Bm Ai volt …(2.8)

and E2 = 4·44 N2 f Bm Ai volt …(2.9)

Example 2.1
What will be the number of primary and secondary turn of a single-phase 2310/220V, 50 Hz
transformer which has in emf of 13V per turn approximately.

Solution:
E1 E
Here, = 2 = 13 V (given); E1 = 2310 V; E2 = 220 V
N1 N2
E1
? Primary turns, N1 = = 2310 = 177.69 @ 178 (Ans.)
13 13
E2
Secondary turns, N2 = = 220 = 16.92 @ 17 (Ans.)
13 13
Example 2.2
A power transformer has 1000 primary turns and 100 secondary turns. The cross-sectional area
of the core is 6 sq. cm and the maximum flux density while in operation is 10 000 Gauss. Calculate
turns per volt for the primary and secondary windings.

Solution:
Here, N1 = 1000; N2 = 100; Ai = 6 cm2 = 6 × 10 –4 m2;

Bm = 10000 gauss = 10000 × 10 –8 × 104 = 1 tesla

We know, E1 = 4.44 N1f Bm Ai = 4.44 × 1000 × 50 × 1 × 6 × 10 –4 = 133.2 V

E2 = 4.44 N2 f Bm Ai = 4.44 × 100 × 50 × 1 × 6 × 10 –4 = 13.32 V

N1
On primary side, number of turns/volt = = 1000 = 7.5 (Ans.)
E1 133.2
N2
On secondary side, number of turns/volt = = 100 = 7.5 (Ans.)
E2 13.32
The number of turns per volt or voltage per turn on primary and secondary remains the same.

Example 2.3
The primary and secondary of a 25 kVA transformer has 500 and 40 turns, respectively. If the primary
is connected to 3000 V, 50 Hz mains, calculate (i) primary and secondary currents at full load; (ii)
The secondary emf and (iii) The maximum flux in the core. Neglect magnetic leakage, resistance of
the winding and the primary no-load current in relation to the full load current.
 98 Electrical Machines

Solution:
3
(i) At full load, I1 = 25 ¥ 10 = 8·33 (Ans.)
3000
I1 E2 N 2
Now = =
I2 E1 N1
N1
secondary current, I2 = ¥ I1 = 500 ¥ 8·33 = r15 A (Ans.)
N2 40
N2
(ii) Secondary emf, E2 = ¥ E1 = 40 ¥ 3000 = 240 V (Ans.)
N1 500
(iii) Using relation, E1 = 4·44 N1 f Im

3300 = 4·44 × 500 × 50 x Im

or Im = 3000 = 27 mWb (Ans)

4.44 ¥ 500 ¥ 50
Example 2.4
The emf per turn of an 11 kV /415 V, 50 Hz single-phase core type transformer is 15 V. The maximum
flux density in the core is 2.5 T. Find number of primary and secondary turns and net cross sectional
area of core.

Solution:
Here, E1= 11000 V; E2 = 415 V; f = 50 Hz; Bm = 2.5 T

E1 E
EMF/turn = = 2 = 15
N2 N2
E1 11000
No. of primary turns, N1 = = = 733.33 (Ans.)
15 15
E
No. of secondary turns, N2 = 2 = 415 = 27.67 (Ans.)
15 15
Now, E1 = 4.44 N1 f Ai Bm

E1
= 4.44 f Ai Bm or 15 = 4.44 × 50 × Ai × 2.5
N1

? Net area, Ai = 15 = 0.045045 m2 = 450.45 cm2 (Ans.)

4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 1.5
Example 2.5
A single phase 50 Hz core type transformer has rectangular cores 30 × 20 cm. and the maximum
allowable density is 1.05 tesla. Find the number of turns per limb on the high and low voltage sides
for a voltage ratio of 3300/200 volt. Take iron factor as 0.93.

Solution:
Gross-Cross-Sectional Area = 30 × 20 = 600 cm2
 Single-Phase Transformers 99

Agc = 600 × 10 –4 m2

The iron factor is to be taken into consideration as the laminations are insulated from each other and

Ki = Net Area of Cross-Section = Ai

Gross Area of Cross-Section Agc
Ai = Ki × Agc
= 0.93 × 600 × 10 –4 = 558 × 10 –4 m2
Emf induced per turn = 4.44 f Bmax. Ai
= 4.44 × 50 × 1.05 × 558 × 10 –4 = 13 volt (Ans.)

Primary turns = 3300 = 254 turns (Ans.)

13
Secondary turns = 200 = 16 turns (Ans.)
13
Example 2.6
The Secondary of a 500 kVA, 4400/500 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer has 500 turns. Determine
(i) emf per turn, (ii) primary turns, (iii) secondary full load current (iv) maximum flux (v) gross
cross-sectional area of the core for flux density of 1.2 tesla and iron factor is 0.92 (vi) if the core is
of square cross-section find the width of the limb.

Solution:
Here, Rating= 500 kVA; E1 = V1 = 4400 V; E2 = V2 = 500 V; f = 50 Hz; N2 = 500; Bm = 1.2 T;

ki = 0.92

E2
(i) Emf per turn = = 500 = 1.0 V/turn (Ans.)
N2 500
E2 E
(ii) Emf per turn = = 1 = 4400 = 1.0
N2 N1 N1

? Primary turns, N1 = 4400 = 4440 (Ans.)

1.0
(iii) Secondary full load current, I2 = kVA ¥ 1000 = 500 ¥ 1000 = 1000 A (Ans.)
V2 500
E2 500
(iv) Maximum flux, Im = = = 4.5 mWb (Ans.)
4.44 ¥ N 2 ¥ f 4.44 ¥ 500 ¥ 50
fm -3
(v) Iron area of the core, Ai = = 4.5 ¥ 10 = 37.54 × 10 –4 m2 = 37.54 cm2
Bm 1.2
Ai
Gross area of the core, Ag = = 37.54 = 40.8 cm2 (Ans.)
ki 0.92
(vi) Width of squared limb = Ag = 40.8 = 6.39 cm (Ans.)
 100 Electrical Machines

Example 2.7
A 100 kVA, 3300/200 volt, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 40 turns on the secondary, calculate:
(i) the values of primary and secondary currents.
(ii) the number of primary turns.
(iii) the maximum value of the flux.
If the transformer is to be used on a 25 Hz system, calculate.
(iv) the primary voltage, assuming that the flux is increased by 10%
(v) the kVA rating of the transformer assuming the current density in the windings to be unaltered.

Solution:

(i) Full load primary current, I1 = 100 ¥ 1000 = 30.3 A (Ans.)

3300
Full load secondary current, I2 = 100 ¥ 1000 = 500 A (Ans.)
200
E
(ii) No. of Primary turns, N1= N 2 ¥ 1 = 40 ¥ 3300 = 660 (Ans.)
E2 200
(iii) We know E2 = 4.44 f Imax N2 volt

200 = 4.44 × 50 × Imax × 40

? Imax = 200 = 0.0225 Wb (Ans.)

4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 40
(iv) As the flux is increased by 10% at 25 Hz

? Flux at 25 Hz, Icm = 0.0225 × 1.1 = 0.02475 Wb

? Primary voltage = 4.44 × N1 × f c × Icm volt

= 4.44 × 660 × 25 × 0.02475 = 1815 volt (Ans.)

(v) For the same current density, the full load primary and secondary currents remain unaltered.

? kVA rating of the transformer = 30.3 ¥ 1815 = 55 kVA (Ans.)

1000

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. A sinusoidal flux 0.2 Wb (max.) links with 55 turns of a transformer secondary coil. Calculate the r.m.s.
value to the induced emf in the secondary coil. The supply frequency is 50 Hz. (Ans. 244.2 V )
2. The primary and secondary turns of a single-phase transformer are 400 and 1100, respectively. The net
cross sectional area of the core is 60 cm2. When its primary is connected 500V, 50 Hz supply, calculate
the value of maximum flux density in the core and the emf induced in secondary winding. Draw the vector
diagram representing the condition. (Ans. 0·938 Tesla, 1250 V )
 Single-Phase Transformers 101

3. A single-phase 200 kVA, 3300/240 volt, 50 Hz. Transformer carries 80 turns on its secondary. What will
be its. (i) primary and secondary current on full load ; (ii) the maximum value of flux; (iii) the number of
primary turns. (Ans. 60.6 A; 833.3 A; 1100 turns)

4. A 3300/250 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer has an effective cross sectional area of 125 cm2. It has
70 turns on its low-voltage side. Calculate (a) the value of the maximum flux density (b) the number of
turns on the high-voltage winding. (Ans. 1.287 Wb/m2; 924)

5. The secondary of a 100 kVA, 3300/400 V, 50 Hz, one-phase transformer carries 110 turns. Determine the
approximate values of the primary and secondary full-load currents, the maximum value of flux in the
core and the number of primary turns. How does the core flux vary with load?
(Ans. 30.3 A; 250 A; 16.4 mWb; 907)

6. A 125 kVA transformer having a primary voltage of 2000 V at 50 Hz has 182 primary turns and 40
secondary turns. Neglecting losses, calculate (a) the full load primary and secondary current (b) the
no-load secondary induced emf. [Ans. (a) 62.5 A, 284.4 A (b) 439.5 V]

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What essentially is a transformer? What are the broad areas of applications of transformer?
Ans. Transformer is a static device that transfers AC electrical power from one circuit to the other at the
same frequency but the voltage level is usually changed.
Its broad area of application is in electrical power system. At generating stations it is used to step-up
the voltage, for economic reasons, to transmit electric power and at various sub-stations it is used to
step-down the voltage for economical and safety reasons.

Q.2. Why does a transformer have iron core?

Ans. Iron core provides an easy (low reluctance) path for the magnetic lines of force.

Q.3. Why is the transformer core laminated?

Ans. The core of a transformer is laminated in order to reduce eddy current losses.

Q.4. What do you mean by iron space factor with respect to transformer core?
Ans. The ratio of the net cross-sectional area to gross cross sectional area of the transformer core is called
the iron space factor or simply iron factor Ki.
Ki = Ai / Agc

Q.5. When a transformer is connected to the supply, how its windings are named?
Ans. When a transformer is connected to the supply, the windings are named as primary and secondary
winding.
The winding to which supply is connected, is known as primary winding and the winding to which load
is connected, is known as secondary winding.

Q.6. Why circular coils are always preferred over rectangular coils for winding a transformer?
Ans. Circular coils are preferred for winding a transformer as they can be easily wound on machines on a
former, conductors can easily be bent and winding does not bulge out due to radial forces developed
during operation.
102 Electrical Machines

Q.7. Why Sandwiched winding arrangement is preferred in large transformers?

Ans. Sandwiched winding provides better magnetic coupling and cooling facilities in large transformers.

Q.8. Is there a definite relation between the number of turns and voltages in transformers?
Ans. Yes, voltage is directly proportional to number of turns of the winding (V v N).
Induced emf in any winding = emf/turn × No. of turns.

Q.9. What do you mean by major and minor insulation used in transformer winding?
Ans. Major insulation: The insulation in the form of cylinders provided between LV winding and core or
between LV and HV winding is termed as major insulation.
Minor insulation: The insulation provided between individual turn and between layer is termed as minor
insulation.

Q.10. Why arcing horns are provided across the transformer bushings?
Ans. To protect the transformer against lighting.

Q.11. What is the significance of turn ratio in a transformer?

Ans. Turn ratio determines whether a transform is to step-up or step-down the voltage.

Q.12. What is an ideal transformer?

Ans. An ideal transformer is one which has no ohmic resistance and no magnetic leakage flux.

Q.13. Can a transformer work on DC? Justify.

Ans. No, a transformer cannot work on DC. If small DC is applied to primary, constant flux is set-up in the
core and no emf is induced in the secondary. Hence, no transformer action is possible.

Q.14. A transformer is said to be analogous to mechanical gear, why?

Ans. In mechanical gear drive, mechanical power is transferred from one shaft to the other through mechanical
gear, whereas in transformer electrical power is transferred from one circuit to the other through
magnetic flux.
In mechanical gear drive, there is perfect ratio between number of teeth and speeds, similarly in
transformer there is perfect ratio between number of turns and induced emfs.

Q.15. While drawing phasor diagram of an ideal transformer, the flux vector is drawn 90° out of phase
(lagging) to the supply voltage, why?
Ans. Under ideal conditions, transformer behaves as a pure inductive circuit; therefore, magnetising current
or flux phasor lags behind the voltage phasor by 90°.

Q.16. Cold rolled grain oriented steel (CRGOS) is used almost exclusively in spite of its high cost, in the
construction of transformer core, why?
Ans. It is because cold rolled grain oriented steel has excellent magnetic properties in the direction of rolling
and hysteresis losses are very small.

Q.17. Why is the area of yoke of a transformer kept 15 to 20% more than limb?
Ans. By keeping area of yoke 15 to 20% more than the limb, the flux density in the yoke is reduced which
reduces the iron losses of the transformer consequently reduces the winding material.
 Single-Phase Transformers 103

Q.18. What is the thickness of laminations used for transformer core?

Ans. Thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 to 0.5 mm.

2.8 Transformer on No-load

A transformer is said to be on no-load when its secondary winding is kept open and no-load is
connected across it. As such, no current flows through the secondary i.e., I2 = 0. Hence, the secondary
winding is not causing any effect on the magnetic flux set-up in the core or on the current drawn by
the primary. But the losses cannot be ignored. At no-load, a transformer draws a small current I0
(usually 2 to 10% of the rated value). This current has to supply the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy
current losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper loss in the primary (the primary copper
losses are so small as compared to core losses that they are generally neglected moreover secondary
copper losses are zero as I2 is zero).
Therefore, current Io lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle I0 (called hysteresis angle of
advance) which is less than 90º, as shown in Fig. 2.20(b). The angle of lag depends upon the losses
in the transformer. The no-load current I0 has two components;
(i) One, Iw in phase with the applied voltage V1, called active or working component. It supplies
the iron losses and a small primary copper losses.
(ii) The other, Imag in quadrature with the applied voltage V1, called reactive of magnetising
component. It produces flux in the core and does not consume any power.
From phasor (vector) diagram shown in Fig. 2.20.

Fig. 2.20 Transformer on no-load

Fig. 2.21 Equivalent circuit

 104 Electrical Machines

Working component, Iw = I0 cos I0

Magnetising component, Imag = I0 sin I0

No-load current, I0 = I w2 + I mag

2
…(2.10)

Iw
Primary p.f. at no-load, cos I0 = …(2.11)
I0
No-load power input, P0 = V1 I0 cos I0 …(2.12)

V1
Exciting resistance, R0 = …(2.13)
Iw
V1
Exciting reactance, X0 = …(2.14)
I mag
The equivalent circuit of a transformer at no-load is shown in Fig. 2.22. Here, R0 represents
the exciting resistance of the transformer which carries power loss component of no-load current,
i.e., Iw used to meet with the no-load losses in the transformer, whereas X0 represents the exciting
reactance of the transformer which carries wattless component of no-load current, i.e., Imag used to
set-up magnetic field in the core.

2.9 Effect of Magnetisation on No-load (Exciting) Current

A transformer requires less magnetic material if it is operated at a higher core flux density. Therefore,
from an economic point of view, a transformer is designed to operate in the saturating region of the
magnetic core, although it increases the harmonics in the wave.
When the voltage applied to the primary of a transformer is sinusoidal then the mutual flux set up
in the core is assumed to be sinusoidal. The no-load current I0 (exciting current) will be non-sinusoidal
due to hysteresis loop which contains fundamental and all odd harmonics.
Consider the hysteresis loop of the core as shown in Fig. 2.22(a). Since I = BA and i = (Hl/N), the
hysteresis loop is plotted in terms of flux I and current i instead of B and H so that the current required
to produce a particular value of flux can be read directly. The wave-shape of the no-load current i0
can be found from the wave shape of sinusoidal flux and I – i characteristics (hysteresis loop) of
the magnetic core. The graphical procedure to determine the waveform of i0 is shown in Fig. 2.22.
At point O of the flux-time curve [see Fig. 2.22(b)], the flux is zero; this corresponds to a current
OA on the hysteresis loop [see Fig. 2.22(a)]. At point a of the flux-time curve [see Fig. 2.22(b)] I =
aac ; this corresponds to a current OB, [see Fig. 2.22(a) where OB = ‘2’]. The corresponding value of
current I0 = ‘2’ is plotted on flux-time curve [see Fig. 2.22(b)]. In brief, the various abscissas of Fig. 2.22
(a) are plotted as ordinates to determine the shape of the current wave on Fig. 2.22(b). The procedure
is followed round the whole loop until a sufficient number of points are obtained. The current–time
curve for the whole loop is plotted. For graphics, only upper half of the hysteresis loop is considered.
The ascending part of the loop is used for increasing fluxes, and the descending part for decreasing
fluxes. The waveform of the current in Fig. 2.22(b) represents the magnetising component and the
hysteresis component of the no-load current. It reaches its maximum at the same time as the flux
 Single-Phase Transformers 105

wave, but the two waves do not go through zero simultaneously. Thus, the current lags behind the
applied voltage by an angle slightly less than 90°.

(a) Hysteresis loop of core material (b) Wave forms of sinusoidal flux f and exciting current i0

Fig. 2.22 Wave shape of the no-load current of a transformer.

The above current is required to be modified to account for the eddy-current loss in the core
and the modified current is called the no-load current, I0. The corresponding current component
apart from being is phase with applied voltage V1 is sinusoidal in nature as it balances the effect of
sinusoidal eddy-currents caused by sinusoidal core flux. It is, therefore, seen that eddy-currents do
not introduce any harmonic in the exciting current. However, eddy-current loss reduces the angle
between the applied voltage V1 and the no-load current, I0.
It is seen that the waveform of the no-load current contains third, fifth and higher-order odd
harmonics which increase rapidly if the maximum flux is taken further into saturation. However,
the third harmonic is the predominant one. For all practical purposes harmonics higher than third
are negligible. In no-load current, the third harmonic is nearly 5 to 10% of the fundamental at rated
voltage. However, it may increase to 30 to 40% when the voltage rises to 150% of its rated value.
When the load on the transformer is linear, the sinusoidal load current is so large that it swamp out
the non-sinusoidal nature of the primary current. Therefore, for all practical purposes, the primary
current is considered sinusoidal at all loads.
In certain 3-phase transformer-connections, third-harmonic current cannot flow, as a result the
magnetising current Imag is almost sinusoidal. For satisfaction of BH curve, the core flux I must
then be non-sinusoidal; it is a flat-topped wave, as shown in Fig. 2.23(b). This can be verified by
assuming a sinusoidal magnetising current and then finding out the flux wave shape from the flux-
 106 Electrical Machines

magnetising current relationship, the normal magnetising curve, neglecting hysteresis component
which is in phase with V2. Since the flux is flat-topped, the emf which is its derivative will now be
peaky with a strong third harmonic component. The various waveforms are illustrated in Fig. 2.23.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.23 Wave shapes of magnetising currents

Under load conditions the total primary current is equal to the phasor sum of load current and
no-load current. Since the magnitude of the load current is very large as compared to the no-load
current, the primary current is almost sinusoidal, for all practical purposes, under load conditions.
Thus, while operating in saturated region, the magnetising current contains more percentage
(30 to 40%) of harmonics.

Note: When a transformer is operated in the saturated region of magnetisation, the magnetising
current wave-shape is further distorted and contains more percentage of harmonics.

However, for economic reasons, usually transformers are designed to operate in saturated region.
A transformer will require smaller quantity of magnetic material if it is designed for saturated region.

2.10 Inrush of Magnetising Current

When a transformer is initially energised, there is a sudden inrush of primary current. The maximum
value attained by the flux may reach to twice the normal flux. The core is driven far into saturation
with the result that the magnetising current has a very high peak value.
For mathematical treatment, let the applied voltage be,
v1 = V1m sin (Zt + v) …(2.15)
The secondary of the transformer is open circuited. Here v the angle of the voltage sinusoid at
t = 0. Suppose for the moment we neglect core losses and primary resistance, then
df
v1 = N1 …(2.16)
dt
where N1 is the number of primary turns and Iis the flux in the core. In the steady-state
V1m = ZIm N1 …(2.17)

Ê df d ˆ
ÁË∵ dt = dt fm sin w t = w fm cos w t , it will be maximum when cos w t=1˜¯
 Single-Phase Transformers 107

From eqn. (2.15) and (2.16), we get,

df
N1 = V1m sin (Zt + v)
dt
df V
= 1m sin (w t + a ) …(2.18)
dt N1
From eqn. (2.17) and (2.18), we get,
df
= ZIm sin (Zt + v) …(2.19)
dt
Integrating the eqn. (2.19), we get,

I = –Im cos (Zt + v) + Ic …(2.20)

where Ic is the constant of integration. Its value can be found from initial conditions at t = 0. Assume
that when the transformer was last disconnected from the supply line, a small residual flux Ir remained
in the core. Thus at t = 0, I= Ir.
Substituting these values in eqn. (2.20)
 Ir = –Im cos v+ Ic

? IC = Ir + Im cos v …(2.21)
Then the eqn. (2.20) becomes
I = –Im cos (Zt + v) + Ir + Im cos D …(2.22)
Steady-state component transient component
of flux i.e., Iss of flux i.e., IC
Equation (2.22) shows that the flux consists of two components, the steady-state component Iss
and the transient component Ic. The magnitude of the transient component
 Ic = Ir + Im cos v
is a function of v, where v is the instant at which the transformer is switched on to the supply.
If the transformer is switched on at v = 0, then cos v = 1
 Ic = Ir + Im
Under this condition
 I = –Im cos Zt + Ir + Im

At Zt = S, I = – Im cos S + Ir + Im = 2Im + Ir …(2.23)

Thus, the core flux attains the maximum value of flux equal to (2 Im + Ir), which is over and
above twice the normal flux as shown in Fig. 2.24. This is known as doubling effect. Consequently,
the core goes into deep saturation. The magnetising current required for producing such a large flux
in the core may be as large as 10 times the normal magnetising current. Sometimes the rms value
of magnetising current may be larger than the primary rated current of the transformer as shown in
Fig. 2.25.
 108 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.24 Wave shape of inrush current

Fig. 2.25 Transients due to inrush current

This inrush current may produce electromagnetic forces about 25 times the normal value.
Therefore, the windings of large transformers are strongly braced.
Inrush current may also cause (i) improper operation of protective devices like unwarranted
tripping of relays, (ii) momentary large voltage drops and (iii) large humming due to magnetostriction
of the core.
To obtain no transient inrush current, Ic should be zero:
-fr
Ic = Ir + Im cos v = 0 or cos D= …(2.24)
fm

Since Ir is usually very small cos D= 0 and a @ np . …(2.25)

2
In other words, if the transformer is connected to the supply line near a positive or negative voltage
maximum, the current inrush will be minimised. It is usually impractical to attempt to connect a
transformer at a predetermined time in the voltage cycle.
Fortunately, inrush currents do not occur as might be thought. The magnitude of the inrush
current is also less than the value calculated by purely theoretical considerations. The effects of
other transformers in the system, load currents and capacitances all contribute to the reduction
of transients.
 Single-Phase Transformers 109

Example 2.8
A 230/110 V single-phase transformer has a core loss of 100 W. If the input under no-load condition
is 400 VA, find core loss current, magnetising current and no-load power factor angle.

Solution:
Here, V1 = 230 V; V2 = 110 V; Pi = 100 W

Input at no-load = 400 VA

i.e., V1 I0 = 400

or No-load current, I0 = 400 = 1·739 A

230
P
Core loss current, Iw = i = 100 = 0·4348 A (Ans)
V1 230

Magnetising current, Imag = I 02 - I w2 = 1r739)2 - (0r4348 2

= 1·684 A (Ans)

Iw
No-load power factor, cos I0 = = 0·4348 = 0·25 lag (Ans)
I0 1·739
No-load power factor angle, I0 = cos–1 0·25 = 75·52º (Ans)

Example 2.9
A single phase, 50 kVA, 2300/230 V, 50 Hz transformer is connected to 230 V supply on the secondary
side, the primary being open. The meter indicate the following readings:
Power = 230 watt
Voltage = 230 V
Current = 6·5 A
Find (i) Core loss: (ii) loss component of the current; (iii) magnetising current. Draw the phasor
diagram for this condition.

Solution:
Power input at no-load, P0 = 230 W

Supply voltage, V1 = 230 V

Current at no-load, I0 = 6·5 A

(i) Since low voltage winding resistance is not given, the copper losses cannot be separated,
therefore, whole of the power input will represent the iron or core losses.

 ? Core loss = 230 W (Ans)

(ii) Using relation P0 = V1 J0 cos I 0 = V1 Iw

P0 230
Loss component of current, Iw = = = 1.0 A (Ans)
V1 230
 110 Electrical Machines

(iii) Magnetising current, Imag = I 02 - I w2 = (6.5)2 - (1.0)2 = 6.423 A (Ans)

Under the given condition, transformer is operated at no-load. The phasor diagram is shown in
Fig. 2.11.
Where V1 = 230 V; I0 = 6·5 A; Iw = 1.0 A; Imag = 6.423 A; E1 = 230 V; E2 = 2300 V

Example 2.10
A 230V, 50 Hz transformer has 200 primary turns. It draws 5 A at 0.25 p.f lagging at no-load.
Determine:
(i) Maximum value of flux in the core; (ii) Core loss; (iii) Magnetising current (iv) Exciting resistance
and reactance of the transformer. Also draw its equivalent circuit.

Solution:
(i) Using the relation, E1 = 4.44 N1 f Im

or 230 = 4.44 × 220 × 50 × Im

 ? Maximum value of flux Im = 5.18 m Wb (Ans)

(ii) Core loss, P0 = V1 l0 cos I0 = 230 × 5 × 0·25 = 287.5 W (Ans)

(iii) No-load p.f., cos I0 = 0·25; sin I0 = sin cos-1 0·25 = 0·9682

Magnetising current component, Im = I0 sin I0 = 5 × 0·9682 = 4.84A (Ans)

V1 230
Exciting resistance, R0 = = = 230 = 184 : (Ans.)
Iw I 0 cos f0 5 ¥ 0.25
V1
Exciting reactance, X0 = = 230 = 47.52 : (Ans.)
I mag 4.84
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.26. The values of different quantities are mentioned in the
solution itself.

Fig. 2.26 Equivalent circuit of transformer at no-load.

Example 2.11
At open circuit, transformer of 10 kVA, 500/250 V, 50 Hz draws a power of 167 watt at 0.745 A, 500
V. Determine the magnetising current, wattful current, no-load power factor, hysteresis angle of
advance, equivalent resistance and reactance of exciting circuit referred to primary side.
 Single-Phase Transformers 111

Solution:
Here, V1 = 500 V; I0 = 0.745 A; P0 = 167 W

P0
Wattful component of current, Iw = = 167 = 0.334 A (Ans.)
V1 500

Magnetising component of current, Imag = I 02 - I w2

= (0.745)2 - (0.334)2 = 0.666 A (Ans.)

Iw
No-load power factor, cos I0 = = 0.334 = 0.448 lag (Ans.)
I0 0.745
Hysteresis angle of advance, I0 = cos–1 0.448 = 63.36° lag (Ans.)

V1
Exciting resistance, R0 = = 500 = 1497 : (Ans.)
Iw 0.334
V1
Exciting reactance, X0 = = 500 = 750 : (Ans.)
I mag 0.666
Example 2.12
A transformer working on 2200 V, 50 Hz has 220 primary turns. The core has a mean length of
magnetic path of 100 cm and cross-sectional area 1000 sq. cm. the iron having a relative permeability
of 100. The iron loss is 400 watt. Calculate primary no-load current.

Solution:
Here, V1 = 2200 V; f = 50 Hz; N1 = 220 turns;

Ai = 1000 cm2 = 1000 × 10 –4 = 0.1 m2; Pr = 1000;

Wi = 400 W; lm = 100 cm = 1 m
N1I mag (max)
Magnetising force, H =
lm
N1I mag (max)
Flux density, Bm = P0 PrH = P0Pr ×
lm
Now, V1 = 4.44 Bm Ai N1 f
N1I mag (max)
= 4.44 × P0Pr × ¥ Ai ¥ N1 ¥ f
lm
V1 ¥ lm
or Imag(max) =
4.44 ¥ m0 mr ¥ N1 ¥ Ai ¥ N1 ¥ f
V1 ¥ lm
Imag(rms) =
2 ¥ 4.44 ¥ m0 mr ¥ N1 Ai ¥ N1 ¥ f
 112 Electrical Machines

Imag = 2200 ¥ 1
-7
2 ¥ 4.44 ¥ 4p ¥ 10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 220 ¥ 0.1 ¥ 220 ¥ 50
= 2.152 A

Iw = Iron loss = 400 = 0.182 A

V1 2200

? I0 = ( I mag )2 + ( I w )2 = (1.152)2 + (0.182)2 = 1.166 A (Ans.)

Example 2.13
The iron core of a single-phase transformer has a mean length of magnetic path as 2.5m and its joints
are equivalent to an air gap of 0.1 mm. The transformer has 500 and 50 turns on its primary and
secondary, respectively. When a potential difference of 3000 V is applied to the primary, maximum
flux density in the core is 1.2 Wb/m2. Calculate (i) the cross-sectional area of the core (ii) no-load
secondary voltage (iii) no-load current drawn by the primary (iv) power factor on no-load. Given
that AT/m for a flux density of 1.2 Wb/m2 in iron to be 500, the corresponding iron loss to be 2 watt/
kg at 50 Hz and the density of iron as 7.8 g/cm3.

Solution:
Here, N1 = 500; N2 = 50; E1 = 3000 V; f = 50 Hz; Bm = 1.2 Wb/m2

(i) We know, E1 = 4.44 N1f Bm Ai

 ? Net area of cross-section of core,
E1 3000
Ai = = = 0.0225 m2
4.44 N1 f Bm 4.44 ¥ 500 ¥ 50 ¥ 1.2
= 225 cm2 (Ans.)

N2
(ii) Transformation ratio, K= = 50 = 0.1
N1 500
No-load secondary voltage, E2 = KE1 = 0.1 × 3000 = 300 V (Ans.)

(iii) AT for iron path, ATi = AT/m × li = 500 × 2.5 = 750

Bm 1.2
AT for air gap, ATg = Hlg = ¥ lg = ¥ 0.1 ¥ 10 -3 = 95.5
m0 4p ¥ 10 -7
Total AT = ATi + ATg = 750 + 95.5 = 845.5

Maximum value of magnetising current drawn by primary

Imag(max.) = AT = 845.5 = 1.691 A

N1 500
Assuming the current to be sinusoidal, rms value of this current
I mag(max .)
Imag = = 1.691 = 1.196 A
2 2
 Single-Phase Transformers 113

Volume of iron core = area of cross-section × mean length of iron

= 0.0225 × 2.5 = 0.03375 m3
Density of iron = 7.8 g/cm3 = 7.8 × 106 × 10 –3 = 7800 kg/m3
Mass of iron core = Volume × density = 0.03375 × 7800 = 263.25 kg
Total iron loss, Pi = iron loss/kg × mass (given that iron loss/kg = 2 W)
= 2 × 263.25 = 526.5 W
Pi
Working component of current, Iw = = 526.5 = 0.1755 A
V1 3000

No-load current, I0 = I w2 + I mag

2
= (0.1755)2 + (1.196)2 = 1.21 A (Ans.)

Iw
(iv) Power factor at no-load, cos I0 = = 0.1755 = 0.145 lag (Ans.)
I0 1.21

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. A single phase, 50 kVA, 2300/230 V, 50 Hz transformer is connected to 230 V supply on the secondary
side, the primary being open. The meter indicate the following readings: Power = 187 watt; Voltage = 230
V; Current = 6·5 A. Find (i) core loss; (ii) loss component of the current; (iii) magnetising current.
(Ans. 187 W; 0·813 A; 6·45 A)
2. A single-phase, 230V, 50 Hz transformer draws 5A at 0.25 pf. Its primary winding carries 200 turns.
Determine (a) the maximum value of flux in the core, (b) the core loss (c) the magnetising component of
current and (d) exciting resistance and reactance.(Ans. 5.293 m Wb; 293.75 W; 4.84 A; 268 :, 69.2 :)
3. The primary and secondary of a single-phase transformer carry 500 and 100 truns, respectively. The mean
length of the flux in the iron core is 200 cm and the joints are equivalent to an air gap of 0.1 mm. If the
maximum value of flux density is to be 1.1 Wb/m2 when a potential difference of 2200 volt at 50 cycles
is applied to the primary, calculate (i) the cross-sectional area of the core (ii) the secondary voltage on
no-load (iii) the primary current and power factor on no-load.
Assume that 400 At/m are required to produce a flux density of 1.1 Wb/m2 and the corresponding iron
loss to be 0.8 watt/kg at 50 Hz and the density of the iron to be 7.8 gm/cm3.
(Ans. 183 cm2, 440 V, 1.59 A, 0.145 lagging)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. Even at no-load, a transformer draws current from the mains. Why?
Ans. At no-load, what so ever current is drawn by a transformer that is used to meet with iron losses and
to produce magnetic flux is the core.

Q.2. What do you mean by exciting resistance and exciting reactance?

Ans. At no-load, a transformer behaves as a highly inductive load connected to the system which contains
some resistance and inductance in parallel. The resistance is called exciting resistance R0 = V1/Iw and
reactance is called exciting reactance, X0 = V1/Imag .
 114 Electrical Machines

Q.3. Usually, transformers are designed to operate in saturated region. Why?

Ans. If a transformer is operated in saturated region, a smaller quantity of magnetic material is required,
therefore, for economic reasons, usually transformers are designed to operate is saturated region.

Q.4. What is doubling effect in transformer core?

Ans. When a transformer is initially energised, there is a sudden inrush of primary current. The maximum
value attained by the flux may reach to twice the normal flux. This condition is known as doubling effect
and the core goes into deep saturation.

Q.5. Does the magnetising current of a transformer lie in-phase with the applied voltage? Justify.
Ans. No, the phasor of magnetising current lies in quadrature i.e., lags behind the applied voltage by 90º. It
is because in pure inductive circuits, current lags behind the voltage by 90º.

Q.6. What is the effect of saturation on exciting current of transformer?

Ans. When a transformer is operated in the saturated region of magnetisation, the magnetising current
waveshape in further distorted and contains more percentage of harmonics.

Q.7. What are the ill-effects of inrush current of transformer?

Ans. Following are the ill-effects of inrush current in a transformer:
(i) Improper operation of protective devices
(ii) Momentary large voltage drops and
(iii) Large humming due to magnetostriction effect.

2.11 Transformer on Load

(Neglecting winding resistance and leakage flux)
When a certain load is connected across the secondary, a current I2 flows through it as shown in
Fig. 2.27(i). The magnitude of current I2 depends upon terminal voltage V2 and impedance of the
load. The phase angle of secondary current I2 with respect to V2 depends upon the nature of load i.e.,
whether the load is resistive, inductive or capacitive.

Fig. 2.27 (i) Circuit diagram for loaded transformer

The operation of the transformer on load is explained below with the help of number of diagrams ;
(i) When the transformer is on no-load as shown in Fig. 2.27(ii)(a) it draws no-load current I0 from
the supply mains. The no-load current I0 produces an mmf N1 I0 which sets up flux in the core.
 Single-Phase Transformers 115

(ii) When the transformer is loaded, current I2 flows in the secondary winding. This secondary
current I2 produces an mmf N2 I2 which sets up flux I2 in the core. As per Lenz’s law this flux
opposes the main flux I as shown in Fig. 2.27(ii)(b).
(iii) As I2 is set-up in opposite direction to the main flux, the resultant flux tends to decrease and
causes the reduction of self-induced emf E1 momentarily. Thus, V1 predominates over E1 causing
additional primary current Ic1 drawn from the supply mains. The amount of this additional current
I1’ is such that the original conditions i.e., flux in the core must be restored. so that V1 = E2. The
current I1 is in phase opposition with I2 and is called primary counter balancing current. This
additional current Ic1 produces an mmf N1 I1c which sets up flux I, in the same direction as that
of I as shown in Fig. 2.27(ii)(c), and cancels the flux I2 set up by mmf N2 I2.

Fig. 2.27 (ii) Transformer action when load is applied to it.

Now N1 I1c = N2 I2 (ampere-turns balance)

N2
? I1c = I = K I2
N1 2
(iv) Thus, the flux is restored to its original value as shown in Fig. 2.27(ii)(d). The total primary
current I1 is the vector sum of current I0 and I,c i.e., I1 = I0 + I1c.
This shows that flux in the core of a transformer remains the same from no-load to full-load ; this
is the reason why iron losses in a transformer remain the same from no-load to full-load

2.12 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Transformer

(Neglecting voltage drops in the windings; ampere-turns balance)
Since the voltage drops in both the windings of the transformer are neglected, therefore,
V1 = E1 and E2 = V2
While drawing the phasor diagram the following important points are to be considered.
 116 Electrical Machines

(i) For simplicity, let the transformation ratio K = l be considered, therefore, E2 = E2.
(ii) The secondary current I2 is in phase, lags behind and leads the secondary terminal voltage V2
by an angle I2 for resistive, inductive and capacitive load, respectively.
N
(iii) The counter balancing current I1c = 2 I2 …(2.26)
N1
(i.e., l1c= K I2 here K = 1 ? I1c = I2) and is 180º out of phase with I2.

Fig. 2.28 Phasor diagram on-load (neglecting winding resistance and leakage reactance)

(iv) The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of no-load primary current I0 and counter balancing
current I1c.

i.e., I1 = I 0 + I1 ¢ or I1 = ( I 0 )2 + ( I1 ¢)2 + 2 I 0 I1 ¢ cosq …(2.27)

Where T is the phase angle between I0 and I1c.

(v) The p.f. on the primary side is cos I1 which is less than the load p.f. cos I2 on the secondary
side. Its value is determined by the relation ;

I 0 cos f0 + I1 ¢ cos f2
cos I1 = …(2.28)
I1
The phasor diagrams of the transformer for resistance, inductive and capacitive loads are shown
in Figs. 2.28(a), (b) and (c), respectively.
Alternately
The primary current I1 can also be determined by resolving the vectors, i.e.,
Iv = I0 cos I0 + I c1 cos I2 [where sin I0 = sin cos–1 (cos I0) …(2.29)

IH = I0 sin I0 + I c1 sin I2 and sin I2 = sin cos–1 (cos I2)] …(2.30)

I1 = ( I v )2 + ( I H )2 …(2.31)
 Single-Phase Transformers 117

Example 2.14
A 440/110 V, single phase transformer draws a no-load current of 5 A at 0.2 p.f. lagging. If a current
of 120 A at 0.8 p.f lagging is supplied by the secondary, calculate the primary current and p.f.

Solution:
E2 110
Transformation ratio, K= = = 0.25
E1 440
Let the primary counter balancing current be I1c.

Then I1c = K I2 = 0.25 × 120 = 30 A

Now cos I0 = 0·2; I0 = cos–1 0.2 = 78·46º
cos I2 = 0·8; I2 = cos–1 0.8 = 36.87º
T = I0 – I2 = 78·46º – 36·87º = 41·59º

I1 = ( I 0 )2 + ( I1 ¢)2 + 2 I 0 I1 ¢ cos q

= (5)2 + (30)2 + 2 ¥ 5 ¥ 30 ¥ coT 41r59 ” = 33·9 A (Ans.)

I1 ¢ cos f2 + I 0 cos f0
Primary p.f., cos I1 =
I1
30 ¥ 0·8 + 5 ¥ 0·2
= = 0·7375 lag (Ans.)
33·9
Example 2.15
A single phase transformer with a ratio of 6600/400 V (primary to secondary voltage) takes to
no-load current of 0·7 A at 0·24 power factor lagging. If a current of 120 A at a power factor of 0·8
lagging is supplied by its secondary. Estimate the current drawn by the primary winding.

Solution:
Here, I0 = 0·7A; cos I0 = 0.24 lag; I2 = 120A; cos I2 = 0·8 lag
V2
Transformation ratio, K= = 400 = 2
V1 6600 33
Let the primary counter balance current be I2.

? N1 I1c = N2 I2

N2
or I1c = ¥ I 2 = K I2 = 2 ¥ 120 = 7·273 A
N1 33
Now, cos I0 = 0·24; I0 = cos–1 0·24 = 76·11º

cos I2 = 0·8; I2 = cos–1 0·8 = 36·87º

Angle between vector I0 and I1 [refer Fig. 2.14 (b)]

T = 76·11º – 36·87º = 39·24º

 118 Electrical Machines

Current drawn by the primary,

I1 = ( I 0 )2 + ( I1 ¢)2 + 2 I 0 I1 ¢ cos q

= (0.7)2 + (7.273)2 + 2 ¥ 0.7 ¥ 7.273 ¥ cos 39.24 ” = 7·827 A (Ans.)

2.13 Transformer with Winding Resistance

In an actual transformer, the primary and secondary windings
have some resistance represented by R1 and R2, respectively.
These resistances are shown external to the windings in Fig.
2.29 To make the calculations easy the resistance of the two
windings can be transferred to either side. The resistance is
transferred from one side to the other in such a manner that Fig. 2.29 Transformer windings
percentage voltage drop remains the same when represented with resistance
on either side.
Let the primary resistance R1 be transferred to the secondary side and the new value of this
resistance be R1c called equivalent resistance of primary referred to secondary side as shown in Fig.
2.30(a). I1 and I2 be the full load primary and secondary currents, respectively.
E1E2 EE
Then ¥ 100 = 1 2 ¥ 100 (% voltage drops)
V2 V1

R1¢ =
I1 V2
or ¥ ¥ R1 = K2 R1 …(2.32)
I 2 V1
? Total equivalent resistance referred to secondary.

Res = R2 + R1c = R2 + K2 R1 …(2.33)

Now consider resistance R2, when it is transferred to primary, let its new value be R2c called
equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary as shown in Fig. 2.30(c).

Fig. 2.30 Equivalent resistance referred to either side

 Single-Phase Transformers 119

I1 R2’ I R I V R
Then ¥ 100 = 2 2 ¥ 100 or R2’ = 2 ¥ 1 ¥ R2 = 22 …(2.34)
V1 V2 I1 V2 K
? Total equivalent resistance referred to primary,
R2
Rep = R1 + R2c = R1 + …(2.35)
K2

2.14 Mutual and Leakage Fluxes

So far, it is assumed that when AC supply is given to the primary winding of a transformer, an
alternating flux is set up in the core and whole of this flux links with both the primary and secondary
windings. However, in an actual transformer, both the windings produce some flux that links only
with the winding that produces it.

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Equivalent circuit

Fig. 2.31 Transformer primary and secondary winding reactance

The flux that links with both the windings of the transformer is called mutual flux and the flux
which links only with one winding of the transformer and not to the other is called leakage flux.
The primary ampere turns produce some flux Il1 which is set up in air and links only with primary
winding, as shown in Fig. 2.31(a), is called primary leakage flux.
Similarly, secondary ampere turns produce some flux Il2 which is set up in air and links only
with secondary winding called is secondary leakage flux.
The primary leakage flux Il1 is proportional to the primary current I1 and secondary leakage flux
Il2 is proportional to secondary current I2. The primary leakage flux Il1 produces self-inductance L1
(= N1Il1/I1) which in turn produces leakage reactance X1(= 2S f L1). Similarly, secondary leakage flux
Il2 produces leakage reactance X2 (= 2S f L2). The leakage reactance (inductive) have been shown
external to the windings in Fig. 2.31(b).

2.15 Equivalent Reactance

To make the calculations easy the reactances of the two winding can be transferred to any one side.
The reactance from one side to the other is transferred in such a manner that percentage voltage drop
remains the same when represented on either side.
Let the primary reactance X1 be transferred to the secondary and the new value of this reactance
is X1c called equivalent reactance of primary referred to secondary, as shown in Fig. 2.32(a).
 120 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.32 Equivalent reactance referred to either side.

I 2 X1¢ I X
Then ¥ 100 = 1 1 ¥ 100 (% voltage drops)
V2 V1
I1 V2
or X1c = ¥ ¥ X1 = E 2 X1 …(2.36)
I 2 V1
? Total equivalent reactance referred to secondary.

Xes = X2 + X1c = X2 + K2 X1 …(2.37)

Now, let us consider secondary reactance X2 when it is transferred to primary side its new value
is X2c called equivalent reactance of secondary referred to primary, as shown in Fig. 2.32(c).
I1 X 2¢ I X
Then ¥ 100 = 2 2 ¥ 100
V1 V2
I 2 V1 X
or X2c = ¥ ¥ X 2 = 22 …(2.38)
I1 V2 K
? Total equivalent reactance referred to primary.
2
Xep = X1 + X2c = X1 + X 2 …(2.39)
K
Example 2.16
A 63 kVA, 1100/220 V single-phase transformer has R1 = 0.16 ohm, X1 = 0.5 ohm, R2 = 0.0064
ohm and X2 = 0.02 ohm. Find equivalent resistance and reactance as referred to primary winding.

Solution:
Here, Transformer rating = 63 kVA; V1 = 1100 V; V2 = 220 V;

R1 = 0.16 ohm; X1 = 0.5 ohm; R2 = 0.0064 ohm; X2 = 0.02 ohm

V2
Transformation ratio, K = = 220 = 0.2
V1 1100
 Single-Phase Transformers 121

Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side,

Res = R2 + R c1 = R2 + R1 × K2 = 0.0064 + 0.16 × (0.2)2 = 0.0128 ohm (Ans.)
Equivalent reactance referred to secondary side,
Xes = X2 + Xc1 = X2 + X1 × K2 = 0.02 + 0.5 × (0.2)2 = 0.04 ohm (Ans.)

Example 2.17
A 33 kVA, 2200/220V, 50Hz single phase transformer has the following parameters. Primary winding
resistance r1 = 2.4 :, Leakage reactance x1 = 6 : Secondary winding resistance r2 = 0.03 : Leakage
reactance x2 = 0.07 :. Then find Primary, Secondary and equivalent resistance and reactance.

Solution:
Here, Rating of transformer = 33 kVA; V1 = 2200 V; V2 = 220 V;
f = 50 Hz; R1 = 2.4 :; X1 = 6 :; R2 = 0.03 :; X2 = 0.07 :

V2
Transformation ratio, K = = 220 = 0.1
V1 2200
Transformer resistance referred to primary side;

Rep = R1 + R2¢ = R1 +
R2
= 2.4 + 0.032 = 2.4 + 3 = 5.4 : (Ans.)
K2 (0.1)
Transformer reactance referred to primary side;

Xep = X1 + X 2¢ = X1 +
X2
2
= 6 + 0.072 = 6 + 7 = 13 : (Ans.)
K (0.1)
Transformer resistance referred to secondary side;
Res = R2 + Rc1 = R2 + R1 × K2 = 0.03 + 2.4(0.1)2 = 0.054 : (Ans.)
Transformer reactance referred to secondary side;

Xes = X 2 + X1¢ = X 2 + X1 ¥ K 2 = 0.07 + 6 ¥ (0.1)2 = 0.13 : (Ans.)

Example 2.18
A single phase transformer having voltage ratio 2500/250V (primary to secondary) has a primary
resistance and reactance 1·8 ohm and 4·2 ohm, respectively. The corresponding secondary values
are 0·02 and 0·045 ohm. Determine the total resistance and reactance referred to secondary side.
Also calculate the impedance of transformer referred to secondary side.

Solution:
Here, R1 = 1·8 :; X1 = 4·2 :; R2 = 0·02 :; X2 = 0·045 :
V2
Transformation ratio, K = = 250 = 0.1
V1 2500
Total resistance referred to secondary side,
Res = R2 + R1c = R2 + R1 × K2 = 0·02 + 1·8 × (0·1)2 = 0·038 : (Ans.)
 122 Electrical Machines

Total reactance referred to secondary side,

Xes = X2 + X1c = X2 + X1 × K2 = 0·045 + 4·2 × (0·1)2 = 0·087 : (Ans.)
Impedance of transformer referred to secondary side,

Zes = ( Res )2 + ( X es )2 = (0 ◊ 038)2 + (0 ◊ 087)2

= 0·095 : (Ans.)

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. The primary winding of a single-phase transformer having 350 turns is connected to 2.2 kV, 50 Hz supply.
If its secondary winding consists of 38 turns, determine (i) the secondary voltage on no-load. (ii) The
primary current when secondary current is 200 A at 0·8 p.f. lagging, if the no-load current is 5 A at 0·2
p.f. lagging. (iii) the p.f. of the primary current. (Ans. 238·8 V, 25·67 A, 0·7156 lag)

2. The primary of a single phase, 2200/239V transformer is connected to 2.2 kV, 50 Hz supply, determine
(i) the primary and secondary turns if the emf per turns 6.286 V.
(ii) the primary current when the secondary current is 200 A at 0.8 p.f. lagging, if the no-load current
is 5 A at 0.2 power factor lagging
(iii) the power factor of the primary current. (Ans. 350, 38; 25.65 A; 0.715 lag)

3. A single phase transformer takes a no-load current of 4A at a p.f. of 0.24 lagging. The ratio of turns in the
primary to secondary is 4. Find the current taken by the transformer primary when the secondary supplies
a load current of 240 A at a power factor 0.9 lagging. (Ans. 62.58A)

4. A 5000/500 V, one-phase transformer has primary and secondary resistance of 0.2 ohm and 0.025 ohm and
corresponding reactance of 4 ohm and 0.04 ohm, respectively. Determine : (i) Equivalent resistance and
reactance of primary referred to secondary; (ii) Total resistance and reactance referred to secondary; (iii)
Equivalent resistance and reactance of secondary referred to primary; (iv) Total resistance and reactance
referred to primary.
(Ans. 0·02 :; 0·04 :; 0·045 :; 0·08 :; 2·5 :; 4:; 4·5 :; 8:)

5. A 2000/200 volt transformer has a primary resistance 2.3 ohm and reactance 4.2 ohm, the secondary
resistance 0.025 ohm and reactance 0·04 ohm. Determine total resistance and reactance referred to
primary side. (Ans. 4.8 :; 8.2 :)

6. A transformer has 500 and 100 turns on its primary and secondary, respectively. The primary and secondary
resistances are 0·3 ohm and 0·1 ohm. The leakage reactances of the primary and secondary are 1·1 ohm
and 0·035 ohm, respectively. Calculate the equivalent impedance referred to the primary circuit.
(Ans. 3.426 :)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What do you know about reactance in a transformer?
Ans. The primary leakage flux linking with its own turns produce self inductance (L1 = N1I/I1). The opposition
offered by this inductance to the flow of primary current is called primary reactance.
 Single-Phase Transformers 123

Q.2. How leakage reactance of transformer can be reduced?

Ans. It can be reduced by reducing leakage flux i.e., by sandwiching the primary and secondary.

Q.3. When load current of a transformer increases, how does the input current adjust to meet the new
conditions?
Ans. When load current of a transformer increases, its secondary ampere-turns (N2I2) set-up a flux in the
core, and to counter balance this flux, primary draws extra current (I1c ) from the mains so that ampere-
turns are balanced i.e., I1cN1 = I2N2.

Q.4. How does leakage flux occur in a transformer?

Ans. When current flows through primary winding of a transformer, it produces magnetic flux. Most of the
flux is set-up in the magnetic core, since it offers very low reluctance, and links with the secondary.
But at the same time minute flux is set-up in air around the coil which does not link with the secondary.
This magnetic flux is called primary leakage flux.
Similarly, there will be secondary leakage flux.

Q.5. Explain that “The main flux in a transformer remains practically invariable under all conditions of
load.”
Ans. When a transformer is connected to the supply at no-load a flux is set-up in the core called main flux
(mutual flux).
When load is applied on the secondary, the secondary ampere-turns (N2I2) set-up a flux in the core in
opposite direction to the main field which reduces the main field momentarily and hence reduces the
self-induced emf E1.
Instantly, primary draws extra current I c from the main to counter balance the secondary ampere-turns,
1
such that I1N1 = I2N2.
Hence, the resultant flux in the core remains the same irrespective of the load.

Q.6. “The overall reactance of transformer decreases with load.” Explain. (Hint: L = NI/I)
or
Why the transformers operate at poor pf when lightly loaded?
Ans. We know that total reactance of a transformer is NI /I, where I is the load current. Larger the load
current, smaller will be the inductance or reactance (2S fL).
Hence, overall reactance of a transformer decreases with the increase in load.
That is why transformers operate at poor pf when lightly loaded.

Q.7. Does the flux in a transformer core increase with load?

Ans. No, flux in the core of a transformer remains the same from no-load to full-load.

2.16 Actual Transformer

An actual transformer has (i) Primary and secondary resistances R1 and R2, (ii) primary and secondary
leakage reactances X1 and X2 (iii) iron and copper losses and (iv) exciting resistance R0 and exciting
reactance X0. The equivalent circuit of an actual transformer is shown in Fig. 2.33.
 124 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.33 Equivalent circuit for loaded transformer

Primary impedance,
Z1 = R1 + j X1 …(2.40)
Supply voltage is V2. The resistance and leakage reactance of primary winding are responsible
for some voltage drop in primary winding.
? V1 = E1 + I1 ( R1 + j X1 ) = E1 + I1 Z1 …(2.41)

where, I 1 = I ¢1 + I 0

Secondary impedance, Z 2 = R2 + j X2 …(2.42)

Similarly, the resistance and leakage reactance of secondary winding are responsible for some
voltage drop in secondary winding. Hence,
V2 = E2 - I 2 ( R2 + j X 2 ) = E2 - I 2 Z 2 …(2.43)
The phasor (vector) diagrams of an actual transformer for resistive, inductive and capacitive loads
are shown in Figs. 2.34(a), 2.34(b) and 2.34(c), respectively. The drops in resistances are drawn in
phasewith current vectors and drops in reactances are drawn perpendicular to the current vectors.

Fig. 2.34 Complete phasor diagram for loaded transformer

 Single-Phase Transformers 125

2.17 Simplified Equivalent Circuit

While drawing simplified circuit of a transformer, the exciting circuit (i.e., exciting resistance and
exciting reactance) can be omitted.
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by representing all the parameters of
the transformer either on the secondary or on the primary side. The no-load current I0 is neglected
as its value is very small as compared to full load current, therefore, I1c = I1
(i) Equivalent circuit when all the quantities are referred to secondary.
The primary resistance when referred to secondary side, its value is R1c = K2 R1 and the total or
equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary, Res = R2 + R1c. Similarly, the primary
reactance when referred to secondary side, its value is X1c = K2 X1 and the total or equivalent reactance
of transformer referred to secondary, Xes = X2 + X1c. All the quantities when referred to the secondary
side are shown in Fig. 2.35.

Fig. 2.35 Simplified equivalent circuit referred to secondary side

Total or equivalent impedance referred to secondary side,

Zes = Res + j Xes …(2.44)
There is some voltage drop in resistance and reactance of transformer referred to secondary. Hence,

V2 = E2 - I 2 ( Res + j X es ) = E2 - I 2 Z es …(2.45)
Phasor Diagrams: The phasor (vector) diagrams of a loaded transformer when all the quantities
are referred to secondary side for resistive, inductive and capacitive loads are shown in Figs. 2.36(a),
2.36(b) and 2.36(c), respectively. The voltage drops in resistances (vectors) are taken parallel to the
current vector and the voltage drops in reactances (vectors) are taken quadrature to the current vector.

Fig. 2.36 Phasor diagram

 126 Electrical Machines

(ii) Equivalent circuit when all the quantities are referred to primary.
In this case, to draw the equivalent circuit all the quantities are to be referred to primary, as shown
in Fig. 2.37.

Fig. 2.37 Simplified equivalent circuit referred to primary.

Secondary resistance referred to primary, R2c = R2/K2

Equivalent resistance referred to primary, Rep = R1 + R2c
Secondary reactance referred to primary, X2c = X1/K2
Equivalent reactance referred to primary, Xep = X1 + X2c
Total or equivalent impedance referred to primary side,

Zep = Rep + j Xep …(2.46)

There is some voltage drop in resistance and reactance of the transformer referred to primary
side. Therefore,

( )
V1 = E1 + I1 Rep + j X ep = E1 + I1 Z ep …(2.47)

Phasor diagrams: The phasor diagram to transformer when all the quantities are referred to primary
side for different types of loads are shown in Fig. 2.38.

Fig. 2.38 Phasor diagram

 Single-Phase Transformers 127

2.18 Short Circuited Secondary of Transformer

If the secondary side of the transformer is short circuited, V2 becomes zero which makes
Ê E V ˆ
E1 = 0 Á because E1 = 2 = 2 ˜ . The equivalent circuit of the transformer, when all the quantities
Ë K K¯
are referred to the primary side, with short circuited secondary is shown in Fig. 2.39(a). On short
circuit the applied voltage V1 is just utilised to circulate current I1(sc) in the impedance of the transformer
referred to the primary side Zep. The phasor diagram of transformer under short circuit condition is
shown in Fig. 2.39(b). The impedance of the transformer is quite small. Therefore, at normal voltage,
V
the short circuit current I1(sc) = 1 , drawn by the transformer, is very high as compared to the full
Z ep
load current. This current may damage the transformer. Power and distribution transformers are
designed for high leakage reactance so that the short circuit current is limited between 8 times (for
large transformer) to 30 times (for small transformers) of full load current.

Fig. 2.39 Transformer on short circuit.

However, if the transformer is short circuited on the secondary side intentionally to perform some
test, a very low voltage V1(sc) (nearly 2 to 5% of its rates value) is applied at the primary terminals. Then,
V1( sc )
Zep = …(2.48)
I1( sc )

Power under short circuit condition

Psc
Psc = I12( sc ) Rep or Rep = …(2.49)
I12( sc )

and Xep = (Z ) - (R )
2
ep
2
ep …(2.50)
 128 Electrical Machines

2.19 Expression for No-load Secondary Voltage

For a loaded transformer when all the quantities are referred to secondary side, its phasor diagram
can be drawn as shown in Fig. 2.40.

Fig. 2.40 Phasor diagram of a transformer, all the quantities referred to secondary side.

Complete the phasor diagram as shown in Fig. 2.40. From the phasor diagram we can derive the
approximate as well as exact expressions for no-load secondary voltage.
(i) Approximate expression;

(a) for lagging p.f. (inductive load),

Consider right angle triangle OEC [see Fig. 2.40 (a)].
OC #OE = OA + AD + DE = OA + AD + BF
or E2 = V2 + I2 Res cos I2 + I2 Xes sin I2 …(2.51)
(b) for unity p.f. (resistive load),
Consider rt. ‘triangle OBC [see Fig. 2.40(b)]
OC #OB = OA + AB; E2 = V2 + I2 Res …(2.52)
(c) for leading p.f. (capacitive load),
Consider rt. ‘triangle OEC [see Fig. 2.40(c)]
OC #OE = OA + AD – DE = OA + AD – BF
 Single-Phase Transformers 129

or E2 = V2 + I2 Res cos I2 – I2 Xes sin I2 …(2.53)

(ii) Exact expression:
(a) for a lagging p.f. (inductive load),
Consider rt. ‘triangle OHC [see Fig. 2.40(a)]

OC = (OH )2 + ( HC )2 = (OG + GH )2 + ( HB + BC )2

= (OG + AB)2 + (GA + BC )2

or E2 = (V2 cos f2 + I 2 Res )2 + (V2 sin f2 + I 2 X es )2 …(2.54)

V cos f2 + I 2 Res
Primary p.f., cos I1 = OH = OG + GH = OG + AB = 2 …(2.55)
OC OC OC E2
(b) for unity p.f., (resistive load)

Consider rt. ‘triangle OBC [see Fig. 2.40(b)]

OC = (OB)2 + ( BC )2

or OC = (OA + AB)2 + ( BC )2

or E= (V2 + I 2 Res )2 + ( I 2 X es )2 …(2.56)

V + I 2 Res
Primary p.f., cos I1 = OB = OA + AB = 2 …(2.57)
OC OC E2
(c) for leading p.f. (capacitive load),

Consider rt. ‘triangle OHC [see Fig. 2.40(c)]

OC = (OH )2 + ( HC )2

= (OG + GH )2 + ( HB - BC )2

= (OG + AB)2 + (GA - BC )2

or E2 = (V2 cos f2 + I 2 Res )2 + (V2 sin f2 - I 2 X es )2 …(2.58)

V cosf2 + I 2 Res
Primary p.f., cos I1 = HC = OG + GH = OG + AB = 2 …(2.59)
OC OC OC E2

2.20 Voltage Regulation

When a transformer is loaded, with a constant supply voltage, the terminal voltage changes due to
voltage drop in the internal parameters of the transformer i.e., primary and secondary resistances
 130 Electrical Machines

and inductive reactances. The voltage drop at the terminals also depends upon the load and its power
factor. The change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-load at constant supply voltage with
respect to no-load voltage is known as voltage regulation of the transformer.
Let, E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no-load.
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at full-load.
E2 - V2
Then, voltage regulation = (per unit ) …(2.60)
E2
E2 - V2
In the form of percentage, % Reg = ¥ 100 …(2.61)
E2
When all the quantities are referred to the primary side of the transformer;

V1 - E1
% Reg = ¥ 100 …(2.62)
V1

2.21 Approximate Expression for Voltage Regulation

The approximate expression for the no-load secondary voltage is
(i) For inductive load: E2 = V2 + I2 Res cos I2 + I2 Xes sin I2

or E2 – V2 = I2 Res cos I2 + I2 Xes sin I2

E2 - V2 I R I - X es
or ¥ 100 = 2 es ¥ 100 cos I2 + 2 ¥ 100 sin f2
E2 E2 E2
I 2 X es
where, ¥ 100 = percentage resistance drop and
E2
I 2 X es
¥ 100 = percentage reactance drop
E2
? % Reg = % resistance drop × cos I2 + % reactance drop × sin I2 …(2.63)
Similarly
(ii) For resistive load: % Reg = % resistance drop …(2.64)
(iii) For capacitive load:
 ? % Reg = % resistance drop × cos I2 – % reactance drop × sin I2 …(2.65)

Condition for Zero Regulation

From the above expression, we can derive the condition at which the regulation of a transformer
becomes zero, it means when the load is thrown off, the terminal voltage remains the same, i.e.,
0 = % resistance drop × cos I2 – % reactance drop × sin I2

or % reactance drop × sin I2 = % resistance drop × cos I2

 Single-Phase Transformers 131

I 2 X es I R
¥ 100 ¥ sin f2 = 2 es ¥ 100 ¥ cos f2
V2 V2
Res R
tan I2 = ; I = tan -1 es
X es 2 X es
Res
Load pf, cos I2 = cos tan -1 …(2.66)
X es
The above expression reveals that the regulation of a transformer will become zero only at leading
R
pf of the load that too when cos I2 = cos tan -1 es
X es

Condition for Maximum Regulation

Although, this condition is never suggested for any transformer, but let us see under what condition
it may occur.
Regulation will be maximum if d (regulation) = 0.
df2

i.e., d = I 2 Res cos f2 + I 2 X es sin f2 = 0

df2 E2
I 2 Res I X
or - sin f2 + 2 es cos f2 = 0
E2 E2
X es X
or tan I2= or I2 = tan -1 es
Res Res
X es
This condition will occur at a lagging pf that too when pf, cos I2 = cos tan -1 …(2.67)
Res

2.22 Kapp Regulation Diagram

It is observed that the secondary terminal voltage of a transformer changes when the load on it
changes. The change in terminal voltage (rise of fall) does not only depend upon the magnitude of
load but it also depends upon pf of the load. For finding the voltage drop (or rise) which is further
used to determine the regulation of the transformer, a graphical construction is employed called Kapp
regulation diagram as proposed by late Dr. Kapp.
For drawing Kapp regulation diagram, it is necessary to know the equivalent resistance and
reactance as referred to secondary i.e., R-es and Xes. If I2 is the secondary load current then, secondary
terminal voltage on load, V2, is obtained by subtracting I2 Res and I2 Xes voltage drops vectorially from
secondary no-load, E2.
Now, E2 is constant, hence it can be represented by a circle of constant radius OC as shown in Fig.
2.41. This circle is known as No-load or open-circuit emf circle. For a given load OI2 represents the
load current and is taken as the reference vector. AB represents I2 Res and is parallel to vector OI2,
BC represents I2 Xes and is drawn at right angles to AB. Vector OA obviously represents secondary
terminal voltage V2. Since I2 is constant, the drop triangle ABC remains constant in size. It is seen
 132 Electrical Machines

that end point A of V2 lies on another circle whose centre is Oc. This point Oc lies at a distance of
I2 Xes vertically below the point O and a distance of I2 Res to its left as shown in Fig. 2.41.
i.e., OcBc = AB and OBc = BC

Fig. 2.41 Kapp regulation diagram of a transformer

To determine the voltage drop at full-load lagging pf cos I radius OLP inclined at an angle of I
with OX. LM = I2Res and is drawn horizontal. MN = I2 Xes and is drawn perpendicular to LM. Obviously
ON is No-load voltage E2. Now ON = OP = E2. Similarly, OL is V2. The voltage drop = OP – OL = LP.

Hence percentage regulation = OP - OL ¥ 100 = LP ¥ 100

OP OP
It is seen that for finding voltage drop, the drop triangle LMN need not be drawn, but simply the
radius OLP is sufficient to determine regulation.
The diagram shows clearly how the secondary terminal voltages falls as the angle of lag increases.
Conversely, for a leading power factor, the fall in secondary terminal voltage decreases till for an
angle of IOR leading the fall becomes zero; hence V2 = E2. For angles greater than IOR, the secondary
terminal voltage V2 (i.e., OS) becomes greater than E2 and voltage regulation comes out to be negative.
The Kapp diagram is very useful in determining the variation of regulation with power factor.
But it is not so accurate since the lengths of the sides of the impedance triangle are very small as
compared to the radii of the circles. To obtain desired accuracy, the diagram has to be drawn on a
sufficiently large scale.
 Single-Phase Transformers 133

Example 2.19
The primary winding resistance and reactance of a 10 kVA, 2000/400 V, single phase transformer is
5.5 ohm and 12 ohm, respectively, the corresponding values for secondary are 0.2 ohm and 0.45 ohm.
Determine the value of the secondary voltage at full load, 0.8 p.f. lagging, when the primary
supply voltage is 2000 V.

Solution:
Transformer rating = 10 kVA = 10 × 103 VA
Primary induced voltage, E1 = 2000 V ;
Secondary induced voltage, E2 = 400 V
Primary resistance, R1 = 5.5 ohm;
Primary reactance, X1 = 12 ohm
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0.2 ohm; Secondary reactance,
X2 = 0.45 ohm
Load p.f., cos I2 = 0.8 lagging

E2
Transformation ratio, K= = 400 = 0.2
E1 2000
Primary resistance referred to secondary side,
R 1¢ = K 2 R1 = (0.2)2 × 5.5 = 0.22 :
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side,
Res = R 2 + R 1¢ = 0.2 + 0.22 = 0.42 :
Primary reactance referred to secondary side,
X 1¢ = K 2 X1 = (0.2)2 × 12 = 0.48 :
Equivalent reactance referred to secondary side,
Xes = X 2 + X 1¢ = 0.45 + 0.48 = 0.93 :
Load p.f., cos I2 = 0.8
? sin I2 = sin cos–1 0.8 = 0.6
3
Full load secondary current, I2 = 10 ¥ 10 = 25 A
400
As the primary supply voltage, V1 = E1 = 2000 V
Secondary induced voltage, E2 = KE1 = 0.2 × 2000 = 400 V
Using the expression; E2 = V2 + I2 Res cos I2 + I2 Xes sin I2
Secondary terminal voltage, V2 = E2 – I2 Res cos I2 – I2 Xes sin I2
= 400 – 25 × 0.42 × 0.8 – 25 × 0.93 × 0.6
= 400 – 8.4 – 13.95 = 377.65 V (Ans.)
 134 Electrical Machines

Example 2.20
A 15 kVA. 2300/230 V, single phase transformer has 2.5 ohm resistance and 10 ohm reactance
for primary and 0.02 ohm resistance and 0.09 ohm reactance for the secondary. If the secondary
terminal voltage is to be maintained at 230 V and 0.8 p.f. lagging at full load current, what should
be the primary voltage?

Solution:
Transformer output = 15 kVA = 15 × 103 VA
Primary resistance, R1 = 2.5 :
Primary reactance, X1 = 10 :
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0.02 :
Secondary reluctance, X2 = 0.09 :
Secondary terminal voltage, V2 = 230 V
Load power factor, cos I2 = 0.8 lag

Transformation ratio, K = 230 = 0.1

2300
2
Secondary resistance referred to primary, R2c = R 2 = 0.022 = 2 W
K (0.1)
2
Secondary reactance referred to primary, X2c = X 2 = 0.092 = 9 W
E (0.1)
Total resistance referred to primary, Rep = R1 + R2c = 2·5 + 2 = 4·5 :
Total reactance referred to primary, Xep = X1 + X2c = 10 + 9 = 19 :
Load p.f., cos I2 = 0.8
? sin I2 = sin cos–1 0.8 = 0·6

15 ¥ 103
Full load primary current, I1 = = 6.52 A
2300
E V
Primary induced voltage, E1 = 2 = 2 = 230 = 2300 V
E E 0.1
Using the expression V1 = E1 + I1 Rep cos I2 + I1 Xep sin I2 (approx.)
? Primary applied voltage, V1 = 2300 + 6·52 × 4.5 × 0.8 + 6·52 × 19 × 0·6
= 2300 + 23·472 + 74·328 = 2397·8 V (Ans.)

Example 2.21
The turns ratio of 212 kVA single-phase transformer is 8. The resistance and reactance of the
primary is 0.85 ohm and 4.8 ohm, respectively and the corresponding values for the secondary
are 0.012 ohm and 0.07 ohm, respectively. Determine the voltage to be applied to the primary to
obtain a current of 150 A in the secondary when the secondary terminal are short circuited. Ignore
the magnetising current.
 Single-Phase Transformers 135

Solution:
N1
Ratio of turns, =8
N2
Primary resistance, R1 = 0·85;
Secondary resistance R2 = 0·012 :
Primary reactance, X1 = 4·8 :;
Secondary reactance, X2 = 0·07 :

N2
Transformation ratio, K= = 1
N1 8
2
Secondary resistance referred to primary, R2c = R 2 = 0.012 × 8 × 8 = 0.768 :
K
Equivalent resistance referred to primary Rep = R1 + R2c = 0·85 + 0·768 = 1·618 :

X2
Secondary reactance referred to primary, X2c = = 0.07 × 8 × 8 = 4·48 :
K2
Equivalent reactance referred to primary, Xep = X1 + X2c = 4·8 + 4·48 = 9·28 :

2
Equivalent impedance referred to primary, Zep = Rep 2
+ X ep = (1.618)2 + (9.28)2

= 9.42 :

Short circuit current referred to primary, I1(sc) = K I2(sc) = 1 ¥ 150 = 18 ◊ 75 A

8
Voltage applied to the primary under short circuit condition,
V1(sc) = I1(sc) × Zep = 18.75 × 9.42
= 176·625 V (Ans.)

Example 2.22
A 40 kVA, 6600/250 V, 50 Hz transformer is having total reactance of 35 ohm when referred to primary
side whereas its primary and secondary winding resistance is 10 ohm and 0.02 ohm, respectively.
Find full load regulation of at a p.f. 0.8 lagging.

Solution:
Rating of transformer, = 40 kVA = 40 × 103 VA

Transformation ratio, K = 250 = 0.03788

6600
Primary resistance, R1 = 10 :
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0.02 :
Total resistance, referred to primary side,
 136 Electrical Machines

R2 0.02
Rep = R1 + R 2¢ = R1 + = 10 + = 23.94 W
K2 (0.03788)2
Total reactance referred to primary side,
Xep = 35 :

V1 = ( E1 cos f + I1 Rep )2 + ( E1 sin f + I1 X ep )2

3
where, I1 = 40 ¥ 10 = 6.06 A
6600
cos I = 0.8; sin I= sin cos–1 0.8 = 0.6

? V1 = (6600 ¥ 0.8 + 6.06 ¥ 23.94)2 + (6600 ¥ 0.6 + 6.06 ¥ 35)2

= 6843.7 V

V1 - E1
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 6843.7 - 6600 ¥ 100 = 3.56% ( Ans.)
V1 6843.7
Example 2.23
A 75 kVA single phase transformer, 6600/230 V, requires 310 V across the primary to the primary to
circulate full load current on short circuit, the power absorbed being 1·6 kW. Determine the voltage
regulation and the secondary terminal voltage for half full load, 0·8 p.f. lagging.

Solution:
Transformer output = 75 kVA = 75 × 103 VA
Primary induced voltage, E1 = 6600 V
Secondary induced voltage, E2 = 230 V
At short circuit, primary voltage, V1(sc) = 310 V
At short circuit, power absorbed, P(sc) = 1·6 kW = 1·6 × 103 W
Load p.f. cos I2 = 0·8 lagging
3
Primary current at full load, I1 = 75 ¥ 10 = 11.36 A
6600
Primary current at short circuit I1(SC) = I1 = 11·36 A

= 1.6 ¥ 102 = 12.39 W

Psc 3
Equivalent resistance referred to primary, Rep =
( I1sc )2 (11.36 )
V1sc
Equivalent impedance referred to primary, Zep = = 310 = 27.29 W
I1sc 11.36
2 2
Equivalent reactance referred to primary, Xep = Z ep - Rep = (27 ◊ 29)2 - (12 ◊ 39)2

= 24·32 :
 Single-Phase Transformers 137

Transformation ratio, K = 230

6600
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary.

Res = K2 Rep = 230 ¥ 230 ¥ 12.39 = 0.015 W

6600 ¥ 6600
3
Secondary current at full load, I2 = 75 ¥ 10 = 326 A
230
I
Secondary current at half load, I2hl = 2 = 326 = 163 A
2 2
Load p.f., cos I2 = 0·8 lag
? sin I2 = sin cos–1 0·8 = 0·6
Secondary terminal voltage at half full load,
V2 = E2 – I2hl Res cos I2 – I2hl Xes sin I2
= 230 – 163 × 0·015 × 0·8 – 163 × 0·0295 × 0·6
= 225·16 V (Ans.)
E2 - V2
Voltage regulation = ¥ 100 = 230 - 225.16 ¥ 100
E2 230
= 2·1 % (Ans.)

Example 2.24
A 20 kVA, 2500/500 V, single phase transformer has the following parameters :
H.V. winding L.V. winding
ri = 8 : r2 = 0.3 :
x1 = 17 : x2 = 0.7 :
Find the voltage regulation and secondary terminal voltage at full load for a power factor of
(a) 0.8 lagging (b) 0.8 leading
The primary voltage is held constant at 2500 V.

Solution:
Here, Rating of transformer = 20 kVA; E1 = 2500 V; E2 = 500 V

R1 = 8 : X1 = 17 :; R2 = 0.3 :; X2 = 0.7 :

Transformer resistance referred to LV (secondary) side;

( )
2
Res = R2 + R1 × K2 = 0.3 + 8 ¥ 500 = 0.62 W
2500
Xes = X2 + X1 × K2 = 0.7 + 17 × (0.2)2 = 2.38 :

Secondary full-load current, I2 = 20 ¥ 1000 = 40 A

500
 138 Electrical Machines

For p.f. 0.8 lagging, cos I = 0.8; sin I = sin cos–1 0.8 = 0.6

V2 = E2 – I2 Res cos I – I2 Xes sin I

= 500 – 40 × 0.62 × 0.8 – 40 × 2.38 × 0.6 = 447.04 V (Ans.)

E2 - V2
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 500 - 447.04 ¥ 100 = 10.59% (Ans.)
E2 500
For p.f. 0.8 leading, cos I = 0.8; sin I= sin cos–1 0.8 = 0.6

V2 = E2 – I2 Res cos I + I2 Xes sin I

= 500 – 40 × 0.62 × 0.8 + 40 × 2.38 × 0.6

= 513.28 V (Ans.)

E2 - V2
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 500 - 513.28 ¥ 100 = –2.6% (Ans.)
E2 500
Example 2.25
A 10 kVA, 500/100 V transformer has the following circuit parameters referred to primary:
Equivalent resistance, Req = 0·3 ohm; Equivalent reactance, Xeq = 5·2 ohm. When supplying power
to a lagging load, the current, power and voltage measured on primary side were 20 A, 8 kW and
500 V, respectively. Calculate the voltage on the secondary terminals under these conditions. Draw
the relevant phasor diagram.

Solution:
Rating of transformer = 10 kVA = 10 × 103 VA

Power factor on primary side,

cos I1 = P = 8 ¥ 103 = 0.8 kg

V1I1 500 ¥ 20
? sin I1 = sin cos–1 0·8 = 0·6

Primary induced emf, E1 = V1 – I1 Rep cos I1 – I1 Xep sin I1

= sin 500 – 20 × 0·3 × 0·8 – 20 × 5·2 × 0·6 = 432·8 V

Transformation ratio, K = 100 = 0 ◊ 2

500
Secondary induced emf, E2 = E1 × K = 432·8 × 0·2 = 86·56 V

Secondary terminal voltage on load,

V2 = E2 = 86·56 V (since all the parameters are referred to primary side)

The equivalent circuit and phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 2.42(b).
 Single-Phase Transformers 139

Fig. 2.42 Transformer on load.

Example 2.26
A single phase transformer with a ratio 5: 1 has primary resistance of 0·4 ohm and reactance of 1·2
ohm and the secondary resistance of 0·01 and reactance of 0·04 ohm. Determine the percentage
regulation when delivering 125 A at 600 V at (i) 0·8 p.f. lagging (ii) 0·8 p.f. leading.

Solution:
Data given, R1 = 0·4 :; X1 = 1·2 :; R2 = 0·01 :;

X2 = 0·04 :; I2 = 125 A and V2 = 600 V

Transformation ratio, K = 1/5 = 0·2

Now, R1c = K2 R1= (0·2)2 × 0·4 = 0·016 :;

Res = R2 + R1c = 0·01 + 0·016 = 0·026 :

X1c = K2 X1 = (0·2)2 × 1·2 = 0·048 :

Xes = X2 + X1c = 0·04 + 0·048 = 0·088 :

(i) For p.f. cos I2 = 0·8 lag; sin I2 = sin cos–1 0·8 = 0·6
Secondary induced voltage,
E2 = V2 + I2 Res cos I2 + I2 Xes sin I2
= 600 + 125 × 0·026 × 0·8 + 125 × 0·088 × 0·6
= 600 + 2·6 + 6·6 = 609·2 V

E2 - V2
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 609.2 - 600 ¥ 100 = 1·51 % (Ans.)
E2 609.2
 140 Electrical Machines

(ii) For p.f., cos I2 = 0·8 leading; sin I2 = 0·6

Secondary induced voltage,
E2 = V2 + I2 Res cos I2 – I2 Xes sin I2
= 600 + 125 × 0·06 × 0·8 – 125 × 0·088 × 0·6
= 600 + 2·6 – 6·6 = 596 V

E2 - V2
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 596 - 600 ¥ 100 = – 0·67 % (Ans.)
E2 596
Example 2.27
If the ohmic loss of a transformer is 1% of the output and its reactance drop is 5% of the voltage,
determine its regulation when the power factor is (i) 0·8 lagging (ii) 0·8 leading (iii) unity.

Solution:
Ohmic loss or resistance drop = 1%; Reactance drop = 5%
(i) When p.f., cos I2 = 0·8 lagging; sin I2 = sin cos–1 0·8 = 0·6

% Reg = % resistance drop × cos I2 + % reactance drop × sin I2

= 1 × 0·8 + 5 × 0·6 = 3·8% (Ans.)

(ii) When p.f., cos I2 = 0·8 leading; sin I2 = sin cos–1 0·8 = 0·6

% Reg = % resistance drop × cos I2 – % reactance drop × sin I2

= 1 × 0·8 – 5 × 0·6 = – 2·2 % (Ans.)

(iii) When p.f. is unity % Reg = % resistance drop = 1% (Ans.)

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. A single phase transformer with a ratio 1: 2 has primary and secondary winding resistance of 0.25 ohm
and 0.8 ohm, respectively and their reactances are 0.5 ohm and 2.8 ohm. Determine the no-load secondary
terminal voltage of the transformer if it is delivering 10 A and 400 V at 0.8 p.f. lagging. (Ans. 437.64 V )
2. A 10 kVA, 2000/400 volt single-phase transformer has the following resistances and reactances.
Primary winding: resistance 5.0 ohm, leakage reactance 12 ohm.
Secondary winding: resistance 0.2 ohm, leakage reactance 0.48 ohm. Determine the secondary terminal
voltage at full load, 0.8 power factor lagging when the primary supply is 2000 V. (Ans. 377.1 V )
3. A 230/440 V, single-phase transformer has primary and secondary winding resistance of 0.25 ohm and 0.8
ohm, respectively and corresponding reactance of 0.6 ohm and 2.8 ohm. Find the approximate secondary
terminal voltage when supplying (i) 10 A at 0.707 p.f. lagging (ii) 10A at 0.707 p.f. leading.
(Ans. 397.5 V; 437 V )
 Single-Phase Transformers 141

4. The turn ratio of a 100 kVA transformer is 5. Its primary has a resistance and reactance of 0.3 ohm and
1.1 ohm, respectively and the corresponding values for the secondary are 0.01 ohm and 0.035 ohm. The
supply voltage is 2200 V. Calculate
(i) total impedance of the transformer referred to primary circuit and
(ii) the voltage regulation and the secondary terminal voltage for full load having power factors (i) 0.8
lagging and (ii) 0.8 leading. (Ans. 2.05 :; 3.364%; 425.2 V; –1.54%; 446.78 V )

5. A 17.5 kVA 66/11 kV transformer has 10% resistance and 3% leakage reactance drop. Find resistance
and reactance of the transformer in ohms as referred to
(i) the high voltage winding.
(ii) the low voltage winding. (Ans. 2.52 :; 7.56 :; 0.068 :; 0.209 :)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What is voltage regulation of a transformer?
Ans. At constant supply voltage, the change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load is called
voltage regulation. It is expressed as percentage (or per unit) of no-load voltage.
E 2 - V2
% regulation = ¥ 100
E2
Q.2. Why does voltage drop in a transformer?
Ans. In a transformer, voltage drop occurs due to
(i) Resistance of primary and secondary winding
(ii) Reactance of primary and secondary winding.

Q.3. Is the regulation at rated load of a transformer same at 0.8 p.f. lagging and 0.8 p.f. leading?
Ans. No, regulation at 0.8 p.f. lagging will be different to the regulation at 0.8 p.f. leading.

Q.4. What type of load should be connected to a transformer for getting zero voltage regulation?
I 2 Res cos f2 + I 2X es sin f2
Ans. For zero voltage regulation; =0
E2
or I2Xes sin I2 = –I2Res cos I2
Res
or tan I= -
X es
Res
or I2 = - tan-1
X es
The negative sign shows that the load should be capacitive and the value pf should be
Res
cos I2 = cos tan-1 .
X es
Q.5. Is the percentage impedance of a transformer same on primary and on secondary?
Ans. Yes, the total percentage impedance of a transformer referred to primary or secondary is the same.
However, the percentage impedance of primary winding may be different to percentage impedance of
secondary winding.
 142 Electrical Machines

2.23 Losses in a Transformer

The losses which occur in an actual transformer are:
(i) Core or iron losses (ii) Copper losses
(i) Core or iron losses: When AC supply is given to the primary winding of a transformer an
alternating flux is set up in the core, therefore, hysteresis and eddy current losses occur in the
magnetic core.
(a) Hysteresis loss: When the magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic flux, it
causes a continuous reversal of molecular magnets. This effect consumes some electric
power which is further dissipated in the form of heat as loss. This loss is known as hysteresis
loss. (Ph = Kh V f Bm2.6). This loss can be minimised by using silicon steel material for the
construction of core.
(b) Eddy current loss: Since flux in the core of a transformer is alternating, it links with the
magnetic material of the core itself also. This induces an emf in the core and circulates
eddy currents. Power is required to maintain these eddy currents. This power is dissipated
in the form of heat and is known as eddy current loss (Pe = Ke V f 2 t 2 Bm2 ). This loss can be
minimised by making the core of thin laminations.
It is already seen in article–8 that the flux set up in the core of the transformer remains constant
from no-load to full load. Hence, iron loss is independent of the load and is known as constant
losses.
(ii) Copper losses: Copper losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their
ohmic resistance. If I1, I2 are the primary and secondary currents and R1, R2 are the primary
and secondary resistances, respectively.
Then, total copper losses = I12 R1 + I 22 R2 = I12 Rep = I 22 Res

The currents in the primary and secondary winding vary according to the load, therefore, these
losses vary according to the load and are known as variable loss.

Magnetostriction and Its ill-effects

The property of ferromagnetic materials, due to which their dimensions are changed due to change
of magnetic field, is called magnetostriction effect. In fact, the applied magnetic field changes the
magnetostrictive strain until reaching its saturation value (O). This causes change in the dimensions
of ferromagnetic materials. The effect was first identified in 1842 by James Joule while observing
a sample of iron.
In simple terms, as per this phenomenon, if a piece of magnetic sheet steel is magnetised it
will extend itself. When the magnetisation is taken away, it goes back to its original condition. A
transformer is magnetically excited by an alternating voltage and current so that it becomes extended
and contracted twice during a full cycle of magnetisation.
Hence, when the core becomes magnetised, it expands then it contracts and expands again as
the field is reversed. A 50 Hz transformer, therefore, expands and contracts at 100 Hz, producing a
buzzing sound at that frequency.
 Single-Phase Transformers 143

Transformer buzzing noise (or hum) is caused by a phenomenon called magnetostriction.

Although, these extensions are only small dimensionally, and therefore cannot usually be seen by
the naked eye. They are, however, sufficient to cause vibration resulting in a noise.
This effect also causes losses which produce heat in ferromagnetic cores.
Thus, the first cause of humming noise is magnetostriction, the other cause may be due to details
of core construction, size and gauge of laminations or joints in the core
The other reasons for humming sound in a transformer may be
Loosening of laminations, mounting defects, unbalancing or insulation deterioration etc.
Methods to control transformer noise: The transformer noise can be controlled by
 r using low value of flux density core,
 r by proper tightening of the core by clamps, bolts etc.
 r by sound insulating the transformer core from tank walls.

2.24 Effects of Voltage and Frequency Variations on Iron Losses

Power transformers are not ordinarily subjected to frequency variations and usually are subject to
only modest voltage variations, but it will be interesting to note their effects.
Variation in voltage and/or frequency affects the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current loss)
in a transformer. As long as the flux variations are sinusoidal, hysteresis loss (Ph), and eddy current
loss (Pe) vary according to the following relations
Ph v f (Imax)1.6 …(2.68)
The value 2.6 is an arbitrary value which lies between 1.5 and 2.5 depending on the grade of iron
used in transformer core
and Pe v f 2 (Imax)2 …(2.69)
If the transformer is operated with the frequency and voltage changing in the same proportion,
the flux density will remain unchanged as obvious from equation (E = 4.44 B m Ai Nf or B m
= E or Bm v V ) and apparently the no-load current will also remain unaffected.
4.44 Ai Nf f
The transformer can be operated safely at frequency less than rated one with correspondingly
reduced voltage. In this case iron losses will be reduced. But if the transformer is operated with
increased voltage and frequency in the same proportion, the core losses may increase to a large
extent which may not be tolerated. Increase in frequency with constant supply voltage will cause
reduction in hysteresis loss and leave the eddy current losses unaffected. However, some increase
in voltage could, therefore, be tolerated at higher frequencies, but exactly how much depends on
the relative magnitude of the hysteresis and eddy current losses and the grade of iron used in the
transformer core.

Example 2.28
A 1 kVA, 220/110 V, 400 Hz transformer is desired to be used at a frequency of 60 Hz. What will be
the kVA rating of the transformer at reduced frequency?
 144 Electrical Machines

Solution:
We know that E1 = V1 = 4.44 Im N1f = 4.44 Bm Ai N1 f
Assuming flux density in the core remaining unchanged, we have
V1 vf

V ¢1 f¢
or =
V1 f
f¢
or Vc1 = V1 ¥ = 220 ¥ 60 = 33 volt
f 400
As current rating of the transformer remains the same, the kVA rating is proportional to voltage,
? kVA rating of the transformer at 60 Hz,

kVAc= V ¢ ¥ kVA = 33 ¥ 1 = 0.15 kVA (Ans.)

V 220
Example 2.29
A 40 Hz transformer is to be used on a 50 Hz system. Assuming Steinmetz’s coeff. as 2.6 and the
losses at 40 Hz, 2.2%, 0.7% and 0.5% for copper, hysteresis and eddy currents, respectively, find
(i) the losses on 50 Hz for the same supply voltage and current. (ii) the output at 50 Hz for the same
total losses as on 40 Hz.

Solution:
Let W be the total power input to the transformer in both the cases in watt.
Copper loss = I2 × total resistance
As long as current and supply voltage remain the same, copper loss will remain the same.
? Copper loss at 40 Hz or 50 Hz

= 1.2 ¥ W = 0.012 W watt

100
Hysteresis loss = K Bmax1.6 f watt/c.c. of the magnetic material.

For the same voltage induced per turn (E/N = 4.44 f I) the product If or Bmax f remains constant.

? Bmax1 f1 = Bmax2 f2

Bmax1 f
? = 2 = 50 = 1.25
Bmax2 f1 40

or Bmax2 = 0.8 Bmax1

? Hysteresis loss at 50 Hz

Wh2 = Kh K Bmax
1.6
f watt/c.c. = K h (0.8 Bmax1 )1.6 1.25 f1
2 2

= K h (0.8)1.6 Bmax11.6 f1 ¥ 1.25 = 1.25 (0.8)1.6 ¥ K h Bmax11.6 f1 = 0.875 ¥ K h Bmax11.6 f1

 Single-Phase Transformers 145

But hysteresis loss at 40 Hz is 0.7%

Wh2 = 0.875 × 0.7 = 0.6125%
2
Eddy current loss, We = Bmax f 2 t 2 watt per c.c. of the magnetic material.
2
We1 Bmax f 2 t2
1 1 1
? = 2 But t1 = t 2
We2 Bmax2 f12 t22

( ) ¥ ( 45 )
2 2
We1 Bmax f2
1 1
Ê Bmax1 ˆ Ê f1 ˆ 2 5
2 2
? = 2 2
= ÁB ˜ ÁË f ˜¯ = 4 =1
We2 Bmax2 f2 Ë max2 ¯ 2

? We1 = We2

Hence eddy current loss will remain the same.

Thus, the three losses at 50 Hz will be
Copper loss = 1.2%
Hysteresis loss = 0.6125% (Ans.)
Eddy current loss = 0.5%

2.25 Efficiency of a Transformer

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to the input power, the two being
measured in same units (either in watts or in kW).
output power output power
Transformer efficiency, K = =
input power output power + losses
output power
or K=
output power + iron losses + coper losses
V2 I 2 cos f2
= …(2.70)
V2 I 2 cos f2 + Pi + Pc
where, V2 = Secondary terminal voltage
I2 = Full load secondary current
cos I2 = p.f. of the load
Pi = Iron losses = Hysteresis losses + eddy current losses (constant losses)
Pc = Full load copper losses = I22 Res (variable losses)

If x is the fraction of the full load, the efficiency of the transformer at this fraction is given by the
relation;

x ¥ output at full load xV2 I 2 cos f2

   Kx = 2
= …(2.71)
x ¥ output at full load + Pi + x Pc x V2 I 2 cos f2 + Pi + x 2 I 22 Res
The copper losses vary as the square of the fraction of the load.
 146 Electrical Machines

2.26 Condition for Maximum Efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer at a given load and p.f. is expressed by the relation
V2 I 2 cos f2 V2 cos f2
K= =
V2 I 2 cos f2 + Pi + I 22 Res V2 cos f2 + Pi / I 2 + I 2 Res

The terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus for a given p.f., efficiency depends upon
the load current I2. In expression (i), the numerator is constant and the efficiency will be maximum
if denominator is minimum. Thus the maximum condition is obtained by differentiating the quantity
in the denominator w.r.t. the variables I2 and equating that to zero i.e.,
d Ê V cos f + Pi + I R ˆ = 0
d I 2 ÁË 2 2
I2 2 es ˜
¯
Pi
or 0- + Res = 0
I 22
or I 22 Res = Pi …(2.72)

i.e., Copper losses = Iron losses

Thus, the efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper (or variable) losses are equal
to iron (or constant) losses.
V2 I 2 cos f2
? Kmax = [since Pc = Pi] …(2.73)
V2 I 2 cos f2 + 2 Pi
From equation (ii), the value of output current I2 at which the efficiency of the transformer will
be maximum is given by;
Pi
I2 = …(2.74)
Res
If x is the fraction of full load kVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is maximum.
Then, copper losses = x2 Pc (where Pc is the full load Cu losses)

Iron losses = Pi

Pi
For maximum efficiency, x2 Pc = Pi; x =
Pc
? Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Pi
= x × full load kVA = full load kVA ×
Pc

iron losses
= full load kVA × …(2.75)
copper losses at full load
 Single-Phase Transformers 147

Example 2.30
A 500 kVA, 600/400V, one-phase transformer has primary and secondary winding resistance of
0.42 ohm and 0.0011 ohm, respectively. The primary and secondary voltages are 600 V and 400 V,
respectively. The iron loss is 2·9 kW. Calculate the efficiency at half full load at a power factor of
0·8 lagging.

Solution:
Transformer rating, = 500 kVA
Primary resistance, R1 = 0·42 :
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0·0011 :
Primary voltage, E1 = 6600 V
Secondary voltage, E2 = 400 V
Iron losses, Pi = 2·9 kW

Fraction of the load, x = 1 = 0 ◊ 5

2
Load p.f., cos I = 0·8 lagging

E2
Transformation ratio, K = = 400 = 2
E1 6600 33
Primary resistance referred to secondary,

R1c = K2 R1 = 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 0.42 = 0.00154 W

33 33
Total resistance referred to secondary,
Res = R2 + R1c = 0·0011 + 0·00154 = 0·00264 :
3 3
Full load secondary current, I2 = kVA ¥ 10 = 500 ¥ 10 = 1250A
E2 400
Copper losses at full load, Pc = I 22 Res = (1250)2 × 0·00264

= 4125 W = 4·125 kW
Efficiency of transformer at any fraction (x) of the load,
xkVA cos f
Kx = ¥ 100
xkVA cos f + Pi + x 2 Pc
0 ◊ 5 ¥ 500 ¥ 0 ◊ 8
= ¥ 100
0 ◊ 5 ¥ 500 ¥ 0 ◊ 8 + 2 ◊ 9 + (0 ◊ 5)2 ¥ 4 ◊ 125
= 98·07% (Ans.)
 148 Electrical Machines

Example 2.31
A single-phase 440/110 V transformer has primary and secondary winding resistance of 0·3 ohm
and 0·02 ohm, respectively. If iron loss on normal input voltage is 150 W, calculate the secondary
current at which maximum efficiency will occur. What is the value of this maximum efficiency for
unity power factor load?

Solution:
Primary resistance, R1 = 0·3 :
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0·02 :
Iron losses, Pi = 150 W
Load power factor, cos I = 1
Primary induced voltage, E1 = 440 V
Secondary induced voltage, E2 = 110 V

Transformation ratio, K = E 2 = 110 = 1

E1 440 4
Primary resistance referred to secondary,

R1c = K2 R1 = 1 ¥ 1 ¥ 0 ◊ 3 = 0 ◊ 01875 W
4 4
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary,

Res = R2 + R1c = 0·02 + 0·01875 = 0·03875 :

We know the condition for max, efficiency is

Copper losses = Iron losses

i.e., I 22 Res = Pi

Secondary current at which the efficiency is maximum,

Pi 150
I2 = = = 62·22 A (Ans.)
Res 0.03875
I 2 V2 cos f
The maximum efficiency, Kmax = ¥ 100
I 2 V2 cos f + 2 Pi

= 62.22 ¥ 110 ¥ 1 ¥ 100 = 95·8% (Ans.)

62.22 ¥ 110 ¥ 1 + 2 ¥ 150
Example 2.32
In a 25 kVA, 2000/200 V power transformer the iron and full load copper losses are 350 W and
400 W, respectively. Calculate the efficiency at unity power factor at (i) full load and (ii) half load.

Solution:
x kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f
Kx =
x kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f + Pi + x 2 Pc
 Single-Phase Transformers 149

where, cos I = 1: Pi = 350 W; Pc = 400 W

(i) At full-load x=1

 ? K= 1 ¥ 25 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 ¥ 100 = 97·087 % (Ans)

1 ¥ 25 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 + 350 + 1 ¥ 1 ¥ 400
(ii) At half-load; x = 0·5

 ? K= 0·5 ¥ 25 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 ¥ 100 = 96·525 % (Ans)

0·5 ¥ 25 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 + 350 + (0·5)2 ¥ 400
Example 2.33
A 220/400 V, 10 kVA, 50Hz, single-phase transformer has copper loss of 120 W at full load. If it has
an efficiency of 98% at full load, unity power factor, determine the iron losses. What would be the
efficiency of the transformer at half full-load at 0.8 p.f. lagging.

Solution:
x kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f
Kx = ¥ 100
x kVA ¥ 100 ¥ cos f + Pi + x 2 Pc

98 = 1 ¥ 10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 ¥ 100 or Pi = 84·08 W (Ans)

1 ¥ 10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 + Pi + 1 ¥ 1 ¥ 120
when x = 1/2 and cos I = 0·8;

Kx = 0·5 ¥ 10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0·8 ¥ 100 = 97·23 % (Ans)

0·5 ¥ 10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0·8 + 84·08 + (0·5)2 ¥ 120
Example 2.34
A 1000 kVA, 110/220 volt, 50 Hz single phase transformer has an efficiency of 98.5% at half load and
0.8 power factor leading. Whereas its efficiency at full load unity power factor is 98.9%. Determine
(i) iron loss (ii) Full load copper loss.

Solution:
Here, Rating of transformer = 1000 kVA
x kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ p. f .
We know, % Kx = ¥ 100
x kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ p. f . + Pi + x 2 Pc
(i) Where % K0.5= 98.5; x = 0.5; p.f. = 0.8 leading

  ? 98.5 = 0.5 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100

0.5 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 + Pi + (0.5)2 Pc

or 98.5 = 400 ¥ 105

4 ¥ 105 + Pi + 0.25 Pc
or Pi + 0.25 Pc = 6100 …(i)
(ii) When % Kfl = 98.8; x = 1; p.f. = 1

98.8 = 1 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 ¥ 100

1 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1 + Pi + Pc
 150 Electrical Machines

5
or 10 × 105 + Pi + Pc = 10 ¥ 10 ¥ 100 = 10.121 ¥ 105
98.8
or Pi + Pc = 12100 …(ii)

Subtracting eq. (i) from (ii), we get

0.75 Pc = 6000
or Pc = 8000 W (Ans.)
From eq. (ii), we get, Pi = 12100 – 8000 = 4100 W (Ans.)

Example 2.35
A single-phase 400 kVA transformer has an efficiency of 99.13% at half load unity pf whereas it
efficiency is 98.77% at full-load 0.8 pf lagging. (i) the iron loss (ii) the full load copper loss.

Solution:
Efficiency of a transformer at any fraction x of the load;
x kVA cos f
Kx = ¥ 100
x kVA cos f + Pi + x 2 Pc
Case I: x = 1; cos I= 0·8; Kx = 98·77 %;

? 98·77 = 1 ¥ 400 ¥ 0·8 ¥ 100

1 ¥ 400 ¥ 0·8 + Pi + (1)2 Pc
or Pi + Pc = 3·985 kW …(i)

Case II: x = 0·5; cos I = 1; Kx = 99·13;

? 99·13 = 0·5 ¥ 400 ¥ 1 ¥ 100

0·5 ¥ 400 ¥ 1 ¥ Pi + (0·5)2 Pc
or Pi + 0·25 Pc = 1·755 kW …(ii)

Subtracting eq. (ii) from (i), we get,

0·75 Pc = 2·23 kW or Pc = 2·973 kW (Ans)

and Pi = 3·985 – 2·973 = 1·012 kW (Ans)

Example 2.36
In a 25 kVA. 1100/400 V, single phase transformer, the iron and copper losses at full load are 350
and 400 watts, respectively. Calculate the efficiency on unity power at half load. Determine the
load at which maximum efficiency occurs.

Solution:
Transformer rating = 25 kVA
Iron losses, Pi = 350 W
 Single-Phase Transformers 151

Full load copper losses, Pc = 400 W

Load power factor cos I = 1

Fraction of the load x = 1 = 0 ◊ 5

2
Efficiency of transformer at any fraction of the load,
x ¥ kVA ¥ 103 ¥ cos f
Kx = ¥ 100
x ¥ kVA ¥ 103 ¥ cos f + Pi + x 2 Pc

= 0.5 ¥ 25 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 ¥ 100 = 96·52% (Ans.)

0.5 ¥ 25 ¥ 103 ¥ 1 + 350 + (0.5)2 ¥ 400
Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Pi
= Rated kVA = 25 ¥ 350 = 23·385 kVA
Pc 400
Output power or load on maximum efficiency.
= output kVA for max efficiency × p.f.
= 23·385 × 1 = 23·385 kW (Ans.)

Example 2.37
A 50 kVA transformer on full load has a copper loss of 600 watt and iron loss of 500 watt, calculate
the maximum efficiency and the load at which it occurs.

Solution:
output
%K= ¥ 100
output + Iron loss + Copper loss
Efficiency will be maximum when: copper loss = Iron loss = 500 W

Pi 500 = 0·9128
Fraction at which the efficiency is maximum, x = =
Pc 600
Load at which the efficiency is maximum, i.e.,

Output = x × kVA = 0·9128 × 50 = 45·64 kVA

= 45·64 × 1 = 45·64 kW (since cos I = 1)

45·64 ¥ 1000
Km = ¥ 100 = 97·85% (Ans)
45·64 ¥ 1000 + 500 + 500
Example 2.38
The iron and full-load copper losses of a 100 kVA single-phase transformer are 1 kW and 1.5 kW,
respectively. Calculate the kVA loading at which the efficiency is maximum and its efficiency at this
loading: (i) at unit p.f. (ii) at 8 p.f. lagging.
 152 Electrical Machines

Solution:
Here, Rated capacity = 100 kVA; Iron loss, Pi = 1 kW;

Full-load copper loss, Pc = 1.5 kW

Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Pi 1 × 100 = 81.65 kVA (Ans.)

= x × rated kVA = × rated kVA =
Pc 1◊ 5
(i) At unity p.f.

K= 81 ◊ 65 ¥ 1 × 100 = 81 ◊ 65 × 100 = 97·6% (Ans.)

81 ◊ 65 ¥ 1 + 1 + 1 83 ◊ 65
(ii) At 0.8 p.f. lagging

K= 81.65 ¥ 0.8 × 100 = 65.32 × = 97.03% (Ans.)

81.65 ¥ 0.8 + 1 + 1 67.32

2.27 Efficiency vs Load

The variation of efficiency with load is shown in Fig. 2.43 which likewise shows the constant and
variable components of the total loss. It has been pointed out that with constant voltage the mutual
flux of the transformer is practically constant from no-load to full load (maximum variation is from
1 to 3%). The core or iron loss is, therefore, considered constant regardless of load. Copper loss varies
as the square of the load current or kVA output. The variations in copper loss with the increasein
load current (or kVA) is shown in Fig. 2.43. The efficiency vs load curve as deduced from these is
also shown in the Fig. 2.43. From the efficiency–load curve shown in Fig. 2.43 it is obvious that the
efficiency is very high even at light load, as low as 10% of rated load. The efficiency is practically
constant from about 20% rated load to about 20% overload. At light loads the efficiency is poor because
of constant iron loss, whereas at high loads the efficiency falls off due to increase in copper loss as
the square of load. From Fig. 2.43 it is also obvious that the transformer efficiency is maximum at
the point of intersection of copper loss and iron loss curves i.e., when copper loss equals iron loss.
Imp. The intersection of copper loss curve and iron loss curve ‘A’ gives the point of maximum
efficiency. It will be seen that the efficiency changes very little over the greater part of the operating
range.

2.28 Efficiency vs Power Factor

Transformer efficiency is given as
Output losses
K= = 1-
Output + losses output + losses
losses losses/V2 I 2
= 1- = 1-
V2 I 2 cosf + losses cos f + losses / V2 I 2
 Single-Phase Transformers 153

Fig. 2.43 Efficiency vs load curve of a transformer

Substituting

losses = x in above equation we get

V2 I 2
x x / cos f
K = 1- =1-
cos f + x 1 + x / cos f
The variations of efficiency with power factor at different loads for a typical transformer are
illustrated in Fig. 2.44

Fig. 2.44 Frequency vs load curve of a transformer

 154 Electrical Machines

2.29 All-day Efficiency

The efficiency discussed so far is the ordinary or commercial efficiency which is given by the ratio
of output power to input power i.e.,
output power
Commercial efficiency, K =
input power
The load on certain transformers fluctuates throughout the day. The distribution transformers
are energised for 24 hours, but they deliver very light loads for major portion of the day. Thus iron
losses occur for whole day but copper losses occur only when the transformer is loaded. Hence, the
performance of such transformers cannot be judged by the commercial efficiency, but it can be judged
by all-day efficiency also known as operational efficiency or energy efficiency which is computed
on the basis of energy consumed during a period of 24 hours.
The all-day efficiency is defined as the ratio of output in kWh (or Wh) to the input in kWh (or
Wh) of a transformer over 24 hours.
output in kWh
? All-day efficiency = Kall-day = …(2.76) (for 24 hours)
input in kWh
To find this all-day efficiency, we have to know the load cycle on the transformer.

Example 2.39
A 20 kVA transformer on domestic load, which can be taken as of unity power factor, has a full load
efficiency of 94.3%, the copper loss then being twice the iron loss. Calculate its all-day efficiency
on the following daily cycle; no-load for 10 hours, half load for 8 hours and full load for 6 hours.

Solution:
Full load output= 20 × 1 = 20 kW
output
Full load input = = 20 ¥ 100 = 20·986 kW
h 95·3
Total losses, Pi + Pc = 20.986 – 20 = 0·986 kW

Now Pc= 2 Pi (given) Pi + 2 Pi = 0·986 kW

Or Iron losses, Pi = 0·3287 kW

Full load copper losses = 2 × 0·3287 = 0·6574 kW

kWh output in 24 hours = 1 × 20 × 8 +1 × 20 × 6 = 200 kWh

2
Iron losses for 24 hours = 0·3287 × 24 = 7·89 kWh

Copper losses for 24 hours = cu. losses for 8 hrs at 1 full load + cu. losses for 6 hours at full load
2

( ) × 0·6574 × 8 + 0·6574 × 6 = 5·259 kWh

2
= 1
2
 Single-Phase Transformers 155

input in 24 hrs = kWh output in 24 hrs + iron and cu losses in kWh for 24 hrs

= 200 + 7·89 + 5·259 = 213·149 kWh

kWh output In 24 hrs
All-day efficiency, Kall-day = ¥ 100 = 200 ¥ 100 = 93.83% ( Ans )
kWh input in 24 hrs 213.149
Example 2.40
A 5 kVA single phase transformer has full-load copper loss of 100 watt and 60 watt as iron loss.
The daily variation of load on the transformer is as follows:
7 AM to 1 PM 3 kW at power factor 0.6 lagging.
1 PM to 6 PM 2 kW at power factor 0.8 lagging.
6 PM to 1 AM 5 kW at power factor 0.9 lagging.
1 AM to 7 AM No-load
Determine the all-day efficiency.

Solution:
Transformer rating = 5 kVA; Pi = 50 W; Pc = 100 W
Load variation in tabulated form is given below:

Load in kVA = Fraction of Load

Timings Duration in hr Load in kW p.f kW = Actual kVA
pf rated kVA

7 AM to 1PM 6 3 0.6 3/0.6 = 5 5/5 = 1

1 PM to 6 PM 5 2 0.8 2/0.8 = 2.5 2.5/5 = 0.5

6 PM to 1 AM 7 5 0.9 5/0.9 = 5.55 5.55/5 = 1.11

1 AM to 7 AM 6 0 0 0 0

kWh output in 24 hr = 3 × 6 + 2 × 5 + 5 × 7 + 0 × 6 = 63 kWh

Iron losses in 24 hr = Pi in kW × 24 = 50 ¥ 24 = 1.2 kWh

1000
Copper losses in 24 hr = (1)2 ¥ 100 ¥ 6 + (0.5)2 ¥ 100 ¥ 5 + (1.11)2 ¥ 100 ¥ 7
1000 1000 1000
+ (0)2 ¥ 100 ¥ 6
1000
= 0.6 + 0.125 + 0.8625 + 0 = 2.5875 kWh
Output in kWh in 24 hr
All-day efficiency, Kall-day =
Output in kWh in 24 hr + Pi in kWh in 24 hr + Pc in kWh is 24 hr

= 63 ¥ 100 = 95.763% (Ans.)

63 + 1.2 + 1.5875
 156 Electrical Machines

Example 2.41
A transformer has a maximum efficiency of 98% at 15 kVA at unity p.f. It is loaded as follows: 12
hrs –2 kW at p.f. 0.5; 6 hrs – 12 kW at p.f. 0.8; 6 hrs – 18 kW at p.f. 0.9, calculate all-day efficiency
of the transformer.

Solution:
kVA cos f
We know Kmax = (∵ Pi = Pc)
kVA cos f + 2 Pi

or 98 = 15 ¥ 1
100 15 ¥ 1 + 2 Pi

or 15 + 2 Pi = 15 ¥ 100 = 15.306
98
? Iron losses, Pi = 0·153 kW

Full load copper losses, Pc = Pi = 0·153 kW

During 24 hrs. the transformer is loaded as under:

Load in kVA Fraction of load

Hrs. Load in kW P.f. kW given load in kVA
x=
p.f . full load in kVA
12 2 0.5 2/0.5 = 4 4/15 = 0.267

6 12 0.8 0.8 = 15 15/15 = 1

6 18 0.9 18/0.9 20/15 = 1.333

kWh output in 24 hrs = 2 × 12 + 12 × 6 + 18 × 6 =204 kWh

Iron losses for 24 hrs = 0·153 × 24 = 3·672 kWh
Copper losses for 24 hrs = (0·267)2 × 0·153 × 12 + (1)2 × 0·153 × 6 + (1·333)2 × 0·153 × 6
= 2·68 kWh
Input in 24 hrs = 204 + 3.672 + 2.68 = 210.352 kWh

All-day efficiency, Kall-day = 204 ¥ 100 = 96·98 % (Ans)

210·352

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. A 500 kVA, 6600/400V transformer has primary and secondary winding resistance of 0·42 ohm and 0·0011
ohm, respectively. The iron loss is 2·9 kW. Calculate the efficiency at half full load at a power factor of 0·8
lagging. (Ans. 98·07%)

2. The full load efficiency at 0.8 p.f of a 50 kVA transformer is 97.9% and at half-load 0.8 p.f. its efficiency
is 97.9%. Determine iron and copper losses of the transformer. (Ans. 287 W; 529 W )
 Single-Phase Transformers 157

3. In a 25 kVA, 1100/400 V, single phase transformer, the iron and copper loss at full load are 350 and
400 watt, respectively. Calculate the efficiency on unity power factor at half load. Determine the load on
maximum efficiency. (Ans. 96·52%; 23·85 kW )

4. A 100 kVA transformer supplies a lighting and power load. The iron loss is 960 W and the copper loss
is 960 W at full load. The transformer is operated continuously at the rated voltage as per the following
schedule in a day 100 kVA at 0.8 p.f. for 4 hrs.; 50 kVA at 0.6 p.f. for 8 hrs. and 5 kVA at 0.95 p.f. for 12
hrs. What will be the all-day efficiency of the transformer? (Ans. 94·5%)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What are no-load losses occurring in the transformer?
Ans. Iron losses which are also known as magnetic losses or core losses. These losses include hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss.

Q.2. Why is efficiency of a transformer high as compared to other electrical machines?

Ans. Transformer is a static device i.e., it has no rotating part, therefore, it is free of mechanical losses.
Hence, it operates at higher efficiency in comparison to other electrical machines.

Q.3. Define efficiency and all-day efficiency of a transformer.

Ans. The ratio of power output (in kW) to power input (in kW) is called efficiency or commercial efficiency
of a transformer, i.e.,
Output in kW
K=
input in kW

The ratio of output energy (in kWh) to the input energy (in kWh) in a day of a transformer is called its
all-day efficiency.
Output in kWh in a day
Kall-day =
Input in kWh in a day

Q.4. Are transformers normally considered to be efficient devices?

Ans. Yes, normally transformers are considered as efficient devices.

Q.5. Why is the efficiency of a transformer high as much as 96%?

Ans. It is because transformers do not have rotating parts and mechanical losses do not occur.

Q.6. How can eddy current loss be reduced?

Ans. Eddy current loss can be reduced by laminating the core (0.35 mm to 0.5 mm thickness) and each
lamination must be insulated from the other by an insulating layer (varnish).

Q.7. How may the iron loss be reduced to a minimum?

Ans. Iron loss can be minimised by using steel having sufficient quantity of silicon, now-a-days cold rolled
grain oriented steel (CRGOS) is used, and the core is laminated, each lamination has a thickness 0.35
to 0.5 mm and insulated from each other.

Q.8. In a transformer, buzzing noise cannot be avoided. Justify.

Ans. Since magnetostriction phenomenon cannot be avoided, the buzzing noise produced by a transformer
cannot be avoided.
 158 Electrical Machines

2.30 Transformer Tests

All the transformers are tested before placing them in the field. By performing these tests, we can
determine the parameters of a transformer to compute its performance characteristics (like voltage
regulation and efficiency etc.).
Large transformers cannot be tested by direct loading because of the following reasons:
(i) It is almost impossible to arrange such a large load required for direct loading.
(ii) While performing test by direct loading, there is huge power wastage.
(iii) It is very inconvenient to handle the power equipment.
Therefore, to furnish the required information open circuit and short circuit tests are conducted
conveniently without actually loading the transformer.
The other important tests which are conducted on a transformer are polarity test voltage ratio test
and Back-to-back test.

2.31 Polarity Test

Polarity test is performed to determine the terminals with same instantaneous polarity of the two
windings when terminals are not being marked. The relative polarities of the primary and secondary
terminals are required to be known for
(i) interconnecting two or more transformers in parallel.
(ii) connecting three single-phase transformers while doing poly-phase transformation of power.
(iii) connecting windings of the same transformer in parallel or series.
For determining the relative polarity of the two windings of a transformer, the two winding are
connected in series and a voltmeter is connected across them as shown in Fig. 2.45. One of the
winding (preferably HV winding) is excited from a suitable AC voltage (less than rated value). If the
polarities of the windings are as marked on the diagram, then the windings will have a subtractive
polarity and the voltmeter will read the difference of E1 and E2 (i.e., E1 – E2). If the voltmeter reads
E1 + E2 the polarity marking of one of the windings must be reversed.

Fig. 2.45 Circuit diagram for polarity test

 Single-Phase Transformers 159

While performing polarity test, subtractive polarity method is preferred over additive polarity
method, because in this case, the voltage between A and Ac or that between B and Bc is reduced. The
leads connected between these terminals and two windings are not subjected to high voltage stresses.
Whereas, in case of additive polarity the two windings and leads connected between AAc and BBc
are subjected to high voltage stresses.
When the transformer is placed in the field, it may not be convenient to perform the above test
to check the polarity. In such cases, polarity may be checked by using a battery, a switch and a DC
voltmeter (PMMC type) which are connected in the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.46. When switch (S)
is closed, the primary current increases which increases the flux linkages with both the windings
inducing emf in them. The positive polarity of this induced emf in the primary is at the end to which
battery is connected. The end of secondary which simultaneously acquires positive polarity which
is indicated by the deflection in the (PMMC) voltmeter. If deflection does not occur, then open the
switch. At this instant, if deflection occurs the polarity of secondary is opposite.

Fig. 2.46 Polarity test using PMMC

2.32 Voltage Ratio Test

The true voltage ratio is based upon turn-ratio of the two windings of a transformer. In case the two
voltages are measured at no-load, their ratio is almost equal to the true value. Similarly, if the primary
and secondary currents are measured on short circuit, their ratio gives true-ratio particularly if the
V I
transformer has little leakage flux and low core reluctance. voltage ratio 2 = 1 .
V1 I2

2.33 Open-circuit or No-load Test

This test is carried out at rated voltage to determine the no-load loss or core loss or iron loss. It is
also used to determine no-load current I0 which is helpful in finding the no-load parameters i.e.,
exciting resistance R0 and exciting reactance X0 of the transformer.
Usually, this test is performed on low voltage side of the transformer, i.e., all the measuring
instruments such as voltage (V), wattmeter (W) and ammeter (A) are connected in low-voltage side
(say primary). The primary winding is then connected to the normal rated voltage V1 and frequency
as given on the name plate of the transformer. The secondary side is kept open or connected to a
voltmeter V’ as shown in Fig. 2.47(a).
 160 Electrical Machines

Since the secondary (high voltage winding) is open circuited, the current drawn by the primary is
called no-load current I0 measured by the ammeter A. The value of no-load current I0 is very small
usually 2 to 10% of the rated full-load current. Thus, the copper loss in the primary is negligibly
small and no copper loss occurs in the secondary as it is open. Therefore, wattmeter reading W0 only
represents the core or iron losses for all practical purposes. These core losses are constant at all loads.
The voltmeter Vc if connected on the secondary side measures the secondary induced voltage V2.
V
The ratio of voltmeter readings, 2 gives the transformation ratio of the transformer. The phasor
V1
diagram of transformer at no-load is shown in Fig. 2.47(b).

Fig. 2.47 Open circuit test

Let the wattmeter reading = W0

voltmeter reading = V1
and ammeter reading = I0
Then, iron losses of the transformer Pi = W0

i.e., V1 I0 cos I0 = W0

W0
? No-load power factor, cos I0 =
V1I 0
W0
Working component, Iw = (∵ Iw = I0 cos I0)
V1

Magnetising component Imag = I 02 - I w2

No-load, parameters, i.e.,

V1
Equivalent exciting resistance, R0 =
Iw
V1
Equivalent exciting reactance, X0 =
I mag
 Single-Phase Transformers 161

The Iron losses measured by this test are used to determine transformer efficiency and parameters
of exciting circuit of a transformer shown in Fig. 2.48.

Fig. 2.48 Equivalent circuit of a transformer at no-load

2.34 Separation of Hysteresis and Eddy Current Losses

Core losses (i.e., iron losses or magnetic losses) of a transformer are constituted by (i) hysteresis loss
and (ii) eddy current loss.
According to Steinmetz’s empirical relations;
1.6
Wh = K h Vf Bm …(2.77) and We = K e t 2V f 2 Bm2 …(2.78)
If thickness of laminations and volume of the core is kept constant, these losses will depend upon
supply frequency and maximum flux density and hence.
1.6
Wh = P f Bm …(2.79)

and We = Q f 2 Bm2 …(2.80)

where P and Q are the new constants.
For a transformer, emf equation is given by the relation;
E = 4.44 N f Bm Ai

or Bmv E μ V as other values are constant. …(2.81)

f f
For a particular value of Bm, the core losses per cycle may be represented as;
Pi
= A + Bf …(2.82)
f
1.6
where A and B are other constants (i.e., A = PBm and B = QBm2 )
The value of constants A and B can be determined by performing open-circuit test on the
Ê ˆ
transformer at different frequencies but keeping ratio of V to f Á i.e. V ˜ constant at every instant.
Ë f ¯
While performing this test, the applied voltage V and frequency f are varied together (by adjusting
the excitation and speed of the alternator, respectively which supplies power to the transformer)
At every step, take the reading of frequency meter ‘f’ and wattmeter ‘Pi’. Plot a curve between f
P
and i , it will give a straight line curve as shown in Fig. 2.49.
f
 162 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.49 Curve for frequency vs iron losses

Where this line intercepts the vertical axis (R) gives the value of constant A (i.e., A = OR), whereas,
the slope of the line gives the value of constant B. Knowing the value of A and B we can separate
the hysteresis and eddy current losses.

Example 2.42
The iron losses of a 400 V, 50 Hz transformer are 2500 W. These losses are reduced to 850 W when
the applied voltage is reduced to 200 V, 25 Hz. Determine the eddy current loss at normal frequency
and voltage.

Solution:
We know, E = 4.44 N f Ai Bm

Bm v E (since all other quantities are constant)

f
E1 E
As = 400 = 8 and 2 = 200 = 8 ; Bm is same in both the cases
f1 50 f2 25
? Hysteresis loss, Wh v f = Pf (where P is a constant)

Eddy current loss, We v f 2 = Qf 2 (where Q is a constant)

Wi
Total iron loss, Wi = Wh + We = P f + Q f 2 or = P + Qf …(2.83)
f
When f = 50 Hz; Wi = 2500

? 2500 = P + Q × 50 or P + 50 Q = 50 …(2.84)
50
When f = 25 Hz; Wi = 850

? 850 = P + Q × 25 or P + 25Q = 34 …(2.85)

25
 Single-Phase Transformers 163

Subtracting eq. (iii) from (ii), we get,

25 Q = 16 or Q = 0.64

From eq. (ii), we get, P + 50 × 0.64 = 50; P = 18 …(2.86)

Eddy current loss at normal frequency and voltage.
We = Q f 2 = 0.64 × 50 × 50 = 1600 W (Ans.)

Example 2.43
A transformer has hysteresis and eddy current loss of 700 W and 500 W, respectively when connected
to 1000 V, 50 Hz supply. If the applied voltage is raised to 2000 V and frequency to 75 Hz, find the
new core losses.

Solution:
Here, V1= 1000 V; f1 = 50 Hz; Wi = 1200 W; Wh1= 700 W

We1 = 500 W; V2 = 2000 V; f 2 = 75 Hz

1.6 1.6
We know, Wh μ Bm ¥ f = PBm ¥ f …(2.87)

We μ Bm2 ¥ f 2 = Q Bm2 ¥ f 2 …(2.88)

Induced emf, E = 4.44 N f Bm Ai volt

or Bm v E (∵ 4.44 NAi are constant)

f
Substituting this value in eqs. (2.87) and (2.88), respectively, we get,
1.6
Ê ˆ
Wh = P Á E ˜ ¥ f = PE1.6 f -0.6 …(2.89)
Ë f¯
2
Ê ˆ
We = Q Á E ˜ ¥ f 2 = QE 2 …(2.90)
Ë f¯
Case-I: When E = V1 = 1000 V and f = f1 = 50 Hz

Wh1 = P(V1 )1.6 f1-0.6

700 = P(1000)2.6 × (50) –0.6

700 = P × 63096 × 0.0956 or P = 0.116
We1 = Q × E2
500 = Q × (1000)2 or Q = 5 × 10 –4
Case-II: When E = V2 = 2000 V and f = f 2 = 75 Hz

Wh2 = P(V2 )1.6 f2-0.6 = 0.116 × (2000)2.6 × (75) –0.6

= 0.116 × 192.27 × 103 × 0.075 = 1664 W

 164 Electrical Machines

We2 = Q × (V2)2 = 5 × 10 –4 × (2000)2 = 2000 W

New core losses, Wi2 = Wh2 + We2 = 1664 + 2000 = 3664 W (Ans.)

Example 2.44
The hysteresis and eddy current loss of a ferromagnetic sample at a frequency of 50 Hz is 25 watts
and 30 watts, respectively, when the flux density of 0.75 tesla. Calculate the total iron loss at a
frequency of 400 Hz, when the operating flux density is 0.3 tesla.

Solution:
At frequency, f1= 50 Hz: 25 W; Wh1 = We1 = 30 W; Bm1 = 0.75 tesla

frequency, f 2 = 400 Hz; Bm2 = 0.3 tesla

1.6
Wh1 = PBm1 f1 or 25 = P × (0.75)2.6 × 50

or P= 25 = 0.7922 ; 2
We1 = QBm1 f12
(0.75)1.6 ¥ 50

or 30 = Q × (0.75)2 × (50)2 or Q = 30 = 0.02133

(0.75)2 ¥ (50)2
1.6
Wh2 = PBm2 ¥ f2 = 0.7922 × (0.3)2.6 × 400 = 46.16 W
2
We2 = QBm2 ¥ f22 = 0.02133 ¥ (0.3)2 ¥ (400)2 = 307.2 W

Total iron losses, Pi= Wh2 + We2 = 46.16 + 307.2 = 353.36 W (Ans.)

Example 2.45
The following test results were obtained when a 10 kg specimen of sheet steel laminated core is put
on power loss test keeping the maximum flux density and wave form factor constant.
Frequency (in Hz) 25 40 50 60 80
Total loss (in watt) 18.5 36 50 66 104
Calculate the current loss per kg at frequency of 50 Hz.

Solution:
At a given flux density and waveform factor, total iron losses are given as
Pi
Pi = Ph + Pe = A f + Bf 2 or = A + Bf
f
Total iron loss/cycle i.e., Pi / f for various values of frequency is given below:
f 25 40 50 60 80
Pi / f 0.74 0.9 2.0 2.1 2.3
A graph is plotted between Pi / f and f as illustrated in Fig. 2.50. From graph A = 0.5 and B = 0.01
Eddy current loss at 50 Hz = Bf 2 = 0.01 × (50)2 = 25 watt

Eddy current loss per kg at 50 Hz = 25 = 2.5 watt (Ans.)

10
 Single-Phase Transformers 165

Fig. 2.50 Curve for frequency vs iron losses in a given transformer

2.35 Short Circuit Test

This test is carried out to determine the following:
(i) Copper losses at full load (or at any desired load). These losses are required for the calculations
of efficiency of the transformer.
(ii) Equivalent impedance (Zes or Zep), resistance (Res or Rep) and leakage reactance (Xes or Xep) of the
transformer referred to the winding in which the measuring instruments are connected. Knowing
equivalent resistance and reactance, the voltage drop in the transformer can be calculated and
hence regulation of transformer is determined.
This test is usually carried out on the high-voltage side of the transformer i.e., a wattmeter W,
voltmeter V and an ammeter A are connected in high-voltage* winding (say secondary). The other
winding (primary) is then short circuited by a thick strip or by connecting an ammeter Ac across the
terminals as shown in Fig. 2.52. A low voltage at normal frequency is applied to the high voltage
winding with the help of on autotransformer so that full-load current flows in both the windings,
measured by ammeters A and Ac. Low voltage is essential, failing which an excessive current will
flow in both the windings which may damage them.
Since a low voltage (usually 5 to 10% of normal rated voltage) is applied to the transformer winding,
therefore, the flux set up in the core is very small about 1 th to 1 th of normal flux. The iron losses
30 8
are negligibly small due to low value of flux as these losses are approximately proportional to the
square of the flux. Hence, wattmeter reading Wc only represents the copper losses in the transformer
windings for all practical purposes. The applied voltage V2sc is measured by the voltmeter V which
circulates the current I2sc (usually full load current) in the impedance Zes of the transformer to the
side in which instruments are connected as shown in Fig. 2.52.
 166 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.51 Short circuit test (circuit diagram) Fig. 2.52 Short circuit test (phasor diagram)

Let the wattmeter reading = Wc

voltmeter reading = V2sc
and ammeter reading = I2sc
Then, full load copper losses of the transformer,
2
Ê I 2 fl ˆ
Pc = Á Wc …(2.91)
Ë I 2 sc ˜¯
and I 22sc Res = WC

Equivalent resistance referred to secondary,

Wc
Res = …(2.92)
I 22sc
From phasor diagram as shown in Fig. 2.52;

I2sc Zes = V2sc

? Equivalent impedance referred to secondary,

Zes = V2sc/I2sc

Equivalent reactance referred to secondary,*

Xes = ( Zes )2 - ( Res )2

* For convenience and better results, short circuit test is performed on HV side of the transformer; to make it
clear, let us consider an example.
To perform short circuit test about 5 percent of rated voltage is required. For a 250 kVA, 2500/250V
transformers, if short circuit test is performed on HV side, voltage required for the test is 2500 ¥ 5 = 125 V
100
(which is quite convenient and suitable for measurement) and the current would be 250 ¥ 1000 = 100 A .
2500
If this test is conducted on LV side, then voltage required would be 250 ¥ 1000 = 1000 A (very high). It is
250
observed that applied voltage is very low and current is very high, both are inconvenient to measure with
ordinary instruments.
 Single-Phase Transformers 167

After calculating Res and Xes, the voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any
load and power factor.

2.36 Back-to-back Test

(Sumpner’s Test or Regenerative Test)
Although efficiency and regulation of a transformer can be determined by performing open circuit and
short circuit test but to test temperature rise, it is necessary to conduct a full-load test on a transformer.
For small transformers, full-load test can be conveniently conducted, but for large transformers
full-load test is very difficult. A suitable load to absorb full-load power of a large transformer may
not be easily available. It will also be very expensive as a large amount of energy will be wasted in
the load during the test. Therefore, large transformers can be tested for determining the maximum
temperature rise by back-to-back test. This test is also called the Regenerative test or Sumpner’s test.
The back-to-back test on single-phase transformers requires two identical transformers. Fig. 2.53,
shows the circuit diagram for the back-to-back test on two identical single-phase transformers Tr1
and Tr2 . The primary windings of the two transformers are connected in parallel and supplied at
rated voltage and rated frequency. A voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter are connected to the
input side as shown in Fig. 2.53.

Fig. 2.53 Back-to-back test on two identical single-phase transformers

The secondary windings are connected in series with their polarities in phase opposition, which
can be checked by the voltmeter V2. The range of this voltmeter should be double the rated voltage of
either transformer secondary. In order to check that the secondary windings are connected in series
 168 Electrical Machines

opposition, any two terminals (say B and C) are joined together and the voltage is measured between
the remaining terminals A and D. If the voltmeter V2 reads zero, the two secondary windings are in
series opposition and terminals A and D are used for test. If the voltmeter reads a value approximately
equal to twice the rated secondary voltage of either transformer, then the secondary windings are
acting in the same direction. Then terminals A and C are joined and the terminals B and D are used
for the test.
If the primary circuit is now closed, the total voltage across the two secondary windings in series
will be zero. There will be no current in the secondary windings. The transformers will behave as
if their secondary windings are open circuited. Hence, the reading of wattmeter W1 gives the iron
losses of both the transformers.
A small voltage is injected in the secondary circuit by a regulating transformer TR excited by the
main supply. The magnitude of the injected voltage is adjusted till the ammeter A2 reads full-load
secondary current. The secondary current produces full-load current to flow through the primary
windings. This current will follow a circulatory path through the main bus-bars as shown by dotted
line in Fig. 2.53. The reading of wattmeter W2 will not be affected by this current. Thus, wattmeter
W2 gives the full-load copper losses of the two transformers.
The ammeter A1 gives total no-load current of the two transformers. Thus, in this method we
have loaded the two transformers to full load but the power taken from the supply is that necessary
to supply the losses of both transformers.
The temperature rise of the transformers can be determined by operating these transformers back-
to-back for a long time, say 48 hour, and measuring the temperature of the oil at periodic intervals
of time, say every one hour.

Example 2.46
Open-circuit, and short-circuit tests were conducted on a 50 kVA, 6 360/240 V, 50 Hz, single-phase
transformer in order to find its efficiency. The observations during these tests are:
O.C. test Voltage across primary winding = 6 360 V; Primary current = 1.0 A, and Power input
= 2 kW.
S.C. test Voltage across primary = 180 V; Current in secondary winding = 175 A, and Power
input = 2 kW.
Calculate the efficiency of the transformer, when supplying full-load at p.f. of 0.8 lagging.

Solution:

O.C. test Wi = 2 000 W; I2( fl) = 50 ¥ 1000 = 208.33 A

240
S.C. test: I2SC = 175 A; Wc = 2 000 W

( )
2
Ê I 2( fl ) ˆ 2
? Cu loss at full-load, Pc = Wc Á = 2 000 208.33 = 2 833 W
Ë I 2 sc ˜¯ 175

? Efficiency = 50 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100% = 95.33% (Ans.)

50 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.8 + 2 000 + 2 833
 Single-Phase Transformers 169

Example 2.47
A 15 kVA, 440/230 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer gave the following test results:
Open Circuit (LV side) 250 V, 1.8A, 95 W.
Short Circuit Test (HV side) 80 V, 12.0 A, 380 W.
Compute the parameters of the equivalent circuit referred to LV side.

Solution:
Transformer rating = 15 kVA; E1 = 440 V; E2 = 230 V; f = 50 Hz

Open circuit test (LV side); V2 = 250 V; I0 = 1.8 A; W0 = 95 W

Short circuit test (HV side); V1(sc) = 80 V; I1(sc) = 12 A; Wc = 380 W

From open circuit test performed on LV side;

W0
Iw = = 95 = 0.38 A
V2 250

Imag = I 02 - I w2 = (1.8)2 - (0.38)2 = 1.75943 A

V2
Exciting resistance, R0 = = 250 = 658 W
Iw 0.38
V2
Exciting reactance, X0 = = 250 = 142 W
I mag 1.75943
From short circuit test performed on HV side;

V1( sc )
Zep = = 80 = 6.667 W
I1( sc ) 12
Wc
Rep = = 3802 = 2.639 W
( I1( sc ) )2 (12)
2 2
Xep = Z ep - Rep = (6.667)2 - (2.639)2 = 6.122 W

E2
Transformation ratio, K = = 230 = 0.5227
E1 440
Transformer resistance and reactance referred to LV (secondary) side;
Res = Rep × K2 = 2.639 × (0.5227)2 = 0.7211 :
Xes = Xep × K2 = 6.122 × (0.5227)2 = 2.673 :

Example 2.48
A 50 MVA, 60 Hz single-phase transformer indicates that it has a voltage rating of 8 kV: 78 kV. Open
circuit test and short circuit test gave the following results:
 170 Electrical Machines

Open Circuit Test: 8 kV, 61.9 A and 136 kW

Short Circuit Test: 650 V, 6.25 kA and 103 kW.
Determine the efficiency and voltage regulation if the transformer is operating at rated voltage and
a load of 0.9 p.f. lagging.

Solution:
Here, rating of transformer = 50 MVA = 50 × 106 VA
V1 = 8 kV; V2 = 78 kV; Load p.f., cos I = 0.9 lag
Open circuit (LV side): V1 = 8 kV; I0 = 61.9 A; W0 = 136 kW
Short circuit test (LV side): V1(sc) = 650 V; I1(sc) = 6.25 kA; Wc = 103 kW
From open circuit test, iron losses of the transformer,
P0 = W0 = 136 kW
At rated capacity, full-load current of the transformer on LV side,

= 50 ¥ 103 = 6.25 kA
Rated capacity 6
I1( fl) =
V1 8 ¥ 10
Since I1(sc) = I1( fl) = 6.25 kA, the short circuit test is performed at full load.

? Full load copper losses, Pc = Wc = 103 kW

Rated kVA ¥ cos f
Full-load efficiency, K=
Rated kVA ¥ cos f + Pi in kW + Pc in kW

= 50 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.9 = 0.9947 = 99.47% (Ans.)

50 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.9 + 136 + 103
Considering the data of short circuit test;
Transformer impedance referred to primary,
V1( sc ) 650
Zep = = = 0.104 :
I1( sc ) 6.25 ¥ 103
Transformer resistance referred to primary,

Rep =
Wc
= 103 ¥ 103 = 0.0165 :
2
( I1( sc ) ) (6.25 ¥ 103 )2
Transformer reactance referred primary,

Xep = 2
Z cp 2
- Rcp = (0.104)2 - (0.0165)2 = 0.10317 :

Load p.f., cos I = 0.9; sin I = sin cos–1 0.9 = 0.4359

E1 = V1 – I1Rep cos I – I1Xep sin I
= 8 kV – 6.25 kA × 0.0165 × 0.9 – 6.25 kA × 0.10317 × 0.4359
= 8 – 0.0928 – 0.28107 = 7.626 kV
 Single-Phase Transformers 171

V1 - E1 8 - 7.626
Voltage regulation, Reg = = = 0.04675 (per unit)
V1 8
% Reg = 0.04675 × 100 = 4.675% (Ans.)

Example 2.49
Determine the percentage efficiency and regulation at full load 0·9 p.f. lagging of a 5 kVA, 220/440
V single phase transformer. When the following test data is obtained. OC. Test – 220 V, 2 A, 100 W
on L.V. side; S.C. Test – 40 V. 11·4 A, 200 W on H.V. side.

Solution:
From O.C. Test, Iron losses, Pi = 100 W;

From S.C. Test, Copper losses, Wc = 200 W (at the load at which test is performed)

Full-load current on HV side, I2 = kVA ¥ 1000 = 5 ¥ 1000 = 11.4 A

V2 440
i.e., SC Test is performed at full load since I2sc = I2

? Full-load copper loss, Pc = Wc = 200 W

kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f2

Efficiency, K = ¥ 100
kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f2 + Pi + Pc

= 5 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.9 ¥ 100 = 93·75% (Ans.)

5 ¥ 100 ¥ 0.9 + 100 + 200
Wattmeter reading
From S.C. Test: Res = = 200 2 = 1.539W
( Ammeter reading ) (11.4)
2

Volmeter reading
Zes = = 40 = 3.509W
Ammeter reading (11.4)

Xes = ( Zes )2 - ( Res )2 = (3.509)2 - (1.539)2 = 3.153W

Here cos I2 = 0·9; sin I2 = sin cos–1 0·9 = 0·4359

E2 = V2 + I2 Res cos I2 + I2 Xes sin I2
= 440 + 11·4 × 1·539 × 0·9 + 11·4 × 3·153 × 0·4359 = 471·46 V

E2 - V2
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 471.46 - 440 ¥ 100 = 6·67% (Ans.)
E2 471.46
Example 2.50
The following data was obtained when O.C. and S.C. tests on a 5 kVA, 230/160 V, 50 Hz, transformer
were performed.
O.C. test (H.V. side) – 230V, 0·6 A, 80 watt
S.C. test (L.V. side) – 6 V, 15 A, 20 watt
Calculate the efficiency of transformer on full load at 0·8 p.f. lagging.
 172 Electrical Machines

Solution:
From open circuit test, iron losses, Pi = 80 W
As short circuit test is performed on L.V. side,
I2sc = 15 A

Full load secondary current, I2 = 5 ¥ 1000 = 31.25A

160
Copper losses measured at S.C. test, Wc = 20 W

( )
2
Ê I ˆ 2
Full load copper losses, Pc = Á 2 ˜ Wc = 31.25 ¥ 20 = 86.8 W
Ë I 2 sc ¯ 15
Efficiency of transformer at full load 0·8 p.f. lagging
kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f
K = ¥ 100
kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f + Pi + Pc

= 5 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100 = 96% (Ans.)

5 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 + 80 + 86.8
Example 2.51
Following data were obtained on a 20 kVA, 50 Hz, 2000/200 volt distribution transformer
V (Volt) I (Amp) Power (Watt)
O.C. Test 200 4 120
S.C. Test 60 10 300
Draw approximate equivalent circuit referred to H.V. side and L.V. side. Also calculate efficiency if
the L.V. side is loaded fully at 0.8 power factor. What is maximum efficiency of the transformer at
power factor and also find percentage load at which the maximum efficiency is obtained.

Solution:
Here, Rating of transformer = 20 kVA; f = 50 Hz; V1 = 2000 V; V2 = 200 V
Open circuit test is performed at rated voltage, therefore, as per data given, it is performed on LV
side i.e., secondary side
? V2 = 200 V; I0 = 4A; W0 = 120 W

Iron loss, Pi = W0 = 120 W

W0
Wattful component, Iw = = 120 = 0.6 A
V2 200

Magnetising component, Imag = I 02 - I w2 = (4)2 - (0.6)2 = 3.955 A

V2
Exciting resistance, R0 = = 200 = 333.33 W
Iw 0.6
V2
Exciting reactance, X0 = = 200 = 50.57 W
I mag 3.955
 Single-Phase Transformers 173

Short circuit test is performed at reduced voltage and almost at full-load current, therefore, as per
data given, it is performed on HV side i.e., primary side.
? V1(sc) = 60 V; I1(sc) = 10 A; Wc = 300 W

I1(sc) = kVA ¥ 1000 = 20 ¥ 1000 = 10 A

V1 2000
The test is performed at full-load.

Copper losses at full-load, Pc = Wc = 300 W

V1( sc )
Zep = = 60 = 6 W
I1( sc ) 10
Wc
Rep = 2
= 3002 = 3 W
( I1( sc ) ) (10)
2 2
Xcp = Z ep - Rep = (6)2 - (3)2 = 5.2 W

V2
Transformation ratio, K = = 200 = 0.1
V1 2000
Exciting resistance and reactance refused to HV side

R0
Rc0 = 2
= 333.33 = 33333 W
K (0.1)2
X0
Xc0 = 2
= 50.572 = 5057 W
K (0.1)
When resistance and reactance of transformer windings is referred to LV side
Res = Rep × K2 = 3 × (0.1)2 = 0.03 :
 Xes = Xep × K2 = 5.2 × (0.1)2 = 0.052 :
The approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to HV side and LV side are drawn
and shown in Figs. 2.54 (a) and (b), respectively. The values of various parameters are mentioned
in the solution.

Fig. 2.54 Equivalent circuit

 174 Electrical Machines

Efficiency of the transformer of full-load, 0.8 power factor,

%K= kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100

kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 + Pi + Pc

= 20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100 = 97.44% (Ans.)

20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 + 120 + 300
Condition for maximum efficiency,
Copper loss = Iron loss

I 2¢2 Res = 120

I 2¢ = 120 = 63.246 A
0.03
Fraction of the load at which the efficiency is maximum.

I 2¢
x=
I 2( fl ) (I ¢
2 ( fl ) = 20 ¥ 1000 = 100 A
200 )
= 63.246 = 0.63246
100
Value of max. efficiency, Kmax. = x ¥ kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100
x ¥ kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 + 120 + 120
= 0.63246 ¥ 20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100
0.63246 ¥ 20 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 + 120 + 120
= 97.68% (Ans.)

Example 2.52
Open-circuit and short-circuit tests on a 4 kVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, one-phase transformer gave the
following test:
O.C. test: 200 V, 1 A, 100 W (on L.V. side)
S.C. test: 15 V, 10 A, 85 W (with primary short-circuited)
(i) Draw the equivalent circuit referred to primary: (ii) calculate the approximate regulation at the
transformer at 0.8 p.f. lagging, and leading.

Solution:
Transformer rating = 4 kVA; E1 = 200 V; E2 = 400 V
O.C. test (LV, side): V1 = 200 V; I0 = 1 A; W0 = 100 W
S.C. test (HV side): V2(sc) = 15 V; I2(sc) = 10 A; Wc = 85 W
From open-circuit test:

W0
Iw = = 100 = 0.5 A
V1 200

Imag = I 02 - I w2 = (1)2 - (0.5)2 = 0.866 A

 Single-Phase Transformers 175

V1
R0 = = 200 = 400 W
Iw 0.5
V1
X0 = = 200 = 231 W
I mag 0.866
From short - circuit test:

Wc
Res = = 85 2 = 0.85 W
( I 2( sc ) )2 (10)
V2( sc )
Zes = = 15 = 1.5 W
I 2( sc ) 10
2
Xes = Z es 2
- Res = (1.5)2 - (0.85)2 = 1.236 W

K = 400 = 2
200
R
Rep = es2 = 0.85 = 0.21 W
K ( 2 )2
X es
Xep = 2
= 1.236 = 0.31 W
K ( 2 )2
The equivalent circuit referred to primary side is shown in Fig. 2.55.

Fig. 2.55 Equivalent circuit

Power factor of the load, cos I = 0.8; sin I = sin cos–1 0.8 = 0.6
Full-load secondary current, I2 = kVA ¥ 1000 = 4 ¥ 1000 = 10 A
E2 400
(ii) Percentage regulation (referred to secondary) at:
I 2 ( R2 cos f + X 2 sin f ) ¥ 100
(a) 0.8 p.f. lagging =
E2
10 (0.85 ¥ 0.8 + 1.236 ¥ 0.6) ¥ 100
= = 3.544% (Ans.)
400
10 (0.85 ¥ 0.8 - 1.236 ¥ 0.6) ¥ 100
(b) 0.8 p.f. leading = = – 0.154% (Ans.)
400
 176 Electrical Machines

Example 2.53
When OC Test and SC Test were performed on a 50 kVA transformer the following results were
obtained:
Open circuit tests: Primary voltage 3300 V, secondary voltage 415 V, power 430 W
Short circuit test: Primary voltage 124 V, primary current 15.3 A, primary power 525 W secondary
current full load value.
Calculate:
(a) The efficiency at full-load and at half-load for 0.7 power factor.
(b) The voltage regulation for power factor 0.7: (i) lagging (ii) leading
(c) The secondary terminal voltages corresponding to (i) and (ii).

Solution:
Rating of transformer = 50 kVA; Power factor = 0.7

Open circuit test (primary): V1 = 3300 V; V2 = 415 V; W0 = 430 W

Short circuit test (primary): V1(sc) = 124 V; I1(sc) = 15.3 A; Wc = 525 W

Short circuit test is performed at full-load secondary current,

? Full-load copper losses, Pc = Wc = 525 W

Iron losses, Pi = W0 = 430 W

When p.f., cos I = 0.7

kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f
(a) Full-load efficiency, Kfl =
kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f + Pi + Pc

= 50 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.7 ¥ 100 = 97.34% (Ans.)

50 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.7 + 430 + 525
0.5 kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f
Efficiency at half-load, K0.5 =
0.5 kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f + Pi + (0.5)2 Pc

= 0.5 ¥ 50 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.7 ¥ 100

0.5 ¥ 50 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.7 + 430 + (0.5)2 ¥ 525

= 96.89% (Ans.)

(b) Transformer impedance referred to primary,

V1( sc )
Zep = = 124 = 8.1 :
I1( sc ) 15.3
Transformer resistance referred to primary,

Wc 525 = 2.243 :
Rep = =
( I1( sc ) )2 (15.3)2
 Single-Phase Transformers 177

Transformer reactance referred to primary,

2 2
Xep = Z ep - Rep

= (8.1)2 - (2.243)2 = 7.783 :

At 3300 V, primary full-load current,

I1 = 50 ¥ 1000 = 15.15 A
3300
For p.f., cos I= 0.7 lag; sin I= sin cos–1 0.7 = 0.714

E1 = V1 – I1 Rep cos I– I1 Xcp sin I

= 3300 – 15.15 × 2.243 × 0.7 – 15.15 × 7.783 × 0.714

= 3300 – 23.787 – 84.189 = 3192 V

V1 - E1
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 3300 - 3192 ¥ 100 = 3.27% (Ans.)
V1 3300
For p.f., cos I = 0.7 leading; sin I= sin cos–1 0.7 = 0.714

Ec1 = V1 – I1 Rep cos I + I1 Xcp sin I

= 3300 – 15.15 × 2.243 × 0.7 + 15.15 × 7.783 × 0.714

= 3300 – 23.787 + 84.189 = 3360 V

V1 - E1
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 3300 - 3360 ¥ 100 = –1.82% (Ans.)
V1 3300
(c) Secondary terminal voltage at 0.7 p.f. lagging:

V2 = E2 = K × E1 where K = 415
3300
= 415 ¥ 3192 = 402.4 V (Ans.)
3300
Secondary terminal voltage at 0.7 p.f. leading;

V2¢ = E2¢ = K ¥ E1¢ = 415 ¥ 3360 = 422.5 V (Ans.)

3300
Example 2.54
A 10 kVA, 2500/250 V, single phase transformer gave the following results:
Open circuit Test: 250 V, 0.8 A, 50 W
Short circuit Test: 60 V, 3A, 45 W
Determine
(a) Equivalent circuit parameters referred to LV side
(b) The efficiency at full load and 0.8 power factor lagging
 178 Electrical Machines

(c) Load (kVA) at which the maximum efficiency occurs

(d) Voltage regulation at rated load and 0.8 pf leading
(e) Secondary terminal voltage at rated load and 0.8 pf lagging.

Solution:
Transformer rating = 10 kVA; E1 = 2500 V; E2 = 250 V
As per data, open circuit test is performed on LV side and short circuit test is performed on HV side.
Open circuit test (LV side); V2 = 250 V; I0 = 0.8 A; W0 = 50 W
Short circuit test (HV side); V1(sc) = 60 V; I1(sc) = 3A; Wc = 45 W
(a) Open circuit test performed on LV side given;
W0
I0 = 0.8 A; Iw = = 50 = 0.2 A
V2 250

Imag = I 02 - I w2 = (0.8)2 - (0.2)2 = 0.7746 A

V2
Exciting resistance, R0 = = 250 = 1250 : (Ans.)
Iw 0.2
V2
Exciting reactance, X0 = = 250 = 323 : (Ans.)
I mag 0.7746
Short circuit test performed on HV side gives;

V1( sc )
Zep = = 60 = 20 W
I1( sc ) 3
Wc
Rep = 2
= 452 = 5 W
( I1( sc ) ) (3)

Xep = 2
Z ep 2
- Rep = (20)2 - (5)2 = 19.36 :

E2
Transformation ratio, K = = 250 = 0.1
E1 2500
Parameters, when referred to LV side;

Res = K2 × Rep = (0.1)2 × 5 = 0.05 :

Xes = K2 × Xep = (0.1)2 × 19.36 = 0.1936 :

(b) Full-load current on HV side, I1( fl) = 10 ¥ 1000 = 4 A

2500

()
2
Ê I1( fl ) ˆ 2
Copper loss at full-load, Pc = Á ˜ ¥ Wc = 4 ¥ 45 = 80 W
Ë 1( sc ) ¯
I 3

Iron loss, Pi = W0 = 50 W
 Single-Phase Transformers 179

Efficiency at full-load, 0.8 p.f. lagging;

kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f
 K=
kVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f + Pi + Pc

= 10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 100 = 98.4% (Ans.)

10 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8 + 50 + 80
(c) Fraction of load at which the efficiency is maximum;

Pi 50 = 0.79
x= =
Pc 80
Load in kVA at which the efficiency is maximum
= x × rated kVA = 0.79 × 10 = 7.9 kVA (Ans.)
(d) When p.f., cos I = 0.8 leading; sin I= sin cos–1 0.8 = 0.6

I2( fl) = 10 ¥ 1000 = 40 A

250
V2 = E2 – I2 Res cos I + I2 Xes sin I
= 250 – 40 × 0.05 × 0.8 + 40 × 0.1936 × 0.6
= 250 – 1.6 + 4.6464 = 253 V
E2 - V2
% Reg = ¥ 100 = 250 - 253 ¥ 100 = –1.2% (Ans.)
E2 250
(e) When p.f. cos I = 0.8 lagging; sin I = sin cos–1 0.8 = 0.6
V2 = E2 – I2 Res cos I – I2 Xes sin I
= 250 – 40 × 0.05 × 0.8 + 40 × 0.1936 × 0.6
= 250 – 2.6 – 4.6464 = 243.75 V (Ans.)

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. The iron losses of a transformer are 2500 W when operated on 440 V, 50 Hz; these are reduced to 850
W when operated on 220V, 25 Hz. Calculate the eddy current loss at normal frequency and voltage.
(Ans. 1600 W )

2. The iron losses in a transformer core at normal flux density were 30 W at 30 Hz frequency and these were
changed to 54 W at 50 Hz frequency. Calculate (a) the hysteresis loss and (b) the eddy current loss at 50
Hz. (Ans. 44 W, 10 W )

3. The following test results were obtained for a 250/500 V, single-phase transformer: – Short circuit test
with low voltage winding short circuited; 20 V, 12 A, 100 W; Open circuit test on low voltage side; 250 V,
1 A, 30 W. Determine the efficiency of the transformer when the output is 10 A, 500 V at 0·8 p.f. lagging.
(Ans. 96.4%)
 180 Electrical Machines

4. A 5 kVA, 230/110 V, 50 c/s transformer gave the following test results; O.C. test (H.V. side); 230 V, 0·6
A, 80 W; S.C. test (L.V. side); 6 V, 15 A, 20 W. Calculate the efficiency of the transformer on full-load at
0·8 p.f. lagging. Also calculate the voltage on the secondary side under full-load conditions at 0·8 p.f.
leading. (Ans. 93·82%, 117·4 V )

5. A 5 kVA, 400/200 V, 50 Hz, I-phase transformer gave the following results:

No-load: 400 V, 1 A, 50 W (LV side)
Short-circuit: 12 V, 10 A, 40 W (HV side)
Calculate (a) the components of no-load current (b) the efficiency and regulation at full load and power
factor of 0.8 lagging. (Ans. 0.125 A; 0.992 A; 97.8%; 3.13%)

6. A transformer has copper loss of 1.5% and reactance 3.5% when tested on load. Calculate its full-load
regulation at (i) unity power factor (ii) 0.8 p.f. lagging and (iii) 0.8 p.f. leading.
(Ans. 1.56%; 3.32%; –0.83%)

7. A 5 kVA, 200/400 V 50 Hz single phase transformer gave the following results.

O.C. Test 200 V, 0.7 A, 60 W Low voltage side
S.C. Test 22 V, 120 W, 120 W High voltage side
(a) Find the %age regulation when supplying full load at 0.9 p.f. lagging.
(b) Determine the load which gives maximum efficiency and find the value of this efficiency at unity
p.f. (Ans. 3.08%, 4.54 kVA, 97.4%)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. Why short circuit test is performed on high voltage side of transformer?
Ans. For convenience and better results, short circuit test is performed on HV side of a transformer.

Q.2. Why are iron losses or core losses assumed to remain constant in a power transformer from no-
load to full-load?
Ans. The magnetic flux set-up in the core remains the same from no-load to full-load, hence iron losses
remain constant from no-load to full-load.

Q.3. How can iron loss be measured?

Ans. Iron losses can be measured by performing no-load test on a transformer.

Q.4. The percentage leakage impedance of a one-phase 2000 V/100 V, 5 kVA transformer is 2.5. What
voltage should be applied to HV side for carrying out short-circuit test at rated current ?

Ans. Rated full-load on HV side, I1 = 5 ¥ 1000 = 2.5 A

2000
I1Z
%Z = ¥ 100
V1

or 2.5 = 2.5 ¥ Z ¥ 100

2000

or Z = 2.5 ¥ 2000 = 20 W
2.5 ¥ 100
Applied voltage at short circuit, VSC(1) = I1Z = 2.5 × 20 = 50V
 Single-Phase Transformers 181

2.37 Classification of Transformers

The transformers are often classified according to their applications. Following are the important
types of transformers:
(i) Power Transformers: These transformers are used to step up the voltage at the generating
station for transmission purposes and then to step down the voltage at the receiving stations.
These transformers are of large capacity (generally above 500 kVA). These transformers usually
operate at high average load, which would cause continuous capacity copper loss, thus affecting
their efficiency. To have minimum losses during 24 hours, such transformers are designed with
low copper losses.
(ii) Distribution Transformers: These transformers are installed at the distribution sub-stations
to step down the voltage. These transformers are continuously energised causing the iron losses
for all the 24 hours, Generally the load on these transformers fluctuate from no-load to full
load during this period. To obtain high efficiency, such transformers are designed with low iron
losses.
(iii) Instrument Transformers: To measure high voltages and currents in power system potential
transformer (P.T.) and current transformer (C.T.) are used, respectively. The potential transformers
are used to decrease the voltage and current transformers are used to decrease the current up
to measurable value. These are also used with protective devices.
(iv) Testing transformers: These transformers are used to step up voltage to a very high value for
carrying out the tests under high voltage, e.g., for testing the dielectric strength of transformer
oil.
(v) Special purpose transformer: The transformers may be designed to serve special purposes,
these may be used with furnaces, rectifiers, welding sets etc.
(vi) Auto-transformers: These are single winding transformers used to step down the voltages for
starting of large three-phase squirrel cage induction motors.
(vii) Isolation transformer: These transformers are used only to isolate (electrically) the electronic
circuits from the main electrical lines, therefore, their transformation ratio is usually one.
(viii) Impedance matching transformer: These transformers are used at the output stage of the
amplifier for impedance matching to obtain maximum output from the amplifiers.

2.38 Parallel Operation of Transformers

When the primaries and secondaries of the two or more transformers are connected separately to
the same incoming and outgoing lines to share the load, the transformers are said to be connected
in parallel.
The two single-phase transformers A and B are placed in parallel as shown in Fig. 2.56. Here
the primary windings of the two transformers are joined to the supply bus-bars and the secondary
windings are joined to the load through load bus-bars. Under this conditions;
V1 = Primary applied voltage
V2 = V = Secondary load voltage.
 182 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.56 Parallel operation of two one-phase transformers (circuit diagram)

2.39 Necessity of Parallel Operation

The following are the reasons for which transformers are put in parallel.
(i) When the load on the transmission lines increases beyond the capacity of the installed
transformer. To overcome this problem one way is to replace the existing transformer with the
new one having larger capacity (this is called augmentation of transformer) and the other way
is to place one more transformer is parallel with the existing one to share the load. The cost of
replacing the transformer is much more than placing another one in parallel with the existing
one.
Hence, it is desirable to place another transformer is parallel when the electrical load on the
existing transformer increases beyond its rated capacity.
(ii) Sometimes, the amount of power to be transformed is so high that it is not possible to build a
single unit of that capacity, then we have to place two or more transformers in parallel.
Hence, parallel operation of transformers is necessary when the amount of power to be
transformed is much more than that which can be handled by single unit (transformer).
(iii) At the grid sub stations, spare transformers are always necessary to insure the continuity of
supply in case of breakdown. The size of spare transformer depends upon the size of transformers
placed at the grid sub-station. Therefore, it is desirable to place transformers of smaller capacity
in parallel to transform the given load which in turn reduces the size of the spare transformer.
Hence, it is desirable to do parallel operation of transformers if we want to keep the spare
transformer of smaller size.

2.40 Conditions for Parallel Operation of One-phase Transformers

The following conditions are to be fulfilled if two or more transformers are to be operated successfully
in parallel to deliver a common load.
(i) Both the transformers should have same transformation ratio i.e., the voltage ratings of both
primaries and secondaries must be identical.
 Single-Phase Transformers 183

If this condition is not exactly fulfilled i.e., if the two transformers ‘A’ and ‘B’ have slight
difference in their voltage or transformation ratios, even then parallel operation is possible.
Since the transformation ratios are unequal, primary applied voltage being equal, the induced
emfs in the secondary windings will not be equal. Due to this inequality of induced emfs in the
secondary windings, there will be, even at no-load, some circulating current flowing from one
secondary winding (having higher induced emf) to the other secondary windings (having lower
induced emf). In other words, there will be circulating currents between the secondary windings
and therefore between primary windings also when the secondary terminals are connected in
parallel. The impedance of transformers is small, so that a small percentage voltage difference
may be sufficient to circulate a considerable current and cause additional I2 R loss. When load is
applied on the secondary side of such a transformer, the unequal loading conditions will occur
due to circulating current. Hence, it may be impossible to take the combined full load kVA output
from the parallel connected group without one of the transformers becoming excessively hot.
For satisfactory parallel operation the circulating current should not exceed 10% of the normal
load current.
(ii) Both the transformers should have the same percentage impedance.
If this condition is not exactly fulfilled, i.e., the impedance triangles at the rated kVA’s are not
identical in shape and size, even then parallel operation will be possible, but the power factors
at which the transformers operate will differ from the power factor of the load. Therefore, in
this case the transformers will not share the load in proportion to their kVA ratings.
(iii) Both the transformers must have the same polarity i.e., both the transformers must be properly
connected with regard to their polarities.
If this condition is not observed, the emfs in the secondary windings of the transformers which
are parallel with incorrect polarity will act together in the local secondary circuits and produce
the effect equivalent to a dead short circuit.
Polarity Check: Referring to Fig. 2.56 we have two transformers A and B with terminals
of unknown polarity. Primary terminals T1 and T2 are connected to the primary bus bars as
usual. On the secondary side, one of the terminals of the transformer A is joined temporarily
to a terminal of transformers B and the other terminals of A and B transformers are connected
through the Double range voltmeter i.e., the two secondary windings and the double range
voltage form a closed series circuit. If the double range voltmeter reads zero, when the primary
windings are energised, then the terminal which are temporarily joined are of correct polarity
i.e., like polarity, but if the double range voltmeter reads twice the normal secondary voltage,
these terminals are of incorrect polarity i.e., unlike polarity.
(iv) In case of 3-phase transformers, the two transformers must have the same phase-sequence i.e.,
the transformers must be properly connected with regard to their phase-sequence.
If this condition is not observed, it will have the same effect as discussed above when the polarity
of two single phase transformers is not the same. Phase-sequence is also checked as discussed
above.
(v) In case of 3-phase transformers, the two transformers must have the connections so that
there should not be any phase difference between the secondary line voltages i.e., a delta-
 184 Electrical Machines

star connected transformer should not be connected with a delta-delta or star-star connected
transformer.
If this condition is not fulfilled, it will cause a heavy circulating current which may damage
the transformers.

2.41 Load Sharing between Two Transformers Connected in Parallel

The load sharing between two transformers connected in parallel depends upon the various conditions
are as discussed below:
(i) When the two transformers have the same voltage ratios and their impedance voltage
triangles are identical in size and shape.
The condition for which the transformers have the same voltage ratio and impedance voltage
triangles is known ideal condition or ideal case. Let E be the no-load secondary voltage of
each transformer and V the terminal voltage. Figure 2.57 shows the equivalent circuit in which
I1 and I2 are the currents supplied by the transformers A and B, respectively. I be the total load
current lagging behind the voltage V by an angle I. The impedance voltage triangles of the
individual transformers are identical in shape and size and are therefore, represented by a single
triangle VAB with the resistance drop (side VA) parallel to the load current vector OI as shown
in Fig. 2.58. The current I1 and I2 in the individual transformers are both in phase with the load
current I and are inversely proportional to their respective impedances.
? I = I1 + I 2 …(2.93)

Also I1 Z1 = I 2 Z 2 …(2.94)

I1 Z
or = 2
I2 Z1
Z2
or I1 = ◊I
Z1 2
Substituting the value of I1 in eq. (i), we get,

Z2 È Z + Z1 ˘ Z1
I = I2 + I2 = I2 Í 2 ˙ or I 2 = ¥I …(2.95)
Z1 Î Z1 ˚ Z1 + Z 2
Z2
Similarly, I1 = ¥I …(2.96)
Z1 + Z 2
Multiplying both sides by the common terminal voltage V, we get,

Z2 Z1
I1V = V I ; Similarly I 2 V VI
Z1 + Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
Z2
? kVA1 = ¥ kVA …(2.97)
Z1 + Z 2
 Single-Phase Transformers 185

Z1
and kVA2 = ¥ kVA …(2.98)
Z1 + Z 2

Fig. 2.57 Circuit diagram of two transformers Fig. 2.58 Phasor diagram of two transformers
connected in parallel operating in parallel (Impedance
voltage triangles are identical)

(ii) When the two transformers have the same voltage ratios but different voltage triangles
In this case, no-load voltages of both secondary are equal in magnitude as well as in phase i.e.,
there is no phase difference between E1 and E2 which will only be possible if the magnetising
currents of the two transformers are not very different from each other or nearly the same. Under
these conditions, both sides of two transformers can be connected in parallel, and no current
will circulate between them on no-load.
Figure 2.59 shows the equivalent circuit diagram when the parallel connected transformers
are sharing the load current I, and it represents two impedances in parallel. The impedance
voltage triangle is now represented by two triangles VAB, VAc B having common hypotenuse
VB as shown in Fig. 2.60. The resistance drop sides of the triangles VA, VAc are parallel to the
phasors OI1 and OI2 of the respective secondary currents. The sum of these vectors OI1 and
OI2 represents the load current OI.

Fig. 2.59 Circuit diagram of two transformers Fig. 2.60 Phasor diagram of two transformesr
connected in parallel operating in parallel (having different
voltage triangles)
186 Electrical Machines

Z1 and Z 2 = impedances of the two transformers

I1 and I 2 = the currents of the two transformers

I = total load current
V = common terminal voltage.
The total current I is given by
I = I1 + I 2

From the equivalent circuit diagram, it is seen that

E1 = E2 = E , the common terminal voltage

? I1 Z1 = I 2 Z 2 = v …(2.99)

Since Z1 and Z 2 are in parallel, we have the equivalent impedance Z

1 = 1 + 1
Z Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2
? Z =
Z1 + Z 2
? The total combined current

I = v =
(
v Z1 + Z 2 )
Z Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2
or v = ¥I
( Z1 + Z 2 )
Z1 Z 2
? I1 Z1 = ¥I
Z1 + Z 2
Z1
or I1 = …(2.100)
Z1 + Z 2
Z1
Similarly I2 = …(2.101)
Z1 + Z 2
Multiplying both sides by the common terminal voltage V , we get,
Z1
I1 V = ¥VI
Z1 + Z 2
Z1
Similarly I2 V = ¥VI
Z1 + Z 2
Let V × I × 10 –3 = kVA, the combined load in kVA.
V × I1 × 10 –3 = kVA1 load shared by transformer ‘A’ in kVA.
V × I2 × 10 –3 = kVA2 load shared by transformer ‘B’ in kVA.
 Single-Phase Transformers 187

Z2
? kVA1 = ¥ kVA …(2.102)
Z1 + Z 2
Z1
kVA2 = ¥ kVA …(2.103)
Z1 + Z 2
kVA1 Z
? = 2
kVA2 Z1
i.e., the load shared by each transformer is inversely proportional to their impedances.

Again from equation (ii) or (iii), we get,

I1 = 1 ¥I …(2.104)
Z1
+1
Z2

or I2 = 1 ¥I …(2.105)
Z2
+1
Z1
Equation (vi) shows that the load shared by each transformer depends upon the ratio of impedances,
so the unit in which they are measured does not matter.

Note: The expression, derived above are vectorial so that kVA1 and kVA2 are obtained in magnitude
as well as in direction.

(iii) When the two transformers have different voltage ratio and different voltage triangles.
In this case, the voltage ratios or transformation ratios of the two transformers are different. It
means, these no-load secondary voltages are unequal.
Let E1 , E 2 be the no-load secondary emfs of the two transformers and Z be the load impedance
across the secondary.

Fig. 2.61 Circuit diagram of two transformers Fig. 2.62 Phasor diagram of two transformers
connected in parallel operating in parallel having different
voltage ratio and different voltage
triangles.
188 Electrical Machines

The equivalent circuit and vector diagram are also shown in Fig. 2.61 and Fig. 2.62, respectively.
It is seen that even when secondaries are on no-load, there will be some circulating-current in
the secondaries because of inequality in their induced emf’s. This circulating current I C is
given by
I C = ( E1 - E 2 ) / ( Z 1 + Z 2 ) …(2.106)

As the induced emf’s of the two transformers are equal to the total drops in their respective
circuits.

i.e., E1 = I 1 Z 1 + V 2 ; E 2 = I 2 Z 2 + V 2

Now V 2 = I . Z L = ( I 1 + I 2 ) Z L where Z L = load impedance

? E1 = I 1 Z 1 + ( I 1 + I 2 ) Z L …(2.107)

E 2 = I 2 Z 2 + (I 1 + I 2 ) Z L …(2.108)

? E1 – E 2 = I 1 Z 1 - I 2 Z 2 …(2.109)

( E1 - E 2 ) + I 2 Z 2
? I1 =
Z1
Substituting this value of I 1 in equation (iii), we get,

È ( E1 - E 2 ) + I 2 Z 2 ˘
E2 = I 2 Z 2 + Í + I2 ˙ ZL
Î Z 1 ˚
E 2 Z 1 - ( E1 - E 2 ) Z L
? I2 = …(2.110)
Z 1 Z 2 + Z L (Z 1 + Z 2 )
From the symmetry of the expression, we get

E1 Z 2 + ( E1 - E 2 ) Z L
I1 = …(2.111)
Z 1 Z 2 + Z L (Z 1 + Z 2 )
The two equations (2.110) and (2.111) then give the values of secondary currents shared by the
two transformers. By the division of transformation ratio i.e., K and by addition (if not negligible)
of the no-load current the primary current may be obtained. Usually E1 and E 2 have the same
phase (as assumed above) but there may be some phase difference between the two due to some
difference of internal connection viz. for the connections in parallel of a star/star and a star/
delta 3-phase transformers.

If Z 1 and Z 2 are small as compared to Z L i.e., when the transformers are not operated near
short-circuit conditions, then equations for I 1 and I 2 can be put in a simpler and more easily
understandable form. Neglecting Z 1 Z 2 in comparison with the expression Z L ( Z 1 + Z 2 ) we
have

E1 Z 2 (E - E 2 )
I1 = + 1 …(2.112)
Z L (Z 1 + Z 2 ) Z1 + Z 2
 Single-Phase Transformers 189

I2 = E2 Z1 - E1 - E 2 …(2.113)
Z L (Z 1 + Z 2 ) Z 1 + Z 2
The physical interpretation of second term in equations (2.112) and (2.113) is that it represents
the cross-current (circulating current) between the secondaries. The first term shows how the
actual load current divides between the loads. If E1 = E 2 , the ratios of the currents are inversely
as the impedances (Numerical values).

Note: In the above case, it is more convenient to work with Numerical values of impedances
instead of % values.

Example 2.55
A load of 500 A, at 0·8 power (lagging), at a terminal voltage of 400 V is supplied by two transformers
are connected in parallel. The equivalent impedances of the two transformers referred to the
secondary sides are (2 + j3) ohm and (2.5 + j5) ohm, respectively. Calculate the current and kVA
supplied by each transformer and the power factor at which they operate.

Solution:

Here, Z1 = 2 + j3 = ( 2 )2 + ( 3 )2 tan -1 3 = 3 ◊ 606 56 ◊ 31∞

2

Z1 = 2 · 5 + j5 = ( 2 ◊ 5 )2 + ( 5 )2 tan -1 5 = 5 ◊ 59 63 ◊ 44∞
2◊5

Z1 + Z 2 = 2 + j3 + 2 · 5 + j5 = 4 · 5 + j8 = ( 4 ◊ 5 )2 + (5)2 tan -1 8 = 9 ◊ 17 60 ◊ 64∞

4◊5
I = I cos -1 0 ◊ 8 = 500 - 36 ◊ 87∞

Z2 5 ◊ 59 63 ◊ 44∞
I1 = ¥I = ¥ 500 - 36 ◊ 83∞ = 30 ◊ 45 - 34 ◊ 07∞
Z1 + Z 2 9 ◊ 178 60 ◊ 64∞
I1 = 304·5 A (Ans.)
Power factor, cos I1 = cos (–34·07°) = 0·8184 lag (Ans.)

Z1 3 ◊ 606 56 ◊ 31∞
I2 = ¥I = ¥ 500 - 36 ◊ 87∞ = 196 ◊ 45 - 41 ◊ 2∞
Z1 + Z 2 9 ◊ 178 60 ◊ 64∞
I2 = 196·45 (Ans.)
Power factor, cos I2 = cos (– 41·2°) = 0·75524 lag (Ans.)

Example 2.56
Two single-phase transformers connected in parallel supply a load of 1000 A at 0·8 p.f. lagging. For
each transformer, the secondary emf on open circuit is 3300 V and the total leakage impedances in
terms of the secondary are (0·1 + j0·2) and (0·05 + j0·4) ohm, respectively. Determine the output
current for each transformer and the ratio of the kW output of the two transformers.
 190 Electrical Machines

Solution:
Z1 = 0 · 1 + j0 · 2 = 0 · 2236 63 · 44°

? Z 2 = 0 · 05 + j0 · 4 = 0 · 4031 82 · 87°

Z1 + Z 2 = 0 · 1 + j0 · 2 + 0 · 05 + j0 · 4 = 0 · 15 + j0 · 6 = 0 · 6185 75 · 96°

Taking secondary terminal voltage as reference vector, the expression of the current is

I = 1000 cos–10.8 = 1000 –36.87°

I1 =
Z2
¥I =
0.4031–82.87∞ ¥ 100 – - 36.87∞ = 651.7– - 29.96∞
Z1 + Z 2 0.6185–75.96∞
I1 = 651·7 A (Ans.)

Power factor, cos I1 = cos (– 29·96°) = 0·866 lagging

Z1 0 ◊ 2236 63 ◊ 44∞
I2 = ¥I = × 1000 –36 · 87° = 361 · 5 –49 · 39°
Z1 + Z 2 0 ◊ 6185 75 ◊ 96∞
I2 = 361·5 A (Ans.)
Power factor, cos I2 = cos (– 49·39°) = 0·651 lagging
Ratio of the outputs of the two transformers.

kW1 VI1 cos f1 3300 ¥ 651 ◊ 7 ¥ 0 ◊ 866

= = = 2·398 (Ans.)
kW2 VI 2 cos f2 3300 ¥ 361 ◊ 5 ¥ 0 ◊ 651
Example 2.57
Two single-phase transformers I and II rated at 250 kVA, each are connected in parallel on both
sides. Resistance and reactance drops for I and II are 1% and 6% and 1·2% and 4·8%, respectively.
Calculate the load shared by each and the respective power factors, if the total load is 500 kVA at
0·8 power factor lagging. Their no-load emf’s are equal.

Solution:
Z1 = (1 + j6)%; = 6 · 083 80 · 54°

Z 2 = (1·2 + j4·8)% = 4 · 948 75 · 96°

Z + Z = (1 + j6)% + (1 · 2 + j4·8)% = (2·2 + j10·8)% = 11 · 08 78 · 48°

1 2
kVA = 500 cos–1 0 · 8 = 500 –36 · 87°

Z2 4 ◊ 948 75 ◊ 96∞
? kVA1 = kVA = × 500 –36 · 87° = 223 · 3 –39 · 39°
Z1 + Z 2 11 ◊ 08 78 ◊ 48∞
kVA1 = 223·3 kVA (Ans.)

Power factor, cos I1 = cos (– 39·39°) = 0·773 lag (Ans.)

 Single-Phase Transformers 191

Z1 6 ◊ 083 80 ◊ 54∞
kVA2 = ¥ kVA = × 500 –36 · 87° = 274 · 5 –34 · 81°
Z1 + Z 2 11 ◊ 08 78 ◊ 48∞
kVA2 = 274·5 kVA (Ans.)

Power factor, cos I2 = cos (– 34·81°) = 0·821 lag (Ans.)

Example 2.58
Two single phase transformers are connected in parallel. Both of them are having equal turns and
an impedance of (0.5 + j3) ohm and (0.6 + j10) ohm with respect to the secondary. Determine how
they will share a total load of 100 kW at power factor 0.8 lagging.

Solution:
Here, Z 1 = (0.5 + j3); Z 2 = (0.6 + j 10)

Load = 100 kW; Power factor, cos I = 0.8 lag

Load in kVA = kW = 100 = 125

p. f . 0 ◊ 8
cos I = 0.8; I= cos–1 0.8 = 36.87°; sin I = sin 36.87° = 0.6

kVA = kVA (cos I – j sin I)

= 125 (0.8 – j 0.6) = (100 – j 75) = 125 – - 36 ◊ 87∞

Z1 = (0 ◊ 5)2 + (3)2 – tan -1 3 = 3 ◊ 04 –80 ◊ 54∞

0◊5
Z2 = (0 ◊ 6)2 + (10)2 – tan -1 10 = 10 ◊ 018 –86 ◊ 67∞
0◊6
Z 1 + Z 2 = 0.5 + j3 + 0.6 + j 10 = 1.1 + j 13

= (1 ◊ 1)2 + (13)2 – tan -1 13 = 13 ◊ 05 –85 ◊ 16∞

1◊1

kVA1 = Z2 ¥ kVA = 10 ◊ 018–86 ◊ 67∞ ¥ 125 – - 36 ◊ 87∞

Z1 + Z 2 13 ◊ 04 –85 ◊ 16
= 95.96 ‘–35.36° = 95.96 (0.8155 – j 0.5787) = 78.25 – j 55.54

Z1 3 ◊ 04 –80 ◊ 54∞
kVA2 = ¥ kVA = ¥ 125 – - 36 ◊ 87∞
Z1 + Z 2 13 ◊ 04 –85 ◊ 16∞
= 29.14 ‘–42.49 = 29.14 (0.749 – j 0.662) = 21.83 – j19.29
Load shared by transformer–I = 78.25 kW at p.f. 0.8155 lag (Ans.)
Load shared by transformer–II = 21.83 kW at p.f. 0.749 lag (Ans.)

Example 2.59
A transformer ‘A’ having an open circuit emf of 6600 V with impedance (0.3+j3) ohm referred
to secondary is connected in parallel with transformer ‘B’ having an open circuit emf of 6400 V
 192 Electrical Machines

with impedance (0.2+j1) ohm referred to secondary side. Calculate the current delivered by each
transformer to a load impedance of (8+j6) ohm.

Solution:
Here E1 = 6600 –0∞ = 6600 ± j 0 ; E 2 = 6400 –0∞ = 6400 ± j 0

Z 1 = 0 ◊ 3 + j 3 = 3 ◊ 015–84 ◊ 29∞ ; Z 2 = 0 ◊ 2 + j1 = 1 ◊ 02 –78 ◊ 69∞

Z 1 + Z 2 = 0 ◊ 3 + j 3 + 0 ◊ 2 + j1 = 0 ◊ 5 + j 4 = 4 ◊ 031 –82 ◊ 87∞

E1 Z 2 + ( E1 - E 2 ) Z L
Z L = 8 + j 6 = 10 –36 ◊ 87∞ ; I 1 =
Z 1 Z 2 + Z L (Z 1 + Z 2 )
6600 –0∞ ¥ 1 ◊ 02–78 ◊ 69∞ + (6600 - 6400) –0∞ ¥ 10–36 ◊ 87∞
=
3 ◊ 015–84 ◊ 29∞ ¥ 1 ◊ 02 –78 ◊ 69∞ + 10–36 ◊ 87 ¥ 4 ◊ 031 –82 ◊ 87∞

= 6732 –78 ◊ 69∞ + 2000–36 ◊ 87∞

3 ◊ 0753–162 ◊ 98 + 40 ◊ 31–119 ◊ 74∞
(1320 + j 6601) + (1600 + j1200) 2920 + j 7801
= =
( -2 ◊ 94 + j 0 ◊ 9) + ( -20 + j 35) -22 ◊ 94 + j 35 ◊ 9

= 8329 ◊ 6 –69 ◊ 48∞ = 195 ◊ 53 –126 ◊ 9∞

42 ◊ 6 – - 53 ◊ 42∞
I1 = 195.53 A (in magnitude) (Ans.)

E 2 Z 1 - ( E1 - E 2 ) Z L
Similarly I2 =
Z 1 Z 2 + Z L (Z 1 + Z 2 )
6400 –0∞ ¥ 3 ◊ 015–84 ◊ 29∞ - (6600 - 6400) –0∞ ¥ 10 –36 ◊ 87∞
=
42 ◊ 6 – - 57 ◊ 42∞
= 19296 –84 ◊ 29∞ - 2000 –36 ◊ 87∞
42 ◊ 6 – - 57 ◊ 42∞
1920 + j19200 - 1600 - j1200 320 + j18000
= =
42 ◊ 6 – - 57 ◊ 42∞ 42 ◊ 6 – - 57 ◊ 42∞
= 18003–88 ◊ 98 = 422.6 ‘146.4°
42 ◊ 6 – - 57 ◊ 42∞
I2 = 422.6 A (in magnitude) (Ans.)

Example 2.60
A 500 kVA transformer is connected in parallel with a 150 kVA transformer and is supplying a load of
750 kVA at 0.8 pf lagging. Their open circuit voltages are 405 V and 415 V, respectively. Transformer
A has 1% resistance and 5% reactance and transformer B has 1.5% resistance and 4% reactance.
Find (a) cross-current in the secondaries on no-load and (b) the load shared by each transformer.

Solution:
It is more convenient to work with ohmic impedances and for that purpose, we will convert percentage
values into Numerical values by assuming 400 volt as the terminal voltage (i.e., V1 = V2 = 400 V, this
value is arbitrary but this assumption will not introduce appreciable error).
 Single-Phase Transformers 193

I1( f l ) R1 V1 V
Now, ¥ 100 = 1 or R1 = = 1 ¥ 1
V1 I ( f l ) ¥ 100 100 I1( f l )
kVA1 ¥ 1000
where, I1( f l) = = 500 ¥ 1000 = 1250 A
V1 400

? 1 ¥ 400 = 0 ◊ 0032 W
R1 =
100 1250
Similarly, X1 = 5 ¥ 400 = 0 ◊ 01600 W
100 1250
kVA2 ¥ 1000 150 ¥ 1000
Now, for transformers - B, I2( fl) = = = 375 A
V2 400

? R2 = 1 ◊ 5 ¥ 400 = 0 ◊ 016 W ; X2 = 4 ¥ 400 = 0 ◊ 0427 W

100 375 100 375
? Z 1 = 0.0032 + j 0.016 = 0.0163–78 ◊ 5∞

Z 2 = 0.016 + j 0.0427 = 0.0456 –69 ◊ 46∞

Z 1 + Z 2 = 0.0032 + j 0.016 + 0.016 + j0.0427 = 0.0192 + j0.0587 = 0.0618 –71 ◊ 88∞

Next step is to calculate load impedance. Let ZL be the load impedance and V2 be the terminal
voltage which has been assumed as 400 V.
ÊV ˆ
? Á 2 ˜ ¥ 10 -3 = 750 – - 36.87∞
Ë ZL ¯

? ZL = V 2 ¥ 10 -3 = 400 ¥ 400 ¥ 10
-3

750 – - 36 ◊ 87∞ 750 – - 36 ◊ 83

= 0 ◊ 214 –36 ◊ 87∞ = (0 ◊ 171 + j 0 ◊ 128) W

E1 - E2 (405 - 415)
(a) IC = = = -161 ◊ 8– - 71 ◊ 88∞
Z1 + Z 2 0 ◊ 0618 –71 ◊ 88∞
E1 Z 2 + ( E1 - E 2 ) Z L
(b) I1 =
Z 1 Z 2 + Z L (Z 1 + Z 2 )
405 ¥ 0 ◊ 0456 – 69 ◊ 46∞ + (405 - 415) ¥ 0 ◊ 214 –36 ◊ 87∞
=
0 ◊ 0163 – 78 ◊ 5∞ ¥ 0 ◊ 0456 –69 ◊ 46∞ + 0 ◊ 214 –36 ◊ 87∞ ¥ 0 ◊ 0618–71 ◊ 88∞

= 18 ◊ 47–69 ◊ 46∞ - 2 ◊ 14 –36 ◊ 87∞

0 ◊ 00074 –147 ◊ 96∞ + 0 ◊ 01323–108 ◊ 75∞
6 ◊ 48 + j17 ◊ 29 - 1 ◊ 712 - j1 ◊ 284
=
-0 ◊ 00063 + j 0 ◊ 0004 - 0 ◊ 00425 + j 0 ◊ 0125
4 ◊ 768 + j16 ◊ 01
= = 16 ◊ 705–73 ◊ 41∞ = 1210 – - 37 ◊ 3∞ A
-0 ◊ 00488 + j 0 ◊ 0129 0 ◊ 0138– - 69 ◊ 28∞
Load shared by transformer – A
S1 = 400 × 1210 × 10 –3 ‘ –37.3° = 484‘–37.3° kVA (Ans.)
 194 Electrical Machines

p.f. = cos I1 = cos 37.3° = 0.795 lag. (Ans.)

E 2 Z 1 - ( E1 - E 2 ) Z L
I2 =
Z1 Z 2 + Z L (Z1 Z 2 )
415 ¥ 0 ◊ 0163 –78 ◊ 5∞ - (405 - 415) ¥ 0 ◊ 214 –36 ◊ 87∞
=
0 ◊ 0138 – - 69 ◊ 28∞
1 ◊ 348 + j 6 ◊ 629 + 1 ◊ 712 + j1 ◊ 284 3 ◊ 0607 + j 7 ◊ 913
= =
0 ◊ 0138– - 69 ◊ 28∞ 0 ◊ 0138– - 69 ◊ 28∞
= 8 ◊ 4843–68 ◊ 85∞ = 615 – - 41 ◊ 87∞ A
0 ◊ 0138– - 69 ◊ 28
Load shared by transformers - S,
S2 = 400 × 615 × 10 –3 ‘–42.87° = 246‘– 42.87° kVA (Ans.)
p.f. = cos I2 = cos 42.87° = 0.744 lag (Ans.)

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. A load of 1600 kW at 0·8 p.f. is shared by two 1000 kVA transformers having equal turn ratios and connected
in parallel on their primary and secondary side. The full load resistance drop is 1% and reactive drop is
6% in one of the transformers, the corresponding values in the other transformer being 1.5% and 5%.
Calculate the power and power factor at which each transformer is operating.
(Ans. 700 kW, 0.76 lagging, 900 kW, 0.84 lag.)

2. Two single-phase transformers supply, in parallel, a secondary load of 1000 A at 0.8 p.f. lagging. For each
transformer, the secondary emf on open-circuit is 3300 V and the total leakage impedance, in terms of
the secondary are (0.1 + j 0.2) and (0.05 + j 0.4) ohm, respectively. Determine the output current for each
transformer and the ratio of the kW output of the two transformers. (Ans. 652 A; 362 A; 2.4: 1)

3. Two transformers A and B of different ratings but equal voltage ratios share a load of 900 kVA at 0.8 power
factor lagging at 400 V by operating in parallel. Transformer A has a rating of 600 kVA, resistive drop of
1% and reactance drop 5%. Transformer B has a rating of 300 kVA, resistive drop of 1.5% and reactance
drop of 4%. Calculate the load shared by each transformer and the power factor at which it is working.
(Ans. 564 kVA at pf 0.762 lag; 336 kVA at pf 0.856 lag)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What is the necessity of parallel operation of transformer?
Ans. (i) When load on the existing transformer increases beyond its rated capacity.
(ii) When the power to be transformed is more than the size of single unit.

Q.2. What conditions are required to be fulfilled for parallel operation of transformers?
Ans. (i) Both the transformers should have same transformation ratio.
(ii) Both the transformers should have the same percentage impedance.
(iii) In case of one-phase transformers, both the transformers must have same polarity.
 Single-Phase Transformers 195

(iv) In case of 3-phase transformers, both the transformers must have same phase sequence.
(v) In case of 3-phse transformers, the winding connections selected must be such that there should
not be phase difference between the voltages of two transformers.

2.42 Auto-transformer
A transformer, in which a part of the winding is common to both the primary and secondary circuits,
is called an auto-transformer. In a two winding transformer, primary and secondary windings are
electrically isolated, but in an auto-transformer the two windings are not electrically isolated rather
a section of the same winding acts as secondary or primary of the transformer.

Construction
The core of an auto-transformer may be rectangular [Fig. 2.63(a)] or circular ring-type [see Fig.
2.64(a)] in shape. A single winding is wound around one or two limbs of the rectangular core as
shown in Fig. 2.63(b) or it is wound over the ring as shown in Fig. 2.64(b). Terminal ‘B’ is taken as a
common point from which one terminal for primary and one terminal of the secondary is taken out.
The second terminal of the secondary is connected to point ‘C’ which may be fixed or movable as
shown in Figs. 2.63(b) and 2.64(b). The number of turns between AB are taken as N1 and the number
of turns between BC are taken as N2 as shown in Figs. 2.63(c) and 2.64(c). Thus, one section of the
same winding acts as a primary and the other section of the same winding acts as a secondary.
When the number of secondary turns N2 is less then the primary turns N1 (i.e., N2 < N1) as shown
in Fig. 2.63(c) and 64(c), the auto-transformer works as step-down transformer, whereas, it works as
a step-up transformer if number of secondary turns N2 is more than primary turns N1 as shown in
Figs. 2.63(d) and 2.64(d).

Contd.
 196 Electrical Machines

Contd.

Fig. 2.63 Single-phase rectangular core auto-transformer.

Fig. 2.64 Single-phase, circular core auto-transformer

 Single-Phase Transformers 197

The pictorial view of a single-phase auto-transformer used in labs is shown in Figs. 2.64(e and
f). Here, point C is attached to a movable arm which carries a carbon brush. The brush moves over
number of turns wound over a circular laminated core and its position determines the output voltage.

Working
When AC voltage V1 is applied to winding AB, an exciting current starts flowing through the full
winding AB if the internal impedance drop is neglected, then the voltage per turn in winding AB is
V1/N1 and, therefore, the voltage across BC is (V1/N1) N2.
When switch S is closed, a current I2 starts flowing through the load and current I1 is drawn from
the source. Neglecting losses,
Input power = Output power

or V1I1 cos I1 = V2I2 cos I2

Fig. 2.65 Circuit for single-phase auto-transformer.

If internal (or leakage) impedance drops and losses are neglected, then
cos I1 = cos I2

Hence V1I1 = V2I2

V2 I N
or = 1 = 2 = K …(2.114)
V1 I2 N1
Here K is less than unity. The expression is identical to a two winding transformer.
Let at any instant the exciting current flows from A to B and it establishes a working mmf directed
vertically upward in the core. When switch S is closed, the current in winding BC must flow from
B to C, in order to create an mmf opposing the exciting or working mmf, as per Lenz’s law. Since
the working mmf in a transformer remains constant at its no-load value, the primary must draw
additional current I1 from the source, in order to neutralise the effect of current IBC. In winding AB,
 198 Electrical Machines

I1 flows from A to B while in winding BC, I2 flows from B to C. Therefore, the current in winding
BC is I1 from C to B and I2 from B to C. Here the current I2 is greater than I1 (because V2 < V1) and
their mmfs. are opposing each other at every instant, therefore,
IBC = I2 – I1.
mmf of winding AC = I1 (N1 – N2) = I1N1 – I1N2
= I2 N2 – I1N2 = (I2 – I1) N2 [… I1N1 = I2 N2]
= IBCN2
= mmf of winding CB.
It is, therefore, seen that the transformer action takes place between winding, section AC and
winding section BC. In other words, the volt-amperes across winding AC are transferred by transformer
action to the load connected across winding BC.
? Power transformed in VA = VACIAC = (V1 – V2) I1

Total power to be transferred or input power in VA = V1I1

Transformed Power in VA (V - V2 ) I1 V
? = 1 = 1 - 2 = (1 - K ) …(2.115)
Input power in VA V1I1 V1
Power transformed = (1 – K) × Power input
Out of the input volt-amperes V1I1, only VACIAC = (V1 – V2) I1 is transformed to the output by
transformer action. The remaining power in volt-ampere required for the output, are conducted
directly to the secondary from the primary (due to electrical connection).
? Power conducted in VA = Total power input in VA – transformed power in VA

= V1I1 – (V1 – V2) I1 = V2 I1

? Power conducted in VA = V2 I1 = K …(2.116)

Power Input in VA V1I1
Power conducted = K × Power input
Transformed power
Hence, =1–K …(2.117)
Input power
Conducted power
and =K …(2.118)
Input power
Considering eqn. (2.4),

Transformed power V V - V2
= 1–K= 1- 2 = 1
Input power V1 V1
Inductively transformed power High voltage - Low voltage
or = …(2.119)
Total power High voltage
 Single-Phase Transformers 199

2.43 Auto-transformer vs Potential Divider

At first sight, an auto-transformer appears to be similar to a resistance potential divider. But this is
not so, as described below.
(i) A resistive potential divider can’t step up the voltage, whereas it is possible in an auto-transformer.
(ii) The potential divider has more losses and is, therefore, less efficient.
(iii) In a potential divider, almost entire power to load flows by conduction, whereas in auto-
transformer, a part of the power is conducted and the rest is transferred to load by transformer
action.
(iv) In a potential divider, the input current, must always be more than the output current, this is
not so in an auto-transformer. If the output voltage in auto-transformer is less than the input
voltage, the load current is more than the input current.

2.44 Saving of Copper in an Auto-transformer

Volume, and hence weight of copper (or aluminium), is proportional to the length and area of
X-section of the conductor. The length of conductor is proportional to number of turns whereas area of
X-section is proportional to the current flowing through it. Hence the weight of copper is proportional
to the product of current and number of turns.
Now, with reference to Fig. 2.66(a), weight of copper required in an auto-transformer.
Wta = weight of Cu in section AC + weight of Cu in section CB

? Wta f I1 (N1 – N2) + (I2 – I1) N2 f I1 N1 + I2 N2 – 2 I1 N2 …(2.120)

Fig. 2.66 Circuits for comparison

If an ordinary two winding transformer is to perform the same duty, then with reference to
Fig. 2.66(b). Total weight of copper required in the ordinary transformer.
Wt0 = weight of Cu on its primary + weight of Cu on its secondary.

? Wt0 f I1 N1 + I2 N2 …(2.121)
 200 Electrical Machines

Now, the ratio of weight of copper in auto-transformer to the weight of copper in an ordinary
transformer,
Wt a I N + I 2 N 2 - 2 I1 N 2 I N + I2 N2 2 I1 N 2
= 1 1 = 1 1 -
Wt0 I1 N1 + I 2 N 2 I1 N1 + I 2 N 2 I1 N1 + I 2 N 2
2 I1 N 2 / I1 N1
= 1- =1- K
I1 N1 / I1 N1 + I 2 N 2 / I1 N1
or Wta = (1 – K) Wt0 …(2.122)
Saving of copper affected by using an auto-transformer
= wt. of cu required in an ordinary transformer – wt. of copper required in an auto-transformer.
= Wt0 – Wta = Wt0 – (1 – K) Wt0 = K × Wt0

? Saving = K × Wt. of copper required for two winding transformer

Hence, saving in copper increases as the transformation ratio approaches to unity, therefore, auto
transformers are used when K in nearly equal to unity.

2.45 Advantages of Auto-transformer over Two-winding Transformer

1. Quantity of conducting material required is less. The quantity of conducting material required
for an auto-transformer having same rating as that of an ordinary two winding transformer is
only (1 – K) times, i.e., Quantity of conducting material required for auto-transformer = (1 – K)
quantity of conducting material required for an ordinary two winding transformer. Thus, the
cost of auto-transformer is less as compared to two winding transformer of the same rating.
2. Quantity of magnetic material required is less. During designing, the window dimensions are
decided from the consideration of insulation and conductor material. For an auto-transformer, a
reduction in conductor material means lower window area and, therefore, smaller core length is
needed. It shows that for the same core area, the weight of auto-transformer core is less. Hence,
there is further saving in core material. Thus auto-transformer is more economical than a two
winding transformer when K approaches to unity.
3. Operate at higher efficiency. Owing to the reduction in conductor and core materials, the ohmic
losses in conductor and the core loss are lowered. Consequently, an auto-transformer has higher
efficiency than a two-winding transformer of the same rating.
4. Operate at better voltage regulation. Reduction in the conductor material means lower value of
ohmic resistance. A part of the winding being common, leakage flux or the leakage reactance
is less. In other words, an auto-transformer has lower value of leakage impedance and hence
auto-transformer has lower value of leakage impedance and has better voltage regulation than
a two-winding transformer of the same output.

2.46 Disadvantages of Auto-transformers

Although auto-transformers have less cost, better regulation and low losses as compared to ordinary
two winding transformer of same rating. But still they are not widely used due to one major
 Single-Phase Transformers 201

disadvantage that the secondary winding is not insulated from the primary. If an auto transformer
is used to supply low voltage from a high voltage and there is a break in the secondary winding, full
primary voltage comes across the secondary terminals which may be dangerous to the operator
and equipment (load). Therefore, it is advisable not to use an auto transformer for interconnecting
high voltage and low voltage system. Their use is only limited to the places where slight variation of
output voltage from the input voltage is required. The other disadvantages are;
x The effective per-unit impedance of an autotransformer is smaller compared to a two-winding
transformer. The reduced internal impedance results in a larger short-circuit (fault) current.
x In an autotransformer there is a loss of isolation between input and output circuits. This is
particularly important in three-phase transformers where one may wish to use a different
winding and earthing arrangement on each side of the transformer.

2.47 Phasor Diagram of an Auto-transformer

Considering a step-down auto-transformer shown in Fig. 2.67.

Fig. 2.67(a,b) Circuit for auto-transformer

Let V1 = applied voltage, acting downwards (from A to B)

I2 = supplied current flows through winding AB (A to B)
I2 = load current which also flows through section BC (B to C)
I2 – I1 = resultant current in section BC (B to C)
I = flux produced in the core linking with winding.
An emf is induced in both the sections of the winding i.e., ECA and EBC which act in opposite
direction to the applied voltage to balance it.
The phasor diagram of an auto-transformer is shown in Fig. 2.67(c), where V2 is the voltage applied
across the load represented by phasor OA. Let the load is inductive, then current drawn by the load
I2 lags behind the voltage phasor V2 by an angle I2 (where I2 = cos–1 pf of load).
 202 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.67(c) Phasor diagram of an auto-transformer

Current in section BC.

Ê I ˆ
IBC = I 2 - I1 = I 2 Á 1 - 1 ˜ = I 2 (1 - K ) …(2.123)
Ë I2 ¯
where K is transformation ratio.
This current IBC is represented by phasor OC. There is a voltage drop in the resistance and reactance
of the winding section BC. To represent these drops, draw a line parallel to line OC from A and take
AD = I2 (1 – K) R2. Draw a perpendicular from D on OC so that DE = I2(1 – K) X2. Triangle ADE
represents the voltage drop in the impedance of winding section BC. Here, OE represents the emf
induced in the winding section BC i.e., EBC.
The induced emf in section CA,

( )
ECA = E BC 1 - K in phase with EBC (vector OF)
K
Draw this vector to the other side i.e., OG = OF, hence OG = – ECA
Draw the vector OH = I1 = – KI2 by producing line BO to H. Draw impedance drop triangle GJK
for the section CA, where GJ = I1R1 (parallel to I1) and JK = I1X1 (perpendicular to I1)
 Single-Phase Transformers 203

Here, phasor OK = VAC i.e., phasor sum of emf OG and impedance drop GK.
Finally, V1 is the phasor sum of VAC and VCB i.e.,
V1 = VAC + VCB = VAC – V2 …(2.124)

2.48 Equivalent Circuit of an Auto-transformer

While drawing equivalent circuit of an auto-transformer, it may be considered as a two winding
transformer. Where one section AC of its winding can be taken as its primary having voltage VAC
and current I1 and the other section CB can be taken as its secondary having output voltage V2 and
current I2 – I1.

Fig. 2.68 Equivalent circuit of an auto-transformer

I AC I1 I1 / I 2
Current ratio = = = = K …(2.125)
I BC I 2 - I1 1 - I1 / I 2 1- K

Hence, the ratio of currents in sections of winding is (1 -K K )

ECB N2 N 2 / N1
Ratio of induced emfs = = = = K …(2.126)
E AC N1 - N 2 1 - N 2 / N1 1 - K
The equation (2.125) and (2.126) reveal that the auto-transformer with a turn ratio of K is equivalent
in its transformation to the ordinary transformer with a ratio of K .
1- K
An approximate equivalent circuit of an auto-transformer is shown in Fig. 2.68.

2.49 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of an Auto-transformer

An auto-transformer, shown in Fig. 2.69(a), may be considered as a two-winding transformer with
winding of section AC of (N1 – N2) turns acting as primary and the winding of section BC of N2
turns acting as secondary. Thus, an auto-transformer behaves as a two-winding transformer primary
applied voltage across AC is VAC and primary current is I1. The secondary output voltage is V2 and
the secondary winding current is (I2 – I1). For given auto-transformer, its equivalent circuit as a two-
winding transformer is shown in Fig. 2.69(b).
 204 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.69 Auto-transformer and its equivalent circuit

Neglecting exciting current, the auto-transformer can be analysed as a two-winding transformer

as shown in Fig. 2.69(b).
Let, Primary winding impedance, Z AC = R1 + jX1

Secondary winding impedance, Z BC = R2 + jX2

Primary current, I AC = I 1

Referring all the parameters on the primary side

( )
2
Ê N - N2 ˆ 2
Rep = R1 + Rc2 = R1 + R2 Á 1 = R1 + R2 1 - K …(2.127)
Ë N 2 ˜¯ K

= X + X (1 - K )
2
Ê N - N2 ˆ 2
Xep = X1 + Xc2 = X1 + X 2 Á 1 …(2.128)
Ë N 2 ˜¯ 1
K2

Secondary voltage referred to primary side

Ê N - N2 ˆ
Vc2 = V2 ¥ Á 1
Ë N 2 ˜¯
= V2 1 - K
K ( )
V AC = V 2¢ + I 1 Z ep

( ) ÈÏ
( ) ¸˝Ô˛ + j ÏÌÔÓ X + X (1 -K K ) ¸˝Ô˛˘˙˙˚
2 2
VAC = V2 1 - K + I1 Í Ì R1 + R2 1 - K 1 2
K ÍÎ ÔÓ K

VAC = V ( 1 - 1) + I ( R
2 1 ep + jX ep ) …(2.129)
K
From Fig. 2.68(a), it reveals that

V1= VAC + V2

( ) V
= V2 1 - 1 + I1 ( Rep + jX ep ) + V2 = 2 + I1 ( Rep + jX ep ) …(2.130)
K K
 Single-Phase Transformers 205

Fig. 2.69 Simplified equivalent circuit of an auto-transformer

The equivalent circuit of an auto-transformer is shown in Fig. 2.69(c) where exciting circuit is
not considered. If exciting resistance and reactance is considered, then its equivalent circuit will be
as shown in Fig. 2.69(d).
In Fig. 2.69(a), if input voltage is applied across BC and the load is connected across AB, then the
transformer acts as a step-up auto-transformer.

2.50 Conversion of a Two-winding Transformer to an Auto-transformer

A conventional two-winding transformer with its polarity markings is shown in Fig. 2.70(a). It can
be converted to a step-up autotransformer by connecting the two windings electrically in series with
additive or subtractive polarities. With additive polarity between the high-voltage and low-voltage
sides, a step-up transformer is obtained. Whereas, with subtractive polarity a step-down transformer
is obtained.
Let us consider a conventional 24 kVA, 2500/250 V transformer to be connected in autotransformer
configuration.

Additive Polarity
Figure 2.70(b) shows the series connections of the windings with additive polarity. The circuit is
redrawn in Fig. 2.70(c) showing common terminal of the autotransformer at the top. Figure 2.70(d)
shows the same circuit with common terminal at the bottom. Since the polarity is additive, VHV =
2500+ 250 = 2750 V and VLV = 2500 V, the transformer acts as a step-up autotransformer.

Subtractive Polarity
Figure 2.70(e) shows the series connections of the windings with subtractive polarity. The circuit is
redrawn in Fig. 2.70(f) with common terminal at the top. Figure 2.70(g) shows the same circuit with
common terminal at the bottom. Since the polarity is subtractive VHV = 2500 V and VLV = 2500 – 250
= 2250 V, the transformer acts as a step-down autotransformer.
206 Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.70 Various electrical connections to form an auto-transformer.

 Single-Phase Transformers 207

2.51 Comparison of Characteristics of Auto-transformers and

Two-winding Transformers
An auto-transformer can be considered as a two-winding transformer with winding AC as primary
and winding BC as the secondary. Ratings and characteristics of auto-transformers and two-winding
transformers so obtained, differ as discussed below:
(i) Ratings. It is seen that winding AC acts as the primary and winding BC as the secondary of a
two-winding transformer, then considering input side;
kVA rating as an auto-transformer
kVA rating as a two-windingg transformer
Primary input voltage V1 ¥ Primary input current I 1
=
Primary voltage across winding AC ¥ Primary current in winding AC
V1I1 1
= = = 1
(V1 - V2 )I1 1 - (V2 / V1 ) 1 - K
kVA rating as an auto-transformer V2 I 2
Considering output side; =
kVA rating as a two-windinng transfer V2 ( I 2 - I1 )

= 1 = 1 …(2.131)
(1 - I1 / I 2 ) 1 - K
(ii) Losses. When a two-winding transformer is connected as an auto-transformer, the current in
different sections and voltages across them remain unchanged. Therefore, losses when working
as an auto-transformer are the same as the losses in a two-winding transformer. Per unit losses,
however, differ.
Per unit full-load losses as auto-transformer
Per unit full--load losses as two-winding transformer
Full-load losses kVA rating as two-winding transformer
= ¥
kVA rating as auto-transformer Full-load losses
= (1 – K) …(2.132)
(iii) Impedance drop. When a two-winding transformer is used as an auto-transformer, both LV
and HV windings are utilised completely. In addition, current and voltage ratings of each
winding section remain unaltered. Therefore, impedance drop at full load is the same in both
the transformers. Their per unit values are, however, different. When referred to HV side, per
unit impedance drop as an auto-transformer is with respect to voltage V1 and for a two-winding
transformer, it is with respect to (V1 – V2) = V1 (1 – K).
Per unit impedance drop as an auto-transformer I1Z1 / V1 V - V2
= = 1 = (1 – K)
Per unit impeedance drop as a two-winding transformer I1Z1 / (V1 - V2 ) V1
When impedance drop is referred to LV side, the winding current is (I2 – I1) as an auto-transformer
and I2 as a two-winding transformer.
208 Electrical Machines

Per unit impedance drop as an auto-transformer ( I - I1 ) Z 2 / V2

? = 2
Per unit impeedance drop as a two-winding transformer I 2 Z 2 / V2
I 2 - I1
= = (1 - K ) …(2.133)
I2
(iv) Voltage regulation. Regulation in transformers is proportional to per unit impedance drop.
Regulation as an auto-transformer
= (1 – K) …(2.134)
Regulation as a two windinng transformer
(v) Short-circuit current. Per unit short-circuit current is reciprocal of per unit impedance drop.

? Per unit short-circuit current as an auto-transformer = 1 …(2.135)

Per unnit short-circuit current as two winding transformer 1- K
The value of K used in the above relations, is less than one. In general, for using these relations,
the value of K for step-down or step-up auto-transformers is K = LV/HV.

2.52 Applications of Auto-transformers

1. Single-phase and 3-phase auto-transformers are employed for obtaining variable output voltages
at the output. When used as variable ratio auto-transformers, these are known by their trade
names, such as variac, dimmerstat, autostat etc.

Fig. 2.71 Auto-transformer as a variac

A variable ratio auto-transformer (or variac) has a toroidal core and toroidal winding. A sliding
contact with the winding is made by carbon brush, as shown in Fig. 2.71 and Fig. 2.64( f). The
position of the sliding contact can be varied by a hand-wheel which changes output voltage.
These are mostly used in laboratories.
2. Auto-transformers are also used as boosters for raising the voltage in an AC feeder.
3. As furnace transformers, for getting a convenient supply to suit the furnace winding from
normal 230 V AC supply
4. Auto-transformers with a number of tappings are used for starting induction motors and
synchronous motors. When auto-transformers are used for this purpose, these are known as
auto-starters.
 Single-Phase Transformers 209

Example 2.61
Determine the core area, the number of turn, and the position of the tapping point for a 500 kVA,
50 Hz single phase, 6600/5000 volt auto-transformer, assuming the following approximate values:
emf per turn 8 volt, maximum flux density 1.3 tesla.

Solution:
We know E = 4.44 f Bm AiN

or E = 4.44 f B A
N m i

or 8 = 4.44 × 50 × 1.3 × Ai

or Ai = 8 = 0 ◊ 02772 m 2
4 ◊ 44 ¥ 50 ¥ 1 ◊ 3
= 277.2 cm2 (Ans.) Fig. 2.72 Circuit diagram.

Turns on the primary side, N1 = 6600 = 825

8
Turns on the secondary side N2 = 5000 = 625
8
Hence tapping should be 200 turns from high voltage end or 625 turns from the common end as
shown in Fig. 2.72.

Example 2.62
An auto-transformer having 1500 turns is connected across a 500 V AC supply. What secondary
voltage will be obtained if a tap is taken at 900th turn.

Solution:
Supply voltage, V1 = 500 V

Total turns, N1 = 1500

Secondary turns, N2 = 900

V1
Voltage per turn = = 500 = 1 V
N1 1500 3

Secondary voltage, V2 = Voltage per turn × N2 = 1 ¥ 900 = 300 V (Ans.)

3
Example 2.63
An auto-transformer supplies a load of 10 kW at 250 V and at unity power factor. If the primary
voltage is 500 V, determine.
(a) transformation ratio (b) secondary current (c) primary current (d) number of turns across
secondary if total number of turns is 500 (e) power transformed and (f) power conducted directly
from the supply mains to load.
 210 Electrical Machines

Solution:
V2
(a) Transformation ratio, K = = 250 = 0.5 (Ans.)
V1 500

(b) Secondary current, I2 = kW ¥ 1000 = 10 ¥ 1000 = 40 A (Ans.)

V2 cos f 250 ¥ 1
(c) Primary current, I1 = KI2 = 0.5 × 40 = 20 A (Ans.)
(d) Turns across secondary, N2 = KN1 = 0.5 × 500 = 250 (Ans.)
(e) Power transformed = Load × (I – K) = 10 (1 – 0.5) = 5 kW (Ans.)
(f) Power conducted directly from supply mains = 10 – 5 = 5 kW (Ans.)

Example 2.64
A 400/100 V, 5 kVA, two-winding transformer is to be used as an autotransformer to supply power
at 400 V from 500 V source. Draw the connection diagram and determine the kVA output of the
autotransformer.

Solution:

For a two-winding transformer V1I1 = kVA × 1000 or I1 = 5 ¥ 1000 = 12 ◊ 5 A

400
V2 I2 = kVA × 1000 or I2 = 5 ¥ 1000 = 50 A
100
Figure 2.73 shows the use of two-winding transformer
as an autotransformer to supply power at 400 V from a
500 V source.

Here V1¢ = 500 V, V2¢ = 400 V

V2¢
Transformation ratio, K= = 400 = 0 ◊ 8
V ¢ 500
1

I1¢ = K × I 2¢ = 0.8 I 2¢
Fig. 2.73 Circuit diagram
Current through 400 V winding,

IBC = I 2¢ - I1¢ = I 2¢ - 0 ◊ 8 I 2¢ = 0 ◊ 2 I 2¢

Since the current rating of 400 V winding is 12.5 A

0 ◊ 2 I 2¢ = 12.5 or I 2¢ = 12 ◊ 5 = 62 ◊ 5 A
0◊2
V ¢I ¢
The kVA output of the autotransformer = 2 2 = 400 ¥ 62 ◊ 5 = 25 (Ans.)
1000 1000
Example 2.65
The primary and secondary voltages of an auto-transformer are 250 V and 200 V, respectively.
Show with the aid of a diagram the current distribution in the windings when the secondary current
is 100 A and calculate the economy of copper in this particular case (in percentage).
 Single-Phase Transformers 211

Solution:
V2
Transformation voltage, K =
V1

= 200 = 0 ◊ 8
250
Secondary load current, I2 = 100 A

Primary current, I1 = KI2 = 0.8 × 100 = 80 A

The current distribution is shown in Fig. 2.65

Fig. 2.74 Circuit diagram
Economy in copper = K = 0.8 or 80% (Ans.)

Example 2.66
A 12500/2500 V transformer is rated at 100 kVA as a two-winding transformer. If the winding are
connected in series to form an autotransformer, what will be the possible voltage ratios and output?
Also calculate the saving in conductor material.

Solution:

Rated current for HV winding = 100 ¥ 1000 = 8 A

12500
Rated current for LV winding = 100 ¥ 1000 = 40 A
2500
It is to be noted that if the windings of the two-winding transformer are connected in series to
form an autotransformer, the current in the two windings should not exceed their rated values.
To form an autotransformer, the two-windings may be connected in the following two ways:
(a) First Configuration
The winding AC is for 2500 V and winding BC for 12500 V as shown in Fig. 2.75(a)
Here, VAC = 2500 V, VBC = 12500 V
? V1 = VAC + VBC = 2500 + 12500 = 15000 V
V2 = VBC = 12500 V
Therefore, the voltage ratio for the autotransformer of Fig. 2.75(a) is

V2
K= = 12500 = 5 = 0.833 (Ans)
V1 15000 6
By KCL at point C I2 = IAC + IBC = 40 + 8 = 48 A

The current distribution is shown in Fig. 2.75(a).

kVA rating of 15000/12500 V autotransformer

= 12500 ¥ 48 = 600 kVA (Ans.)

V2 I 2
=
1000 1000
 212 Electrical Machines

V1I1 15000 ¥ 40
or = = = 600 kVA (Ans)
100 1000
Saving in conductor material

K1= 5 = 0 ◊ 8333 pu = 83.3 per cent (Ans.)

6

(a) One type of connections (b) Other type of connections

Fig. 2.75 Electric circuit of an auto-transformer with different configurations

(b) Second Configuration

Here the winding AC is for 12500 V and BC for 2500 V, as shown in Fig. 2.75(b). Therefore VAC =
12500 V, VBC = 2500 V

V1¢ = VAC + VBC = 12500 + 2500 = 15000 V

V2¢ = VBC = 2500 V

V2¢
K2 = = 2500 = 1 = 0.167 (Ans.)
V ¢ 15000 6
1

By KCL at point C, I 2¢ = IAB + IBC = 8 + 40 = 48 A

The current distribution is shown in Fig. 2.75(b).
kVA rating of 15000/2500 V autotransformer

V2¢ I 2¢
= = 2500 ¥ 48 = 120 kVA (Ans.)
1000 1000
V ¢I ¢
or = 1 1 = 15000 ¥ 8 = 120 kVA
1000 1000
Saving in conductor material = K2 = 1 = 0 ◊ 167 pu = 16.7% (Ans.)
6
 Single-Phase Transformers 213

Example 2.67
A load of 100 kVA is to be supplied at 500 volt from 2500 V supply mains by an auto-transformer.
Determine the current and voltage rating for each of the two windings. What would be the kVA
rating of the transformer, if it were used as a two winding transformer.

Solution:
Load to be supplied = 100 kVA
Secondary voltage, V2 = 500 V
Primary voltage, V1 = 2500 V

Load current, I2 = kVA ¥ 1000 = 100 ¥ 1000 = 200 A (Ans)

V2 500
Assuming input equal to output (i.e., neglecting losses)

Input current, I1 = kVA ¥ 1000 = 100 ¥ 1000 = 40 A (Ans.)

V1 2500
The voltage across winding BC is 500 volt and current flowing through it is phasor difference
of currents I1 and I2. Neglecting no-load current, phasor difference of currents I1 and I2 is equal to
numerical difference of two currents I1 and I2 and therefore current flowing through winding BC is
200 – 40 = 160 A, refer Fig. 2.3
Hence voltage rating of winding BC = 500 V (Ans.)
Current rating of winding BC = 200 A (Ans.)
Although voltage across winding AC is not necessarily in phase with the voltage across CB. However
the angle between the two voltages is usually so small that the voltages are added numerically.
Voltage across winding, AC = 2500 – 500 = 2000 V
Current flowing through the winding AC is I1 i.e., 40 A
Hence voltage rating of winding AC = 200 volt (Ans.)
Current rating of winding AC = 40 A (Ans.)
The auto-transformer, when connected as two winding transformer;
The permissible voltage input = 2000 V
Permissible voltage output = 500 V
The rating of transformer as a two winding transformer
Permissible voltage output ¥ permissible current output
=
1000
= 500 ¥ 160 = 80 kVA (Ans.)
1000
Example 2.68
An auto-transformer is required to boost the voltage of a 500 kVA line from 3100 volt to 3300 volt.
Calculate the current in the winding and the kVA rating of the two winding transformer to which
it would be equivalent.
 214 Electrical Machines

Solution:
Primary winding voltage = 3100 volt
Secondary winding voltage = 3300 – 3100 = 200 volt

The input current = 500 ¥ 1000 = 161.29 A (Ans.)

3100
and output current = 500 ¥ 1000 = 151.51 A (Ans.)
3300
Current in the primary = 161.29 – 151.51 = 9.78 A (Ans.)
and the current in the secondary winding = 151.51 A
The kVA of the equivalent two winding transformer

( )
= 500 1 - 3100 = 30.3 kVA (Ans.)
3300
Example 2.69
A 25 kVA, 2500/250 V, two-winding transformer is to be used as a step-up autotransformer with
constant source voltage of 2500 V. At full load of unity power factor, calculate the power output,
power transformed and power conducted. If the efficiency of the two-winding transformer at 0.8
power factor is 95 per cent, find the efficiency of the autotransformer.

Solution:

Rated current of 2500 V winding, IHV = 25 ¥ 1000 = 10 A

2500
Rated current of 250 V winding, ILV = 25 ¥ 1000 = 100 A
250
With the polarities shown in Fig. 2.76, the output voltage,
= 2500 + 250 = 2750 V
By KCL at point C, the input line current, I1 = 100 + 10 = 110 A.

The current distribution is shown in Fig. 2.76

Output current of autotransformer, I2 = 100 A.

kVA rating of autotransformer = 2750 ¥ 100 = 275 kVA

1000
Considering input side;

or kVA rating of autotransformer = 2500 ¥ 110 = 275 kVA

1000
Power output at full load, unity power factor
= kVA cos I = 275 × 1 = 275 kVA (Ans.)
Here winding BC acts as the primary and the winding AC as the secondary.
 Single-Phase Transformers 215

Fig. 2.76 Circuit diagram.

= 250 ¥ 100 = 25 kVA

VAC I AC
kVA transformed =
1000 1000

Also, kVA transformed = BC BC = 2500 ¥ 10 = 25 kVA

V I
1000 1000
Power transformed = kVA cos I = 25 × 1 = 25 kW (Ans.)

= 2500 ¥ 100 = 250 kVA

VBC I AB
kVA conducted =
1000 1000
Alternatively kVA conducted = input kVA – transformed kVA
= 275 – 25 = 250 kVA
Power conducted = kVA cos I = 250 × 1 = 250 kW (Ans.)
Calculation of efficiency
output output
For two winding transform: Efficiency, K = or output + losses =
output + losses h
Ê ˆ
? losses = Á 1 - 1˜ ¥ output
Ëh ¯
Output of two-winding transformer = 250 × 100 × 0.8 = 2000 W

Losses in a two-winding transformer = ( 0 ◊195 - 1) ¥ 2000 = 1052 ◊ 6 W

Since autotransformer operates at rated voltages and rated currents, losses in autotransformer
= losses in two-winding transformer
= 1052.6 W
 216 Electrical Machines

Efficiency of auto-transformer Ka =
Output
= 275 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0 ◊ 8
Output + losses 275 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0 ◊ 8 + 1052 ◊ 6
= 0.9952 pu = 99.52% (Ans.)

Example 2.70
A 200 kVA, 2500/500 V, 50 Hz, two-winding transformer is to be used as an auto-transformer to
step-up the voltage from 2500 V to 3000 V. If the transformer has an efficiency of 96% at 0.8 pf
lagging, impedance of 4% and regulation of 3%, determine (i) voltage and current ratings of each
side (ii) kVA rating (iii) efficiency at unity power factor (iv) percentage impedance (v) regulation,
(vi) short-circuit current of each side (vii) kVA transformed and kVA conducted at full load, while
it is used as an auto-transformer.

Solution:
Rated voltage of the auto-transformer on LV side = 2500 V
Rated voltage of the auto-transformer on HV side = 2500 + 500 = 3000 (Ans.)

Rated current of HV winding, IHV = 200 ¥ 1000 = 80 A

2500
Rated current of LV winding ILV = 200 ¥ 1000 = 400 A
500
Rated current of HV side of the auto-transformer
= Rated current 500 V side of the two-winding transformer
= 400 A (Ans.)
Applying KCL at point C, input line current, I1 = 400 + 80 = 480 A (Ans.)
The current distribution is shown in Fig. 2.77

Fig. 2.77 Circuit diagram

 Single-Phase Transformers 217

(ii) kVA rating of the auto-transformer = 3000 ¥ 400 = 1200 kVA (Ans.)
1000
LV side voltage
Transformation ratio, K = = 2500 = 0 ◊ 833
HV side voltage 3000
(iii) Power output of two-winding transformer at 0.8 pf lagging
= 200 × 0.8 = 160 kW
Output
Full-load losses = - output = 160 - 160 = 6 ◊ 667 kW
Efficiency 0 ◊ 96
Since the auto-transformer operates at rated voltages and rated currents, the losses remain
constant i.e., losses of autotransformer = 6.667 kW

(iv) Efficiency of auto-transformer for an output of 1200 × 1 kW is

Output 1200
K= ¥ 100 = ¥ 100 = 99.45% (Ans.)
Output + Losses 1200 + 6 ◊ 667
(v) Percent impedance of two-winding transformer = 4%
The ohmic drop at full load is the same in both cases. If the impedance drop is referred to
HV side of the auto-transformer (see Fig. 2.77), the pu (per unit) or percent drop in the auto-
transformer is with respect to V1 while that in the two-winding transformer it is with respect to
V1 – V2 = V2 (1 – K)
If the impedance drop is referred to LV side of the auto-transformer, then the winding current is
I2 – I1 = I2 (1 – K),
So the impedance drop with respect to I2 is to be reduced by (1 – K) times in the case of an
auto-transformer.
Therefore pu or percent impedance drop in an auto-transformer
= (1 – K) × pu or percent impedance drop as a two-winding transformer
= (1 – 0.833) × 4 = 0.667% (Ans.)
(v) As regulation is proportional to pu or percent impedance drop,
So regulation as an auto-transformer = (1 – K) × regulation as a two-winding transformer
= (1 – 0.833) × 3 = 0.5% (Ans.)
(vi) Short-circuit current as an auto-transformer

= 1
pu impedance of the auto-transformer

= 1 = 150 pu
0.00667
So short-circuit current on HV side = 150 ¥ 400 = 60 kA (Ans.)
1000
Short-circuit current on LV side = 150 ¥ 480 = 72 kA (Ans.)
1000
 218 Electrical Machines

(vi) Here winding BC acts as the primary and the winding AC as the secondary

So kVA transformed = 80 ¥ 2500 or 400 ¥ 500 = 200 kVA (Ans.)

1000 1000
kVA conducted = 1200 – 200 = 1000 kVA (Ans.)

Example 2.71
Determine the values of the currents flowing in the various branches of a 3 phase, star connected
auto-transformer loaded with 400 kW at 0.8 power factor lagging and having a ratio of 440/550
volt. Neglect voltage drops, magnetising current and all losses in the transformer.

Solution:

Primary current = kW ¥ 1000

3 ¥ EL1 ¥ cos f

I1 = 400 ¥ 1000 = 656 A

3 ¥ 440 ¥ 0 ◊ 8

Secondary line current = kW ¥ 100 = 400 ¥ 1000 = 525 A

3 ¥ EL2 ¥ cosf 3 ¥ 550 ¥ 0 ◊ 8

Note: Current in sections RcR, YcY, BcB = I2 = 525 A

and current in section ORc, Oyc, OBc = I1 – I2 = 656 – 525 = 131 A

All the currents are shown with their directions in the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2.78.

Fig. 2.78 Circuit diagram of a 3-phase auto-transformer.

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. An auto-transformer is used to step down from 240 volts to 200 volt. The complete winding consist of
438 turns and secondary delivers a current of 15 ampere. Determine (i) Secondary turns (ii) the primary
current (iii) the current in the secondary winding. Neglect the effect of the magnetising current.
(Ans. 365; 12.5 A; 2.8 A)
 Single-Phase Transformers 219

2. An auto-transformer supplies a load of 3 kW at 115 volt at a power factor of unity. If the primary voltage
applied is 230 volt. Calculate (i) the power transformed (ii) the power conducted directly from the supply
lines to the load. (Ans. 1.5 kW, 1.5 kW )

3. The primary and secondary voltages of an auto-transformer are 440 and 352 volt, respectively. Calculate
the value of the currents in distribution with the help of the diagram. Calculate the economy of copper in
this case. (Ans. I2 = 100 A; I1 = 80 A; 80%)

4. An 11000/22000 volt transformer is rated at 100 kVA as a two winding transformer. If the winding are
connected in series to form an auto-transformer what, will be the voltage ratio and output ?
(Ans. 6; 118 kVA)

5. An autotransformer supplies a load of 5 kW at 110 V at unity power factor. If the applied primary voltage
is 220 V, calculate the power transferred to the load (a) inductively, (b) conductively.

(Ans. 2.5 kW; 2.5 kW )

6. The primary and secondary voltages of an autotransformer are 500 V and 400 V, respectively. Show
with the aid of a diagram the current distribution in the windings when the secondary current is 100 A.
Calculate the economy in the conductor material. (Ans. 80%)

7. A 2200/220 V transformer is rated at 15 kVA as a two-winding transformer. It is connected as an

autotransformer with low-voltage winding connected additively in series with high-voltage winding so that
the output voltage is 2200 V. The autotransformer is excited from a 2420 V source. The autotransformer
is loaded so that the rated currents of the windings are not exceeded. Find
(a) the current distribution in the windings,
(b) kVA output,
(c) kVA transferred conductively and inductively from input to output,
(d) saving in conductor material as compared to a two-winding transformer of the same kVA rating.
(Ans. 68.2A, 6.82 A, 75.02 A; 165 kVA; 150 kVA, 15 kVA, 15 kVA; 90.9%)

8. An 11500/2300 V transformer is rated at 100 kVA as two-winding transformer. If the two windings are
connected in series to form an auto-transformer what will be the voltage ratio and output?
(Ans. 0.833; 600 kVA; 0.167; 120 kVA)

9. An auto-transformer supplies a load of 5 kW at 125 V and at unity power factor. If the primary voltage is
250 V, determine.
(a) transformation ratio (b) secondary current (c) primary current (d) number of turns across secondary
if total number of turns is 250 (e) power transformed and (f ) power conducted directly from the supply
mains to load. (Ans. 0.5; 40 A; 20 A; 125; 2.5 kW; 2.5 kW )

10. A 25 kVA, 2000/200 V, 2-winding transformer is to be used as a step-up autotransformer with constant
source voltage of 2000 V. At full load of unity power factor, calculate the power output, power transformed
and power conducted. If the efficiency of the two-winding transformer at 0.8 power factor is 95 per cent,
find the efficiency of the autotransformer. (Ans. 275 kW; 25 kW; 250 kW; 99.52%)

11. A 200 kVA, 2300/460 V, 50 Hz, two-winding transformer is to be used as an auto-transformer to step-up
the voltage from V to 2760 V. If the transformer has an efficiency of 96% at 0.8 pf lagging, impedance
of 4% and regulation of 3%, determine (i) voltage and current ratings of each side (ii) kVA rating (iii)
efficiency at unity power factor (iv) percentage impedance (v) regulation, (vi) short-circuit current of each
side (vii) kVA transformed and kVA conducted at full load, while it is used as an auto-transformer.
(Ans. 86.96 A; 434.8 A; 521.76 A; 1200 kVA; 99.45%, 0.667%; 0.5%;
65.22 kA; 78.264 kA; 200 kVA; 1000 kVA)
 220 Electrical Machines

Review Questions
1. Explain what is a transformer and its necessity in power system?
2. Explain the working principle of a transformer.
3. State why the core of a transformer is laminated?
4. State why silicon steel in selected for the core of a transformer?
5. Give the constructional details of a core-type transformer.
6. In a transformer explain how power is transferred from one winding to the other.
7. Show that (E1/E2 ) = (l2 /l1) = (T1/T2) in a transformer.
8. What will you expect if a transformer is connected to a DC supply?
9. Derive an expression for the emf induced in a transformer winding. Show that the emf induced per turn
in primary is equal to the emf per turn in secondary.
10. Explain the behaviour of a transformer on no-load.
11. Explain that “The main flux in a transformer remains practically invariable under all conditions of load”.
12. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a loaded transformer (neglecting voltage drop due to resistance
and leakage reactance).
13. Draw the phasor diagram and equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer.
14. Draw a neat phasor diagram showing the performance of a transformer on-load.
15. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of single-phase transformer connected to a lagging p.f. load.
16. “The overall reactance of transformer decreases with load.” Explain.
(Hint: L = N I /I; when I increases, L decreases)
17. What do you mean by voltage regulation of a transformer?
18. What are the various losses in a transformer? Where do they occur and how do they vary with load?
19. Define efficiency of a transformer and find the condition for obtaining maximum efficiency.
20. Write short note on ‘All-day efficiency of a transformer’’.
21. Distinguish between ‘power efficiency’ and ‘all-day efficiency’ of a transformer.
22. What information can be obtained from the open circuit test of transformer? How can you get these
informations?
23. How open circuit and short circuit tests are performed on a single-phase transformer. Draw circuit diagram
for each test. Also mention uses of these tests.
24. Define an autotransformer. How does the current flow in different parts of its windings?
25. Give the constructional features of an auto-transformer. State the applications of autotransformers.
26. What are the applications of autotransformers?
27. Derive an expression for the saving of copper in an autotransformer as compared to an equivalent two-
winding transformer.
28. Explain the working principle and construction of an auto-transformer.
 Single-Phase Transformers 221

29. Define an auto-transformer. Distinguish clearly the difference between a resistive potential divider and
an auto-transformer.
30. What is an auto-transformer? State its merits and demerits over the two winding transformer.
31. Give the constructional features of an auto-transformer.
Draw and explain the phasor diagram of an auto-transformer on load.
32. What is an autotransformer? State its merits and demerits over the two-winding transformer. Give the
constructional features and explain the working principle of a single-phase autotransformer.
33. Derive an expression for saving in conductor material in an autotransformer over a two-winding
transformers of equal rating. State the advantages and disadvantages of autotransformer over two-winding
transformers.
34. In an auto transformer how the current flows in different parts of its windings? Derive an expression for
the saving of copper in an auto-transformer as compared to an equivalent two winding transformer.
35. Derive an expression for the approximate relative weights of conductors material in an autotransformer
and a two-winding transformer, the primary voltage being V1 and the secondary voltage V2. Compare the
weights of conductor material when the transformation ratio is 3. Ignore the magnetising current.
[Ratio = 1 – (V2 /V1); 2/3]
36. What are the reasons of higher efficiency of autotransformers as compared to conventional transformers?
37. What is meant by the terms transformed voltamperes and conducted voltamperes in an autotransformer?
Show that two windings connected as an autotransformer will have greater VA rating than when connected
as a two-winding transformer.
38. Show that in case of an auto-transformer
Inductively transferred power High voltage-low voltage
=
Total power High voltage
T1
39. If an autotransformer is made from a two-winding transformer having a turns ratio = n, show that
T2

= n -1
magnetising current as an autotransformer
magnetising currennt as a two-winding transformer n
shortcircuit current as an autotransformer = n
short-circuit currrent as a two-winding transformer n - 1

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The phase relationship between the primary and secondary voltages of a transformer is
(a) 90 degree out of phase (b) in the same phase
(c) 180 degree out of phase (d) 270 degree out of phase
2. Transformer core is laminated
(a) because it is difficult to fabricate solid core
(b) because laminated core provides high flux density
(c) to reduce eddy current losses.
(d) to avoid hysteresis losses.
 222 Electrical Machines

3. The induced emf in the transformer secondary will depend on

(a) frequency of the supply only.
(b) Number of turns in secondary only.
(c) Frequency and flux in core.
(d) Frequency, number of secondary turns and flux in the core.
4. A transformer with output of 250 kVA at 3000 V, has 600 turns on its primary and 60 turns on secondary
winding. What will be the transformation ratio of the transformer?
(a) 10 (b) 0·1
(c) 100 (d) 0·01
5. The primary applied voltage in an ideal transformer on no-load is balanced by
(a) primary induced emf (b) secondary induced emf
(c) secondary voltage (d) iron and copper losses
6. If R1 is the resistance of primary winding of the transformer and K is transformer ratio then the equivalent
primary resistance referred to secondary will be
(a) KR12 (b) KR1
(c) K 2R1 (d) R1/K 2
7. The eddy current loss in the transformer occurs in the
(a) primary winding (b) core
(c) secondary winding (d) none of the above.
8. Which of the following electrical machines has the highest efficiency?
(a) DC generator (b) AC generator
(c) transformer (d) induction motor.
9. If the iron losses and full load copper losses are given then the load at which the efficiency of a transformer
is maximum, is given by
iron loss iron loss
(a) full load × (b) full load ×
f .l .cu loss f .l .cu loss

Ê iron loss ˆ f .I .cu . loss

(c) full load × Á (d) full load ×
Ë f .i . cu . loss ˜¯ iron loss
10. Kapp-regulation diagram is used to determine
(a) Iron losses in a transformer (b) copper losses in a transformer
(c) Voltage regulation of a transformer (d) Efficiency of a transformer
11. In an auto transformer, there are
(a) always two windings (b) one winding only without taps
(c) one winding with taps taken out (d) two windings put one upon the other.
12. The marked increase in kVA capacity produced by connecting a 2 winding transformer as an autotransformer
is due to
(a) increase in turn ratio
(b) increase in secondary voltage
(c) increase in transformer efficiency
(d) establishment of conductive link between primary and secondary.
 Single-Phase Transformers 223

13. The kVA rating of an ordinary two-winding transformer is increased when connected as an auto-transformer
because
(a) transformation ratio is increased
(b) secondary voltage is increased
(c) energy is transferred both inductively and conductivity
(d) secondary current is increased
14. In an auottransformer a break occurs at the point P. The value of V2 will be

1
K=
2
400 V
V2
P

Fig. for Q.7

(a) 200 V (b) 100 V
(c) 50 V (d) 400 V
15. The saving in Cu achieved by converting a two-winding transformer into an auto-transformer is determined
by
(a) voltage transformation ratio (b) load on the secondary
(c) magnetic quality of core material (d) size of the transformer core.

Keys to Multiple Choice Questions

1. c 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. b 6. c 7. c 8. c 9. b 10. c
11. c 12. d 13. c 14. d 15. a
 224 Electrical Machines

CHAPTER

Three-Phase Transformers 3
Chapter Objectives
After the completion of this unit, students/readers will be able to understand:
Constructional features of a three-phase transformer.
Advantages of using three-phase trans-formers.
How to determine relative primary and secondary of a 3-phase transformer?
How to check the polarities of windings?
How are the windings of three-phase transformers are connected and what are their relative
merits and demerits?
What are the advantage of using zig-zag connection?
What is the necessity of connecting transformers in parallel?
Which necessary conditions are to be fulfilled before connecting three-phase transformers in
parallel?
How to calculate the load sharing when the transformers are operated in parallel?
What is a three-winding transformer? What is the use of third winding?
How tertiary winding suppresses harmonic voltages and prevents neutral potential to oscillate
to undesirable extent?
What are off-load and on-load tap changers?
What are open delta or Vee-Vee connections?
What are Scott connections?
How is load shared in Scott-connected transformers?
Why is cooling of transformers necessary?

Introduction
Three phase system is invariably adopted for generation, transmission and distribution of electrical
power due to economical reasons. Usually, power is generated at the generating stations at 11 kV
(or 33 kV), whereas, it is transmitted at 750 kV, 400 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV or 66 kV due to economical
reasons. At the receiving stations, the voltage level is decreased and power is transmitted through
shorter distances. While delivering power to the consumers, the voltage level is decreased to as low
as 400V (line value) for safety reasons.
Thus to increase the voltage level at the generating stations step-up transformers and to decrease
the voltage level at the receiving stations, step down transformers are employed.
 Three-Phase Transformers 225

3.1 Merits of Three-phase Transformer over Bank of Three Single-

phase Transformers
The voltage level in three-phase system at the generating stations and at the receiving stations can
be changed either by employing a bank of three single-phase transformers (inter connecting them in
star or delta) or by employing one three phase transformer. Generally, one three phase transformer
is preferred over a bank of three single phase transformers because of the following reasons.
(i) It requires smaller quantity of iron and copper. Hence, its cost is nearly 15% lesser than a bank
of three single phase transformers of equal rating.
(ii) It has smaller size and can be accommodated in smaller tank and hence needs smaller quantity
of oil for cooling.
(iii) Because of smaller size, it occupies less space; moreover it has less weight.
(iv) It needs less number of bushings.
(v) It operates at slightly better efficiency and regulation.
These transformers suffer from the following disadvantage.
(i) It is more difficult and costly to repair three-phase transformers.
(ii) It is difficult to transport single large unit of three-phase transformer than to transport three
single phase transformers individually.
The advantages of three-phase transformer (such as lower cost, lower weight, lower space
requirement etc.) over weighs its disadvantages and hence are invariably employed in the power
system to step-up or step-down the voltage level.

3.2 Construction of Three-phase Transformers

Form construction point of view, three-phase transformers are also classified as
(i) Core type transformers (ii) Shell type transformers

Core Type Transformers

In core type three-phase transformers, the core has three limbs of equal area of cross-section. Three
limbs are joined by two horizontal (top and bottom) members called yokes. The area of cross- section
of all the limbs and yokes is the same since at every instant magnitude of flux set-up in each part is
the same. The core consists of laminations of silicon steel material having oxide film coating on both
the sides for insulation. The laminations are usually of E and I shape and are staggered alternately
to decrease reluctance of magnetic path and increase the mechanical strength.
The complete section of a three-phase core type transformer with its plan is shown in Fig. 3.1. This
type of transformers is usually wound with circular cylindrical coils. The low voltage* (LV) winding

* When LV winding is placed nearer the core, less insulation is required between the core and the LV winding
in comparison to that if HV winding is placed nearer the core and hence reduces the cost of construction.
 226 Electrical Machines

is wound nearer the core and high voltage (HV) winding is wound over low voltage winding as shown
in Fig. 3.1. Insulation is always provided between the core and low voltage winding and between low
voltage winding and high voltage winding.

Fig. 3.1 Construction of a three-phase core type transformer

The core construction for very large capacity three-phase transformers is slightly changed. In this
case, the core consists of three main limbs on which windings are arranged and two additional limbs
at the sides without winding are formed as shown in Fig. 3.2. This arrangement allows decreasing
the height of the yoke and consequently decreases the overall height of the core. However, the length
increases. This facilitates the transportation of transformers by rail. In this arrangement, the magnetic
circuits for each phase are virtually independent:
In either case, the magnetic circuits of the three-phases are somewhat unbalanced, the middle
phase having less reluctance than the outer two. This causes the magnetising current of middle phase
slightly less than the outers. But during operation, the magnetising current is so small that it does
not produce any noticeable effect.

Fig. 3.2 Core and winding of core-type three-phase transformer

Shell Type Transformers

In shell type transformers, the core construction is such that the windings are embedded in the core
instead of surrounding the iron as shown in Fig. 3.3. The area of cross section of the central limbs
is double to that of the side limbs and horizontal members.
The low voltage and high voltage windings of the three-phases are wound on the central limbs.
These windings are placed vertically in the three portions as shown in Fig. 3.3. The low voltage (LV)
winding is always placed neater to the core and high voltage (HV) winding is placed over the low
 Three-Phase Transformers 227

voltage winding for economic reasons. To obtain uniform distribution of flux in the core, usually
second winding placed on the central limb is wound in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. 3.4.

Note: The detailed construction of core, winding, bushing, etc., has already been dealt with in
chapter-4.

Fig. 3.3 Construction of a three-phase Fig. 3.4 Construction of a three-phase

shell-type transformer shell-type transformer

3.3 Determination of Relative Primary and Secondary Windings in

Case of Three-phase Transformer
At the place of manufacturing, all the primary and secondary winding terminals are traceable. Otherwise,
all the primary and secondary winding terminals belonging to each other are to be determined.
To determine which secondary belongs to which primary, proceed as follows:
Short circuit all the phases except one primary and a probable secondary. Connect a voltmeter
across the secondary and circulate a small direct current in the primary. A momentary deflection
of voltmeter on making and breaking of primary current confirms that the secondary corresponds
to the primary chosen otherwise check the other secondary. The test is repeated for other windings
too. For this test, the terminals of all the windings must be open and available for testing.

3.4 Polarity of Transformer Windings

In order to connect windings of the same transformer in parallel or series or in star/delta, or to
interconnect two or more transformers in parallel, or to connect single phase transformers for poly-
phase transformation of voltages, it is necessary to know the polarity of the different winding terminals.
The polarity of the transformer terminals is usually indicated by means of standard marking scheme
followed by manufactures – the scheme varies from country to country.
 228 Electrical Machines

Transformer polarity marking designates the relative instantaneous directions of current and
voltage in the transformer leads. In one system high voltage leads are indicated by letter A (or H)
and low voltage leads by a (or X), and tertiary, if any by (A) [or Y], each with a subscript 1, 2, 3 etc.,
depending upon the number of leads. The A-a scheme is shown in Fig. 3.5

Note: As per Indian standards based on IEC (International Electro-technical Commission)

document, in single-phase power transformers 1.1 is used for A1 (or H1), 1.2 for A2 (or H2), 2.1
for a1 (or X1), 2.2 for a2 (or X2), 3.1 for (A1) or Y1, etc., the voltage magnitudes in A-a and (A)
being in decreasing order.

In Fig. 3.5 the primary winding A1–A2 and secondary winding a1–a2 are wound in the same
direction, while in Fig. 3.5(b) secondary winding a2 – a1 is wound in the direction opposite to A1–A2.
When the A1 and a1 leads are adjacent, the polarity is said to be subtractive, and when A1 and a1
are diametrically opposite to each other, the polarity is designated as additive. It may be noted that
subtractive polarity reduces voltage stress between adjacent leads.
The polarity of unmarked transformers can be found out by simple polarity tests which have
already been dealt with in chapter-1. (Section 1.31).

Fig. 3.5 Transformer polarity designation

3.5 Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities in Three-phase

Transformer Connections
Before to study the connections of three-phase transformers, it is necessary to learn the characteristics
of balanced three-phase systems as well as the conventions followed to designate currents and voltages
of a three-phase system. If the supply voltage is balanced, the voltages can be represented by a voltage
triangle shown in Fig. 3.6(a), where A, B, C are the nomenclatures of the three lines of the system
and N stands for the neutral or star point of the system. A, B, C are the three vertices of the equilateral
triangle ABC and N is the circum centre of the triangle. The voltages and currents with double
subscripts notation are represented by phasors. For example, Vab, Iab represent voltage of point a with
respect to point b and current flowing from point a to point b, respectively. With the arrow pointing
towards A the line represents voltage phasor VAN. Thus the line-to-line voltage (also called as line
voltage) phasor and line-to-neutral voltage (also known as phase voltage) phasors can be drawn from
 Three-Phase Transformers 229

the voltage triangle shown in Fig. 3.6(a). The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 3.6(b) where phase
voltage phasors which are equal in magnitude are displaced from each other by 120°. The line voltage
phasors are also equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by 120°, but the magnitude of a
line voltage phasor is 3 times the magnitude of a phase voltage phasor. Further it may be noted
that the set of line voltage phasors is displaced from the set of phase voltage phasors by 30°.

Fig. 3.6 Phasors of a balanced three-phase system

If the lines carry balanced load then the magnitudes of the line currents IA, IB and IC are equal
and displaced with respect to each other by 120°. They are equally displaced from the corresponding
phase voltages by an angle I as shown in Fig. 3.6(b), the power factor being cos I. In this case, the
power factor is lagging as currents lag behind the phase voltages.

Note: As per Indian Standards Specifications, the terminals of a three-phase transformer are
marked as U, V, W with numerics 1, 2, 3, etc.

Important relations in three-phase connected system:

Star-connections Delta-connections
EL = . 3 Eph …(3.1); IL = Iph …(3.2) EL = Eph …(3.3); IL = . 3 Iph …(3.4)

Power, P = . 3 VLIL cos I = 3 Vph Iph cos I  }(3.5) (both for star and delta)
In three-phase transformers
Primary Secondary
Eph1 = 4.44 f Im N1 …(3.6) Eph2 = 4.44 f Im N2 …(3.7)
= 4.44 f Bm Ai N1 …(3.8) = 4.44 f Bm Ai N2 …(3.9)
E ph 2 N
Transformation ratio, K = = 2 …(3.10)
E ph1 N1

3.6 Three-phase Transformer Connections

As mentioned earlier, the standard nomenclature for phases is A, B, C. Capital letters A, B, C are used
for HV windings, lower case letters a, b, c for LV winding and (A), (B), (C) for a tertiary windings
 230 Electrical Machines

if provided. Neutral terminals precede line terminals. Each winding

has two ends designated by the subscript numbers 1, 2. However,
if there are intermediary tapping (or there are sections of the same
winding) these are numbered in order of their separation from end 1,
as illustrated in Fig. 3.7.
The interconnection of the phase windings to give a three-phase,
three-wire or three-phase, four wire supply provides three alternative
modes of connection (i) delta or mesh (ii) star and (iii) zig-zag. Each of
these can be achieved in two ways. For Example 3.a star-connection may
be had by joining together A1, B1 and C1, to form the neutral and using
A2, B2 and C2 as line terminals. Alternatively A2, B2, and C2 may be
joined to give neutral and A1, B1 and C1 may be used as line terminals.
Since primary and secondary can be treated in either of these ways, Fig. 3.7 Winding terminals
at least twelve combinations of connection are possible. All these
combinations are illustrated in Fig. 3.8. According to the phase displacement which exists between
the line voltages on the two sides of the transformer these combinations can be arranged in the
following four main groups:
Group 1: With 0° phase displacement : Connections with symbolic notation Yy0, Dd0, Dz0
Group 2: With 180° phase displacement : Connections with symbolic notation Yy6, Dd6, Dz6
Group 3: With 30° lag phase displacement : Connections with symbolic notation Dy1, Yd1, Yz1
Group 4: With 30° lead phase displacement : Connections with symbolic notation Dy11, Yd11, Yz11
Among the above, the most popular method of connecting transformers is the delta–star connections
(Dy11). The connection diagram illustrates the relative position of the terminals in the terminal box
and the arrangement of internal connections. The HV winding is connected to a three-wire supply
having phase sequence A, B, C and at the instant chosen the potential of A is at its maximum positive
value. Thus the line voltage on the HV side will form an equilateral triangle as illustrated. The line
terminals are A1, B1 and C1 and the corners of the triangles are so marked. It is to be noted that the
phase A of the transformer lies between A1 and B1, phase B between B1 and C1 and phase C between
C1 and A1 owing to internal connections used.
In case of LV winding, since Va1a2 is in phase with VA1A2 , the line na1 is, therefore, drawn parallel
to B1 A1 in order to establish the direction of phase–voltages phasor. Similarly nb1 and nc1 depend
on C1B1 and A1C1 and the phasor diagram for LV shows the voltages of the terminals a1, b1 and c1
with respect to n.
From the phasor diagrams of induced voltages for HV and LV sides it is observed that the voltage of
the HV line A1 is at maximum value, the LV line a1 has been advanced by 30°. In fact, the transformer
connections have produced this displacement of 30° for all lines.
All the other methods of connections in the same main group no. 4 give a similar 30° advance
which is the basis of classification.
In case of group no. 1 there is no phase displacement, whereas group no. 2 gives phase displacement
of 180°. In group no. 3, the line voltage of LV winding lags by 30°.
For parallel operation of transformers the essential requirement is that the transformer connections
belong to the same main group so that there may not be any phase displacement between the line voltages.
Three-Phase Transformers 231

Fig. 3.8. Contd.

 232 Electrical Machines

Fig. 3.8. Contd.

Fig. 3.8 Various winding connections of three-phase transformers

 Three-Phase Transformers 233

With three-phase transformers, it is possible to obtain any desired phase shift if the primary and/
or secondary windings are divided into a sufficient number of sections. The zig-zag connection
is one of the example of sectionalised winding. By using these connections, the effect of third
harmonics in line to neutral voltages and line to line voltages is reduced. In these connections,
half sections are connected in opposition which gives the larger total fundamental voltage and
causes the co-phasial third harmonics to cancel. The fundamental line-to-neutral voltage is 0.866
times the arithmetic sum of the two section voltages (phase voltages in zig-zag, connection being
composed of two half-voltages with a phase difference of 60°). This causes the reduction in voltage
and to compensate the same 15 percent more turns are required for a given total voltage per phase.
Consequently, it necessitates an increase in the frame size over that normally used for the given
rating. However, the advantages of zig-zag arrangement may offset the cost. The other important
advantages of zig-zag connections are unbalanced loads on the secondary side are distributed
better on the primary side. The zig-zag/star connection has been employed where delta connections
were mechanically weak (on account of large number of turns and small copper sections) in HV
transformers. These are also preferred for rectifiers.

3.7 Selection of Transformer Connections

When a transformer is to be placed in a power system to step-up or step down the voltage, it is
selected as per its connections which are having some peculiar characteristics as explained below:

3.7.1 Star-Star (Yy0 or Yy6) Connections

The star-star connections of a three-phase transformer are shown in Figs. 3.9.1(a and b) and 9.2(a
and b). Their phasor diagrams are also shown in Figs. 3.9.1(c and d) and 3.9.2 (c and d). It may be
seen that line voltage is 3 times the phase voltage and there is a phase difference of 30° between
them. In Fig. 3.9.1 the secondary voltage is in phase with the primary, whereas in Fig. 3.9.2 the
secondary voltage system is 180° out of phase from the primary, the former is designated as Yy0
and the latter is designated as Yy6 for three-phase transformers.

Fig. 3.9.1. Contd.

 234 Electrical Machines

Fig. 3.9.1. Contd.

Fig. 3.9.1 Star-star (Yy0) connection and their phasor diagram (0º phase shift)

Fig. 3.9.2 Star-star (Yy6) connection and their phasor diagram (180º phase shift)
 Three-Phase Transformers 235

Star-star connected three-phase transformers are operated with grounded neutrals, i.e., the neutral
of the primary is connected to the neutral of the power source. If the neutral is kept in isolation, the
unbalanced load on the secondary will shift the position of neutral which changes the magnitude of
phase voltages. A grounded neutral in the primary prevents this unsatisfactory operation.
With an isolated neutral the third-harmonic components in the magnetising currents of the three
primary windings are in phase and as such they have no path. As the path for third harmonic current
is absent, the phase voltages become non-sinusoidal though the line voltages are sinusoidal.

Fig. 3.10 Oscillating neutral at different instants

For illustration, consider that the fundamental phasors for the balanced phase voltages are e1A,
e1B and e1C each of magnitude e1, while the third harmonic voltage for each phase is e3. At a certain
time their relative positions are as shown in Fig. 3.10. As the third harmonic phase voltage has the
frequency different from that of the fundamental (the frequency of third harmonic is thrice the
fundamental frequency) phase voltage, their relative positions vary with time, that is, position of Nc
changes. This phenomenon is known as oscillating neutral. The maximum voltage at any phase is
e1 + e3 . Thus harmonic voltage is undesirable as it develops high stress in the insulation of the
windings. The use of a grounded neutral or a tertiary delta winding will allow a path for the third-
harmonic current and thus produces a sinusoidal flux and a sinusoidal phase voltage.
The star-star transformer connections are most economical. These are employed in small current and
high voltage transformers. The advantages and disadvantages of such an arrangement are given below:
 236 Electrical Machines

Advantages:
(i) The number of turns per phase and the amount of insulation is minimum because phase voltage
is only 1 times to that of line voltage.
3
(ii) There is no phase displacement between the primary and secondary voltages.
(iii) It is possible to provide a neutral connection since star point is available on both the sides.
Disadvantages:
(i) Under unbalanced load conditions on the secondary side, the phase voltages of load side change
unless the load star point is earthed. This condition is called shifting of neutral. However by
connecting the primary star point to the star point of the generator the difficulty of shifting
neutral can be overcome.
(ii) The primary of the transformer draws a magnetising current which contains third and fifth
harmonic. If neutral of primary winding is not connected to neutral of generator, the third and
fifth harmonic currents will distort the core flux and change the wave shape of output voltages.
However, by connecting primary neutral to the generator neutral, the path for return of these
third and fifth harmonic currents is provided and, therefore, the trouble of distortion of voltages
is overcome.
(iii) Even if neutral point of primary is connected to neutral of generator or earthed, still third
harmonic may exist. This will appear on secondary side. Although the secondary line voltages
do not contain third harmonic voltage; but the 3rd harmonic voltages are additive in the neutral
and causes current in the neutral of triple frequency (3rd harmonic) which will cause interference
to the nearby communication system.

Note: Star-star connections are rarely used because of the difficulties associated with the exciting
current although these are more economical.

3.7.2 Delta-Delta (Dd0 or Dd6) Connections

Figure 3.11.1(a and b) shows delta-delta connections, designated as Dd0 of a three-phase transformer.
Their phasor diagrams are also shown in Fig. 3.11.1(c and d). It may be seen that line voltages and
phase voltages have the same magnitude but the line currents are 3 times to that of phase currents,
i.e., IA = 3I AB .

Fig. 3.11.1. Contd.

 Three-Phase Transformers 237

Fig. 3.11.1 Delta-delta (DdO) connection of transformer (0° phase shift)

If the connections of the phase windings are reversed on either side as shown in Fig. 3.11.2(a and
b) we may have the phase difference of 180° between the primary and secondary systems as shown
in Fig. 3.11.2(c and d). These connections are designated as Dd6.

Fig. 3.11.2 Delta-delta (Dd6) connection of transformer and their phasor diagram (180º phase shift)
 238 Electrical Machines

The primary draws the magnetising current of a transformer which contains third harmonic.
Since the third harmonic components of current of the three phases are displaced from each other
by 120° × 3 = 360°, they are all in phase and produce circulating current within the primary delta.
This current produces sinusoidal flux and the secondary voltage becomes sinusoidal.
These connections are usually employed in power system where large currents on low voltages
are employed. Moreover, these connections are suitable when continuity of service is required to be
maintained even though one of the phases develops fault. When operated in this way, the transformer
delivers three phase currents and voltages in their correct phase relationship but the capacity of the
transformer is reduced to 57.7% of the normal rating.
Advantages:
(i) There is no phase displacement between the primary and secondary voltages.
(ii) There is no distortion of flux, since the third harmonic component of magnetising current flows
in the delta-connected primary winding without flowing in the line wires.
(iii) For winding, conductors with smaller diameter are required as cross-section of conductor is
reduced because the phase current is 1 times of line current.
3
(iv) No difficulty is experienced even though the load is unbalanced on the secondary side.
Disadvantages:
(i) More insulation is required in comparison to star-star connections since phase voltage in equal
to line voltage.
(ii) In these connections, the star point is absent, if one line gets earthed due to fault, maximum
voltage between windings and core will become full line voltage.

3.7.3 Star-Delta (Yd1 or Yd11) Connections

These connections are shown in Fig. 3.12.1(a, b). By drawing a phasor diagram, it can be seen that
a 30° phase shift appears in line voltage as well as in system phase voltages between primary and
secondary side. The third-harmonic currents flow within the mesh to provide a sinusoidal flux, the
ratio between primary and secondary system voltages is 3 times the phase turns ratio. When
operated in Y-', the primary neutral is sometimes grounded to connect it to four-wire system.

Fig. 3.12.1 Phase shift 30º lead

 Three-Phase Transformers 239

Figure 3.12.1 shows phase shift of 30° lag whereas Fig. 3.12.2(a and b) shows phase shift of 30°
lead. If the transformer is poly-phase and the high voltage side is star connected, the former connection
is termed as Yd1 and the latter Yd11.

Fig. 3.12.2 Phase shift 30º lag

Usually, the transformers with these connections are used where the voltage is to be stepped down.
For example, at the receiving end of a transmission line. In this type of transformer connections, the
neutral of the primary winding is earthed. In this system line voltage ratio is 1 times of transformer
3
turn-ratio and secondary line voltages have a phase shift of ± 30° with respect to primary line voltages.
On the HV side of the transformer insulation is stressed only to the extent of 57.7% of the line voltage
and, therefore, there is some saving in the cost of insulation.

3.7.4 Delta-Star (Dy1 or Dy11) Connections

The '-Y connections and phasor diagrams of a three-phase transformer supplying a balance load are
shown in Figs. 3.13.1 and 3.13.2. It may be noted that the secondary system phase voltages i.e., Van
etc., lag the primary system phase voltages VAN etc., by 30°. The ratio of primary to secondary line
voltages is 1 / 3 times the transformation ratio for the individual phase windings. No difficulty
arises due to third harmonic currents as a delta connection allows a path for these currents.

(a) Primary (b) Secondary

Fig. 3.13.1 Delta–Star connection of transformer (Phase shift 30° lag)

 240 Electrical Machines

Fig. 3.13.2 Delta–star connection of transformer (Phase shift 30° lead)

The use of such connections permits a grounded neutral on the secondary side to provide a three-phase
four-wire supply system. By reversing the connections on either side, the secondary system voltage can
be made to lead the primary system by 30° as shown in Fig. 3.13.2. If the transformer is three-phase
and the high voltage side is delta connected, the transformer is designated as Dy1 and the latter Dy11.
The transformers with these connections are employed where it is necessary to step up the
voltage. For example, at the beginning of HV transmission system. These connections are also very
popular with distribution transformers where voltages are stepped down to 400 V with three-phase,
four-wire system.
Advantages:
(i) On the high voltage side of the transformer, insulation is stressed only to the extent of 57.7% of
line voltage.
(ii) In this case, the neutral point is stable and will not “float” when load is unbalanced.
(iii) There is no distortion of flux because the primary is delta connected which allows a path for
the 3rd harmonic currents.
Disadvantages:
(i) In this scheme of connection the line voltage ratio is 3 times of transformer turn-ratio.
 Three-Phase Transformers 241

(ii) The secondary line voltages have a phase shift of ± 30° with respect to primary line voltages.
The neutral of the secondary is grounded to provide three-phase, four-wire system and this scheme
of connections is widely used in distribution systems because it can be used to serve both the three
phase power equipment and single phase lighting circuits. In such case the 11 kV/400 V transformer
connections provide a four-wire secondary, with neutral converted to the 4th wire. The three-phase
equipment is connected to the line wires to operate at 400 V while the lighting equipment is connected
between one of the line wires and neutral to operate at 230 volt.

Note: Star–delta or delta–star connected transformers cannot be operated is parallel with star-
star or delta-delta connected transformers even though the voltage ratios are correctly adjusted
as there will be a 30° phase difference between corresponding voltages on the secondary side.

3.7.5 Delta-Zigzag Connections

In this case, the primary is connected in delta and each secondary winding is divided in two halves
such as a1 – a2, a3 – a4; b1 – b2, b3 – b4 and c1 – c2, c3 – c4. The six halves are then connected to form
a zigzag connection as shown in Figs. 3.14.1 and 3.14.2. A1, a1, a3 are of same polarity; similarly, B1,
b1, b3 and C1, c1, c3 are of same polarity respectively. If the voltage of each half of the transformer
secondary is V2, the phase voltage of the secondary system is 3V2 and the voltage is 3 ¥ 3 V2
= 3V2. If I2 be the rated current of each secondary winding, the volt-ampere available from the three-
phase transformer will be 3 3 V2V1 while the sum of the individual winding capacities is 6V2 I2. Thus
only 0.866 of the combined individual capacity is available at the output.
There is no phase difference between phase voltages of the primary and secondary systems in
the connection of Fig. 3.14.1(a) whereas a phase shift of 180° occurs if the secondary is connected as
shown in Fig. 3.14.2. In poly-phase transformers if the delta is on the high voltage side, which is usually
the case, the connections of Fig. 3.14.1 are termed as Dz0 and that of Fig. 3.14.2 are termed as Dz6.
Delta-zigzag connections are useful for supply of power to rectifiers.

Fig. 3.14.1 0º Phase shift

 242 Electrical Machines

Fig. 3.14.2 Delta–zigzag connection of transformer

3.7.6 Star-Zigzag Connection

In this case, the primary is connected in star and each secondary which is made of two helps of a1
– a2, a3 – a4; b1 – b2 etc. is connected in zig-zag. Zigzag connections have already been explained
while discussing delta–zigzag connections. In Fig. 3.15.1 the phase voltage of the secondary system
leads the primary voltage by 30° while in Fig. 3.15.2 they lag by 30°.

Fig. 3.15.1 Phase shift 30° lead

If the zigzag is on the low voltage side, which is normally the case, and the transformer is poly-
phase, then the connection of Fig. 3.15.1 is designated as Yz11 and that of Fig. 3.15.2 as Yz1. There
is similar reduction in available capacity as in delta–zigzag connections.
These zig-zag connections reduce the effect of third-harmonic voltage and at the same time permits
unbalanced loading even though the primary is star-connected with isolated neutral.
 Three-Phase Transformers 243

Fig. 3.15.2 Phase shift 30º lag

Example 3.1
Find the turn-ratio (primary to secondary) of a 11000/400 volt, delta/star connected, three phase
transformer.

Solution:
Primary phase voltage, EPh1 = EL1 = 11000 V (delta-connected primary)

EL2
Secondary phase voltage, EPh2 = = 400 = 231 V (star-connected secondary)
3 3
N1 E ph1
Turn-ratio (primary to secondary), = = 11000 = 47.62 (Ans.)
N2 E ph 2 231
Example 3.2
A three-phase 50 Hz transformer core has a cross-section of 400 cm2 (gross). If the flux density be
limited to 1.2 Wb/m2, find the number of turns per phase on high and LV side winding. The voltage
ratio is 2200/220 V, the HV side being connected in star and LV side in delta. Consider stacking
factor as 0.9.

Solution:
Net iron cross-section, Ai = 400 × 0.9 = 360 cm2 or 0.036 m2

HV side phase voltag7e, Eph1 = 2200 = 1270 ◊ 17 V

3
E ph1 1270.17
No. of turn per phase on HV winding, N1 = =
4 ◊ 44 Bm ¥ Ai ¥ f 4 ◊ 44 ¥ 1 ◊ 2 ¥ 0 ◊ 036 ¥ 50
= 132 (Ans.)

LV side phase voltage, Eph2 = 220 V

 244 Electrical Machines

E ph 2 220 ¥ 132 = 22.86 (Ans.)

No. of turn per phase LV winding, N2 = ¥ N1 =
E ph1 1270 ◊ 17
Example 3.3
A 50 Hz, three-phase core type transformer is to be built for an 11 kV /440 V ratio, connected in delta-
star. The cores are to have a square section and the coils are of circular. Taking an induced emf of 15 V
per turn and maximum core flux density of about 1.1 T. Find the primary and secondary number of turns
and cores cross-sectional area neglecting insulation thickness.

Solution:
Here, E1 (L) = 11kV = 11000 V; E2 (L) = 440 V; Bm = 1.1 T

EMF/ turn = 15 V; connections-Delta/Star

Primary phase voltage, E1(ph) = E1 (L) = 11000 V

Primary turns/phase, N1 = 11000 = 733 ◊ 3 (Ans)

15
E2 ( L ) 440
Secondary phase voltage, E2(ph) = = = 254 V
3 3

Secondary turns/phase, N2 = 254 = 17 (Ans)

15
Now, E1 (ph) = 4·44 f Bm A N1

11000 = 4.44 × 50 × 1.1 × A × 733.3

? Core–sectional area, A = 0.06143 m2 = 614.3 cm2 (Ans.)

Example 3.4
A three-phase, 50 Hz transformer of shell type has cross-sectional area of core as 400 cm2. If the
flux density is limited to 1.2 Tesla, find the number of turns per phase on high voltage and low
voltage side. The voltage ratio is 11000/400 V, the higher voltage side being connected in star and
low voltage side in delta. Also determine the transformation ratio.

Solution:
Here, f = 50 Hz; A = 400 cm2 = 400 × 10 –4 m2; Bm = 1.2 T

E1(L) = 11000 V; E2(L) = 400 V; Connections - Star/Delta

E1( L )
Primary phase voltage, E1ph = = 11000 = 6351 V
3 3
Now, E1ph = 4·44 f Bm AN1

E1( ph )
? Primary turns/phase, N1 =
4 ◊ 44 f Bm A
 Three-Phase Transformers 245

= 6351 = 596 (Ans.)

4 ◊ 44 ¥ 50 ¥ 1 ◊ 2 ¥ 400 ¥ 10 -4
E2(ph) 400 3 ¥ 400
Transformation, ratio, K= = = = 0·06298 (Ans.)
E1(ph) 11000 / 3 11000
Secondary turns/phase, N2 = KN1 = 0·06298 × 596 = 37·54 (Ans.)

Example 3.5
A three-phase step down transformer is connected to 6600 volt mains and takes a current of 24
amperes. Calculate the secondary line voltage, line current and output for the following connections
(i) Delta-delta (ii) Star-star (iii) Delta-star (iv) Star-delta. The ratio of turns of per phase is 12.
Neglect losses.

Solution:
Ratio of turns per phase = 12

Transformation ratio, K= 1
12
(i) Delta-Delta connections:
In Delta connections, line voltage = phase voltage.
Primary line voltage = 6600
Primary phase voltage = 6600 V

Secondary phase voltage = 6600 = 550 V

12
Secondary line voltage = 550 V (Ans)

Line current = 3 × phase current

? Primary phase current = 24

3

Secondary phase current = 24 ¥ 12

3

Secondary line current = 3 ¥ 24 ¥ 12 = 288 A (Ans)

3
3 ¥ 550 ¥ 288
Output = 3 VL I L = kVA= 274.36 kVA (Ans)
1000
(ii) Star-Star Connections:

In star connections, line voltage = 3 × phase voltage

Also, line current = phase current.

Primary phase voltage = 6600

3
 246 Electrical Machines

Secondary phase voltage = 6600

3 ¥ 12

Secondary line voltage = 3 ¥ 6600 = 550 V (Ans)

3 ¥ 12
Primary line current = 24 A

Secondary line current = 24 ×12 = 288 A (Ans)

3 ¥ 550 ¥ 288
Output in kVA = = 274.36 kVA (Ans)
1000
(iii) Delta-Star Connections:

Primary phase voltage = 6600 volts

Secondary phase voltage = 6600 = 550 V

12
Secondary line voltage = 3 × 550 = 952·63 V (Ans)

Primary phase current = 24

3

Secondary phase current = 24 ¥ 12 = 116·27 A

3
Secondary line current = 116.27 A (Ans)

3 ¥ 952 ◊ 63 ¥ 166 ◊ 27
Output in kVA = = 274·36 kVA (Ans)
1000
(iv) Star-Delta connections:

Primary phase voltage = 6600

3

Secondary phase voltage = 6600 ¥ 1 = 317·54 V (Ans)

3 12
Secondary line voltage = 317·54 V (Ans)

Primary line current = primary phase current = 24 A (Ans)

Secondary phase current = 24 × 12 = 288 A

Secondary line current = 3 × 288 = 498·83 A (Ans)

3 ¥ 317 ◊ 54 ¥ 498 ◊ 83
Output in kVA = = 274.36 kVA (Ans)
1000
Example 3.6
A three-phase, 50 Hz, core type transformer is required to be built for a 10000/500 V ratio, connected in
star/mesh. The cores are to have a square section and the coils are to be circular. Taking an induced emf
 Three-Phase Transformers 247

of about 15 V per turn and maximum core density of about 1.1 tesla find the cross-sectional dimensions
of the core and the number of turns per phase.

Solution:
Emf per turn = 15

The primary phase voltage, Eph1 = 10000 volt

3

? Primary turns, N1 = 10000 ¥ 1 = 384 (Ans.)

3 15
? Secondary turns, N2 = N1 × K
E ph 2
Where K = Transformation ratio = = 500 = 3
E ph1 10000 20
3

? N2 = 384 × 3 = 33.1; 34 (Ans.)

20
Also from the fundamental equation Eph = 4.44 f.Im. Nph = 4.44 f Bm. Ai Nph volt
E ph
= 15 = 4.44 × 50 × 1.1 × Ai
N ph

? Ai = 15 = 612 × 10 –4 m2 = 612 cm2 (Ans.)

4 ◊ 44 ¥ 50 ¥ 1 ◊ 1
Gross-cross-sectional area of the core,

Ai
Agc =
Ki

? Agc = 612 = 680 cm 2 (assuming Ki to be 0.9)

0◊9
Side of square = Agc = 680 = 26 cm (Ans.)

Example 3.7
A three-phase transformer, rated at 1000 kVA, 11/3.3 kV has its primary star-connected and
secondary delta connected. The actual resistances per phase of these windings are, primary 0.375
ohm, secondary 0.095 and the leakage reactances per phase are primary 9.5 ohm, secondary 2
ohm. Calculate the voltage at normal frequency which must be applied to the primary when the
secondary terminals are short circuited. Calculate also the power under these conditions.

Solution:

Primary phase voltage, Eph1 = 11000 = 6352 V

3
E ph 2
Transformation ratio, K = = 3300 = 0 ◊ 5195
E ph1 6352
 248 Electrical Machines

Primary full load current, Iph1 = IL1 = 1000 ¥ 1000 = 52 ◊ 49 A

3 ¥ 11000
Total resistance referred to primary per phase,

Rep = R1 +
R2
= 0 ◊ 375 + 0 ◊ 095 = 0 ◊ 727 ohm
2
K (0 ◊ 5195)2
Total reactance referred to primary per phase,

X2 2
Xep = X1 + 2
= 9◊5+ = 16 ◊ 9 ohm
K (0 ◊ 5195)2
2 2
Total impedance referred to primary, Zep = Rep + X ep

Zep = (0 ◊ 727)2 + (16 ◊ 9)2 = 16.95 ohm per phase

Phase voltage applied to primary when the secondary in short circuited,

V1sc(ph) = Iph1 Zep

= 52.49 × 16.95 = 889 V

Voltage applied at the terminals, EL1 = 3 E ph1 = 3 ¥ 889 = 1540 V (Ans.)

Power input when secondary is short circuited,

Pc = 3I 2ph1 Rep = 3 × (52.49)2 × 0.727

= 5964 W = 5.964 kW (Ans.)

Example 3.8
A 33/66 kV, 5 MVA, three-phase star-connected transformer with short circuited secondary passes
full-load current with 7% primary potential difference and losses are 30 kW. With full potential
difference on the primary and the secondary open circuited, the losses are 15 kW. What will be the
efficiency of the transformer at full-load and 0.8 power factor?

Solution:
At short-circuit full-load copper losses, Pc= 30 kW

At open-circuit, iron losses, Pi = 15 kW

Total losses = Pi + Pc = 15 + 30 = 45 kW = 0.045MW

At 0.8 p.f., rated output = 5 × 0.8 = 4 MW

rated output
Full-load efficiency, K = ¥ 100
rated output + losses

= 4 ¥ 100 = 98.88% (Ans.)

4 + 0 ◊ 045
 Three-Phase Transformers 249

Example 3.9
A 2 MVA three-phase, 33/6.6 kV, delta/star transformer has a primary resistance of 8 ohm per phase
and a secondary resistance of 0.08 ohm per phase. The percentage impedance is 7%. Calculate the
secondary terminal voltage, regulation and efficiency at full load 0.75 power factor lagging when
the iron losses are 15 kW.

Solution:
Here, transformer rating = 2 MVA = 2 × 106 VA
E ph 2
Transformation ratio, K = = 6 ◊ 6 / 3 = 0 ◊ 1155
E ph1 33
Referring to secondary side,

Secondary phase current, Iph2 = IL2 = 2 ¥ 106 = 175 A

3 ¥ 6 ◊ 6 ¥ 103
Percent impedance drop = 7% of Eph2

= 7 ¥ 6 ◊ 6 ¥ 1000 = 266 ◊ 7 V
100 3
or, Iph2 Zes = 266.7

? Impedance/phase, Zes = 266 ◊ 7 = 1.524 :

175
Resistance per phase referred to secondary side,

Res = R2 + R1 + K2 = 0.08 + 8 × (0.1155)2

= 0.1867 :

2
Reactance/phase, Xes = Z es 2
- Res = (1 ◊ 524)2 - (0 ◊ 1867)2

= 1.51 :

Power factor, cos I2 = 0.75; sin I2 = sin cos–1 0.75 = 0.6613

Eph2 = 6 ◊ 6 ¥ 1000 = 3810 V

3
Secondary phase voltage after drop in resistance and reactance.

Vph2 = Eph2 – Iph2 Res cos I2 – Iph2 Xes sin I2

= 3810 – 175 × 0.1867 × 0.75 – 175 × 1.51 × 0.6613

= 3810 – 24.5 – 174.5 = 3611 V

Secondary terminal voltage, VL2 = 3 ¥ Vph 2 = 3 ¥ 3611 = 6254 V (Ans.)

 250 Electrical Machines

E ph 2 - Vph 2
Voltage regulation, % Reg = ¥ 100
E ph 2

= 3810 - 3611 ¥ 100 = 5.22% (Ans.)

3810
Full-load coper losses, Pc = 3I 2ph 2 Res = 3 × (175)2 × 0.1867

= 17153 W = 17.153 kW
MVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f
Efficiency at full-load, K = ¥ 100
MVA ¥ 1000 ¥ cos f + Pi + Pc

= 2 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.75 ¥ 100

2 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0 ◊ 75 + 15 + 17 ◊ 153
= 97.9% (Ans.)

Example 3.10
The percentage impedance of a three-phase, 11000/400 V, 500 kVA, 50 Hz transformer is 4.5%. Its
efficiency at 80% of full-load, unity power factor is 98.8%. Load power factor is now varied while
the load current and the supply voltage are held constant at their rated values. Determine the load
power factor at which the secondary terminal voltage is minimum.

Solution:
Output at 80% of full load and unity of = 500 × 0.8 × 1.0 = 400 kW

Input at 80% of full load and unity pf = 400 = 400 = 404 ◊ 8583 kW
h 0 ◊ 988
Total losses at 80% of full load = Input – output

= 404.8583 – 400

= 4.8583 kW

? Copper losses at 80% full load = 4 ◊ 8583 = 2.429 kW

2
Full load copper losses, Pc = 2 ◊ 429 = 3 ◊ 796 kW
(0 ◊ 8)2
Percentage resistance = Percentage copper loss of full load output

= 3 ◊ 7955 ¥ 100 = 0.7591%

500
Percentage impedance = 4.5% (given)

? Percentage reactance = (4 ◊ 5)2 - (0 ◊ 7591)2 = 4.4355%

For terminal voltage to be minimum, the drop or percentage regulation will be maximum i.e.,
vr cos I + vx sin I will be maximum
 Three-Phase Transformers 251

or d (v cos f + v sin f ) = 0
df r x

or – vr sin I+ vx cos I = 0

= tan -1 4 ◊ 4355 = 80.3°

vx
or I = tan -1
vr 0 ◊ 7591
Thus load power factor for minimum voltage, cos I = cos 80.3° = 0.1687 (lag) (Ans.)

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. A three-phase 50 Hz transformer of shell type has an iron cross-section of 400 sq. cm (gross). If the flux
density be limited by 1.2 tesla, find the number of turns per phase on high and low voltage windings. The
voltage ratio is 11000/550, the high voltage winding being connected in star and low voltage winding in
mesh. (Ans. 670, 58)

2. A 440 V, three-phase supply is connected through a transformer of 1: 1 ratio which has its primary
connected in Delta and secondary in star to a load consisting of three 11 ohm resistors connected in delta.
Calculate the currents (i) in the transformer windings (ii) in the resistors (iii) in the line to the supply (iv)
the load. Find also (v) the power supplied and (vi) power dissipated by each resistor.
(Ans. 120 A, 120 A, 69.3A, 207.3A, 144 kW, 48 kW )

3. A 120 kVA, 6000/400 V, Y/Y, 3- I, 50 Hz transformer has an iron loss of 1800 W. The maximum efficiency
occur at 3/4 full load. Find the efficiency of the transformer at (i) full load and 0.8 power factor and (ii)
the maximum efficiency at unity power factor. (Ans. 95%, 96.15%)

4. A 100 kVA, three-phase 50 Hz 3300/400 V transformer is delta-connected on the HV side and star-
connected on LV side. The resistance of the HV winding is 3.5 : per phase and that of the LV winding 0.02
: per phase. Calculate the iron losses of the transformer at normal voltage and frequency if its full-load
efficiency be 95.8% at 0.8 pf (lag). (Ans. 1.2 kW )

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What are the advantages of using three-phase transformers over a bank of three one-phase
transformers?
Ans. (i) It requires smaller quantity of iron and copper. Hence, its cost is nearly 15% lesser than a bank
of three single phase transformers of equal rating.
(ii) It has smaller size and can be accommodated in smaller tank and hence needs smaller quantity
of oil for cooling.
(iii) It has less weight and occupies less space.
(iv) It needs less number of bushings.
(v) It operates at slightly better efficiency and regulation.

Q.2. Draw the connection diagram for delta-Y connection.

Ans. The Δ-Y connections of a three-phase transformer supplying a balance load are shown in Fig. Q2. In
these connections, the secondary system phase voltages lag the primary system phase voltages by
 252 Electrical Machines

30°. The ratio of primary to secondary line voltages is 1 / 3 times the transformation ratio for the
individual phase windings. No difficulty arises due to third harmonic currents as a delta connection
allows a path for these currents.

Fig. Q.2 Delta–star connection of transformer (Phase shift 30° lag)

Q.3. A star/delta transformer has a phase current transformation ratio (star phase: 1 delta phase). Its
star/delta line current transformation ratio will be given by………………..
Ans. In star connections, I L = I ph or I ph = I L
1 1 1 1

I L2
In delta connections, I L = 3I ph or I ph =
2 2 2
3
I ph1 I L1 I I
Ratio = = 1 or = 1 or L1 ¥ 3 = 1 or L1 = 1
I ph 2 IL2 / 3 I L2 I L2 3
Q.4. Star-star connected transformers are rarely used, why?
Ans. (i) Under unbalanced load conditions on the secondary side, the phase voltages of load side change
unless the load star point is earthed. This condition is called shifting of neutral.
(ii) The primary of the transformer draws a magnetising current which contains third and fifth harmonic.
If neutral of primary winding is not connected to neutral of generator, the third and fifth harmonic
currents which distort the core flux and change the wave shape of output voltages.
(iii) Even if neutral point of primary is connected to neutral of generator or earthed, still third harmonic
may exist.
Star-star connections are rarely used because of the difficulties associated with the exciting current
although these are more economical.

3.8 Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers

When the primaries and secondaries of the two or more transformer are connected separately to the
same incoming and outgoing lines to share the load, the transformers said to be connected in parallel.
 Three-Phase Transformers 253

Fig. 3.16 Connections for parallel operation of two three-phase transformers

The two three-phase transformers A and B are placed in parallel as shown in Fig. 3.16. Here the
primary windings of the two transformers are connected to the supply bus-bars and the secondary
windings are connected to the load through load bus-bars. Under this conditions
V1L = Primary applied voltage
V2L = VL = Secondary load voltage.

3.9 Necessity of Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers

As explained earlier, following are the reasons for which transformers are put in parallel.
(i) When the load on the transmission lines increases beyond the capacity of the installed
transformer. To overcome this problem one way is to replace the existing transformer with the
new one having larger capacity (this is called augmentation of transformer) and the other way
is to place one more transformer is parallel with the existing one to share the load. The cost of
replacing the transformer is much more than placing another one in parallel with the existing
one.
Hence, it is desirable to place another transformer is parallel when the electrical load on the
existing transformer increases beyond its rated capacity.
(ii) Sometimes, the amount of power to be transformed is so high that it is not possible to build a
single unit of that capacity, then we have to place two or more transformers in parallel.
Hence, parallel operation of transformers is necessary when the amount of power to be
transformed is much more than that which can be handled by single unit (transformer).
 254 Electrical Machines

(iii) At the grid sub stations, spare transformers are always necessary to insure the continuity of
supply in case of breakdown. The size of spare transformer depends upon the size of transformers
placed at the grid sub-station. Therefore, it is desirable to place transformers of smaller capacity
in parallel to transform the given load which in turn reduces the size of the spare transformer.
Hence, it is desirable to do parallel operation of transformers if we want to keep the spare
transformer of smaller size.

3.10 Conditions for Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers

The following conditions are to be fulfilled if two or more Three-phase transformers are to be operated
successfully in parallel to deliver a common load.
(i) Both the transformers should have same transformation ratio i.e., the voltage ratings of both
primaries and secondaries must be identical.
If this condition is not exactly fulfilled i.e., if the two transformers ‘A’ and ‘B’ have slight
difference in their voltage or transformation ratios, even then parallel operation is possible.
Since the transformation ratios are unequal, primary applied voltage being equal, the induced
emfs in the secondary windings will not be equal. Due to this inequality of induced emfs in the
secondary windings, there will be, even at no-load, some circulating current flowing from one
secondary winding (having higher induced emf) to the other secondary windings (having lower
induced emf). In other words, there will be circulating currents between the secondary windings
and therefore between primary windings also when the secondary terminals are connected in
parallel. The impedance of transformers is small, so that a small percentage voltage difference
may be sufficient to circulate a considerable current and cause additional I2 R loss. When
load is applied on the secondary side of such a transformer, the circulating current will tend
to produce unequal loading conditions. Hence, it may be impossible to take the combined full
load kVA output from the parallel connected group without one of the transformers becoming
excessively hot. For satisfactory parallel operation the circulating current should not exceed
10% of the normal load current.
(ii) Both the transformers should have the same percentage (or per unit) impedance.
If this condition is not exactly fulfilled, i.e., the impedance triangles at the rated kVA’s are not
identical in shape and size, even then parallel operation will be possible, but the power factors
at which the transformers operate will differ from the power factor of the load. Therefore, in
this case the transformers will not share the load in proportion to their kVA ratings.
(iii) Both three-phase transformers must have the same phase-sequence i.e., the transformers must
be properly connected with regard to their phase-sequence.
If this condition is not observed, the secondary of one transformer will act as a load on the other,
i.e., the secondaries will be under short circuit condition, they will be heated up and damage
the insulation quickly This condition must be fulfilled by all means.
(iv) In case of three-phase transformers, the two transformers must have such connections that
there should not be any phase displacement between the secondary line voltages.
The primaries and secondaries of three-phase transformers may be connected in different form
of connections. These connections produce various magnitudes and phase displacements.
 Three-Phase Transformers 255

The magnitudes can be adjusted by changing the tapings but phase displacement cannot be
compensated. Therefore the following types of connections are permissible for connecting three-
phase transformers in parallel.
Transformer-I: Yy Dd Yy Yd Yd
Transformer-II: Yy Dd Dd Dy Yz
However, transformers with (D + 30°) and (–30°) angle can also be connected in parallel but
only after reversing the connections of either primary or secondary.

3.11 Load Sharing between Three-phase Transformers Connected

in Parallel
The load sharing between two transformers connected in parallel depends upon the various conditions
as discussed in chapter-2, Art No. 2-41. The only difference is that, in case of three-phase transformers
per phase impedance is to be considered while determining the load sharing. If percentage impedances
of the two transformers having different rating are given, their values have to be converted as per
base kVA for calculating load sharing, i.e., % Resistance or % Reactance at base kVA = Base kVA
Rated kVA
× % R or % X at rated kVA.

Example 3.11
Two three-phase transformers each of 100 kVA are connected in parallel. One transformer has (per-
phase) resistance and reactance of 1% and 4% respectively and the other has (per-phase) resistance
and reactance of 1.5% and 6% respectively. Calculate the load shared by each transformer and
their pf when the total load to be shared is 120 kVA, 0.8 p.f. lagging.

Solution:
Here, Load = 120 kVA at p.f. 0.8 lagging

S = 120 ‘cos–1 0.8 = 120 – - 36 ◊ 87∞

Percentage impedance of transformer-I,

Z 1 = (1 + j4) = 4 ◊ 12 –76∞

Percentage impedance of transformer-II,

Z 2 = (1.5 + j6) = 6 ◊ 18 –76∞

Z 1 + Z 2 = (1 + j4) + (1.5 + j6) = (2.5 + j10) = 10 ◊ 3 –76∞

Load shared by transformer-I, S1 = Z2 ¥S

Z1 + Z 2
6 ◊ 18 –76∞
= ¥ 120 – - 36 ◊ 87∞
10 ◊ 3 –76∞
 256 Electrical Machines

= 72 – - 36 ◊ 87∞ kVA

= 57.6 kW at 0.8 p.f. lagging (Ans.)

Z1 4 ◊ 12 –76∞
Load shared by transformer-II, S 2 = ¥S = ¥ 120 – - 36 ◊ 87∞
Z1 + Z 2 10 ◊ 3 –76∞
= 48 – - 36 ◊ 87∞kVA

= 38.4 kW at 0.8 p.f. lagging (Ans.)

Example 3.12
Two 1000 kVA and 500 kVA, three-phase transformers are operating in parallel. The transformation
ratio is same for both i.e., 6600/400, delta-star. The equivalent secondary impedances of the
transformers are (0.001 + j0.003) ohm and (0.0028 + j0.005) ohm per phase respectively. Determine
the load shared and pf of each transformer if the total load supplied by them is 1200 kVA at 0.866
pf lagging.

Solution:
Impedance of 1000 kVA transformer, Z 1 = (0.001 + j0.003) = 0.003162 ‘71.57° ohm
Impedance of 500 kVA transformer, Z 2 = (0.0028 + j0.005) = 0.00573 ‘60.75° ohm
Z 1 + Z 2 = (0.001 + j0.003) + (0.0028 + j0.005) = (0.0038 + j0.008)
= 0.00886 ‘64.59° ohm
Load supplied, S = 1200 ‘–cos– 0.866 = 1200 ‘–30° kVA

Load shared by 1000 kVA transformer,

Z2 0 ◊ 00573 –60 ◊ 75
S1 = S ¥ = 1200 – - 30∞ ¥
Z1 + Z 2 0 ◊ 00886 –64 ◊ 59

= 776 ‘–33.84° kVA

= 645 kW at pf 0.83 lagging (Ans.)

Z1 0 ◊ 003162 –71 ◊ 57∞

Load shared by 500 kVA transformer, S 2 = S ¥ = 1200 – - 30∞ ¥
Z1 + Z 2 0 ◊ 00886 –64 ◊ 59∞
= 428 ‘–23° kVA

= 394 kW at pf 0.92 lagging (Ans.)

Example 3.13
Two 400 kVA and 800 kVA transformers are connected in parallel. One of them (400 kVA transformer)
has 1.5% resistive and 5% reactive drops whereas the other (800 kVA transformer) has 1% resistive
and 4% reactive drops. The secondary voltage of each transformer is 400 V on load. Determine
how they will share a load of 600 kVA at a pf of 0.8 lagging.
 Three-Phase Transformers 257

Solution:
Let the base kVA be 800 kVA
Percentage impedance of 400 kVA transformer at base kVA

Z 1 = 800 ¥ (1 ◊ 5 + j 5) = 3 + j10 = 10.44 ‘73.3°

400
Percentage impedance of 800 kVA transformer at base kVA

Z 2 = 800 ¥ (1 + j 4) = 1 + j4 = 4.123 ‘ 76°

800
Z 1 + Z 2 = (3 + j10) + (1 + j4) = 4 + j14 = 14.56 ‘74°
Load to be shared, S = 600 ‘–cos–1 0.8 = 600 ‘–36.87° kVA

Load shared by 400 kVA transformer, S1 = S ¥ Z2

Z1 + Z 3

= 600 – - 36 ◊ 87∞ ¥ 4 ◊ 123–76∞ = 169.9 ‘–34.87°

14 ◊ 56 –74∞
= 139.4 kW at pf 0.82 lagging (Ans.)

Load shared by 800 kVA transformer, S 2 = S ¥ Z1

Z1 + Z 2
10 ◊ 44 –73 ◊ 3∞
= 600 – - 36 ◊ 87∞ ¥ = 430.2 ‘–37.57°
14 ◊ 56 –74∞
= 340.6 kW at pf 0.792 lagging (Ans.)

3.12 Three Winding Transformers (Tertiary Winding)

Transformers usually have third winding in addition to the normal primary and secondary winding
called tertiary winding, and the transformer in called triple wound or 3-winding transformer. The
third winding is placed on the core because of any of the following reasons:
(i) In star-star connected transformers to suppress harmonic voltages, to allow sufficient earth
fault current to flow for operation of protective devices and to limit voltage unbalancing when
transformer is supplying an unsymmetrical load.
(ii) To prevent neutral potential, in star/star connected transformer, from oscillating to undesirable extent.
(iii) To supply an additional load at a voltage different from that of the primary and secondary.
(iv) To supply power to phase compensating devices, such as condensers,* operated at a voltage that
is different from both primary and secondary voltage.
(v) To measure voltage of an HV testing transformer.

* Usually, in all extensive high voltage systems, regulation of voltage at certain points is provided by means of synchronous
condensers. These condensers are connected to the high voltage system through transformers. From economic
considerations, the condenser connections are made through a third winding placed in the transformers.
 258 Electrical Machines

Usually, tertiary windings are delta-connected to provide path for zero sequence currents in the
case of single line or double line to ground faults. This low reactance path reduces voltage unbalancing
caused by these unbalanced ground faults.
The tertiary winding is called as an auxiliary winding when it is employed for supplying an
additional small load at a different voltage. On the other hand, it is also called as stabilising winding
when it is employed to limit the short-circuit current.

Operating Principle of 3-winding Transformer

The operating principle of a 3-winding (or triple wound) transformer is essentially the same as
that of a two-winding transformer. The primary winding of a three winding transformer acts as the
magnetising winding, and its current produces the main magnetic flux. The flux links the secondary
and tertiary windings and induces emfs in them in proportion to their number of turns respectively.
When loads are connected across the secondary and tertiary windings, currents I2 and I3 flow in
them. The ampere-turns are balanced as given below:
I1N1 = (–I2 N2) + (–I3N3) + I0 N1 …(3.11)

N2 N
or I1 = I2c + I3c + I0 (since I2c = -I 2 and I3c = -I 3 2 ) …(3.12)
N1 N1
Thus in a 3-winding transformer, power is transferred to secondary and tertiary winding
simultaneously.
Usually, both secondary and tertiary windings are not fully loaded at the same time, moreover the
currents I2c and I3c will not be in phase at the same instant. Therefore, the primary winding is usually
designed for a lower load than the sum of the rated powers of the secondary and tertiary windings.

Construction
In a three-winding transformer, there are three sets of windings (primary, secondary and tertiary)
placed on the core. Three winding transformers may be either single three-phase units or three one-
phase units connected in a three-phase units placed in the same tank or three one-phase separate units
connected in a three-phase bank. In this transformer, three windings are operated at three different
voltages termed as high voltage, medium voltage and low voltage windings.
The two possible winding arrangements starting from core outwards are : (i) LV, MV and HV and
(ii) MV, LV and HV as shown in Fig. 3.17.
In two-winding transformers, the kVA ratings of both the primary and the secondary windings
are the same and same is the rating of transformer but it is not so in case of 3-winding transformers.
The kVA rating of the 3-winding transformer is considered to be equal to the largest kVA rating of
any of its windings (i.e., primary winding).
The rating of tertiary winding depends upon its intended application. If it is provided for supply
of an additional load, the winding is designed and calculated on the same basis as the primary and
secondary. When it is employed only for balancing of loads and controlling short-circuit currents, it
carries current only for short-duration, and its rating depends mainly on its heat-capacity. In practice,
the x-section of the winding wire is generally determined by the fault conditions irrespective of the fact
for what application it is going to be used because it carries maximum current during this condition.
 Three-Phase Transformers 259

Fig. 3.17 Winding arrangement

Equivalent Circuit
The equivalent circuit can be drawn where each winding is represented by its own resistance and leakage
reactance referred to a common voltage (base voltage). The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.18,
neglecting circuit. The resistances and reactances can be converted to per unit values on the basis of an
assumed common or base kVA.
Referring to circuit shown in Fig. 3.18, neglecting exciting current I0, we have I 1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0.
The impedances for such an equivalent circuit can be determined from the data of three short-
circuit tests performed on the transformer.

Fig. 3.18 Equivalent circuit of three-winding transformer

Short circuit impedance of windings between terminals 1 and 2 with winding 3 open (i.e. impedance
of equivalent circuit when the terminals of circuit 1 and 2 are short-circuited and the terminals of
circuit 3 are open).
Z 12 = Z 1 + Z 2
Short circuit impedance of windings between terminals 2 and 3 with winding 1 open
Z 23 = Z 2 + Z 3
 260 Electrical Machines

and short circuit impedance of windings between terminals 3 and 1 with winding 2 open,
Z 31 = Z 3 + Z 1
All the impedances are referred to a common base.
Solving the above equations, we get,

Z 1 = 1 ( Z 12 + Z 31 - Z 23 ) …(3.13)
2
Z 2 = 1 ( Z 23 + Z 12 - Z 31 ) …(3.14)
2
and Z 3 = 1 ( Z 31 + Z 23 - Z 12 ) …(3.15)
2
The core-loss, exciting or magnetising impedance and turn-ratio can be determined by performing
open-circuit test on any of the three windings.

3.12.1 Stabilisation Provided by Tertiary Winding in Star-Star Transformer

Star-star transformers may comprise of single-phase units, or three-phase shell or five-limb core-type
units. All these transformer units suffer from the following disadvantages:
(i) They cannot supply unbalanced loads between line and neutral, i.e., zero sequence loads. (ii)
Their phase voltages may get distorted by third-harmonic emfs.
The reason is that mmf due to third-harmonic and zero sequence currents have an iron path.
The zero sequence impedance is so high between primary and secondary windings that it causes
large voltage unbalancing. This can well be understood from Fig. 3.19(a). The single-phase load or fault
current I2 tends to induce I1 in the corresponding primary winding (phase-A), but in the absence of
a neutral the current I1 has to return through the other two phases B and C. The reactance of these
windings, which is magnetising reactance here due to absence of their secondary currents, is very high.

Fig. 3.19(a) Distribution of currents in windings due to single-phase load or ground fault

The voltages of these phases B and C rise and become nearly equal to the primary line voltage.
On the other hand, the voltage of the faulty or loaded phase A reduces to a very low value. It develops
a serious voltage unbalancing.
 Three-Phase Transformers 261

By the use of a delta connected tertiary winding, zero sequence currents are provided with low
reactance paths, this prevents the voltage unbalancing in case of unbalanced loads or ground faults.
Figure 3.19(b) shows how currents are distributed in the windings of star-star-delta connected
transformer in case of single-phase loads or faults. It is assumed that each winding has equal turns
per phase. It is seen that no current has to encounter magnetising impedance magnetically linked
balancing current paths are available. Thus voltage unbalancing is prevented.

Fig. 3.19 (b) Distribution of unbalanced current in winding when a connected tertiary is placed

The two disadvantages mentioned above are reduced to some extent in the three-limbs of core type
transformers, because zero sequence flux is forced out of the core limb to high-reluctance air and
tank leading to reduction in flux and zero sequence impedance thereby reducing voltage unbalance
considerably. The third-harmonic flux also has similar high reluctance path and so magnitude of third
harmonic flux is small. The distortion in voltage wave shape is small and transformer has more or
less sinusoidal flux and emf when the input voltage is sinusoidal. It is nevertheless usual to provide
a delta-connected tertiary even to the three-limb core type transformer if the primary and secondary
are connected star-star. Further the third harmonic fluxes have been found to cause losses in tanks.

Example 3.14
The short circuit tests gave the following pu values of a 3-winding transformer.
Z 12 = (0.012 + j0.064); Z 23 = (0.025 + j0.064); Z 31 = (0.016 + j0.12)
The open circuit test on the primary gives the following values pu
Y 0 = (0.02 – j 0.05)
The secondary is supplying full rated power at 0.8 pf lagging and tertiary is kept open.
Find the impedance pu of each winding.

Solution:
Here, Z 12 = (0.012 + j 0.064)

Z 23 = (0.025 + j 0.064)

Z 31 = (0.016 + j 0.12)
 262 Electrical Machines

Z 1 = 1 ( Z 12 + Z 31 – Z 23 )
2
= 1 [0.012 + j 0.064 + 0.016 + j 0.12 – 0.025 – j 0.064 ]
2
= 1 (0.003 + j 0.12) = (0.0015 + j0.06) (Ans.)
2
Z 2 = 1 ( Z 23 + Z 12 – Z 31 )
2
= 1 [0.025 + j 0.064 + 0.012 + j 0.064 – 0.016 – j 0.12]
2
= 1 (0.021 + j 0.116) = (0.0105 + j0.058) (Ans.)
2
Z 3 = 1 ( Z 31 + Z 23 – Z 12 )
2
= 1 [0.016 + j 0.12 + 0.025 + j 0.064 – 0.012 – j 0.064]
2
= 1 (0.029 + j0.12) = (0.0145 + j0.06) (Ans.)
2
Example 3.15
An 11 kV/400 V, three-phase, delta/star transformer supplies a load of 100 kW at unity pf between
line R and neutral. It is also supplying a balanced load of 500 kW at 0.8 pf lagging. Determine the
current magnitude in each primary winding and each input line. State assumptions if any and draw
the relevant diagram.

Solution:

Secondary phase voltage, Vph2 = 400 = 231 V

3
Primary phase voltage, Vph1 = VL1 = 11000 V
Vph 2
Transformation ratio, K = = 231
Vph1 11000

Fig. 3.20 Circuit diagram

 Three-Phase Transformers 263

Current in red phase of secondary due to single phase load of 100 kW at unity pf.

= 100 ¥ 1000 = 433 A (in phase with respective phase voltage)

231
Current in all phases due to balanced load of 500 kW at 0.8 pf lagging

= 500 ¥ 1000 = 902 A

3 ¥ 231 ¥ 0 ◊ 8
(lagging behind their respective phase voltages by I = cos–1 0.8 = 36.87°)

Assuming phase voltage VRY on primary as reference phasor,

V RY = 11000 –0∞V ; V YB = 11000 – - 120∞ V ; V BR = 11000 –120∞ V

Current in primary phase RY due to single phase load of 100 kW unity pf

IRY(1) = 433 ¥ 231 = 9 ◊ 1 A in phase with voltage VRY

11000
I RY (1) = 9.1‘0° A

Current in primary phase RY due to three-phase balance load of 500 kW at 0.8 pf lagging.

IRY(2) = 902 ¥ 231 = 18 ◊ 95 A lagging VRY by 36.87º

11000
? I RY (2 ) = 18.95 ‘–36.87ºA

Current in phase RY, I RY = 9.1 ‘0º + 18.95 ‘–36.87º

= 9.1 + (15.16 – j 11.37) = (24.26 – j11.37)

= 26.8 ‘–25.1° A (Ans.)

Current in phase YB, I YB = 18.95‘–120º – 36.87º = 18.95 ‘–156.87º = (–17.43 – j7.44) A

= 18.95 ‘23.11º A (Ans.)

Current in phase BR, I BR = 18.95‘120º – 36.87º = 18.95 ‘83.13º = (2.67 + j18.81) A

= 19‘81.92° (Ans.)

Line current, I R = I RY - I BR = (24 ◊ 26 - j11 ◊ 37) - (2 ◊ 67 + j18 ◊ 81)

= (21.59 – j30.18) = 37.1 ‘–54.42ºA (Ans.)

Line current, I Y = I YB - I RY = (–17.43 – j7.44) – (24.26 – j11.37)

= (–41.69 – j18.81) = 45.74 ‘24.28º A (Ans.)

Line current, I B = I BR - I YB = (2.67 + j18.81) – (–17.43 – j7.44)

= (20.1 + j26.25) = 33.1‘52.56° (Ans.)

 264 Electrical Machines

Example 3.16
A 3300/400/110 V star-star-delta transformer takes a magnetising current of 6A and a balanced
load of 500 kVA at 0.8 pf lagging and 200 kVA at 0.6 pf leading on the tertiary. Determine the
primary current and its p.f.

Solution:
Here, Imag = 6 A; I mag = 0 – j6 = 6 ‘–90°

Secondary current, Iph2 = IL2 = kVA ¥ 1000 = 500 ¥ 1000 = 720 A

3 VL 2 3 ¥ 400
Vph 2
Transformation ratio, K= = 400 / 3 = 4
Vph1 3300 / 3 33

Primary phase current, I ¢ph1 = KI ph2 = 4 ¥ 720 = 87 ◊ 5 A at 0.8 pf, lagging

33
- -
I ′ ph1 = I ′ ph1 – - cos -1 0 ◊ 8 = 87 ◊ 5 – - 36 ◊ 87∞

= (70 – j52.5) A

Tertiary winding current (phase value) = ITph = 200 ¥ 1000 = 606 A at 0.6 pf leading
3 ¥ 110
Transformation ratio for tertiary, KT = 110 = 1
3300 / 3 10 3
¢ = K ¥I 1 ¥ 606 = 35A at 0.6 pf leading
Primary phase current due to tertiary, IT1 T Tph =
10 3
I ¢T 1 = IcT1 ‘cos–1 0.6 = 35 ‘53.13° = (21 + j28) A

Total primary current, I1 = I mag + I ¢ ph1 + I ¢T 1

= 0 – j6 + 70 – j52.5 + 21 + j28 = 91 – j30.5

= (91)2 + (30 ◊ 5)2 – - tan -1 30 ◊ 5 = 96 – - 16 ◊ 53∞

91
= 96 A at pf 0.948 lagging (Ans.)

Example 3.17
A star/star/delta connected transformer has secondary load of 40A at 0.8 pf lagging and tertiary
has load of 30A at 0.71 pf lagging. The ratio of turns is 10 : 2 : 1 for primary, secondary and tertiary
respectively. Calculate the primary current and pf.

Solution:
N2
Transformation ratio, K = = 2 = 1
N1 10 5
NT
Transformation ratio for tertiary, K T = = 1
N1 10
 Three-Phase Transformers 265

Primary current due to secondary, Ic1 = KI2 = 1 ¥ 40 = 8A

5
I ¢1 = I ¢1 – cos -1 0.8 = 8– - 36 ◊ 87∞

= 8 (cos 36.87° – j sin 36.87°)

= (6.4 – j4.8) A

Primary current due to tertiary, I ¢1T = KT ITph = 1 ¥ 30 = 3A

10 3
I ¢1T = I c1T ‘ –cos–1 0.71
= 1.732 ‘–45°
= 1.732 (cos 45° – j sin 45°)
= (1.23 – j1.23) A
(Magnetising current is not given, hence neglected)

Total primary current, I 1 = y I ¢1 + I ¢1T = (6 ◊ 4 - j 4 ◊ 8) + (1 ◊ 23 - j1 ◊ 23)

= (7.63 – j6.03) A = (7 ◊ 63 - j 6 ◊ 03) A

= (7 ◊ 63)2 + (6 ◊ 03)2 – - tan 6 ◊ 03

7 ◊ 63
= 9.73 ‘38.32°

= 9.73 A at pf 0.7846 lagging (Ans.)

3.13 Tap-changers on Transformers

All the electrical equipments connected at the consumers end are designed to operate satisfactorily at
a particular voltage level. Therefore, it is essential to supply the electrical energy to the consumers at
a level which must fall within the prescribed limits. However, in the power system, due to change in
load (may be seasonal or otherwise), the transformer output voltage on the consumer’s terminal may
change beyond the permissible limits. This can be controlled by providing tap-changing transformers.
Taps can be provided either on the primary or on the secondary.
Secondary output voltage can be regulated by either changing the number of turns in the primary
or secondary on the basis of following principle.
Let V1, N1 and V2, N2 be primary and secondary quantities respectively. If N1 is decreased, the
Ê V ˆ
emf per turn on primary Á = 1 ˜ increases which increases secondary terminal voltage
Ë N1 ¯
Ê V1 ˆ
ÁË V2 = N ¥ N 2 ˜¯ . One the other hand, if N2 is increased keeping N1 constant, the secondary terminal
1

voltage (V2 D N2) still increases.

Thus, secondary terminal voltage can be increased either by decreasing the primary turns or by
increasing the secondary turns and vice-versa.
 266 Electrical Machines

Choice between Primary and Secondary to provide Taps to Regulate Output

Terminal Voltage of the Transformer
While selecting the side to provide taps to regulate secondary output voltage, we always try to maintain
voltage per turn, as far as possible, constant. If the primary voltage per turn decreases, the core flux
decreases which results in poor utilisation of core, although it reduces the core losses. On the other
hand, if the primary voltage per turn increases, the core flux increases which results in magnetic
saturation of the core. It also increases the core losses.
In the transformers located at the generating stations, the primary voltage has to be kept constant,
consequently the taps are provided on the secondary side. However, if transformers are energised
from a variable source, as at the receiving end of a transmission line (receiving sub-stations), the
taps are usually provided on the primary side.
The other factors which may also be taken into consideration are given below:
(i) Transformers with large turns ratio, are tapped on the HV side since this enables a smoother
control of the output voltage. If in such transformers, the taps are provided on the LV side, it
varies the output voltage to a large step which is usually undesirable.
(ii) Tap-changing gear provided on the HV side are to handle low currents, although more insulation
has to be provided.
(iii) It is difficult to tap the LV winding, since it is placed next to the core. Whereas, the HV winding,
placed outside the LV winding, is easily accessible and can, therefore, be taped more easily.

3.14 Types of Tap-changers

There are two types of tap-changers, called
(i) No-load (or off-load) tap-changers and
(ii) On load tap-changers
The working of these tap-changers is explained below with the help of schematic diagrams.

3.14.1 No-load (or Off-load) Tap-changer

These tap-changers are used for seasonal voltage variations. The schematic diagram of a no-load
tap-changer is shown in Fig. 3.21(a). A winding is tapped and its leads are connected to six studs
marked 1 to 6. The studs are stationary and are arranged in a circle. The face plate carrying the
studs can be mounted any where on the transformer, say on the yoke or on any other convenient
place (say a separate box). The rotatable arm ‘A’ is attached to a hand wheel which is kept outside
the tank and can be rotated.
Sometimes, in case of large transformers, the rotatable arm is rotated with the help of a motor
(with gear drive) and the controls of the motor are placed on the panel board although hand wheel
is also provided for manual operation.
The active number of turns of the winding which remain in the circuit depends upon the position
of rotating arm. If the winding is tapped at 2% interval, then ‘at various positions of the rotatable
arm ‘A’, the winding in the circuit will be as under:
 Three-Phase Transformers 267

(i) at studs 1–2: Full winding is in the circuit.

(ii) at studs 2–3: 98% of the winding is in the circuit.
(iii) at studs 3–4: 96% of the winding is in the circuit.
(iv) at studs 4–5: 94% of the winding is in the circuit and
(v) at studs 5–6: 92% of the winding is in the circuit.

Fig. 3.21 (a) Off-load Tap-changer

A stopper S is placed in between the stud 1 and 6. It fixes the final position of the arm ‘A’ at stud
5–6. Moreover, it prevents the clockwise rotation of the arm ‘A’ from stud-1. It prevents the connections
of stud 1 and 6 through arm ‘A’. If stud 1 and 6 are connected then only the lower part of the winding
is cut out of circuit which is undesirable from mechanical-stress considerations.
In this case, the tap-changing is carried out only after the transformer is disconnected from the
supply. For instance, let the arm ‘A’ is at stub 1 and 2 and the whole winding is in the circuit. Now, if
we want to reduce the winding to 96%, we have to rotate the arm in anticlockwise direction to bridge
stud 3 and 4 through arm ‘A’. While doing so, the transformer is disconnected from the supply, arm
is rotated to the desired position and then the transformer is energised.
This tap-changer is never operated on load. If it would be operated on load, there would be heavy
sparking at the studs when arm ‘A’ is separated from them. It may damage the tap-changer and the
transformer winding.

3.14.2 On-load Tap-changer

This tap-changer is used for daily or short period voltage regulations. The output voltage can be
regulated with the help of this tap-changer without any supply interruptions. During the operation
of an on-load tap-changer the following points must be kept in mind;
(i) Never open the main circuit during the operation of tap-changer otherwise dangerous sparking
will occur, and
(ii) No part of the tapped winding should get short circuited.
One form of an on-load tap-changer provided with a centre-tapped reactor is shown in Fig. 3.21(b).
The function of the reactor is to prevent the short-circuiting of the tapped winding. The switches 1,
2, 3, 4 and 5 are connected to the correspondingly marked taps.
 268 Electrical Machines

During normal operation switch S is closed [see Fig. 3.21(b)], switches 2, 3, 4 and 5 are opened and
switch 1 is closed. The entire winding is in the circuit. The two halves of the reactor carry half of the
total current in opposite directions. Since the whole reactor is wound in the same direction, the mmf
produced by the two halves is opposite to each other. Since these mmfs are equal, therefore, the net
mmf is practically zero. Hence, the reactor is almost non-inductive and the impedance offered by it
is very small, consequently, the voltage drop in the centre-tapped reactor is negligible.

Fig. 3.21 (b) On-load tap changer

When a change in voltage is required, the following sequence of operations is adopted.

(i) Open the switch S: By opening this switch, total current flows through the upper half of the
reactor and there is more voltage drop. Since reactor is to carry full load current momentarily,
the reactor must be designed accordingly.
(ii) Close the switch 2: When switch 2 is closed, the winding between taps 1 and 2 is connected
across the reactor. Since the impedance offered by the reactor is high for a current flowing in
only one direction, the local circulating current flowing through the reactor and tapped winding
is quite small.
Thus, reactor prevents the tapped winding from getting short circuited. The terminal voltage
at this instant is mid-way between the potentials of tappings 1 and 2.
(iii) Open the switch I: The entire current now flows through the lower half of the reactor which
causes more voltage drop.
(iv) Close the switch S: By closing the switch, current is divided equally in the upper and lower part
of the reactor which causes almost negligible voltage drop.
The same sequence of operations is repeated if the tapping is to be changed from stud 2 to 3.

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. Two transformers are connected in open delta and deliver a balanced three phase load of 250 kW at 440
volt and a power factor 0.8. Calculate.
 Three-Phase Transformers 269

(a) Secondary line current.

(b) kVA load on each transformer
(c) The power delivered by each transformer
(d) If the third transformer having the same rating as each of the other two is added to form a Δ-bank,
what total load can be handled. (Ans. 410 A; 180.4 kVA; 179 kW, 71 kW; 541.2 kVA)
2. A 500 kW load is to be supplied at 2300 V by two transformers connected in open delta. The p.f. of the
load is 0.86. Calculate the current and kVA rating required by each of the transformers. What kVA load
could be carried at some time in future if third transformer would be added to give delta connection.
(Ans. 146 A; 865.5 kW; 1006.8 kVA)

3. The short-circuit tests gave the following pu values of a 3-winding transformer Z12 = (0.01 + j0.06); Z23 =
(0.02 + j0.06) and Z 31 = (0.016 + j0.1)
The open-circuit test on the primary side gave the following values per unit Y0 = (0.02 – j0.05)
The secondary is supplying full rating at 0.8 pf lagging and tertiary open.
Find the impedance of each winding. (Ans. 0.003 + j0.05; 0.007 + j0.01; 0.013 + j0.05)
4. A 3300/400/110 V star-star-delta transformer take a magnetising current of 6A and a balanced three-phase
load of 750 kVA at pf 0.8 lagging and 200 kVA at 0.6 pf leading on the tertiary. Determine the primary
current and its pf. (Ans. 138.8 A at 0.913 pf lagging)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What is the necessity of parallel operation of three-phase transformers?
Ans. (i) It is desirable to place another transformer is parallel when the electrical load on the existing
transformer increases beyond its rated capacity.
(ii) Parallel operation of transformers is necessary when the amount of power to be transformed is
much more than that which can be handled by single unit (transformer).
(iii) It is desirable to do parallel operation of transformers if we want to keep the spare transformer of
smaller size.
Q.2. What do you expect if star-delta transformer is connected in parallel with a star-star transformer?
Ans. The phasor displacement cannot be compensated and the transformers will come under direct short
circuit condition.
Q.3. Why a tertiary winding is also called as auxiliary winding and stabilising winding?
Ans. The tertiary winding is called as an auxiliary winding when it is employed for supplying an additional
small load at a different voltage. On the other hand, it is also called as stabilising winding when it is
employed to limit the short-circuit current.

Q.4. What are on-load tap changing transformers?

Ans. No-load (or off-load) top-changer. These tap-changers are used for seasonal voltage variations. The
schematic diagram of a no-load tap-changer is shown in Fig. Q.7). A winding is tapped and its leads
are connected to six studs marked 1 to 6. The studs are stationary and are arranged in a circle. The
face plate carrying the studs can be mounted anywhere on the transformer, say on the yoke or on any
other convenient place (say a separate box). The rotatable arm ‘A’ is attached to a hand wheel which
is kept outside the tank and can be rotated.
By changing the position of arm ‘A’, tapings can be changed or the voltage can be changed.
 270 Electrical Machines

Fig. for Q.7

Q.5. Give limitations of on load tap changing transformer.

Ans. No-load tap changes is never operated on load. If it would be operated on load, there would be heavy
sparking at the studs when arm ‘A’ is separated from them. It may damage the tap-changer and the
transformer winding.

3.15 Transformation of Three-phase Power with Two Single-phase

Transformers
Three-phase power can be transformed by means of only two single phase transformers or by
means of only two windings placed on primary and secondary of a three-phase transformer. This
can be done by two methods, namely (i) Open-delta connection method and (ii) T-connection
method. Both of these methods result in slightly unbalanced output voltage under load because of
the unsymmetrical relations. However, this problem is not considered to be a serious problem in
commercial transformers.

3.16 Open-Delta or V-V Connections

The delta-delta connections of three transformers for a three-phase system are shown in Fig. 3.22(a).
Let us suppose that in one of the transformers, a fault develops due to which it is removed. If the
primaries are connected to three-phase supply as shown in Fig. 3.22(b) then three equal three-phase
voltages will be available at the secondary terminals at no-load. This method of transforming three-
phase power by means of only two one-phase transformers is called open delta or Vee-Vee connections.
The basis of operation of open-delta connections is because of the fact that the vector sum of any
two of the line voltages in a balanced three-phase system is equal to the third line voltage. Thus even
though one of the transformer has been removed, the voltage between the terminals of the secondary
to which load has been connected remains unchanged. The following are the points which favour
the use of open-delta or vee-vee connections.
 Three-Phase Transformers 271

Fig. 3.22 Δ–Δ and open Δconnections

(i) When the three phase load is comparatively small, so that the installation does not warrant a
three phase transformer bank.
(ii) When one of the transformers in a '-' bank fails, so that the service may be continued until
the faulty transformer is repaired or good one is substituted.
(iii) In a new installation advantage is taken of the open-delta or Vee connections by installing initially
only two transformers of the capacity to meet the present maximum demand. When the load on
the system increases to the expected full load, a third transformer is added to close the delta.
Hence open-delta or Vee-connections are used when it is anticipated that in future load will
increase necessitating the closing of the open-delta at some later stage.
The phasor diagram of an open delta or Vcc – Vcc connections is shown in Fig. 3.23.
It is important to note that the total load that can be handled by V-V connections is not two-third
of the capacity of a delta-delta bank but is only 57.7% of it. Mathematically, it is proved as below:
Power in delta arrangement = 3VL I L cos f

= 3 VL 3 I cos f
 272 Electrical Machines

? IL = 3I

= 3VL I cos f

where VL is the line or phase voltage and cos Iis the p.f.

Power in V-V connections = 3 VL I cos f

Power in V-V connection or open delta 3 VL I cos f

? = = 1 = 0 ◊ 577 = 57 ◊ 7% …(3.16)
Power in closed delta 3 VL I cos f 3

Therefore, output power of open delta is 1 or 57.7% of the output of the closed delta.
3

Fig. 3.23 Phasor diagram for open delta connection

Note: It is assumed that the power factor in both the systems is same but in actual practice the
power factor in the V-V connections is lesser than the actual power factor of the load.

The two transformers constitute 66.6 per cent of the installed capacity of the three, but they are
able to deliver only 57.7% of the three in open delta connections. For example, if the three transformers,
each having rating of 33.33 kVA are connected to form closed delta bank, the rating of the bank
would be 100 kVA. But if one of these transformers is removed, the rating of the resulting open Δ
bank is not 66.67 kVA, but it will be only 57.7 kVA. The total load that can be carried by an open
delta transformer bank is not two-thirds of the capacity of a ΔΔbank, but it is only 57.7 percent of

( )
it. This is a reduction of about 14% 66.67 - 57 ◊ 7 ¥ 100 from its normal rating or in other words
66 ◊ 67
to obtain two-thirds of the output of the original closed Δ, each transformer in the open delta must
have a rating of 66 ◊ 67 or 115% of the original rating. The reduction in rating is caused because of
57 ◊ 7
 Three-Phase Transformers 273

the average power factor at which the transformers operate which is less than that of actual power
factor of the load. This average power factor is the ratio of 57 ◊ 8 (or 86.6%) and is always equal
66 ◊ 67
to 86.6% of the balanced load power factor. In other words, we can say that this is the power factor
at which the two transformers operate when the load is of unity p.f.
If the transformer of B-phase is removed from the bank on each primary and secondary as shown in
Fig. 3.24(a) the same line voltages VAB, VBC, VCA, Vab, Vbc and Vca will appear in the systems as Vbc = –
(Vca + Vab). Obviously the same secondary phase voltages Van etc., will appear and there is no difficulty
in supplying three-phase load. The balanced three-phase currents Ia, Ib, Ic are supplied to the load at
a power factor of cos I lag [Fig. 3.24(b)]. The currents in the secondary windings are Iba = – Ib, Iac =
Ic. On the primary side the line currents and winding currents are related as IB = – IAB, IC = ICA and
IA = – (IB + IC). It may be seen that one of the windings operates at a power factor of cos (30° + T)
and the other at cos (30° – T).

Fig. 3.24 Open-delta connections and phasor diagram

The performance of two transformer connected in open delta will change as per the load p.f. as
mentioned below:
 274 Electrical Machines

(i) When the load p.f. is unity, the transformers operate at the same p.f.
P.f. of Transformer I = cos (30° – 0) = cos 30° = 0.866
P.f. of Transformer II = cos (30° + 0) = cos 30° = 0.866
∵ cos I = 1
? I=0
(ii) When the load power factor is 0.866, one transformer will operate at unity p.f. while the p.f.
of the other will be 0.5.
p.f. of transformer I = cos (30° – 30°) where I = cos–1 0.866 = 30°
= cos 0° = unity
p.f. of transformer II = cos (30° + 30°) = cos 60° = 0.5
(iii) When the load p.f. is 0.5, one transformer will operate at zero p.f. and delivers, no power, while
the other, operating at a p.f. of 0.866, will take up the entire load.
p.f. of transformer I = cos (30° – 60)
cos–1 0.5 = 60°
= cos 30° = 0.866
p.f. of II = cos (30° + 60°) = cos 90° = 0

Note: Hence it shows that except for a balanced unity p.f. load, the two transformers in an open
delta or V-V-bank operate at different power factors.

VI
The power delivered by transformer I, P1 = ¥ cos (30 - f ) …(3.17)
1000
VI
and power delivered by transformer II, P2 = ¥ cos (30 + f ) …(3.18)
1000
Where V and I are respectively the voltage of, and current in, the individual transformers, both
on the same side i.e., primary or secondary.
A significant point in this connection is that the secondary terminal voltages tend to become
unbalanced to a greater extent as the load is increased, this happens even when the load is perfectly
balanced. This situation does not exist when the load is supplied by a bank of three transformers.
If the Vee-Vee connections are required to supply the same load on the three phase delta, it will
be overloaded and winding may be damaged.

3.17 Comparison of Delta and Open Delta Connections

(i) When similar transformers are used, the voltages given by the delta and Vee connections are
the same and their outputs are proportional to their line currents.
(ii) In balanced delta connection the line current is 3 of the phase current whereas in Vee-
connection the line current is the same as the phase current.
 Three-Phase Transformers 275

(iii) With non-inductive balanced load, each transformer of the delta connection carries one-third
of the total load at unity power factor. Under the same conditions each transformer of Vee-
connection carries one half of the load at a p.f. 0.866.
(iv) The ratio of the power in Vee-Vee to Power in delta connection is 0.577.

3.18 T-T Connections or Scott Connections

The other method of transformation of three-phase power from one circuit to another by using two
transformers is T-T connections These connections were proposed by C.F. Scott therefore, these are
frequently called as Scott connections. This scheme of connections is also used for three-phase to
two-phase, and vice-versa transformation.
In this arrangement, two transformers are used. One of them must have at least two primary and
two secondary coils so that a centre tap may be brought out from each side (or the transformer should
have centre-tap primary and centre-tap secondary). This transformer is called main transformer. The
other transformer must have primary and secondary windings having number of turns 0.866 times
of the respective turns on the main transformer. This transformer is called teaser transformer. The
current ratings of the two transformers should be the same. The connections are shown in Fig. 3.25(a).
It may be noted that one end of both the primary and secondary of the teaser transformer are connected
to the centre taps on both primary and secondary of the main transformers respectively whereas,
the two ends of main transformer (A and B) and 86.6% tapping point (C) on teaser transformer are
connected to the three-phase supply on the primary side.
The two ends (a and b) of the secondary of main transformer and 86.6% tapping point (c) of
secondary of teaser transformer are taken to connect the load, as shown in Fig. 3.25(a).

Fig. 3.25(a) Scott connections

 276 Electrical Machines

Fig. 3.25(b) Phasor diagram of T-T connected transformer

Since primary and secondary of teaser transformer are connected to the centre tap of the primary
and secondary of the main transformer respectively giving a shape of English letter ‘T’, as shown in
Fig. 3.26 (a and b) the connections are known as T-T connections.
Let VAB, VBC and VCA be the applied voltages across the line terminals, then

VCD = VCA + VAD = V ‘120° + 1 ‘0°

2
= V (– 0.5 + j 0.866) + 0.5 V = j 0.866 V = 0.8666 V ‘90° …(3.19)
The above expression shows that voltage applied across the teaser is 0.866 times of that applied
across the main and has a phase difference of 90°. If both the primary and secondary of the teaser
transformer have 0.866 times of the respective turns on the main transformer, then the induced voltages
in the secondary circuit will have same phase and magnitude relationship as that of applied voltages
on the primary. Thus, the voltage induced in the teaser will be 0.866 times to that of induced voltage
in the main transformer and has a phase difference of 90°. Consequently, a balanced 3-I system of
voltages across points a, b and c will be available.
If V is the applied voltage which is also equal to the line voltage (VL) and I is current rating of the
winding, which is also the line current (IL), the combined volt-ampere rating of the two transformers
is VI + 0.866 VI i.e., 1.866 VI. The volt-amperes supplied are 3 VI , therefore, utility factor is 3
/1.866 i.e., 0.928. Thus the T-T connections are more economical than open Δ connections which are
having utility factor of 0.866. The two identical transformers with centre-tap and 86.6 tap may be
used. This will provide interchangeability, but 13.14% of winding of teaser will remain idle. With
identical transformers, the total volt-ampere capacity of the two transformers is 2VI and the utility
factor is 0.866, the same as in case of open Δ system. This implies, therefore, that each transformer
in a T-T connection must have a rating 15% greater than each of the transformers employed in a three
transformer bank.
 Three-Phase Transformers 277

Fig. 3.26 T-T or Scott connections

For any balanced load of power factor cos I(lag), one of the two halves of the main transformer
operates at a pf of cos (30° + I) and the other at cos (30° – I). This is similar to the condition as in
open Δ. Mainly because of this (i.e., different loading effects) the voltages on the secondary side tend
to become unbalanced to a greater extent with the increase in load.
It may be noted that this arrangement provides the three-phase, four-wire system. Three phase
power loads may be connected between lines a, b and c while lighting load may be connected
between ad and bd. There is a further advantage of availability of neutral on the teaser transformer.
This permits a true three-phase four-wire system with the use of two transformers, which we could
not get in open Δ system.

3.19 Conversion of Three-phase to Two-phase and vice-versa

In some cases such as for electric furnaces, it is desirable to work with two-phase currents. From
the power supply system, three-phase AC supply is available, therefore, it is necessary to convert
three-phase supply to two-phase supply. This can be achieved by using Scott-connections. In these
 278 Electrical Machines

connections, two identical one-phase transformers are required, one of them must have centre tapped
primary and secondary. The connections are made as shown in Fig. 3.27.

Fig. 3.27 Transformer connections for conversion of three-phase to two-phase

Since point D is located midway on AB, so VCD leads VAB by 90° i.e., voltages across the primaries
of the transformer are 90° apart. It follows that the secondary voltages are 90° apart. With equal
fluxes in the core, the secondary windings require an equal number of turns (say, N2) to give equal
secondary voltages. Hence the two transformers have unequal ratios of transformation.
N2
Transformation ratio of main transformer, K = …(3.20)
N1
N2
Transformation ratio of teaser transformer = = 1 ◊ 15 K …(3.21)
0.866 N1
It is to be noted that point D is not the neutral point of the primary system, as its voltage with
V
respect to line terminals A, B and C are not equal to 1 . Let N be such a point that the voltages
3
from point N to points A, B and C are equal. Point N, therefore, is the neutral of the primary system.
The neutral point on the three phase side can be located on the teaser transformer. The neutral
must have a voltage of V i.e., 0.577 to C and since the voltage C to D is 0.866 V, the neutral point
3
N will be 0.866 V – 5.77 V from D or 0.289 V i.e., a number of turns below D equivalent to 28.9 per
cent of the primary turns in main transformer. Since 0.289 is one third of 0.866, the neutral point is
one third the way down the teaser transformer winding from D to C or point N divides the teaser
winding in the ratio of 1: 2.
For determination of primary currents let us neglect the magnetising current and consider load
component currents I2M and I2T only.
Considering ampere-turn balance of teaser transformer, IC × 0.866 N1 = I2T N2
 Three-Phase Transformers 279

N2
or IC = I2T × = 1 ◊ 15 KI 2T …(3.22)
0.866 N1
I A N1 I B N1
For the main transformer - = I2M N2
2 2
N2
or IA – IB = 2 I 2 M = 2 KI 2 M …(3.23)
N1
With a balanced two phase load, I2T and I2M are equal in magnitude but 90° apart, hence
I2T = j I2M

I 2T - j IC
or I2M = = - j I 2T = …(3.24)
j 1.15 K
Substituting the value of I2M in expression (iv), we get,

Ê - jIC ˆ -2 jIC
I A – IB = 2 K ¥ Á ˜ =
Ë 1.15 K ¯ 1.15
or I A – IB + j 3 I C = 0 …(3.25)

As phasor sum of three line currents is zero

? I A + I B + IC = 0 …(3.26)

Solving equations (vi) and (vii), we get

IA = IB (– 0.5 + j 0.866) = IB ‘120° …(3.27)

and IC = IB (– 0.5 – j 0.866) = IB ‘–120° …(3.28)

Fig. 3.28 Phasor diagram

 280 Electrical Machines

Thus IA, IB and IC are equal in magnitude but are 120° apart from each other and so they give a
balanced system.
Phasor diagram for voltages and currents, neglecting the transformer impedance and magnetising
current, is shown in Fig. 3.28. The load currents are lagging behind their respective secondary
voltages by an angle I. One half of the main transformer primary winding AB, has an angle of lag
of (30° – I) while the other has angle of lag of (30° + I) where teaser primary has an angle of lag
of I. This is the reason why the volt-ampere capacity of the primary winding of main transformer
must be greater than that of its secondary.

Example 3.18
A balanced three-phase load of 1000 kW and 0.8 p.f. lagging is supplied by Vee-connected
transformers. Calculate the line and phase currents and the power factor at which each transformer
is working. The working voltage is 3.3 kV.

Solution:

Line current, IL = kW ¥ 1000 = 218.8 A

3 ¥ 3.3 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.8
Phase current of the transformer is equal to the line current for Vee connections
I1 = I2 = Iph = 218.8 A
Load pf, cos I = 0.8; I= cos–1 0.8 = 36.87°
The current I1 will make an angle of I1 = 30 + I = 30 + 36°.87° = 66°.87° with phase voltage of
respective transformer
? cos I1 = cos 66.87° = 0.393 lagging (Ans.)
Current I2 will make an angle of I2 = 30° – I = 30° – 36.87°
= – 6.87° with phase voltage of respective transformer.
? cos I2 = cos (– 6.87°) = 0.993 (Ans.)

Example 3.19
Two identical single phase transformers are connected in V-V-connection across three-phase mains
and deliver a balanced load of 3048 kW at 11 kV, 0.8 p.f. lagging. Calculate the line and phase
currents and the pf at which each transformer is working.
The V-V-connection is converted to mesh/mesh by the addition of an identical unit. Calculate
the additional load of same p.f. that can now be supplied for the same temp. rise. Also calculate
the phase and line currents.

Solution:

Line current, IL = kW ¥ 1000 = 3048 ¥ 1000 = 200 A

3EL cos f 3 ¥ 11000 ¥ 0.8
In Vee-Vee connection, phase current is the same as line current and is equal to 200 A in this case.
Load p.f. cos I = 0.8
? I = cos–1 0.8 = 36.87°
 Three-Phase Transformers 281

p.f. of transformer-I = cos (30° – I) = cos (30° – 36.87°)

= cos 6.87°= 0.993 lagging (Ans.)
p.f. of transformer-II = cos (30° + 36.87°)
= cos 66.87° = 0.393 lagging (Ans.)
Power supplied by the delta for same temperature rise i.e., for same current is
= 3 Eph Iph cos I

= 3 ¥ 11 ¥ 1000 ¥ 200 ¥ 0.8 = 5280 kW

1000
Note: In delta connection line voltage is the same as phase voltage.

? Extra power supplied by delta = 5280 – 3048 = 2232 kW (Ans.)

Iph = 200 A (Ans.)

? line current = 200 × 3 = 346 A (Ans.)

Example 3.20
Two-transformers are connected in open delta and supply a balanced three-phase load of 300 kW
at 400 volt and a p.f. of 0.866, determine:
(a) the secondary line current.
(b) the kVA load on each transformer
(c) the power delivered by the individual transformers.
If a third transformer having the same rating i.e., 200 kVA is added to form a delta bank, what
will be the total load that can be supplied.

Solution:
Load supplied = 300 kW; Secondary line voltage, VL2 = 400 V

Load pf, cos I = 0.866

kW ¥ 1000 300 ¥ 1000
(a) Secondary line current IL2 = = = 500 A (Ans.)
3 ¥ VL 2 ¥ cos f 3 ¥ 400 ¥ 0.866
VL 2 ¥ I L 2
(b) kVA load on each transformer = = 400 ¥ 500 = 200 (Ans.)
1000 1000
(c) For a power factor cos I = 0.866; I = cos–1 0.866 = 30°
Power delivered by one transformer, P1 = kVA cos (30° – I) = 200 cos 0° = 200 kW (Ans.)
Power delivered by the other transformer,
P2 = kVA cos (30° + I)
= 200 cos 60° = 100 kW (Ans.)
The output of three transformers, each of 200 kVA rating, when connected in ' bank
= 3 × 200 = 600 kVA (Ans.)
 282 Electrical Machines

Example 3.21
A three-phase 150 kW balanced load at 1000V, 0.866 p.f. lagging is supplied from 2000 volt, three-
phase main through (i) three single-phase transformers connected in (i) delta-delta and then (ii) in
Vee-Vee. Find the current in the windings of each transformer and the p.f. at which they operate in
each case.

Solution:
Delta-Delta Connection
Secondary line current, IL2 = kW ¥ 1000 = 150 ¥ 1000 = 100 A
3 VL cos f 3 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.866

Secondary phase current, Iph2 = 100 = 57.7 A (Ans.)

3
N2 E ph 2
Turns ratio, K= = = 1000 = 1
N1 E ph1 2000 2

? Primary phase current, Iph1 = 57.5 ¥ 1 = 28.85 A (Ans.)

2
p.f at which each transformer is operating is 0.866 lagging (Ans.)

Vee-Vee Connection
Let I ¢ be the secondary line current which is also the phase current in open delta. Then
L

I L¢ = kW ¥ 1000 = 150 ¥ 1000 = 100 A

3 VL cos f 3 ¥ 1000 ¥ 0.866

Secondary phase current, I ¢ph = 100 A

Primary phase current = 100 ¥ 1 = 50 A

2
Load p.f. cos I = 0.866; I= cos–1 0.866 = 30°

p.f. of Transformer I = cos (30 – I) = cos (30 – 30°) = cos 0 = 1 (unity)

p.f. of Transformer II = cos (30 + I) = cos (30° + 30°) = cos 60° = 0.5 lagging

Hence when the load p.f. is 0.866 the pf of transformer-I is Unity and II is 0.5 as already explained.

Example 3.22
Three 1100/110 V transformers are connected ''and supply a lighting load of 120 kW. If one of
these transformers is damaged and hence removed for repairs, what currents will be flowing in each
transformer when (i) the three transformers were in service (ii) the two transformers are in service.

Solution:
(i) When three transformers were in service
Load P = 120 kW
Power factor, cos I = 1.0 (for lighting load)
 Three-Phase Transformers 283

Primary line voltage, VL1 = 1100 volt

Secondary line voltage, VL2 = 110 volt
kW ¥ 1000
Secondary line current, IL2 = = 120 ¥ 1000 = 630 A
3 ¥ VL 2 ¥ cos f 3 ¥ 110 ¥ 1

Primary line current, IL1 = 120 ¥ 1000 = 63 A

3 ¥ 1100 ¥ 1
For delta connections,

Secondary phase current, Iph2 = 630 = 363.7 A (Ans.)

3

Primary phase current, Iph1= 63 = 36.37 A (Ans.)

3
(ii) When only two transformers are in service
kW ¥ 1000
¢ =
Secondary line current, I L2 = 120 ¥ 1000 = 630 A
3 ¥ VL 2 ¥ cosf 3 ¥ 110 ¥ 1

Secondary phase current, I ¢ph2 = Secondary line current = 630 A (Ans.)

Primary phase current, I ¢ph1 = Secondary phase current × transformation ratio

= 630 ¥ 110 = 63 A (Ans.)

1100
Example 3.23
Three 1100/110 volt transformers are, connected in delta/delta. This bank of transformers is supplying
a lighting load of 100 kW. One of these transformers is damaged and removed for repairs.
(i) What currents were flowing in each transformer when the three transformers were in service.
(ii) What current flows in each of the two transformers after third has been removed.
(iii) What is the kVA output of each transformer if the two transformers, connected in open-delta,
carry full load with normal heating.

Solution:
(i) All the three transformers in service with Delta/Delta Connection
Power factor for lighting load is always unity

 ? Secondary line current, IL2 = kW ¥ 1000 = 100 ¥ 1000 = 525 A

3 VL 2 cos f 3 ¥ 110 ¥ 1
IL
Secondary phase current, Iph2 = = 525 = 303 A (Ans.)
3 3
Vph 2
Turns ratio = = 110 = 1 ('/' connected)
Vph1 1100 10

 ? Primary phase current, Iph1 = Iph2 × 1 = 303 ¥ 1 = 30.3 A (Ans.)

10 10
 284 Electrical Machines

(ii) When one transformer is removed the connections are changed to Vee-Vee-Connections.

 ? Secondary line current, IL2 = 525 A = I ¢ph2 (Ans.)

Primary phase current, I ¢ph1 = 525 ¥ 1 = 52.5 A (Ans.)

10
(iii) Power output of Delta/Delta connection is 100 kW

  ? Power output of open-delta = 0.577 × 100 = 57.7 kW (Ans.)

When the load p.f. is unity, the both the transformers in Vee-Vee connection operate at the
same p.f. 0.866.

p.f. of transformer-I = cos (30 – 0) = 0.866 (∵ I = cos–1 = 0°)

p.f. of transformer-II = cos (30 + 0) = 0.866

kW load taken by each transformer = 57.7

2
  ? kVA rating of each transformer = 57.7 ¥ 1 = 57.7 ¥ 1 = 33.33 kVA (Ans.)
2 p.f. 2 0.866
Example 3.24
The primary and secondary windings of two transformers each rated 220 kVA, 11/2 kV and 50 Hz
are connected in open delta. Find (i) the kVA load that can be supplied from this connection; (ii)
currents on HV side if a delta connected three phase load of 250 kVA, 0.8 pf (lag) 2 kV is connected
to the LV side of the connections.

Solution:
(i) The kVA load that can be supplied by two transformers, each having rating of 220 kVA
= 2 × kVA rating of each transformer × 0.866
= 2 × 220 × 0.866 = 381 kVA (Ans.)
kVA ¥ 1000 220 ¥ 1000
Secondary line current, IL2 = = = 63.5 A
3 ¥ VL 2 3 ¥ 2000
Secondary phase current, Iph2 = Secondary line current = 63.5 A
Primary phase current (current on HV side)
= Secondary phase current × transformation ratio

= 63.5 ¥ 2 = 11.54 A (Ans.)

11
Example 3.25
Two single phase furnaces A and B are supplied at 100 V by means of Scott-connected transformers
from a three-phase, 6 kV system. Furnace A is supplied from the teaser transformer. Calculate the
line currents on the three phase side when (i) each furnace takes 600 kW at p.f. 0.8 (lag). (ii) furnace
A takes 500 kW at unity power factor and furnace B 600 kW at 0.8 pf (lag).
 Three-Phase Transformers 285

Solution:
Secondary voltage, V2 = 100 V
Primary main voltage, V1 = 6 kV = 6000 V
V2
Transformation ratio, K = = 100 = 1
V1 6000 60

(i) Secondary currents, I2T = I 2 M = 600 ¥ 1000 = 7500 A

100 ¥ 0.8
Teaser primary current, IIT = 1.15 KI2M = 1.15 × 1 ¥ 7500 = 144 A
60
Considering Fig. 3.29.
Current in line C, IC = 144 A
Current in primary of main transformer,

I1 = KI 2 M = 1 ¥ 7500 = 125 A
60

Fig. 3.29 Circuit diagram

The current in lines A and B of the primary of main transformer will be the phasor sum of
current KI2M and one half of the teaser primary current IC. As the power factor is the same on
both secondaries, the line currents are in quadrature. [See Fig. 3.30(a)]

( ) ( )
2 2
 ? Line currents, IA = IB = I12 + 1 IC = (125)2 + 144
2 2
= 144.25 A (Ans.)

Phase angle between phasor IC and IA = 90∞ + tan -1 72 = 120°

125
 286 Electrical Machines

Similarly, phase difference exists between phasors IC and IB and phasors IA and IB.

Fig. 3.30 Phasor diagram

(ii) When the two furnaces are operating at different loads. [see Fig. 3.30(b)]

Secondary current, I2T = 500 ¥ 1000 = 5000 A

100 ¥ 1.0
Teaser primary current, I1T = 1.15 K I2T = 1.15 ¥ 1 ¥ 5000 = 96 A
60
Hence current in line C, IC = 96 A

Current in main secondary, I2M = 600 ¥ 1000 = 7500 A

100 ¥ 0.8
Current in main primary, I1M = KI 2 M = 1 ¥ 7500 = 125 A
60
and I = cos–1 0.8 = 36.87°

Line current, IA = ( I1M cos f )2 + ( I1M sin f + 0.5I1T )2

= (125 ¥ 0.8)2 + (125 ¥ 0.6 + 0.5 ¥ 96)2

= 158.5 A (Ans.)

Line current, IB = ( I1M cos f )2 + ( I1M sin f - 0.5 I1T )2

= (125 ¥ 0.8)2 + (125 ¥ 0.6 - 0.5 ¥ 96)2

= 103.6 A (Ans.)

Example 3.26
Two one-phase furnaces A and B are supplied at 80 V by means of a Scott-connected transformer
combination from a three-phase 6600 V system. Calculate the line currents on the three-phase
 Three-Phase Transformers 287

side when the furnace A takes 500 kW at unity p.f. and B takes 800 kW at 0.7 p.f. lagging. Draw the
corresponding vector diagrams.

Solution:
Secondary voltage, V2 = 80 V

Primary main voltage, V1 = 6600 V

V2
Transformation ratio, K = = 80
V1 6600
Let furnace A be supplied by the teaser

Teaser secondary current, I2T = kW ¥ 1000 = 500 ¥ 1000 = 6250 A

V2 ¥ cos f 80 ¥ 1

Teaser primary current, I1T = 1.5 × K × I2T = 1.5 ¥ 80 ¥ 6250 = 87.6 A

6600
Current in the secondary of main transformer,

I2M = 800 ¥ 1000 = 14286 A

80 ¥ 0.7
Current in the primary main transformer,

I2M = I2M × K = 14286 ¥ 80 = 173 A

6600
From the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.31, IA is given as,

Fig. 3.31 Phasor diagram

IA = ( I1M cos f )2 + ( I1M sin f + 0.5 I1T )2

= (173 ¥ 0.7)2 + (173 ¥ 0.714 + 43.8)2

= 207 A (Ans.)
 288 Electrical Machines

Line current, IB = ( I1M cos f )2 + ( I1M sin f - 0.5 I1T )2

= (173 ¥ 0.7)2 + (173 ¥ 0.714 - 43.8)2

= 145 A (Ans.)

Example 3.27
Two single-phase electric furnaces are supplied power at 80 volt from a three-phase, 11 kV system
by means of two single-phase Scott-connected transformers, with similar secondary windings. When
the load on one transformer is 500 kW and on the other is 800 kW, what current will flow in each
of the three-phase lines at unity p.f.?

Solution:
Let load of 500 kW be connected across the teaser secondary winding and 800 kW across main
secondary winding.
Secondary voltage, V2 = 80 V; Primary main voltage, V1 = 11000 V
V2
Transformation ratio K = = 80 = 8
V1 11000 1100
Load in kW ¥ 1000
Teaser secondary current, I2T = = 500 ¥ 1000 = 6250 A
Voltage 80

Teaser primary current, I1T = 1 N 2 ¥ I = 1.15 KI

2T 2T
0.866 N1

= 1.15 ¥ 8 ¥ 6250 = 52.5 A.

1100
Current in the line C, IC = I1T = 52.5 A

Main secondary current, I2M = 800 ¥ 1000 = 10000 A

80
Main primary current, I1M = KI 2 M = 8 ¥ 10000 = 72.8 A
1100
The current I1T is supplied by the line C which divides the centre tap and its components 0.5 I1T
flow in opposite directions in the main primary winding. The current I1M flows in the primary of
the main transformer. In each half of the main primary winding the current I1M is 90° out of phase
with 0.5 I1T (see phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.32).

Fig. 3.32 Phasor diagram

 Three-Phase Transformers 289

Now current in the line A and B

? I A = IB = ( I1M )2 + (0.5 I1T )2

= (72.8)2 + (0.5 ¥ 52.5)2 = 77.3 A. (Ans.)

tan T = 26.25 = 0.360 or T = tan–1 0.360 = 19.8° (Ans.)

72.8
Example 3.28
It is desired to transform 2000 V, 400 kVA three phase power to two-phase power at 500 V by Scott-
connected transformers. Determine the voltage and current ratings of both primary and secondary
of each transformer. Neglect the transformer no-load currents.

Solution:
Primary voltage, V1 = 2000 V

Secondary voltage, V2 = 500 V

V2
Transformation ratio, K = = 500 = 1
V1 2000 4
For Teaser Transformer

Voltage rating of secondary, V2T = V2 = 500 V

Voltage rating of primary, V1T = V1 = 0.866 V1 = 0.866 × 2000 = 1732 V (Ans.)

Current rating of secondary = I2T = Load on teaser transformer in kVA ¥ 1000

V2

= 400 ¥ 1000 = 400 A (Ans.)

2 ¥ 500
(∵ Load on teaser = 1 ¥ total load)
2
Current rating of primary = I1T = 1.15 K I2T = 1.15 × 1 ¥ 400 = 115 A (Ans.)
4
For Main Transformer
Voltage rating of secondary = V2 = 500 V (Ans.)
Voltage rating of primary = V1 = 2000 V (Ans.)
Current rating of secondary = I2M = I2T = 400 A
∵ load is same on both transformers

Main primary current, I1M = K I 2 M = 1 ¥ 400 = 100 A

4

I12M + ( 0.5 I IT )
2
Current rating of primary, IA or IB =

(100)2 + ( 0.5 ¥ 115)

2
∵ pf is same on both secondaries = = 115.4 A (Ans.)
 290 Electrical Machines

Example 3.29
A balanced three-phase, 100 kW load at 400 V and 0.8 pf lagging is to be obtained from a balanced
two phase 1100 V lines. Determine the kVA rating of each unit of the Scott-connected transformer.

Solution:
Secondary line voltage, V2 = 400 V
Primary voltage, V1 = 1100 V
Voltage rating of the secondary of main transformer = Supply line voltage = 400 V
Voltage rating of the secondary of teaser transformer = 0.866 V2 = 0.866 × 400 = 346.4 V
Voltage rating of primary of each transformer = V1 = 1100 V
Current rating of primary of each transformers,
Load in kW ¥ 1000
I1 =
2 ¥ V1 ¥ pf

= 100 ¥ 1000 = 56.82 A

2 ¥ 1100 ¥ 0.8
Current rating of secondary of each transformer,

I2 = Load in kW ¥ 1000
3 V2 ¥ cos f

= 100 ¥ 1000 = 180.42 A

3 ¥ 400 ¥ 0.8
Volt-ampere rating of primary and secondary of teaser transformer is the same

i.e., 1100 × 56.82 × 10 –3 = 62.5 kVA (Ans.)

Volt-ampere rating of secondary main transformer = 400 ¥ 180.42 = 72.17 kVA (Ans.)
1000
Volt-ampere rating of primary of main transformer = 1100 ¥ 56.82 = 62.5 kVA (Ans.)
1000
Since, two identical transformers are used to provide inter-changeability, both must have the same
rating i.e., 72.17 kVA (Ans.)

Example 3.30
Two single phase Scott-connected transformers supply a three-phase four-wire 50 Hz distribution
system with 400 V between lines. The hv windings are connected to a two-phase 6600 V (per phase)
system. The core area is 200 cm2, while the maximum allowable flux density is 1.2 T. Determine the
number of turns on each winding and the point to be tapped for the neutral wire on the three-phase side.

Solution:
Maximum flux density, Bm = 1.2 T
Maximum allowable flux, Im = Bm × core area
= 1.2 × 0.02 = 0.024 Wb
 Three-Phase Transformers 291

Voltage on primary (HV) side, V1 = 6600 V

Number of turns on HV side of both the transformers,

V1 6600
N1 = = = 1239 (Ans.)
4.44 f fm 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.024
Number of turns of lv side of main transformer,

V2 400
N2 = = = 75 (Ans.)
4.44 f fm 4.44 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.024
Number of turns on LV side of teaser transformer = 0.866 N2 = 0.866 × 75 = 65 (Ans.)

Number of turns between CN = 2 ¥ 65 = 43 (Ans.)

3

3.20 Difference between Power and Distribution Transformers

In power system, the voltage level is raised at the generating station and it is decreased at the various
sub-stations for economic reasons. The transformers used in the power system are called either power
transformers or distribution transformers depending upon the duty performed by them. They basically
differ from design point of view, as explained below:
(i) Power Transformers: These transformers are used to step up the voltage at the generating
station for transmission purposes and then to step down the voltage at the receiving stations.
These transformers are of large sizes (generally above 500 kVA). These transformers usually
operate at high average load, which would cause continuous heavy copper loss, thus affecting
their efficiency. To have minimum losses during 24 hours, such transformers are designed with
low copper losses.
(ii) Distribution Transformers: These transformers are installed at the distribution sub-stations
to step down the voltage. These transformers are continuously energised causing the iron losses
for all the 24 hours, when generally the load fluctuates from no-load to full-load during this
period. To obtain high efficiency, such transformers are designed with low iron losses.

3.21 Cooling of Transformers

When a transformer is connected to the mains, heat is produced in the transformer due to various
losses. This increases its temperature. In fact, output of the transformer is limited by the rise in
temperature. Therefore, some means are provided to cool down the transformer so that the rise in
temperature may not go beyond the permissible limits.
According to specifications, the rise in temperature of a transformer when working at the rated
output shall not exceed 45°C to 60°C.
Most of the electrical machines have rotating part, therefore, it is easy to cool down such machines
by providing fan on their shaft and ducts in their construction. But in case of transformers there is no
rotating part, therefore, it is difficult to cool down the inner parts of a transformer. However, depending
 292 Electrical Machines

upon the size of a transformer, various methods have been evolved to dissipate heat produced in the
transformer. These are mentioned below:
1. Natural Cooling
(a) Air Natural cooling (AN)
(b) Oil immersed Natural cooling (ON)
(c) Oil immersed Forced oil circulation Natural cooling (OFN)
2. Artificial Cooling (Air)
(a) Oil immersed Forced oil circulation with air Blast cooling (OFB)
(b) Oil immersed air Blast cooling (OB)
(c) Air Blast cooling (AB)
3. Artificial Cooling (Water)
(a) Oil immersed Water cooling (OW)
(b) Oil immersed Forced oil circulation with Water cooling (OFW)
4. Mixed Cooling
(a) Oil immersed Natural cooling with alternative additional air Blast cooling (ON/OB)
(b) Oil-immersed Natural cooling with alternative additional Forced oil circulation (ON/OFN)
(c) Oil-immersed Natural cooling with alternative additional Forced oil circulation air Blast
cooling (ON/OFB)
(d) Oil-immersed Natural cooling with alternative additional forced oil circulation and Water
cooling (ON/OFW)

3.22 Methods of Transformer Cooling

Some of the common methods of transformer cooling are explained below:
1. Air Natural Cooling (AN)
Small transformers of a few kVA rating are cooled by the Natural air surrounding the core and
winding of the transformer. The heat produced in the transformer due to losses dissipated by
conduction, convection and radiation.
The transformers cooled by this method are used in laboratories and small appliances like
radios, rectifiers etc.
2. Oil immersed Natural cooling (ON)
In this case, the assembly of core and winding (assembled unit) of a transformer is placed in a steel
tank filled with pure insulating oil as shown in Fig. 3.33. The cooling is affected by natural circulation
(convection currents) of the oil through the cooling ducts provided between coils and between coils
and core.
For small transformers, the tanks are usually smooth surfaced but for large sizes the tanks
are made of corrugated sheets as shown in Fig. 3.34. Sometimes fins are attached to the other
surface as shown in Fig. 3.35 to improve cooling.
In most of the pole mounted transformers upto the rating of 200 kVA number of round or
elliptical tubes are provided with the tank externally as shown in Fig. 3.36. The transformer
oil has large coefficient of expansion, therefore, convection currents develop which cause the
 Three-Phase Transformers 293

oil to circulate through the external tubes as shown in Fig. 3.36. The cooling can further be
improved by using a radiator in place of external cooling tubes.

Fig. 3.33 Oil natural cooling Fig. 3.34 Corrugated tank

Fig. 3.35 Tank with fins Fig. 3.36 Tank with cooling tubes

3. Oil immersed Forced oil-circulation Natural cooling (OFN)

In this type, core and coils are immersed in oil and the cooling is effected basically by forced
oil circulation through motor driven oil pump as shown in Fig. 3.37. This method of cooling is
one of the latest to be adopted and is employed with the radiators separately attached with the
main tank of the transformer. A pump forces the oil through the ducts provided between winding
and back to the radiators. The transformer tank in this case is also made plain, the radiators
being relied upon to give necessary cooling.
4. Oil immersed Forced oil circulation with air Blast cooling (OFB)
This is achieved by means of fans blowing under the radiator as shown in Fig. 3.37. The radiators
may be placed at some little distance from the transformer tank. Fans are placed under the
radiators in such a way as to blow air through them and thus increases the cooling.
The method in which forced air cooling is adopted in addition to the oil-forced cooling is called
OFB method i.e., oil immersed forced oil circulation with air blast cooling.
OFN method raises the rating by one-third and OFB by another third.
 294 Electrical Machines

Fig. 3.37 Oil immersed forced oil circulation with air blast cooling

3.23 Power Transformer and its Auxiliaries

The transformers used in the power system for transfer of electric power or energy from one circuit
to the other are called power transformers. The rating of a transformer includes voltage, frequency
and kVA. The kVA rating is the kVA output that a transformer can deliver at the rated voltage and
frequency under general service conditions without exceeding the standard limit of temperature rise
(usually 45º to 60ºC) The power transformer has the following important parts :
1. Magnetic circuit: The magnetic circuit comprises of transformer core. The transformer core
may be core type or shell type in construction. The power transformers used in the power
system are mostly three phase transformers. In a core type three-phase transformer core has
three limbs of equal area of cross-section.
2. Electrical circuit: In three phase transformers there are three primary (H.V.) windings and
three secondary (L.V.) windings. Whole of the L.V. winding is wound over one limb next to
the core, then whole of the H.V. winding is wound over the L.V. winding. In between the L.V.
winding and H.V. winding and between core and L.V. winding insulation is provided.
3. Transformer oil: Transformer oil is a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. The oil is used only in the oil cooled transformers. The oil not only carries the heat
produced due to losses in the transformer, by convection from the windings and core to the
transformer tank, but also has even more important function of insulation.
When transformer delivers power, heat is produced due to the iron and copper losses in the
transformer. This heat must be dissipated effectively otherwise the temperature of the winding
will increase. The raise in temperature further increases the losses. Thus, the efficiency of the
transformer will decrease. As there is no rotating part in the transformer, it is difficult to cool
down the transformer as compared to rotating machines. Various methods are adopted to cool
down the transformers of different rating. The common methods are air natural cooling, oil
immersed natural cooling, oil immersed forced oil circulation natural cooling, oil immersed
forced oil circulation with air blast cooling, oil immersed forced oil circulation with water
cooling etc.
 Three-Phase Transformers 295

Generally, for cooling of distribution transformers, oil immersed natural cooling method is adopted.
Cooling tubes or small cooling radiators are used with the main tanks, as shown in Fig. 3.38, to
increase the surface area for the dissipation of heat.

Fig. 3.38 Pictorial view of a 200 kVA, 11 kV/400 V oil immersed natural cooled distribution transformer

4. Tank Cover: A number of parts are arranged on the tank cover of which most important are :
(i) Bushing: The internal winding of the transformer are connected to the lines through copper
rods or bars which are insulated from the tank cover, these are known as bushings. Upto
33 kV ordinary porcelain bushing can be used. Above this voltage oil filled bushings or
condenser bushing are employed.
(ii) Oil conservator tank: Oil conservator is also known as an oil expansion chamber. It is
a small cylindrical air tight and oil tight vessel. The oil conservator is connected with a
tube to the main transformer tank at the tank cover. This tank is partially filled with oil.
The expansion and contraction of oil, changes the oil level in the conservator.
(iii) Breather: The transformer oil should not be allowed to come in contact with atmospheric
air, since a small amount of moisture causes a great decrease in the dielectric strength of
transformer oil. All the tank fittings are made air tight. When oil level in the oil conservator
tank changes due to expansion and contraction of oil because of change of oil temperature,
air moves in and out of the conservator. This action is known as breathing.
The breathed air is made to pass through an apparatus called breather to abstract moisture.
Breather, contains Silica gel or some other drying agent such as calcium chloride. This
ensures that only dry air enters the transformer tank.
(iv) Buchholz Relay: This is installed in between the main tank and the oil conservator. It is
a gas relay which gives warning of any fault developing inside the transformer, and if the
fault is dangerous, the relay disconnects the transformer circuit. This relay is installed in
the transformer having capacity more than 750 kVA.
All the important parts of a 200 kVA, 11 kV/400 V oil immersed natural cooled distribution
transformer are shown in Fig. 3.38.
 296 Electrical Machines

3.24 Maintenance Schedule of a Transformer

A power or distribution transformer when despatched from a factory, its tank is filled with oil upto
a certain level in the conservation tank. Above the oil level, dry air or inert gas under pressure is
filled. On receipt of the transformer, it is important to check the oil level and the dielectric strength
of the oil which may be affected during transportation.
To check the electric strength of the oil, its sample is taken from near the top and bottom of the tank.
The dielectric strength of the oil in no case should be lower than 30 kV for a 4 mm gap.
For a long trouble-free service, transformers should be given due attention regularly. For this
purpose, a proper maintenance schedule of transformer has to be prepared. Different maintenance
schedule is prepared for
(i) Attended indoor or outdoor transformers and (ii) Unattended outdoor transformers.
(i) Maintenance schedule for attended indoor or outdoor transformers.
The different checks employed on transformers are given below:
(a) Hourly check: Check oil temperature, winding temperature, ambient temperature, load and
voltage after very hour.
The temperature is kept within the permissible limits by adjusting the load.
(b) Daily Check:
(i) Check oil level daily. If low, fill moisture free oil.
(ii) Check the colour of the silica gel in the breather daily. Its colour should be blue. If its
colour is pink replace it.
(c) Quarterly check: Check the working of cooling fans and pumps quarterly. If not working
properly, get them repaired.
(d) Half-yearly:
(i) Check dielectric strength, if below 30 kV for 4 mm then filter it or replace it.
(ii) Check bushes, insulators and cable boxes half-yearly. If found defective replace them.
(e) Yearly: (i) Check oil alarm circuits, relays, contacts, earth resistance and lightning arrestors.
(f) Five yearly:
(i) Carry out overall inspection of the transformer including lifting of coils and core.
(ii) Cleaning of transformer with moisture free transformer oil.
(ii) Maintenance schedule of outdoor transformers.
These transformers are checked after a certain period as given below:
(a) Quarterly:
(i) Check oil level and condition of silica gel.
(ii) Clean bushings, check conditions of switching and alarm circuits etc.
(b) Yearly:
(i) Check dielectric strength of oil.
(ii) Check earth resistance and lightning arrestors etc.
(c) Five-yearly:
(i) Carryout overall inspection of the transformer.
(ii) Cleaning of transformer with moisture free transformer oil.
 Three-Phase Transformers 297

3.25 Trouble Shooting of a Transformer

For any type of internal fault of the transformer, the winding insulation and bushings are tested. For
this insulation test between transformer winding and core or tank is carried out. Similarly, to test
insulation of bushings, insulation test between each terminal of transformer and tank is carried out.
When fault is located, it is removed.

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. Two transformers each of 80 kVA are connected in parallel. One has resistance and reactance of 1% and
4% respectively and the other has resistance and reactance of 1.5% and 6% respectively. Calculate the
load shared by each transformer and the corresponding power factor when the total load shared is 100
kVA 0.8 pf lagging. (Ans. 48 kW, 0.8 pf lagging; 32 kW, 0.8 pf lagging)

2. A 500 kVA transformer with 1.5% resistive and 5% reactive drops is connected in parallel with a 1000
kVA transformer with 1% resistive and 4% reactive drops. The secondary voltage of each transformer is
400 V on load. Determine how they share a load of 500 kVA at a pf of 0.8 lagging. (Ans. 116 kW, 0.82
(lag); 284 kW, 0.7923 (lag))

3. The primary and secondary windings of two transformers each rated 250 kVA, 11/2 kV and 50 Hz are
connected in open delta. Find (i) the kVA load that can be supplied from this connection; (ii) currents on
HV side if a delta connected three phase load of 250 kVA, 0.8 pf (lag) 2 kV is connected to the LV side of
the connection. (Ans. 43.3 kVA; 13A)

4. Two single phase furnaces working at 100 volt are connected to 6600 volt, three-phase mains through
Scott-connected transformers. Calculate the current in each line of the three-phase mains, when the
power drawn by furnace I is 600 kW and the other 900 kW respectively at a power factor of 0.71 lagging.
Neglect losses in transformers. (Ans. 84500 A; 148 A; 12680 A; 192.1 A; 205.8 A)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. Compare delta and open delta connections.
Ans. Comparison of Delta and Open Delta Connections:

(i) When similar transformers are used, the voltages given by the delta and Vee connections are the
same and their outputs are proportional to their line currents.
(ii) In balanced delta connection the line current is 3 of the phase current whereas in Vee-connection
the line current is the same as the phase current.
(iii) With non-inductive balanced load, each transformer of the delta connection carries one-third of
the total load at unity power factor. Under the same conditions each transformer of Vee-connection
carries one half of the load at a p.f. 0.866.
(iv) The ratio of the power in Vee-Vee to Power in delta connection is 0.577.
298 Electrical Machines

Q.2. Why Scott connections are also known as T-connections?

Ans. Since primary and secondary of teaser transformer are connected to the centre tap of the primary and
secondary of the main transformer respectively giving a shape of English letter ‘T ’, as shown in Fig.
Q.3 (a and b) the connections are known as T-T connections.

Fig. Q.3

Q.3. What is the function of a breather is a transformer?

Ans. Breather: The transformer oil should not be allowed to come in contact with atmospheric air, since a
small amount of moisture causes a great decrease in the dielectric strength of transformer oil. All the
tank fittings are made air tight. When oil level in the oil conservator changes, air moves in and out of
the conservator. This action is known as breathing.
The breathed air is made to pass through an apparatus called breather to abstract moisture. Breather,
contains Silica-gel or some other drying agent such as calcium chloride. This ensures that only dry air
enters the transformer tank.
 Three-Phase Transformers 299

Review Questions
1. A single unit of three-phase transformer is preferred over three units of one-phase transformers to transfer
power in three-phase circuits, why?
2. LV winding is always placed nearer the core, why?
3. Parallel operation of the transformers in the power system is necessary, why?
4. Distribution transformers are designed for smaller iron losses, why?
5. Tap-changers are usually employed on the HV side, why?
6. No-load tap changers are only operated at off load, why?
7. A reactor is employed with on-load tap changer, why?
8. It is difficult to cool down transformer than to cool down an induction motor or alternator, why?
9. In power transformer, breather is necessary, why?
10. In distribution transformers, cooling tubes are provided, why?
11. How can you differentiate between power and distribute transformers.
12. What is the importance of cooling of transformer?
13. Write a short note on a star-Delta transformer.
14. Write a short note on earthing of transformer.
15. What is a three-phase transformer? Give its merits over a bank of three single-phase transformers.
16. Explain the construction of a three-phase (i) core type and (ii) shell type transformers with the help of
neat sketches.
17. Explain the following connections of three-phase transformers
(i) Star-star (ii) Delta-delta
(iii) Delta-star (iv) Star-delta giving the merits of each one of them.
18. What do you understood by parallel operation of transformers? What is its necessity?
19. State and explain the conditions necessary for parallel operation of two single-phase transformers.
20. State and explain the conditions necessary for parallel operation of two three-phase transformers.
21. Explain with the help of a phasor diagram the load shared by each transformer, when two are connected
in parallel having same voltage ratios and same percentage impedances.
22. Explain with the help of a phasor diagram the load shared by each transformer when two are connected
in parallel having same voltage ratios but different impedance triangles.
23. What is a tap-changer? Where and how they are placed with the transformers?
24. Explain the working of an off-load tap-changer with the help of a neat-schematic diagram.
25. Explain the working of an on-load tap-changer with the help of neat schematic diagram.
26. What is the necessity of cooling of transformer? Explain with neat sketch oil immersed forced oil circulation
natural cooling.
 300 Electrical Machines

27. Write short note on

(i) Oil immersed natural cooling
(ii) Oil immersed forced oil circulation with air blast cooling.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The transformation ratio of a three-phase transformer is given by the relation.
E 2(L ) E 2(ph )
(a) (b)
E 1(L ) E 1(ph )

E 2(L ) E 2(ph )
(c) (d)
E 1(ph ) E 1(L )

2. Usually HV winding is placed

(a) next to the core (b) over the low voltage winding
(c) both a and b (d) none of these
3. In parallel operation of two transformers if the transformers have different percentage impedances.
(a) they will share the load as per their rating.
(b) the transformers will be on dead short circuiting and will be damaged.
(c) They will not share the load as per their rating but there will be no damage to the transformers.
(d) none of these
4. The seasonal voltage adjustments on the transformer are made through
(a) off-load tap-changer (b) on load tap-changer
(c) both a and b (d) none of these
5. Cooling of transformer
(a) reduces losses (b) increases efficiency
(c) increase life (d) all of these

Keys to Multiple Choice Questions

1. b 2. b 3. c 4. a 5. d