CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. PRES: Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sto Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City Cambridge Univesity Press ‘The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 SRU, UK wwwcambridge org, Information on this title: wwaw.cambridge org/9780521 125659 (© Cambridge University Press 2011 "This publication isin copyright. Subject co statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, ‘bo reproduction of any part may tale place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2011 4th printing 2012 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catslgue record for this publication is available forthe British Library ISBN 978-0-521-12565-9 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guazantee that apy content on such websites is, ‘or will remain, accurate or appropriate.Contents Module 1 Party Part 2 Part 3 Module 2 Part Introduction 1 Tips for preparing for the TT Language and background to language learning and teaching Describing language and language skills Unit | Grammar 8 Unit2 Lexis 16 Unit 3 Phonolo al Unit 4 Fimetion z UnitS Reading 31 Unit — Writing 37 Unit? Listening 3 Unit 8 — Speaking 48 Background to language learning Unit 9 Motivation 53 Unit 10 Exposure and focus on form 58 Unit 11 The role of error 62 Unit 12 Differences between Li and 12 learning o7 Unit 13 Learner characteristics 2 Unit 14 Learner needs 7 Unit 15. Approaches to language teaching 83 Background to language teaching Unit 16 Presentation techniques and introductory activities 90 Unit 17 Practice activities and tasks for language and skills development 97 Unit 18 Assessment types and tasks 104 TKT Module I Practice test 1.1 112 Lesson planning and use of resources for language teaching Planning and preparing a lesson or sequence of lessons Unit 19° Identilying and selecting aims 127 Unit 20 Identifying the different components of a lesson plan. 133, Unit 21 Planning an individual lesson or a sequence af lessons 139 Unit 22. Choosing assessment activities 145Part 2 Module 3 Part Part 2 Selection and use of resources Unit 23 Consulting reference resouces to help in lesson preparation Unit 24 Selection and use of coursebook materials Unit 25 Selection and use of supplementary materials and activities Unit 26 Selection and use of teaching aids TKY Module 2 Practice test 2.1 Managing the teaching and learning process Teachers’ and learners’ language in the classroom Unit 27 Using language appropriately tor a range of classroom functions Unit 28 Identifying the functions of learners’ language Unit 29 Categorising learners’ mistakes Classroom management Unit 30 Teacher, roles Unit 31 Grouping learners Unit 32 Correcting teamners Unit 33. Giving feedback TKT Module 3 Practice test 3.1 Sample TKT answer sheet Exam tips for the TKT Answer key for Follow-up activities Answer key for TKT practice tasks Answer key for TKT practice tests, Alphabetical list of glossary terms Unit-by-unit list of glossary terms Acknowledgements 151 156 161 166 472 184 190 194 199 204 209 215 220 234. 235 237 245 246 247 252 256Introduction The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 ‘The TT Course Modules 1,2 and 3 isthe second edition of The TKT Cowse. In this second edition you will find a range of new material that makes this edition different from the first edition: Revised and expanded information on the key concepts related to each area of the TRT syllabus ‘# An additional unit on ‘Approaches to language teaching’ reflecting the TKT syltabus ‘¢ New tasks in each unit for the Follow-up, Reflection, Discovery and exam practice sections fe New practice # ¢ An expanded glossary reflecting the revised 7KT'Giessary © Anew section on ‘Tips for preparing for the TKT’, which aims to help you study by yourselves and male full use of all opportunities for working towards the TKT, The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 Online The TT Course Modules 1,2 and 3 also available online. 1 you stibscribe to the ontine version at cambridgetktenglish360.com you will get al! the macerial from dhe print edition in an interactive format plus: # Six additional interactive TKT practice tests. matching the latest Cambridge BSOL, “TT computer-based tests “Ask the authoe’ videos givin Reflection sections ‘An interactive Glossary Quiz covering the TET terms ‘© Extra support for TK? trainers . sroom issues focused on in tie in. expert view on « What is the Teaching Knowledge Test (the TKT)? ‘The Teaching Knowledge Test (the TKT} is atest developed by Cambridge ESOL for teachers of English to speakers of otler languages. It is designed io test candidates’ knovrledge of concepts related to language anc! language use, and the background t0 and practice of language teaching and leaming. The TET consisis of seven modules: TT Module 1, TKT Module 2, TKT Modiute 3, ‘TKT: KAL (Knowledge About Language), TKT: CLL (Content and Language Integrated Leaming}, TK: VL (Young Learners} and TKT: Practical. The modules can be taken together, or separately, in any order and any number. With the exception of the ‘TRY: Practical, she content af the TKT is tested hy means of objective tasks, such as matching and multiple-choice, and each module consists of 80 questions. While the ‘TKT. Practical focuses on classtoom skills and the TT: KAL on knowiedge o! English language systems, the other modules focus on knowledge about teaching, ‘The TKT has no entry requirements, such as previous teaching experience andy or teaching or language qualifications, but eandidates are recommended to have atIntroduction least an intermediate level of English, eg. PET, IBLTS band 4, CEPR/ALTE BI for all the modules except KAL, for whieh the recommended level is B2, Candidates for all the modules are also expected to understand a range of over 500 terms describing the practice of English Langiiage Teaching (BLT). A selection of these terms appears in each TT module, A list of the terms is provided in the TKT Glossary, which is on the Cambridge ESOL website: htep://www.cambridgeesol org/TKT ‘To help them prepare for the TKT and reflect on their teaching, candidates are encouraged to keep an online Teacher Portlolio: hups://www,teacherparitolio, cambridgeesol.org/ @ What is The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3? The TRT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 provides support material for Modules the TET, The TAT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 has four main. aims 1 To introduce readers 10 the concepts and terms about teaching and leaming that are central to the TET, and to give them oppornonities to do exam practice with TRT practice ces tasks and practice exem papers. 2 To introduce readers to the main current theories, approaches, practices and activities in ELT and to assess their usefulness for the classroom, 3. T share with readers details of somie of the many resources, such as websites, grammar books, coursebooks and supplementary materials, available to English language veachers 4 To provide materials and activities that give teachers opportunities for professional development and reflection on their own teaching by exploring the concepts which have been introduced, 1, and 3 of i Who is The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 written for? ‘The THT Course Modules I, 2 ait 3's written for: # Teachers intending to tke Modules 1,2 o¢ 3 of the-TKT. They may be studying fori on a-conrse, o alone as sef-aceess students, ‘* Teachers following introductory teacher development courses in teaching English, or retraining to became English language teachers. ‘© Teachers working (by themselves) o improve their knowledge of ELT. + People considering becoming teachers «© Teachers already teaching in printary or secondary schools or adult learning insttitions. # Boh first and other language speakers of English. @ What are the contents of The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3? ‘The contents of The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 follow the contents and order of the TTKT syllabus for the TKT Modules 1, 2 and 3, The course contains ‘© Tips for preparing for the TKT: the 4 Rs (Reading, Reference, Record-keeping and Reflection} ‘# Three modules, each focusing on one module of the TK. Each module is divided into units covering the contents af the TKT syllabus for that module. The units focus on topics from the module, and then provide tasks and activittes exploring the topics and preparing the reader forthe TKT.r Introduction. © Thiny-three inter-related units. The units in the course build on one anothi so that the Ideas introduced in one unit provide the foundation for the ideas introduced in the next unit, Similarly, each module provides a foundation for the next module. «The ELT terms from the 7K Glessary. Terms are highlighted in bold when they are defined. They are also highlighted in bold when they appear in a unit for the first ime. ‘Three TKT practice tests, one for each module. Exam ups for taking the TRT, Answer keys for the Follow-up activities, TKT practice tasks aid TRT practice tests. ‘Two lists of ELT terms from the TRT Glossary that are used in the book, The first alphabetical list gives the terms that are defined and the page where thelr definition can be found. The second list shows the terms that are defined in each unit. These Jists can be used as an aid for working on a unit, of for revision purposes. ‘The language used in The TT Course Modidles 1, 2 and 3 is at the same level as the language used in the TKT test for Mcidules 1-3, ic. intermediate level English at approximately IELTS band-4-or CEFR (Common Buropean Framework) B1. Glussary words are edditional to this. ‘The material in the book Is desigated 10 provide approximately 70-100 hours of study, How is each unit organised and how can it be used? ‘The advice in this table is intended for those using the book on a taught course or for self-access readers, Is can also be adapted for use by trainers. Each unit in The TK? Gourse Modules 1,2 and 3 follows the same steuctore. soo rupee [sugges ows Starter queton | To provideadhntionof | Ty teanswe the question ble aang the ed aniner | theteytermsinthe ce o | cotmens nthe Isoducory paragraph theurt (ene are mere Rey concnis | Teintrodae thermal dea | Tver short gtstan atthe beginning a fof the topic of the unit and_ | this section fry ta answer i before veading the 10 explain the key £17 terms. | text that follows. This section could be read puts class Key concepts and | To discuss how the key | Think about how each point might influence thelanguage — | concepts influence Engtish | what you do in che classroom, teaching language teaching and classroom learning L Follow-up Tallow the reader to work | These activities ae designed for use in or activities with the key concepts in | outside the taining classroom. Completing order to understand them — | them leads to a fuller understanding of the more fly, tunie’s key concepts. There s an answer key for NB These activities these activities on panes 257-244, sometimes use tasks with different formats from those used in the TE, LIntroduction Reflection To encourage the reader to develop his/her opinions ‘on the key concepts by considering questions or ‘comments from teachers. Discuss these points with ochersif possible. As this section is about opinions, it daes not have an accompanying answer key. You could make use of the anline Teacher Portfalia to record your thoughts: httos:ffwww.teacherportfolo.ambridgeesol. ores, Discovery activities To halp the reader ind cout more about the key concepts, to experiment with them In the classroom and to assess their Usefulness These activities involve delng things outside ‘the training classroom, ¢., reading chapters 10m books, nding websites, seeing how key concepts are applied In coursebooks, ‘ying out ideas in the classroom and wilting, reflective comments. You will see that the book again suggests you make use of the Teacher Portfolio to write up and keep a record of your comments, This portfolio is designed by Cambridge ESOL for teacher reflection, and Is completely private. You may, of course, prefer to keep your reflections in your own folder or natebook, TKT practice task “a review the unit's content and to help readers become familiar with the TAT task formats and level, NE “These tasks use the sa Guestion formats and humbers of questions as in the corresponding sections of the Ter. Do these tasks to familiarise yourself with the formats of the TT and to test yourself on the contents af the unit, You can check your answers in the answer key on page 24s, We suggest that readers using this book by themselves choose an English language teaching coursebook and think of a specific group of leamers to work with for the Discovery and Reflection activities. We also recommend readers to look at the tps for preparing for the TKT in the next section. Enjoy your teach those who take the TKT. and your reflection on your teaching, aud good luck to allTips for preparing for the TKT Four hi Rei ptul ways of preparing lor the TKT are the 4 Rs: Reading, Reference, nrd-Keeping and Reflection 1 Reading The TKT Course Modules 1,2 and bot you can usefully supplement this by reading the Books, mé recommended in the Discovery activities. Some examples of these a below. You could also try to combine your reading with your teaching, using y lessons as an oppostunity to investigate different areas you are working on in the classtoom, eg. reading skitls, classtoom management, methods of assessment. 3 already provide core reading for taking the TT, ines and websites mentioned ‘¢ Books about language Look at Discover English by Rod Bolitho & Brian Tomfinson, Macmillan 2005 and About Language by Scott Thombury, Cambridge University Press 2001, Both books nis and consist of language awareness tasks with keys that include detailed com explanations. Books about methodology ‘There are a huge number of books alvout particular skills, types of material end teaching techniques, but the most useful ones lor preparing for the TET are those that deal with a wide range of asp y. These books are some that have been recommended in various units of The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 How to Teach Brigish (Second edition) by Jeremy Harmer, Longman 2007 The Practice of B ing (Pourth edition) by Jeremy Harmer, Longman 200: ach 4 Course in Language Teaching by Teaching and Press 2000) g Practice Hamdtbot Walters, Macmillan 1995 Children ts of methodol {Second edition) by Jim Scrivener, Macmillan 2005 ‘enny Ur, Cambridge University Press'1999 by Tricia Hedge, Oxford University Learning in the Language C {Second edition} by Roger Gower, Diane Phillips & Steve earning English by Jayne Moon, Macmillan 2000 ‘e-Teachers’ magazines Many teachers’ magazi trainers, well-known favourite book, « new teaching idea, etc. If there is @ teachers’ association in the area where yon live, they may ‘own magazine or newsletter, but you could also look at some of the international magazines, sucl as Brglish Teaching Professional (https! www.erpcatessional.com) or Modern Bnglist Teacher (http://wiwwonlinemei.com), where you can find articles by teachers from different parts of th 1s Indlude articles, interviews and reviews writen by thors, and teachets. They discuss suecesstut lessons, a We the world,‘Tips for preparing for the TT 4 Websites and discussion lists ‘There are many websites that provide useful professional reading for English Tonguage teachers. Twa sites with short informative articles by ELT specialists are Onestopenglish (hutpi//www.onestopenglish.com) and Teaching English « (http://www. teachingenglish.org.uk} You could also join intemet forums, sometimes called discussion lists or message boards, o access another kind of ELE reading, and exchange ideas and experiences by email with other teachers (for example, hhup://wvww.btsishoouncilorg/moroeco-english-teach-finks-efl-organisetion. him), # TKT practice and preparation materials You can find practice papers and preparation materials on the Cambridge ESOL website: (hutpr://www-carmbridgeesol.org/resources/teacher/skt.hutmil) as well 2s in the TKT Handbook, which tells you all about the TKT. @ 2 Reference Make regular use of reference matesials such as diesionaries and grammar books when you prepare for your lessons. This will help you become familiar with their terms, approaches and ideas, and get you teady for the TT, In addition, the TKT Glossary can be downloaded as a pdf document from the Cambridge ESOL website (hitp://www.cambridgeeso.orglassels/pat/tkt_ glossary. pal) The glossary is arranged by topic in'the same order as in the syllabus. Use this to study for the exain, but also as you read materials on teaching methodology, as paxt of your general professional development, @ 3 Record-keeping As suggested in many of the Discovery activities in The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3, ita good idea to get into the habit of keeping lesson plans and making notes on methods and materials that you have used successfully, Also make notes about your lessons, on what worked welt and what you would do differently next time. Looking back at these notes is a good way of reminding yourself of all the knowledge you have about language and about teaching @ 4 Reflection In the Discovery activities throughout The KT Course Modules 1,2 and 3 we suggest you collect information (dota) about your teaching f2omn the classroom, make notes about your finditigs and think about how you might want to change the way you do things. We can learn from these reflections 10 help both with the TKT and with improving our teaching. Reflection is one siage of the classroom research cycle: we start by looking at what happens in the classroom (observation) and by collecting data, then we try 10 understand the data and decide (tellection} what we can do to improve the situation, and finally, we cry ut out plans (action) in the classroom.“Tips for preparing for the TIT: the 4 Rs reflection For example, a reacher might want to improve the way they give instructions for classroom activities. By collecting data from a number of lessons, they notice that the instructions ave often quite long and confusing and decide to try giving shorter instructions. But when they do this, they see that learners are still quite contused. So they try a different solution: typing out the instructions and giving them to learners on, a handout. This seems so be more effective. We can collect data in many different ways, for example: making audio ar video recordings of lessons giving learners questionnaires to complete interviewing learners asking learners to keep diaries inviting a colleague 10 obs making ovr o ea lesson viv notes about a lesson Reflection is an important approach to developing as a teacher, and a vely productive ‘way to prepare for the TKTT, especially if you are working alone, or do not have many opportunities to exchange ideas and experiences with colleagues, Remember acher Portfolio at heps://www.teacherportiotio. you keep a record of your reflections so that you 1 ideas for teaching or when preparing for the TKT. ssroom teaching to help you to write your reflections in you cambridgeesol.org! as this wrill 1 can refer back to them later to Study for the TKT but also use your everyday c prepare for itModule 1 Part1 Describing language and language skills Unit1 Grammar @ What is grammar? Grammar refers to how we combine, organise and change parts of words, words and groups of sors 19 make meaning. We use grammar unconsclously when we speak, listen, read or write, We also use it, particularly as teachers, to describe language. We do this by referring to its forms and its uses. Grammar includes a large nutnber of forms and uses. ® Key concepts hor fe ft fis? ‘These refér to how wors are made up and presented in speech or writing, For ‘example, the form of the plural of regular nouns in English is ‘base word + 3; the form of te gerund is ‘infinkuive + -ing We can identity grammetical forms in parts of speech, grammatical structures and words that contain prefixes (« group of letiers added at the beginning of a base word) and suffixes (2 group of letters added at the end of a base word), Thete are nine parts of speech in English: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, determiners, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions and exciamations. A part of speech or word class describes how words behave in sentences, Le. how they operate and combine grammatically with other words, For example, in English: # @ noun can act as the subject of 2 verb but an adjective by itself cannot e.g. The all girl ran very fast (7) but mot Fal rare very fast (X) «# an advecb can combine wih an adjective but an adjective cannot combine with another adjective eg. well organised (7), good organised (X) ‘© a noun can combine with snother noun e.g. a car park. ‘The form of some parts of speech varies according to the function the parts of speech. have in a sentence. So, for example, these two sentences show different forms of the adjective old: The boy thought he would never grow old: he's older than most of his friends| | | | | | | | | ‘The table below shows the functior how most of the aris of spec Jn can be broken down into Unit Grammar ‘ of the different parts of speech, ralgo shows [rare of speech exam Function(s) [Nouns | eitren to name people, pa | | sugar 3s, eas, o active uncauntable, proper, | | as the subjecobject ofthe || common, abstiact, collective | verbs jee ta show ana transitive invancive, sake af s, gerund, infnicives, modals rult-eord ve pasa verbs, tense active vote, passive voice, imperative aajectives | easy we describe or give more comparat | information about s noun, et pronaun of part of perlative ‘adverbs complet | where, ete. camething happens by to say mare abaut how, when, adding information to adjective, ity attitude other adverbs orsentences _| markers Determiners | my [tomate cearwhich nounis | possessive adjectives the refrreé to bridles, emonsuative fis aejectves, quantifiers bath fees secetsee | Prepositions | abe To show the elatonahia between | ime, place a A noun, nour phrase or pronoun | diection, [inthesaclear | andanotier ward or phrase exerpli | encoption, cause and fect, dependent Pronouns (she To replace ovrefertoa noun or | personal possessive, mine noun phrase mentioned ener or | relative reflesve vin about tobe mentioned nyse 7 ee Conjunctions {os To jai words senten reason, aadtion and of sentences contasttime, bu condition, purpose, result rations [er Te show’ ong) feeling= feelings of doubt or ow especialy minformalspoken | pain languageModule t We also see different grammatical forms in a grammatical structuce, ie, she arrangement of words inta patterns which have meaning, There are many arsmmatical terms to describe different grammatical structures. Here are some examples: Structure Form Past continuous/ subject = past tense of verb to be +g form of verb progressive ihe wos run _| Passive voice ‘subject # fo be + past participle (+ by + agent) 2 the road was bull (by the company) Comparative of eng’ | mores tong adjective © than) jectives eg. he was more embarrassed chan his fiend Prepasitional phrase | preposition + (article/decerminey.) + noun 2g foran hour Contrast clauses subordinating conjunction of contrast + finite clause ©. Nobody fistened alsnaugh she spake ety slowly and cleaty ‘As we can see from this table, we find grammatical structutes not justin different forms of the parts of speech but also at the level of sentences, phrases and clauses. We can also talk about how words are formed through word building, One important way in which English forms words is through the use of two kinds of affixes (a group of letters added at the beginning or end of a base word which change its meaning): prefixes and suffixes. Affixes can give grammatical information, showing whether a verb is singular, for example, or marking a tense, parts of verbs, the plural of nowns, possessives, e.g, talked gor. going. books girls. Many other prefixes and sulfixes are used in Bnglish to make new words, by changing thesr part of speech and adding a meaning to the base word, e.g. disappear, careful, friendly. Some common prefixes in English are.us-tdis-re-im-in-fover-un-lil-fpre. Some common suitixes are sinen-ous/oabler-lss-fulr-toat-y. Wha of gianna tises? Grammatical uses refer to how grammatical structures are used to convey (or communicate) meaning. A particular grammatical structore, eg, the present continuous ior progressive), does not always have the same meaning, [ts meaning ot uuse comes from the context in whic itis used, For example ste i oing her homewerk night mean: i a) she is doing her homework nowlat the moment: the present continuous used for actions at the moment of speaking. by she has decided to do her homework at a spectic time in the future. The reader or listener understands irom the context that this refers to an arrangement for the future, ¢.g the question What is she doing this evening?, the present continuous used {or frm plans and intentions, ©) she has improved her study habits ond regularly does her homework, which she didn't do before: the present continuous used for cemporary actions happening around the time of speaking.Unit Grammar “Many grammatical forms have more than one use. Here are some other examptes Structure Some uses Present simple | a) to desctibe a present sta eg. live in Landon, ») to describe actions or situations which happan repeatedly but which might rot be happening at the moment eg; !1ead nenspapers and magazines. { to efer to the future in a scheduled timetable eg The plane feaves at 10.30 d)totella story eg, They get tothe bus stop ecrly and start talking tothe other people, suddenly «ta provide a commentary ‘2g. Now here’ Jones, He shoots but the goalkeeper manages to save it ~ another lucky escape? Present perfect | a) to describe past actions which have some connection to che present 2g. Ive seen thot fm, +) to deseribe an event or situation which 's part of one's life experience ‘eg, ve visited mast ofthe countries n Europe. 6 to describe a temporary state or action that started in the past and still continues ag We've been staylag In university accommadation all summer ‘Adverbs 2] to describe haw something is done ‘eg. She ace her Focd quickly }t0 Focus on something eg, He only kes pizza, ]ta shaw an attitude to something eg. They can'e come, unfortunately. Key concepts and the language teaching classroom FERRE is oH Rones WHEELIE mast NBBitont fbr yo «Grammar rules describe the way that language works, but language changes over time, so grammar rules ere not fixed. They change, 100. But grammar rules and ‘grammar books don’t always change as qnickly as the language, so they are not always up-to-date, For example, some grammar books say that we should use whom rather than whe after prepositions. But in fact, except in some situations, wit is generally used, with a different word order, e.g. ‘I've just met the git] who I talked to on Friday’ is much more common and/accepted than ‘I've just met the git] 10 whom I talked on Friday’, Teachers need to keep up-to-date witit what pars of the language are changing and how. # Grammar rules traditionally describe written langnage rather than spoken language. For example, repetition, exclamations and contractions (two words shat are pronounced or written as one, e.g. do’, u's, wont) are common features {important perts) of spoken language, but they are not always described in grammar books. Some grammar books ate now available which describe spoken language, 100.Moautet © Mery often, speakers of a language can speak and write it well without consciously Koowing any grammatical rules or terms, +. Reachers need to consider whether itis helpful to teach grammar to leatnets simply by making them aware of patiems and practising them, 0: by also teaching them Sena rules and some grammatical rms. Learning some grammatical rales vad Sade Nes language learning easier for some learners, Other learners, €4 young children, may not find it uselul at all * 1ust learning grammatical rules, tems and structures doesn't teach leamers how to Communicate, which is the main purpose of language. So, much language teaching rratadays also focuses on functions, lamguage skills, fhieney and conmeteane * 15s important that exercises and activities focus on form and use vy give students Prastice of both, eg. how the second conditional is formed, and that the secund sondlional i used to talk about situations that are unlikely to happen, Leanne need to develop accuracy in both form and use Sent 94 for ow we earn grammar Uns 5-7 fr teaching grammaiicl structures, Unies 19,20 0702 fr plenaing sons en grammoticasuuctues. and unit 33 for ways ef corctiog arom 1 Bul these words into the correct category below. Some may belong to more than one category. hay “MY, t2ke advantage both onthe lett of often very hand that evel tumon London dining able elther his becocn ot even though mmm | theirs usual only faster nobody Mouns Verbs Adjectives | adverbs Determiners Prepositions Pronouns Conjunetions— Exelamations wi Prefixes ond sutfixes to make maps, as in the example, from these wos decide, tuck, able fortunately unfortunate fortunate ‘misfortune! Unfortunately 2Unit Grammer 3 Complete the table with an example, a term or a description of form, | |e ae The gw Tew an aight [being elnve ase | ‘The present simpl Verb v gerund Ag he didn’t understand You ought to hurry up 4 Read through the text below and identify the uses of the grammatical forms, underlined A:The most amazing ibing happened to me y noticed thar icwas going 10 ralp, so fran back inside for my umbrella. As soon, as got out of the door it started to pour down, £ tried to open the umbrella but iu wouldn't open. If stood under the bath:oom shower with my clothes on, Iwouldn’t have got any wetter! Then | felt something land on my head. Itwas bigger and heavier than a raindyop. t looked on the ground and I goulda’s believe my eyes, There were lols of tiny [rogs falling in the rain. B:Oh no, Are you sure? A: Absolutely! B:Lve-heard of it raining cats and dogs, but never fro quien ‘Think about these teachers’ comments. Which do you ag esterday. | was leaving the house and -e with and why? 1 -My students say learning grammar is really boring and doesn’t help them speak. 2. Children don’t learn grammar when they Jeamn their first language but adults who learn a second Innguage really need t 3 We need to learn grammar terms to help us leam a language more easily and quickly. ES 1 What grammar reference snaterials are available in your school? Do they describe spoken or written English? Are they up-to-date? How could they help you with your teaching? 2. Compare any two of these books on grammar or the grammar information on the two websites. Which do you prefer? Why? Are they more useful for you or your learners? Practical Brglish Us 2005 je (Third edition) by Michael Swan, Oxford University PressModuler rin Use (Third edition) by Raymond Murphy, Cambridge lish Gr University Press 2004 amtbriddge Grawviar of English by Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge University Press 2006 boup: slearnenglish-centra hhup:1/www.englishelub.com/geammar/index htm carnmar-cusrent.himn www britisheouncil.1 3 Look at “Teaching grammar effectively’ a nups/worw.cambridge.orgyelt/tkt 4 Read the grammar section of the TAT Glossary. Can you think of examples of all the terms mentioned? N.B, The TKT always contains a task on grammatical form and a task on grammatical use. For this reason this unit contains two practice ta TKT practice task 1A (See age 245 for answers) For questions 1-7, look at the sentences and the three words from each listed A,Band, ‘Two of the words have the sare grammatical function in the sentence. One does NOT. (Choose the letter (A, B or C) which does NOT have the same grammatical function, 1 She told us it was very cold there A she Bit © there 2 twas bull when they were young, so they don’t remember the old building A was B vere © don't 8 Nobody understood his spoken French because his a A. understood B spoken © was ‘cent was sa ‘strong’ 4. He studied IT for his job but he made very slow progress so he gave up. A for B but C so 5 They took off their coats and went to the table near the window, A off B to © ‘nearunit + Grammar 6 She found it really hard to concentrate as it was so noisy there, A really B so © noisy 7. The young cat ran too fast for the dog to catch it easily. A young B fast © easily TKT practice task 1B (Sve page 245 for answers) For questions 1-6, choose the bast option (A, B or G} to complete each statement about the uses of the grammatical structures underlined in the sentences, 1 You should amve early if you want to make a good impression. Here should is used to A. give advice. B talk about obligation © speculate 2. He stopped driving as he was worried about pollution. Here as is used 16 A. introduce a comparison. B. Introduce a reason, © Introduce a time period, 3 Ican't see tho girl who she's talk A. signal a question, B. ive extra information, introduce a definition. 4 My holiday starts next week and | come back the week after, on the 10th, Here come back is used to A. refer to the present. B referto the future. © refer to the past. 5 I con't know ithe A talk about a condition. B discuss a doubt. © Introduce a reported question coming. Here iis used to 6 She is fving with her sister while she's at university. Here is living is used: to A. describe @ permanent state, B describe a continuing action. © describe a temporary stateUnit 2 Lexis What is lexis? Lexis refers to individual words or sets of words, for example tree, getup, fist ofall, all's well that ends well, i.e, units of vocabulary which have a specific meaning, Key concepts Wve iAH meng ea eras Re? ‘We often speak of the meaning of words. In fact words have different kinds of ‘meaning, Firstly, there is the meaning that describes the thing of idea hehind the vocabulary item, ¢.g.a tree is a large plant with a wooden trunk, branches and leaves This meaning is called ‘denotatiun’, and we speak of “denotative meaning’. Then there is figanative meaning. We speak. for example, of ‘the tree of life’ or ‘a family tree’. This Imaginative meaning comes érom, but is different from, a word's denotative meaning, ‘There is also the meaning that a vocabulary {tem has in the context (situation) in which ie is used, e.g, In the sentence “We couldn't see the house because of the tall trees in front of it” we understand how tall the trees are partly from knowing the meaning of tall and partly from knowing how tall a house fy, 30 the meaning of ta in this senitence is partly defined by the context ‘The meaning of some vocabulary items can also come from their form, e.g, from Prefixes, suffixes or compounds (nours mace from two or more separate words) Adding prelixes or suffixes to base words (the basic words or parts of a word from hich other words can be made} can, for example, give them an opposite meaning (eg, unsafe, Hegal) ot a comparative (e.g. easy-easigt), ot superlative meaning (e.g. new-neiwes|. Ic may also change their part of speech (e.g. instructinstruction, quicke- quickly). The process of adding affixes is called affixation. Compound nouns get their meaning from being together (eg, telephone nunaber, bookshop). They have a different theaning from the individual words they ere made up of There are also words that regularly occur together, such as coltocations, fixed expressions and idioms. Collocations are words that often occur together (e.g, 10 take a holiday, heavy vain, arrive at, depend on. There are many words which collocate in a language, and the degree of collocasion can vaty. For example, watch out is a very strong collocation as these wards very often occur together, whereas watce a video is less strong and ssatch the postmen is not a collocation, The words in wath the postmen can eccur together but don’t do so often-enough 19 make them a collocation, Fixed expressians are expressions which can’t be changed (e.g, 0 tel yo the ruth, new born, its up to you). Xdioms are a kind of fixed expression as they can't be changed, but their sneaning is usually different from the combination of the meaning of the Individual words they contaie (€.g. io be wider the weather, to have green fingers, one fina blue moon). Collocations, xed expressions and idioms are all different kinds of chunks, ‘Chunks’ refers to language that occurs in (semi-)fixed units and that we usually learn as one piece, Have a good trip, 4 like fo. How about... my name's... are further examples of chunks[a Unit 2 Less Words also have different relationships with one another. They may, for example, be synonyms {swords with the same or similar meanings} or antonyms (words w opposite meanings). They may be part of the seme lexical set (groups of words that belong co the same topic area, e.g. family, fariiture, food), They may also belong to the same word family (words that come through affisation from the same base word, e.g. rea, really, recite, rea False friends, homophones, homonyms and varieties of English are other ways in which words ean relate to one another, False friends are very important in, language teaching and learning. They are words which have the same or a similar form in two languages but a different meaning. Embaraeado, for example, means pregnant in Spanish. It does not mean erabarrassed, though it looks as if i does to an English speaker! Homophones and homonyms are important, too, in langwage learning. Homophones are words with the same pronunciation but a different ‘meaning or spelling (e.g. fatow-no; whether-weather there-thei). Homonyms are words with the same spelling and pronunciation as another word, but a different meaning, e.g. they sat on the river bank’, ‘he put all his savings into the bank’. Words can also relate to ane another through being examples of different varieties of English, Le. different kinds of English spoken around the world, e.g. Indian, Australian, US, South African, British, These varieties sometimes affect lesls as the saune things ean be called by different names in different varieties, e.g. flat (British English), apartment (OS lish}, nit (Australian English}, or eookte (US English} and bisa? (British Buglish} The table below shows examples nf some of the form And meaning relationships of ovo words texleal features | clea (adjective) [reper (noun) Denotations ‘easy to understand "material used fo rte on or wrap 2 not covere or bocked shings in 3 having no daub 2anewspaper 3.2 document containing information Synonyms simpie of deneration } (none) certain fof denocation 3) “antonyms/Opposites | confusing (f denotation ) | (ronel tnt covered fet denotation 2) i: sure ft denataton 3 _ Lexical sete wellontten fo denoration) | sore, a Word familes cleo, unclear cary (cone) Homephones inone) (one) Homoryrns (one) (one) false ends French tar he ightin colour | possibly some hnguages Petes sbase word _ | uncleer (none) tase word suffves | cer, ocleorng paperless compounds dleorhended ure knife paper shop, peperback ‘Collections clear shin, a clear day [lines pape wie ponerModule + [racacerene oes coping eae gad ie ‘on paper} [aor eae des toca) [eo put pentopae We cari see from this table that words sometimes have several deriotations. The context in which we are writing or speaking makes it clear which meaning we are using. Words can also change thetr denotations according to what part of speech they ate, e.g, the adjective clear and the verb io lear. We can also see from the table that not all words have ali the kinds of form or nveaning relationships, @ Key concepts and the language teaching classroom REBCUNRSELS ontick the of whichafBndst imporeane for you Fully knowing a word involves understanding its form and meaning, e.g, whet part of speech it is, haw itis pronounced and spelt, all che meanings it ean have. This cannot take place the first time a Jearner meets a new word, It takes leamers a long, ume to fully understand and use a word. At first they will probably just learn its ‘most frequent denotative meaning, its spelling and pronunciation, ‘» Leamers teed to meet the some words again and again as they advance in their language learning. to this way thei inemory of them will be consolidated and they will yet to know move about the word. e.g. other meanings, collocations, the Jexical sets they are pact of, They can meet words again in texts, ot in vocabulary extension activities (ic, activities that give more practice), such as brainstorming, labelling, categorising, making lexical sets, © Whether we are feaming our first or our second language, we often recognise 4 word before we can use it, and we can often recognise the meaning of many more words than we can use, The words we recognise are called our ‘receptive’ vocabulary; the words we can use are called our ‘productive’ vocabulary. A teacher usually teaches learners Key {important} words and exposes them to many more, ‘The learners plek these words up, initially only recognising their meaning, then eventually using them productively, ‘¢ As words can get part of their meaning from context, and context helps to show the mieaning of words, itis useful to teach them in context rather than in isolation, e.g, through texts, stories or descriptions of events that we tell the students about * We can use the relationships in meaning between words (synonyms, lexical sets, ‘word families, etc:) and the ways in which they can be built (prefixes, suffixes, compounds) to make activities to-help our students extend their knowledge of words, e.g, making opposites, building words through aftixation, brainstorming lexical sets and word families ‘* When we teach learners new words we can check if these words have any false friends in their language or if these words are homophones or homonyms of others they know. Then we can point this out to the learners and help to save them from misunderstandings. * At beginner level ancl with young leamers, we often teach general words for categories first, then gradually introduce different items from that category. For ‘example, we may teach clothes belore teaching jeans, shirt, shirt, ete,vunit2 Lexis # Alot of language often gecurs in chunks, e.g, colocation, fixed expressions. Experts think that children learning their first language learn the chunks as a whole rather than In parts. This helps them to remember them better and recall \chers we can highlight (draw learners (remember) them more quickly. As te attention (0) chunks of language for learners is useful for learners to keep vocabulary records in which they record the meaning of the new words, daeir part of speech. examples of use, any collccations, their pronunciation, any synonyms, ete. Students can retum to add information ords as they learn more about them. about individual See ni w for ia teaching ond assessment of Liles 16,8 and 22 forte for teaching vocabulary affecting the learning of vocabulo! abulary, ad Unk 2 for esou FUERTE (See page 238 for answers) h of these sets of words have in common? Are they synonyms, ‘sical sets, compounds, idioms, collocations, word families, h prefixes or words with sulfixes? 1 What does antonyms, homophones, words wi A table, chair, sofa, bed, bookease, chest of drawers, desk: B old-young, bright-dark, loud—quiet, fast-slow, first-last, long-short © tobe over the moon, all roads lead to Rome, pay through the nose D a straight road, a brilliant idea, hard work, no problem, extremely grateful E neat-tidy, precisely-exactly, to doubt-10 question, nobod F microwave, toothbrush, paper clip, lampshade, bottle top G illness, badly, useless, doubtlul, alfordable, ability, practical H imperfect, rewrite, unable, illiterate, incorrect, ultramodern 1 Jearn, learner, learning, learned J bear-bare, Hovr-flower, sea~see, which-witeh, rightawrite reas Think about these tea s' comments, Which do you agree with and why? eaning, but some 1 There are some advantages in using translation to teach disadvantages, too. 2. 1 think it’s really important for my learners to keep a vocabulary notebook m they write the word, its meanings}, its pronunciation, its collocations, etc. 3. Getting to know words is like getting to know a friend ~ you leam more about them bit by bi RIG ee 1 Look up three words from your coursebook in an English- What kinds of information aze given for each word? Decide which information is nglish dictionary, important for your students, 2 Look at Chapter 7 ‘Vocabulary’ in Learuia Teaching (Second edition) by Jim Scrivener, Macmillan 2005. Ir tells you more about the meaning of words and ives lots of ideas for teaching vocabulary