Name: Abdallah Ahmed Shehata

Id: 120220208

Group: 3

Section: 7

Subject: Solar energy

Faculty: FOE

Instructor: Dr. Hamdy Abo Ali Hassan

 The solar energy
Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity
Solar cells, often known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, are
non-mechanical machines that harness energy from
sunlight. Some PV cells can produce energy from
artificial light. Sunlight is composed of photons or solar
energy particles. These photons have a different energy,
which corresponds to the different solar spectrum
wavelengths. A PV cell is built using a semiconductor.
When photons strike a PV cell, they may either bounce
off of it, pass through it, or be absorbed by the
semiconductor material. The energy required to make
electricity is only present in the photons that are absorbed.
When the semiconductor material absorbs enough solar
energy, electrons are released from the substance's atoms.
To make the front surface of the cell more receptive to the
released or dislodged electrons, it is given a particular
treatment during manufacturing. As a result, the electrons
naturally migrate to the surface of the cell.
The flow of electricity in a solar cell
The solar photovoltaic cell's front and rear surfaces are
electrically polarized differently as a result of the passage of
electrons, which carry negative charges and gravitate toward the
front surface. The result of this imbalance is a voltage potential
that resembles the negative and positive terminals of a battery.
The cell's electrical conductors take the electrons in and store
them. Electricity flows across a circuit when wires are linked to
an external load.

Photovoltaic cells, panels, and arrays

A PV system's fundamental building block is the PV cell. The
size of a single cell can range from 0.5 inches to around 4.0
inches. One cell, however, only generates 1 or 2 Watts, which is
only sufficient for modest demands like running calculators or
wristwatches. PV panels, which are packed and weather-tight,
are where PV cells are electrically attached. Both the size and
the amount of power that PV panels can generate vary. The
ability of a PV panel to generate energy grows with the panel's
surface area or cell count. A PV array may be created by
connecting many PV panels. A PV array might be made up of a
few PV panels or several hundreds. The quantity of power a PV
array can produce depends on how many PV panels are joined
together. DC power is produced by photovoltaic cells. Batteries
that power devices that use direct current electricity can be
charged using DC power. In transmission and distribution
networks, almost all of the power is provided as alternating
current (AC). On PV panels or in arrays, inverters are used to
transform DC power into AC electricity. When facing the sun
directly, solar cells and panels will generate the greatest power.
PV panels and arrays can utilize tracking devices to maintain the
panels toward the sun, but these systems are pricey. Most PV
systems feature fixed panels that are typically oriented to
maximize the system's physical and financial performance.
These panels are typically facing straight south in the northern
hemisphere and directly north in the southern hemisphere. Solar
energy is the term for solar radiation that may create heat,
trigger chemical processes, or create electricity. The total solar
energy incidence on Earth is far greater than what is currently
needed and what is predicted. This highly dispersed source
might potentially provide all future energy demands if properly
exploited. Due to its limitless supply and lack of pollution, solar
energy is predicted to become a more appealing renewable
energy source in the twenty-first century than the limited fossil
fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Although sunlight is by
far the most potent energy source that Earth receives from the
Sun, its intensity at the surface of the planet is rather modest.
This is mostly due to the massive radial radiation propagating
from the far-off Sun. Earth's atmosphere and clouds, which
absorb or scatter as much as 54% of the incoming sunlight,
cause comparatively little extra loss. Nearly 50% of the sunlight
that reaches the ground is visible light, followed by 45%
infrared radiation, and lower quantities of ultraviolet and other
electromagnetic radiation. Given that the Earth receives daily
sun energy equivalent to nearly 200,000 times the global
capacity for generating electricity, solar energy has a tremendous
amount of potential. Sadly, even though solar energy is free, its
use is still restricted in many regions due to the high cost of its
collection, conversion, and storage. Solar radiation may be
transformed into electrical energy or thermal energy (heat), but
the former is simpler to do.
Thermal energy
Flat-plate collectors, which are used for solar heating
applications, are among the most widely used technologies for
capturing solar energy and transforming it into thermal energy.
These collectors need to cover a lot of space since solar
radiation at the Earth's surface is so weakly concentrated. For
example, a collector has to have a surface area of roughly 40
square meters (430 square feet) to collect enough energy to meet
the needs of one person even in bright areas of the world's
temperate zones.
The transition to renewable energy explained by Phil the Fixer
https://www.britannica.com/video/222610/britannica-insights-
Phil-the-Fixer-renewable-energy
The most common flat-plate collectors are made out of a
blackened metal plate that is coated with one or two sheets of
glass and heated by sunlight. After that, this heat is transmitted
to water or air, known as carrier fluids, which pass by the plate's
back. The heat can either be transferred to another medium for
storage or used immediately. Solar water heaters and home
heating frequently employ flat-plate collectors. Using insulated
tanks to hold the water heated during sunny times is a traditional
way to store heat for use at night or on gloomy days. Such a
system can either deliver hot water taken from the storage tank
or space heating by pumping warmed water through tubes in the
floors and ceilings. Carrier fluids are commonly heated in flat-
plate collectors at temperatures between 66 and 93 °C (150 and
200 °F). Depending on the collector's design, the efficiency of
these collectors—i.e., the percentage of energy collected that is
converted into useful energy—ranges from 20 to 80 per cent.
Solar ponds, saltwater bodies intended to capture and store solar
energy, are another source of thermal energy conversion. These
ponds' heat may be utilized to warm greenhouses, swimming
pools, and animal barns in addition to producing chemicals,
food, textiles, and other industrial goods. The organic Rankine
cycle engine, a relatively effective and affordable method of
converting solar energy, is occasionally utilized in solar ponds to
create electricity. This method is especially helpful in isolated
places. Solar ponds are usually only found in warm rural
locations because of their high installation and maintenance
costs.

In smaller solar ovens, the Sun's energy may also be used to

cook food. Solar ovens often focus sunlight from a large area
into a single spot, where it is heated by a vessel with a black
surface. The ovens are often transportable and don't require any
further fuel inputs.
Electricity generation
Solar cells (photovoltaic cells) may convert solar energy directly
into electricity. When light contacts the junction of a
semiconductor (such as silicon) and a metal in such cells, or the
junction of two distinct semiconductors, a modest electric
potential is produced. (View the photovoltaic effect.) Typically,
just two watts or so are produced by a single solar cell.
However, by joining several individual cells, as in solar-panel
arrays, hundreds or even thousands of kilowatts of electricity
may be produced in a solar electric plant or a sizable domestic
array. Since the intensity of solar radiation is already low, most
modern photovoltaic cells only have an energy efficiency of 15
to 20 per cent, and to generate even modest amounts of
electricity, huge and expensive assemblies of these cells are
needed. Small photovoltaic cells that use natural or artificial
light to generate electricity are widely used in low-power
applications, such as watches and calculators. Larger units have
been used to power weather and communication satellites,
distant communications systems, and water pumps.
Homeowners and companies may install traditional crystalline
silicon panels and cutting-edge thin-film solar cell technologies,
such as building-integrated photovoltaics, on their rooftops to
supplement or replace the traditional energy supply.
Using concentrating, or focusing, collectors, concentrated solar
power plants focus sunlight from a large region onto a small,
blackened receiver, greatly increasing the light's intensity and
generating high temperatures. A target may be heated to
temperatures of at least 2,000 °C (3,600 °F) using an array of
strategically positioned mirrors or lenses. When a boiler is
powered by this heat, steam is produced for a steam turbine
electric generator power plant. The moveable mirrors may be
positioned to focus a great deal of solar energy onto blackened
pipes through which water is cycled and therefore heated to
directly produce steam.

A clean and renewable method of producing hydrogen as an

alternative energy source is solar technology. Artificial leaves,
which imitate the process of photosynthesis, are silicon-based
machines that use solar energy to divide water into hydrogen
and oxygen while leaving almost no pollutants behind. The
effectiveness and affordability of these devices for industrial
applications still require improvement.