Homework Helpers: Algebra

HOMEWORK HELPERS

Algebra

By
Denise Szecsei
 Copyright © 2011 by Denise Szecsei

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HOMEWORK HELPERS: ALGEBRA

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 Acknowledgments

This book was a group effort, and I would like to thank the people who helped transform it from
the electrons on my computer screen into the object you are holding in your hand.
I would like to thank Michael Pye, Kristen Parkes, and everyone else at Career Press who worked
on this project. I appreciate the time and efforts of Jessica Faust, who was instrumental in making the
connections that started things rolling.
Kendelyn Michaels played a pivotal role throughout the development of this book. I benefited
greatly from her review of manuscript, and I have never met anyone who comes close to her level of
thoroughness and consistency.
Alic Szecsei helped reduce the number of typographical errors in the manuscript and had the
privilege of working out the problems in this book after he finished doing his own algebra homework.
Thanks to my family for their help throughout the writing and editing stage. The extra chores that
they did and the dinners that they made did not go unnoticed. The only problems they gave me were
the ones that I put in my book.
 CONTENTS

Preface

Chapter 1: Numbers
Lesson 1-1: Types of Numbers
Lesson 1-2: Operations and Symbols
Lesson 1-3: Properties of Real Numbers
Lesson 1-4: Properties of Zero and One
Lesson 1-5: Absolute Value
Lesson 1-6: Manipulating Rational Numbers
Lesson 1-7: The Order of Operations
Lesson 1-8: The Distributive Property
Lesson 1-9: Evaluating Expressions

Chapter 2: Exponents
Lesson 2-1: Positive Integer Powers
Lesson 2-2: Rules for Exponents
Lesson 2-3: Negative Integer Powers
Lesson 2-4: Zero as an Exponent
Lesson 2-5: Powers of Quotients and Products
Lesson 2-6: Scientific Notation

Chapter 3: Equations and Equality

Lesson 3-1: Equations
Lesson 3-2: Equality
Lesson 3-3: Algebraic Properties of Equality
Lesson 3-4: Solving Linear Equations in One Step
Lesson 3-5: Solving Linear Equations Using Several Steps
Lesson 3-6: Equations Involving Absolute Valu

Chapter 4: Inequalities and Graphs

Lesson 4-1: Properties of Inequalities
Lesson 4-2: Solving Inequalities in One Step
Lesson 4-3: Solving Inequalities Using Several Steps
Lesson 4-4: Graphing Inequalities Using the Number Line
 Lesson 4-5: Graphing Compound Inequalities
Lesson 4-6: Inequalities and Absolute Value

Chapter 5: Relations, Functions, and Graphs

Lesson 5-1: Relations
Lesson 5-2: Functions
Lesson 5-3: Formulas
Lesson 5-4: Tables
Lesson 5-5: The Cartesian Coordinate System
Lesson 5-6: Graphs of Functions and Relations

Chapter 6: Linear Equations

Lesson 6-1: Linear Functions and Calculating Slopes
Lesson 6-2: Intercepts
Lesson 6-3: Point-Slope Form
Lesson 6-4: Slope-Intercept Form
Lesson 6-5: Standard Form
Lesson 6-6: Horizontal and Vertical Lines
Lesson 6-7: Graphing Linear Equations

Chapter 7: Systems of Linear Equations

Lesson 7-1: The Graphical Method
Lesson 7-2: The Substitution/Elimination Method
Lesson 7-3: The Addition/Subtraction Method

Chapter 8: Monomials and Polynomials

Lesson 8-1: Terminology
Lesson 8-2: Adding and Subtracting Monomials
Lesson 8-3: Multiplying and Dividing Monomials
Lesson 8-4: Monomials as the Base of an Exponential Expression
Lesson 8-5: Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
Lesson 8-6: Multiplying Polynomials
Lesson 8-7: Special Products
Lesson 8-8: Dividing Polynomials by Monomials
Lesson 8-9: Factoring Techniques
Lesson 8-10: Solving Factored Equations
Chapter 9: Quadratic Equations
Lesson 9-1: Square Roots
Lesson 9-2: The Difference Between Two Squares
Lesson 9-3: Factoring Quadratic Expressions of the Form x2 + bx + c
Lesson 9-4: Factoring Quadratic Expressions in General
Lesson 9-5: Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring
Lesson 9-6: Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square
Lesson 9-7: Solving Quadratic Equations Using the Quadratic Formula 206

Chapter 10: Rational Expressions

Lesson 10-1: Simplifying Rational Expressions
Lesson 10-2: Multiplying Rational Expressions
Lesson 10-3: Dividing Rational Expressions
Lesson 10-4: Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

Chapter 11: Applications

Lesson 11-1: How to Approach Word Problems
Lesson 11-2: Rates and Percentages
Lesson 11-3: Finding Integers
Lesson 11-4: Rate, Time, and Distance Problems
Lesson 11-5: Money Problems
Lesson 11-6: Mixture Problems

Final Exam

Index

About the Author

 PREFACE
Welcome to Homework Helpers Algebra!

Algebra marks the transition from learning how to do basic calculations to being able to solve
more complex and interesting problems. You have had enough practice adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing numbers, and are ready to solve more interesting problems. Knowing that
the price of a video game is $50 is one thing, but being able to calculate how many months you will
have to save your allowance in order to afford to buy the game is quite another! The more lofty your
goals, the greater the role that algebra will play in helping you achieve them.
Algebra involves taking a step back from doing rote calculations and emphasizes looking at the big
picture. Mathematics is all about discovering patterns and pushing the limits to develop new methods
for solving problems, and algebra will give you a taste of more advanced problem-solving. Hopefully
it will whet your appetite and leave you wanting to learn more.
Algebra has gotten a bad reputation over the years. Algebra seems to have turned into a subject
that people “survive” rather than enjoy. Algebra “survivors” spread tales of the trials and tribulations
that they suffered while getting through the material, and few people speak on its behalf. Let me speak
up for algebra.
I don’t have a particularly problematic life, yet I find that I use algebra to solve problems on a
daily basis. And that’s not just because I teach math! I enjoy using algebra to solve problems. I
usually turn situations in which I use algebra into word problems. Word problems provide you (the
student) with a glimpse of how algebra can be used to solve problems that occur in everyday life.
They also provide a creative outlet for math teachers.
The skills that you will develop in the process of learning algebra will carry over into every other
field of study imaginable. Philosophy, psychology, sociology, medicine, and all fields of science are
just a few areas where your enhanced mathematical problem-solving skills will enable you to excel.
Algebra is not just an area of mathematics. It is a way of life!
I wrote this book with the hope that it will help anyone who is struggling to understand algebra or
needs to have their math skills refreshed. Reading a math book can be a challenge, but I tried to use
everyday language to explain the concepts being discussed. Looking at solutions to algebra problems
can sometimes be confusing, so I tried to explain each of the steps I used to get from Point A to Point
B. Keep in mind that learning algebra is not a spectator sport. In this book, I have worked out many
examples, and I have supplied practice problems at the end of most lessons. Work these problems out
on your own as they come up, and check your answers against the solutions at the end of the book.
Aside from any typographical errors on my part, our answers should match.
Perhaps you aren’t quite convinced that algebra is all that I am making it out to be. Approach the
subject with an open mind, take this book home and let your journey begin!
 1
Numbers

Lesson 1-1: Types of Numbers

Lesson 1-2: Operations and Symbols
Lesson 1-3: Properties of Real Numbers
Lesson 1-4: Properties of Zero and One
Lesson 1-5: Absolute Value
Lesson 1-6: Manipulating Rational Numbers
Lesson 1-7: The Order of Operations
Lesson 1-8: The Distributive Property
Lesson 1-9: Evaluating Expressions

Numbers are tools that you have been working with for many years. You have learned how to add,
subtract, multiply, and divide. You can count how much money you have, and you can calculate how
much more you will need to buy something you want, but can you figure out how long it will take you
to make up the difference? Algebra is a way to use numbers to answer more advanced questions.
Algebra can be thought of as a language of numbers. Numbers are the tools used to communicate
mathematical ideas. This chapter will focus on revisiting the rules that must be followed in order to
use numbers effectively.
The topics in algebra will apply to all numbers. There are infinitely many numbers, and no one has
the time to address each and every number individually. Instead, I will talk about numbers in general.
One way to talk about numbers in general is to use a letter to represent any number. When we use a
letter to represent any number, the letter is called a variable.

Lesson 1-1: Types of Numbers

The best numbers to start with are the counting numbers, which are the numbers we use to count.
We start counting with the number 1, then move on to 2, 3, and 4. This collection of numbers is also
called the natural numbers, or the positive integers. There is no end to the counting numbers. To
represent that they continue forever, mathematically we write 1, 2, 3, 4, … The three dots mean that
the list of numbers is unending.
Zero was the last number to be discovered. It is a symbol used to denote “nothing.” If you add zero
to the collection of counting or natural numbers, you will have the whole numbers. The whole
numbers are the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, …
Numbers can be used to count things that you have, and they can also count things that you owe.
Negative integers are thought of as the opposite of the counting numbers. The negative integers are
the numbers –1, –2, –3, –4, …
The integers consist of the positive integers, the negative integers and zero. They can be written
…, –3. –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … Notice that the dots represent that the numbers go on forever in both
directions.
A rational number is a number that can be written as the ratio of two integers. For example, the

numbers , , and are rational numbers. A rational number is a number that can be written as ,
where p and q are integers and q is any number other than zero. The number p is called the
numerator and q is called the denominator. Notice that there’s more than one way to represent a

given rational number: , , and all represent the same rational number. The integer 2 is a

rational number: . In fact, every integer is a rational number. Whenever you are working with
whole numbers and fractions in the same problem, remember that a whole number can be thought of
as a fraction whose denominator is 1.
All rational numbers also have a decimal representation that either terminates, or it repeats. The

numbers and have decimal representations that terminate. The numbers ,

, and have decimal representations that do not terminate, but

repeat a pattern. Rational numbers will be discussed in more detail in Lesson 1-6.
Not all decimal representations have to terminate or repeat. Numbers that are written as non-
terminating and non-repeating decimals are called irrational numbers. An example of an irrational
number is . An irrational number cannot be written as the ratio of two integers.
Taken together, the rational numbers and the irrational numbers form the set of real numbers.
Breaking the real numbers into groups (the natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, irrational
numbers, and real numbers), is one way to classify numbers in general.
Another way to classify a natural number is to look at the numbers that divide it evenly. When one
number divides another number evenly, the remainder is 0. Every number is evenly divisible by 1,
and every non-zero number is evenly divisible by itself. The number 1 is called a trivial factor (or
divisor) because it divides evenly into every other number. The number 1 is the only trivial factor,
because 1 is the only number that divides evenly into every other number. All other factors of a
number are considered to be non-trivial.
A number is even if it is evenly divisible by 2. For example, 22 is even because when you divide
22 by 2 the remainder is 0. A number is odd if it is not evenly divisible by 2. For example 15 is odd
because when you divide 15 by 2 the remainder is 1 (not 0). Determining whether a number is even or
odd is one example of a classification of numbers based on the numbers that divide them.
A number is prime if the only numbers that divide into it evenly are 1 and itself. For example, 7 is
prime because the only numbers that divide into it and leave a remainder of 0 are 1 and 7. A number
is composite if there are numbers other than 1 and itself that divide into it evenly. The number 6 is
composite because, besides 1 and 6, 2 divides into it evenly (as does 3). There is only one even
number that is also a prime number: 2. All other even numbers are divisible by 2, and hence are
composite. Odd numbers may be prime or composite. Examples of odd prime numbers are 3, 5, and
7; examples of odd composite numbers are 9 and 15. All natural numbers greater than 1 can be
classified as either prime or composite.
Besides looking at individual numbers on their own, we can also look at pairs of numbers. One
way to classify a pair of numbers is according to the numbers that divide each number in the pair. A
pair of numbers is relatively prime if the only common factor of the two numbers is 1. The numbers
15 and 8 are an example of a pair of numbers that are relatively prime. The only non-trivial factors of
15 are 3, 5, and 15, and the only non-trivial factors of 8 are 2, 4 and 8, so the only number that
divides both 15 and 8 is 1. Notice that both 15 and 8 are composite numbers, when classified
individually, yet they are relatively prime when classified as a pair. The numbers 7 and 21 are not
relatively prime, because 7 is a non-trivial factor of both 7 and 21. So even though 7 is a prime
number, it is not relatively prime to 21.
The greatest common divisor, or the greatest common factor of a pair of numbers is the largest
number that evenly divides into both numbers. If two numbers are relatively prime then their greatest
common factor is 1. Actually, the only common factor of two relatively prime numbers is 1. If two
numbers are not relatively prime then their greatest common factor will be greater than 1. One way to
find the greatest common factor of a pair of numbers is to first factor each number into its prime
factors. Then match up, prime by prime, the prime numbers that appear in both factorizations. If any
prime numbers repeat, you must take that into consideration as we will see in the second example.

Example 1
Find the greatest common factor of 12 and 15.
Solution: Since 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 and 15 = 3 × 5, 3 is the largest number that evenly divides 12 and 15.
Thus the greatest common factor of 12 and 15 is 3.

Example 2
Find the greatest common factor of 60 and 36.
Solution: Factoring both numbers we have 60 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 and 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3. Both 60 and 36
have a factor of 3 that appears once and a factor of 2 that appears twice.
The greatest common factor is 2 × 2 × 3 or 12.
Given any two numbers you can always find a number that is evenly divisible by both of them. Any
multiple of the product of the two numbers would work. The least common multiple of a pair of
numbers is the smallest number that both numbers divide evenly into. One way to find the least
common multiple of a pair of numbers is to factor both numbers into their prime factors and look at
the list. For each prime factor, note the greatest number of times that it appears in either of the two
factor trees. Use this information to construct a product of prime factors that will generate the least
common multiple. I will walk you through the process in the next example.

Example 3
Find the least common multiple of 45 and 24.
Solution: Factor 45 and 24:
45 = 3 × 3 × 5
24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
Write down each prime factor and the greatest number of times it appears in either of the two factor
trees:

Now find the least common multiple:

2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 360
The least common multiple of 45 and 24 is 360.
Another way to approach this problem involves finding the greatest common factor of the two
numbers. Multiply the original two numbers together and then divide by the greatest common factor.
This result will be the least common multiple.

Example 4
Find the least common multiple of 12 and 15.
Solution: As discussed in Example 1, the greatest common factor of 12 and 15 is 3. The least
common multiple of 12 and 15 is found by multiplying 12 × 15 and then dividing by 3:
(12 × 15) ÷ 3 = 180 ÷ 3 = 60
The smallest number that both 12 and 15 divide evenly into is 60.
We will be using the greatest common factor and the least common multiple throughout this book.
Work the following problems before moving on to the next lesson. The answers are given at the end of
the chapter.

Lesson 1-1 Practice

Address the following.
1. Determine whether the following 8 statements are true or false.
□ True □ False a. -4 is an integer.
□ True □ False b. -3 is a natural number.
□ True □ False c. 5 is a rational number.
□ True □ False d. 0 is not a rational number.
□ True □ False e. is a rational number.

□ True □ False f. is a rational number.

 □ True □ False g. is a rational number.
□ True □ False h. Every integer is either positive or negative.
2. Find the greatest common factor and the least common multiple of 20 and 35.

Lesson 1-2: Operations and Symbols

Success in algebra hinges on your ability to manipulate real numbers. There are many things that
you can do with numbers. The top four operations that come to mind are adding, subtracting,
multiplying and dividing. While there is just one symbol for addition, and one symbol for subtraction,
there are several symbols for multiplication and division. Besides manipulating numbers, you can
also compare them. To do that, you will need symbols for “less than” and “greater than.” I’ll list the
main symbols that we will use here, and then give some examples of how they are used.
The final concept to be discussed in this section has to do with describing whether a number is
positive, negative, or zero. If a number is positive then we mean that it is greater than 0. For example,
2 is a positive number, and we can write 2 > 0. If a number is negative then we mean that it is less
than 0. For example, –3 is a negative number, and we can write –3 < 0. You’ll soon discover that
comparing numbers to 0 can be very useful.

Lesson 1-3: Properties of Real Numbers

There are several properties that all real numbers share. Because these are properties that all real
numbers have, I will use the variables a, b and c to represent any real number.
Closure: The first property that all real numbers have is closure under addition and
multiplication. In other words, the set of real numbers has the property that if you take any two
real numbers and add them (or multiply them), what you’ll end up with is a real number. It
 doesn’t have to be the same number, though it may be. The important point is that if you
combine any two real numbers by addition or multiplication you will always get a real number.
We say that the set of real numbers is closed under addition and multiplication.
Commutative property of addition and multiplication: The order in which two numbers are
added or multiplied doesn’t matter. For example, 2 + 3 = 3 + 2, and (8)(–3) = (–3)(8). In other
words, addition and multiplication commute. This is written symbolically as a + b = b + a and
a × b = b × a.
Associative property of addition and multiplication: If you have a long list of numbers to add
(or multiply), then you can group them in any order.
For example, 1 + (2 + 3) = (1 + 2) + 3, and 2 · (½ · 3) = (2 · ½) · 3. In other words, addition
and multiplication are associative. This is written symbolically as a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and
a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c.

The next two properties have more to do with the relationships between numbers.
Trichotomy property of real numbers: When you compare two numbers a and b, only one of
three things can be true:
1. a < b
2. a = b
3. a > b
This is known as the trichotomy property of real numbers. In fact, you can compare any
two numbers using these three relations.
Transitive property of equality: It two numbers are both equal to a third number, then the two
numbers are equal to each other. This property is called the transitive property of equality. It
can be stated more generally in terms of variables: if a = b and b = c, then a = c. For example,
if 5 + 5 = 10 and 10 = 2 × 5, so 5 + 5 = 2 × 5.
At first glance it may appear that all numbers are created equally, but there are actually two
numbers that deserve special attention. Those two numbers are 0 and 1. Zero is the only number that
you can add to any other number and have no effect. Zero is called the additive identity, and this
property can be written in general using the equation a + 0 = a; for example, 2 + 0 = 2. It may not
seem very important… after all, nothing is nothing. But quantifying nothing is not as trivial as you
might think.
The number 1 is important for a similar reason; 1 is the multiplicative identity. It is the only
number that you can multiply any other number by and have no effect. This idea is written in general
using the equation a × 1 = a; for example, 3 × 1 = 3. The numbers 0 and 1 will play a significant role
in solving many algebra problems.
The additive identity plays a role in the development of subtraction. It turns out that for every real
number a, there is a unique real number, called the additive inverse of a, and denoted –a, such that a
+ (–a) = 0. In other words, the additive inverse of a, or negative a, is the unique number that you add
to a to get 0 (the additive identity). Every real number has an additive inverse. Notice that 0 is its
own additive inverse. Subtraction is then defined in terms of addition: a – b = a + (–b). We
sometimes refer to the additive inverse of a number as the opposite of the number. For example, the
opposite of 2 is –2, and the opposite of –2 is 2. Opposite, negation, and additive inverse all mean the
same thing and are used interchangeably.
You may have been told that a negative number times a negative number is a positive number. The
reason for that stems from the fact that –a is the opposite of a: –a is the unique number that, when it is
added to a, gives you 0. In other words, a + (–a) = 0. What would be the opposite of –a? Well, in
keeping with our notation, it would be –(–a). But wait a minute! The opposite of –a is a. Now it
appears that you have two opposites of –a: a and –(–a), but you can’t have two different opposites of
a number. Additive inverses are unique, which means that each number can only have one additive
inverse. The only way for this to make sense is if a and –(–a) are the same thing: –(–a) = a. We can
apply this result specifically to the number 1: –(–1) = 1. This is interpreted as meaning that a negative
times a negative equals a positive.
It’s time to turn our attention to multiplicative inverses. For any real number a (except 0), there is a
unique real number, called the multiplicative inverse and denoted a-1, satisfying the equation a · a–1

= 1. For example, since , the multiplicative inverse of 2 is , and the multiplicative inverse

of is 2. The multiplicative inverse of a is the unique number that you multiply a by to get 1 (the
multiplicative identity). Notice that 0 (the additive inverse) is the only real number that doesn’t have
a multiplicative inverse. The multiplicative inverse of a number is also called the reciprocal of that
number.
There are two common ways to represent the multiplicative inverse of a; it can be written as a-1 or

as .
Division can then be defined in terms of multiplication.

The reciprocal of is just .

The last property of the real numbers that I will discuss in this section has to do with how to
combine addition and multiplication. It is called the distributive property. The distributive property
states that multiplication distributes over addition and can be expressed using the formula:
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
You can think of a as being distributed to both b and c. I will have more to say about the distributive
property in Lesson 1-8.

There are several properties of real numbers that you are probably familiar with. I’ve summarized
some of the most useful ones here, and have included some examples shown on page 24 to help
illustrate the ideas involved.

Lesson 1-4: Properties of Zero and One

As I have already mentioned, 0 and 1 are very special numbers. Being familiar with their
properties will help you solve many algebra problems.
 There are two important characteristics of 0: 0 is its own additive inverse, and 0 is the only real
number that doesn’t have a reciprocal (or multiplicative inverse). It is worth exploring why 0 doesn’t
have a reciprocal. Whenever you multiply 0 and any number a, the result is always 0: 0 × a = 0.
Remember that the reciprocal of a number is the number you multiply by in order to get 1. If 0 had a
reciprocal, say b, then that would mean that the product of 0 and b would be 1! But that can’t happen,
because the product of 0 and any number is 0. So 0 is stuck. It is precisely because 0 times any

number is 0 that 0 can’t have a reciprocal. This fact translates into the idea that (which means the
reciprocal of 0) is meaningless.
The other special property of 0 follows along a similar line of thought. If two numbers are
multiplied together and the result is 0, then one thing is certain: at least one of the two numbers has to
be 0. To write this idea using equations, if a and b are any two numbers satisfying a × b = 0, then
either a = 0 or b = 0. It is possible that both a and b are zero, since 0 × 0 is certainly 0. The key idea
is that when you have to compare a product of numbers to something, the best number to compare the
product to is 0! No other real number has this property. If two numbers multiply together to equal 2,
there is nothing you can say about the two numbers. If a × b = 2, then a and b can take on any value
that they want, as long as their product is 2. There are lots of pairs of numbers whose product is 2: 1

× 2 = 2, , and are just a few. I suppose there is one thing you can say for sure about
two numbers whose product is 2: neither of the two numbers are 0! This multiplication property is
very important, and 0 is the only real number that has it.
I’ve said enough about 0. It’s time to turn our attention to 1. The main properties we will make use

of now are , and . We can combine these to get another useful equation:

This just means that the reciprocal of is . We will make use of these properties when we
reduce fractions in Lesson 1-6. And the importance of the number 1 will be clear when you start
solving algebraic equations.

Lesson 1-5: Absolute Value

The absolute value of a real number represents the size, or magnitude, of that number. It can be
interpreted as how far away from 0 the number is on the number line. The absolute value of a number
a is always positive, and is written symbolically as |a|. The absolute value of a positive number is
itself. We can write this symbolically as:
If a > 0, then |a| = a
The absolute value of 0 is 0, and the absolute value of a negative number is the opposite of that
number. In other words, since –3 is 3 units away from 0 we have that |–3| = 3. We can write in general
as:
If a < 0, then |a| = –a
For example, |8| = 8, |0| = 0, and |–5| = –(–5) = 5. Notice that |8| = 8 and |–8| = –8(–8) = 8. In other
words, |8| = |–8|. This idea holds, not just for the number 8, but for all real numbers: if a is any real
number, then |a| = |–a|. We can write the absolute value of a number using the formula:
 You can read this formula as a fork in the road. The absolute value of a number depends on the
sign of the number inside the absolute value symbols: |a| = –a if a < 0 and |a| = a if a ≥ 0. In order to
use this formula you must first check to see whether the contents of the absolute value symbols are
positive or negative.

Example 1
Find the following:
a. |–4|
b. |2|
Solution:
a. In order to find |–4|, first look at the number inside of the absolute value symbol: the number is –4.
This is a negative number (–4<0) so we need to use the top rule: |–4| = –(–4) = 4.
b. In order to find |2|, first look at the number inside of the absolute value symbol: the number is 2.
This is a positive number (2>0) so we need to use the bottom rule: |2| = 2.

Lesson 1-6: Manipulating Rational Numbers

Rational numbers are sometimes called simple fractions. They are formed by dividing one integer
by another integer. Remember from Lesson 1-1 that we can represent a rational number by: , where
both a and b are integers and b ≠ 0. We call a the numerator and b the denominator. We also write the
rational number using the ÷ symbol: a ÷ b. If both a and b are positive integers and a < b, then a >
b is called a proper fraction. If both a and b are positive integers and a > b then is called an
improper fraction. If both a and b are positive integers and b divides evenly into a, then is a
positive integer.
Improper fractions can be written as mixed numbers, which are numbers with an integer part and
a proper fraction part. For example, the improper fraction can be written as the mixed number .

Multiplying Fractions
The rules for multiplying fractions are very straightforward. The product of two fractions is found
by multiplying the two numerators together to get a new numerator, and multiplying the two
denominators together to get a new denominator. The new numerator and the new denominator make
up your new fraction.

Example 1

Perform the following multiplication:

Solution:

Reducing fractions
Most people find it easier to work with smaller numbers than larger numbers. If the numerator and
denominator of a rational number have common factors, it’s best to put this rational number into
reduced form. A rational number is in reduced form if the numerator and the denominator are
relatively prime. In order to write a rational number in reduced form, you must completely factor both

a and b, and then use the properties , and 1× a = a.

Example 2

Write the fraction in reduced form.

Solution: The first step in reducing a fraction is to find the greatest common divisor of 28 and 48.
Completely factor 28 and 48:
28 = 2 × 2 × 7
48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
Both 28 and 48 are evenly divisible by 2 × 2, or 4, so we can write:

As you become familiar with the process, you will find yourself leaving out some of the intermediate
steps and writing something like:

This process is often referred to as canceling the 4s. What you are really doing is making use of
those useful properties of multiplication I mentioned earlier. Remember that the key to reducing
fractions is to find the greatest common denominator by factoring the numerator and the denominator
completely. You can only cancel terms that are being multiplied together.
It is your turn to practice what we have discussed. You should work these problems before moving
on. Be sure to check your answers.

Lesson 1-6a Practice

Write the following fractions in reduced form:

1.
2.

3.

Multiplying Fractions and Reducing

When you multiply two fractions together, the numbers can get awfully big. And, after you multiply
the two fractions together, you must write the resulting fraction in reduced form. You may find
yourself factoring big numbers in the process, but there is a better way. Instead of multiplying
numerators together and denominators together, factor both numerators and both denominators and try
to cancel out common factors before multiplying them. That will make the process much easier.

Example 3

Write your answer in reduced form.

Solution: Rather than finding the products 5 × 63 and 12 × 130, it’s better to factor the numerators
and denominators completely first and then cancel what you can:

Try these problems, just to make sure you have the techniques down.

Lesson 1-6b Practice

Find the following products. Write your answers in reduced form.

1.

2.

3.

Dividing Fractions
As a teacher, I find that students have a hard time understanding why anyone would ever need to
divide a number by a fraction. Dividing an integer by another integer is probably more common, but
dividing by a fraction is useful in solving problems like determining how many arcade games you can
play $10 worth of quarters. Understanding why you would want to divide a number by a fraction will
hopefully motivate you to master the technique involved.
Remember that a simple fraction is a ratio of two integers. A complex fraction is a fraction where
the numerator, denominator, or both, are fractions. A complex fraction can be converted to a simple
fraction by multiplying the numerator by the reciprocal of the denominator:
 The reason for this is because of the properties of multiplication mentioned earlier.

This is starting to look pretty complicated, but now we are just multiplying two fractions. We will
multiply the numerators together and the denominators together. Notice that the product in the

denominator is , which is equal to 1:

The expression is equivalent to the expression , which is the product of the numerator and
the inverted denominator. The net result is that when you divide one fraction by another fraction you
invert the fraction in the denominator and multiply. This is usually shortened to just “invert and
multiply” but you have to remember that it is the denominator that gets inverted!

Example 4

Simplify the complex fraction:

Solution:

Invert the denominator and multiply:

You could also write your answer as a mixed number:

Here is yet another opportunity to try your hand at dividing fractions. Be sure to check your
answers before moving on to the next topic.

Lesson 1-6c Practice

Simplify the following complex fractions. Write your answer in reduced form.

1.

2.

3.

Adding and Subtracting Fractions

It may seem strange that our discussion on fractions started with multiplication and division before
addition and subtraction, especially since multiplication can be interpreted as repetitive addition.
With fractions, addition and subtraction is more complicated than multiplication and division. In fact,
adding and subtracting fractions can actually involve multiplying fractions as part of the overall
process.
Two fractions can be added or subtracted only if they have the same denominator: all you do is
add or subtract the numerators and keep the denominator the same. Once you have added or
subtracted the numerators, you must try to reduce the resulting fraction by looking for factors that are
common to the resulting numerator and the denominator.

Example 5

Simplify:
Solution: Since the denominators are the same, subtract one numerator from the other and try to
reduce:

When the denominators are different, adding and subtracting fractions can get a bit tricky.
Remember that the only time you are allowed to add or subtract two fractions is if their denominators
are the same. If the two fractions have different denominators you have to turn them into fractions that
have the same denominator. The only tool you have at your disposal is to multiply by 1. But you are
allowed to use a more complicated form of 1.

Suppose you want to add the fractions and . Clearly these two fractions have different
denominators, so you can’t combine the two fractions. You must change these fractions so that they
have the same denominator, and the best denominator to use is the least common multiple of the two
denominators; the least common multiple of 3 and 2 is 6. We will convert each fraction into a form
that has 6 as the denominator by multiplying by 1 disguised as a fraction:

Now that we have written and as fractions with the same denominator we can add them
together:

Once we’ve added the two fractions we must check whether or not we can reduce the resulting
fraction. In this case, 5 and 6 are relatively prime so there is no further reduction.

Example 6

Solution: In order to add these two fractions we need them to have a common denominator. First,
factor both denominators to find the least common multiple: 25 = 5 × 5 and 20 = 2 × 2 × 5 so the least
common multiple is 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 100. Change each fraction so that its denominator is 100:

Finally, add the two fractions together:

Check to see if any reduction is possible. Because 57 and 100 are relatively prime, no further
reduction is possible and the problem is solved.
Now it is your turn to apply the techniques discussed.

Lesson 1-6d Practice

Find the following sums.

1.

2.

3.
Lesson 1-7: The Order of Operations
So far I have talked about four basic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. When you see an expression like 3 + 4 × 2 ÷ 3 – 1, the order in which you perform the
calculation matters. Some people may be tempted to read the expression from left to right, performing
each operation as it is written. Others want to do their favorite operations first, and leave their least
favorites until the end. The answer you get will vary depending on the order in which you tackle this
expression. Because of this possible confusion (and many different “correct” results for the same
expression), rules had to be established so that everyone will approach this problem in the same way
and get the same answer. These rules are known as the order of operations.
The order of operations dictates that multiplication and division, read left to right, take precedence
over addition and subtraction. For example, the expression 3 + 2 × 5 should evaluate to 13. You must
first multiply 2 and 5, and then add 3. If you wanted to do the addition first and then multiply, you
would need to use parentheses: (3 + 2) × 5. The result of this calculation is 25. Keep in mind that
when you want things to be done in an order that differs from the accepted order of operations you
must use parentheses. Any operations inside parentheses must be done first, always following the
standard order of operations. Once you have finished working out any expressions in parentheses you
can turn your attention to the rest of the expression.
There are times when parentheses are assumed but not explicitly written. For example, the fraction

should be treated as or (3 + 8) ÷ (3 + 19). In order to simplify you must first do the

addition and then try to reduce the resulting fraction:

Whenever your fraction involves addition or subtraction in either the numerator or the denominator
you must first perform the addition or subtraction. You should practice visualizing the invisible
parentheses. Remember that you cannot reduce a fraction unless the numerator and denominator are
factored; you can only cancel common factors. Some people are tempted to cancel the 3’s in a fraction

like . Let me emphasize that you are never allowed to cancel across an addition sign (not even
on your birthday or in an emergency). Cancel only when there is multiplication involved.
Many people use a calculator to perform routine calculations. If you use a calculator it is important
not only that you know the order of operations, but that you use a calculator that also knows the order
of operations. Not all calculators are created equally; there are some calculators that do not know the
order of operations. It’s always a good idea to test drive a calculator, just to be sure that you are
approaching problems the same way and are using the same order of operations.
You should practice a few calculations using the order of operations. You can also use a calculator
to test whether your calculator knows the order of operations as well.

Lesson 1-7 Practice

Evaluate the following:
1. 3 + 4 × 5 – 9
2. (4 + 9) × 3
3.

Lesson 1-8: The Distributive Property

In Lesson 1-3 I mentioned one version of the distributive property: a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c. The
distributive property doesn’t require the multiplication to be written on the left of the parentheses,
multiplication distributes on either side. We could have written the distributive property as (b + c) ×
a = b × a + c × a. The distributive property enables you to calculate products of numbers in two
ways, and you can use whichever form is easier. Calculations that involve numbers can be evaluated
using either the order of operations or the distributive property. There are times when evaluating an
expression is easier using the order of operations, and there are other times when using the
distributive property works to your advantage. I will give you a couple of examples to help you see
the difference in the process.
It is easier to evaluate the expression 3 × (2 + 8) using the order of operations than to use the
distributive property:
3 × (2 + 8) = 3 × 10 = 30
The numbers are small and work out nicely. However, it is easier to evaluate the expression 11 ×
52 using the distributive property:
11 × 52 = 11 × (50 + 2) = 550 + 22 = 572
Of course, when you need to expand expressions that involve both numbers and variables, the only
option at your disposal is the distributive property. It is such a useful property that it is worth working
out several examples.

Example 1
Use the distributive property to expand the following expressions:
a. 3(a + 4)
b. –(3 + a)
c. (–5) × (3 – a)
d. (2 + 3a) × 5
e. (5 – 2a) × (–4)
Solution:
a. 3(a + 4) = 3 × a + 3 × 4 = 3a + 12
b. –(3 + a) = (–1) × (3 + a) = (–1) × 3 + (–1) × a = –3 – a
c. (–5) × (3 – a) = (–5) × 3 – (–5) × a = –15 + 5a
d. (2 + 3a) × 5 = 2 × 5 + (3a) × 5 = 10 + 15a
e. (5 – 2a) × (–4) = 5 × (–4) – (2a) × (–4) = –20 + 8a
We tend to use a calculator to perform routine calculations that involve only numbers, but being
familiar with the multiplication process will make your algebraic life easier. Algebra is a
generalization of these routine calculations. If you always rely on a calculator to work things out, you
will have a harder time making the transition from calculations involving numbers to calculations
involving variables. Here are some practice problems that only involve variables. You should work
these problems out before going on to the next section.

Lesson 1-8 Practice

Use the distributive property to expand the following expressions:
1. 2(3a – 1)
2. (–9) × (4a + 3)
3. (a + 8) × (–3)
4. (5 – 2a) × 4

Lesson 1-9: Evaluating Expressions

An algebraic expression is a statement that combines numbers and variables together using any of
the four operations you have learned about: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For
example, the expression a + 2 just means that you take the number a (whatever that is) and add 2 to it.
If someone told you that a = 5, then you would know that a + 2 would be 7 (which is 5+2). In order to
evaluate an expression for a particular value of the variables, just replace the variables with their
particular values and then perform the calculation. Be sure to pay attention to the order of operations
when you are performing the calculation.

Example 1
Evaluate the following algebraic expressions when a = –2 and b = 3:

1.

2.
3. (2a + b)(b – a)
Solutions:

1.

2.
3. (2a + b)(b - a) = (2 × (-2) + 3)(3-(-2)) = (-4 + 3)(3 + 2) = (-1)(5) = -5

Here is your turn to practice evaluating algebraic expressions. Be sure to check your answers after
you work these problems.

Lesson 1-9 Practice

Evaluate the following algebraic expressions when a = 5 and b = –4:
1.

2.
3. (2a – 3b)(a + 2b)

Answer Key
Lesson 1-1
1. a. True
b. False; natural numbers are positive numbers.

c. True; 5 can be written as .

d. False; 0 can be written as .

e. False; 2 is not a perfect square.
f. False; you cannot divide by 0.
g. True
h. False; an integer can also be 0.
2. The greatest common factor of 20 and 35 is 5: 20 = 2 · 2 · 5 and 35 = 5 · 7.

The least common multiple of 20 and 35 is 140: .

Lesson 1-6a

1.

2.

3.

Lesson 1-6b

1.

2.

3.
Lesson 1-6c

1.

2. or

3. or

Lesson 1-6d

1.

2.

3. or

Lesson 1-7
1. 14
2. 39

3.

Lesson 1-8
1. 6a – 2
2. –36a – 27
3. –3a – 24
4. 20 – 8a

Lesson 1-9

1. or

2.
3. –66
 2
Exponents

Lesson 2-1: Positive Integer Powers

Lesson 2-2: Rules for Exponents
Lesson 2-3: Negative Integer Powers
Lesson 2-4: Zero as an Exponent
Lesson 2-5: Powers of Quotients and Products
Lesson 2-6: Scientific Notation

Exponents are shorthand for representing how many times a number is multiplied by itself.
They are useful, in part, due to the fact that they can be used to represent numbers that are either very
large, like the number of grains of sand on the beach, or very small in magnitude, like the mass of an
atom. In this chapter we will discuss the properties of exponents and introduce the idea of scientific
notation.

Lesson 2-1: Positive Integer Powers

Exponents represent the number of times that a number is multiplied by itself. The product 2 × 2 ×
2 × 2 × 2 involves multiplying 2 by itself 5 times. It can be written as either 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 or as
25. They both mean the same thing, but using exponents takes less room and avoids the problem of
miscounting the number of times that 2 appears in the product. In the expression 25, the number 5 is
called the exponent, or the power, and the number 2 is called the base. In the expression 59, the
exponent is 9 and the base is 5.
When dealing with exponential expressions, it is important to correctly identify the base and the
exponent. If everything is positive, this task is straightforward. For example, in the expression 38, the
base is 3 and the exponent is 8. This expression is shorthand for the product of 3 times itself 8 times.
We can expand 38 and write 38 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3. Exponents are a cool invention
because they enable us to write numbers that are even larger than we can comprehend.
Identifying the base of an exponent becomes more difficult when negative numbers are involved.
When combining negative numbers and exponents, parentheses become very important. For example,
if the base is –4 and the exponent is 6, you would write this number as (–4)6. The parentheses make it
absolutely clear that the base is negative, for if you leave off the parentheses and write –46 what you
are actually writing is the number –(46). In other words, the base, 4, is multiplied by itself 6 times and
then made into a negative number. So –46 is the negative of 46, and 46 is the number with base 4 and
exponent 6. There is a big difference between (–4)6 and –46. It’s worth expanding both expressions
just to make the point:
 (-4)6 = (-4)(-4)(-4)(-4)(-4)(-4) = 4,096
-46 = -4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = -4,096
Notice that the absolute value of these two numbers is the same; it is their signs that are different.
We can determine whether an exponential expression will be positive or negative by observing
patterns. Let’s expand powers of –1:
(-1)1 = -1
(-1)2 = (-1)(-1) = 1
(-1)3 = [(-1)(-1)](-1) = 1 × (-1) = -1
(-1)4 = [(-1)(-1)][(-1)(-1)] = 1 × 1 = 1
(-1)5 = [(-1)(-1)][(-1)(-1)](-1) = 1 × 1 × (-1) = -1
Notice that when the exponent is even, the answer is 1 and when the exponent is odd the answer is
–1. The expression (–4)6 involves a negative base and an even exponent, and the result was a positive
number. Whenever you are multiplying a long string of negative and positive numbers, the easiest way
to determine the overall sign is to count the number of negatives involved in the product.
If the product involves an even number of negatives, the overall sign of the product will be
positive.
If the product involves an odd number of negatives, the overall sign of the product will be
negative.

Example 1
Will the following products be positive or negative?
a. (–6)8
b. (–3)3
c. –3 × (–6)8
d. –2 × 33
e. 3 × (–2)4
f. –5 × (–3)3
Solution:
a. The overall product will be positive: there are an even number (8) of negative signs in the
product.
b. The overall product will be negative: there are an odd number (3) of negative signs in the product.
c. The overall product will be negative: there are 9 negative signs in the product (one from the –3
and 8 from (–6)8.
d. The overall product will be negative: there is only one negative sign in the product.
e. The overall product will be positive: there are 4 negative signs involved in the product (from (–
2)4).
f. The overall product will be positive: there are 4 negative signs involved in the product (one from
 the –5 and 3 from (–3)3).

With the introduction of exponents we will need to revisit our order of operations. Exponential
expressions involve repetitive multiplication, and multiplication and division are done right after any
instructions in parentheses. It should not surprise you to learn that exponentiation scores high on the
order of operations. Parentheses still come first, though. Our expanded order of operations is now as
follows:
Parentheses
Exponentiation
Multiplication and division read left to right
Addition and subtraction read left to right

Example 2
Use the order of operations to evaluate the following expressions:
a. 3 × 52
b. –2 × 33
c. 3 × (–2)4
d. –5 × (–3)3
Solution:
a. 3 × 52 = 3 × 25 = 75
b. –2 × 33 = –2 × 27 = –54
c. First, find (–2)4: (–2)4 = (–2) × (–2) × (–2) × (–2) = 16
Then use it to evaluate 3 × (–2)4: 3 × (–2)4 = 3 × 16 = 48
d. First, find (–3)3: (–3)3 = (–3) × (–3) × (–3) = –27
Then use it to evaluate –5 × (–3)3: –5 × (–3)3 = -5 × (–27) = 135
In general, an exponential expression is written as an and spoken as “a to the nth power.” It is
sometimes read as just “a to the nth” or as “the nth power of a.” For example, 25 is read “two to the
fifth power” or “two to the fifth.”
There are some special powers that have specific names. For example, a2 is read “a squared” and
a3 is read “a cubed.” So 32 is read “three squared” and 33 is read “three cubed.” The reason that the
powers 2 and 3 have special names stems from their geometrical interpretation: the area of a square
with side length a is a × a or a2 (or “a squared”), and the volume of a cube with side length a is a × a
× a or a3 (or “a cubed”).
In the exponential expression an, a is the base and n is the exponent. Because of the way exponents
have been defined, this expression only makes sense if n is a positive integer. We will have to expand
our horizons in the next lesson if we want n to be anything other than a positive integer.

Lesson 2-1 Practice

Use the order of operations to evaluate the following expressions:
1. –4 × (–3)2
2. 4 × (–5)2
3. –3 × (–2)5

Lesson 2-2: Rules for Exponents

Many mathematical rules were established by working out examples and looking for patterns. Now
that we can deal with positive integer exponents, we can make some observations. Let’s look at what
happens when we multiply two exponential expressions with the same base. For example, we can
find the product 23 × 25 by expanding both factors and then writing the result using an exponent:
23 × 25 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2)
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 28
Notice that the exponents of the two terms in each of the products are 3 and 5, respectively, and the
exponent in the result is 8, which is 3+5. This observation is actually our first rule for exponents,
called the product rule: when you multiply two exponential expressions that have the same base, you
add the exponents. This can be stated mathematically as:
am × an = am+n
I will work out a few examples to illustrate how this product rule is used.

Example 1
Find the following products. Leave your answers as exponential expressions:
a. 35 × 37
b. (–4)6 × (–4)9
c. 54 × 53
Solution:
a. 35 × 37 = 35+7 = 312
b. (–4)6 × (–4)9 = (–4)6+9 = (–4)15
c. 54 × 53 = 54+3 = 57
Next, let’s explore what happens when you divide two exponential expressions with the same

base. For example, we can evaluate the quotient :

Notice that every factor of 4 in the denominator cancels with a 4 in the numerator. The resulting
exponent is just what you’d get if you subtracted the exponent in the denominator from the exponent in
the numerator. This gives us our second rule for exponents, called the quotient rule: when you divide
two exponential expressions with the same base you subtract the exponents. This can be stated
mathematically as:

Here are some examples that will illustrate how the quotient rule can be used.

Example 2
Find the following quotients. Leave your answers as exponential expressions:

a.

b.

c.
Solution:

a.

b.

c.
So far, we have multiplied and divided exponential expressions. Now it’s time to explore what
happens when the base of an exponential expression is itself an exponential expression. In particular,
let’s examine the expression (53)4. Using our order of operations, we must work out what is in
parentheses first and then deal with the exponent:
(53)4 = (5 × 5 × 5)4 = (5 × 5 × 5)(5 × 5 × 5)(5 × 5 × 5)(5 × 5 × 5) = 512.
Notice that the final exponent is 12, because 5 is multiplied by itself 12 times. Amazingly enough,
12 is the product of 3 and 4, which are the exponents of each factor in the product. This generalizes
into yet another rule for exponents, called the power rule: when you raise an exponential expression
to a power, you multiply the exponents, or when you raise a power to a power you multiply the
powers. We can write this mathematically as:
(am)n = am×n
I will work out a few examples to illustrate how the power rule is used. Keep in mind that in the
future we will combine all three rules for simplifying exponents into a single problem.

Example 3
 Evaluate the following. Leave your answers as exponential expressions:
a.

b.
c.
Solution:

a.

b.

c.
Here is your chance to practice what we have discussed. Be sure to check your answers before
moving on to the next lesson.

Lesson 2-2 Practice

Evaluate the following. Leave your answers as exponential expressions:
1. 34 × 38
2. (–5)5(–5)3

3.

4.

5.

6.

Lesson 2-3: Negative Integer Powers

Remember that there were several ways to represent the reciprocal of a non-zero number a. We

could write the reciprocal of a as either or a–1. Using this information we can interpret exponents
that are negative integers. Applying the product rule to the expression gives the expression 3–4.
Now, can be thought of as the reciprocal of 3 raised to the 4th power. The reciprocal of 3 is ,

so . We can then use the definition of exponents to evaluate :

On the other hand, the expression will also simplify to 3–4 using the power rule for
exponents: . We can evaluate 3–4 by first finding 34 and then taking its reciprocal:

From this, we see that

In general, if n is a positive integer, then

The role of the negative sign in an exponent is to let you know whether the base belongs in the
numerator or the denominator. Another way to look at it is that the negative exponent just means to
take the reciprocal of the base. Keep in mind that:

The reciprocal of a is .

The reciprocal of is a.
I will work out some examples to help illustrate how these rules are used.

Example 1
Evaluate the following exponential expressions:
a. 2-3
b. (–3)-2

c.

d.
Solution:

a.

b.

c.

d.
Take some time to work out the practice problems before moving on to the next set of rules. The
problems will become more complex as a combination of rules will be necessary to simplify the
expression. If you practice using the rules individually, you will have an easier time using several of
them in one problem.

Lesson 2-3 Practice

Evaluate the following exponential expressions:
1. 5-3

2.
3. (–3)-3

Lesson 2-4: Zero as an Exponent

In order to interpret an exponential expression that has 0 as the exponent, we must revisit division

of exponential expressions. Consider the ratio where a ≠ 0. Using one of the properties of
multiplication discussed earlier (the fact that any non-zero number divided by itself is equal to 1), we

find that . Using the rules for dividing exponential expressions (when you divide two

exponential expressions with the same base you subtract the exponents), we have . In
mathematics, consistency is crucial. So there’s not much of a choice for how to interpret an
exponential expression that has 0 as the exponent:
a0 = 1

Using this idea, we can now explore two more exponential expressions: the expressions and

. I will examine each one separately:

The main idea in both expressions is that when you move an exponential expression from the
numerator to the denominator, or vice versa, the net effect is that the sign of the exponent is changed.

Example 1

Evaluate exponential expression:

Solution: Use the first equation to simplify the expression:
Example 2

Evaluate the exponential expression:

Solution: Use the second equation to simplify the expression:

Lesson 2-5: Powers of Quotients and Products

Now that we have discussed multiplying and dividing exponential expressions, we are ready to
examine expressions that involve multiplication and exponentiation, like (3a)3. Whenever you need to
simplify exponential expressions it’s always best to start with what the exponents mean and then make
use of the properties of multiplication. Expand these expressions several times until you are
comfortable with the interpretation of the short-hand notation. For example, the expression (3a)3
means that 3a is multiplied by itself 3 times. We can expand the expression (3a)3 and use the fact that
multiplication is commutative and associative to rearrange the terms involved in the product:
(3a)3 = (3a)(3a)(3a) = 3 × 3 × 3 × a × a × a = 33 × a3
Notice that when you raise a product (in this case the product of 3 and a) to a power, in effect what
you need to do is raise each term involved in the product to that power. It doesn’t matter how many
terms are involved in the product, or even if the terms in the products are themselves exponential
expressions. Each term gets raised to that power. This rule is written as:
(a × b)n = an × bn

Example 1
Expand the following products:
a. (4a)2
b.
c. (–3a)5
Solution:
a. (4a)2 = 42 × a2 = 16a2

b. = 24 × = 16b2×4 = 16b8
c. (–3a)5 = (–1)5(3)5(a5) = –243a5

Dealing with raising quotients to a power isn’t any different. When you raise a quotient to a power,
raise the numerator and the denominator to that power. It doesn’t matter how complicated the
numerator and denominator are. Use the appropriate rules to keep simplifying until there’s nothing
more you can do. If you take it one step at a time, you should be just fine. The rule for quotients is
written as:

For example, the expression can be expanded and simplified as follows:

Example 2
Evaluate the following:

a.

b.

c.
Solution:

a.

b.

c.
This is the last set of practice problems that focus on the rules for exponents. We will use all of
these rules when I discuss monomials in Chapter 8. Practice applying this last rule, and be sure to
check your answers before going on to the next lesson.

Lesson 2-5 Practice

Evaluate the following:
1. (4b)2
2. (–3c)3
3.

4.

5.

6.

Lesson 2-6: Scientific Notation

Exponents are used to help us write down numbers whose magnitudes are either very large or very
small. Archimedes, a famous Greek mathematician, managed to give a fairly accurate estimate of the
number of grains of sand in the universe using the unwieldy number system available at the time (over
2000 years ago), but most people had trouble understanding his method. The distance between two
atoms in a molecule is a very small number, and would have been challenging even for Archimedes to
describe using his archaic number system. Since then, mathematicians have developed a number
system, called scientific notation, that enables scientists to describe these extreme numbers very
easily. Exponents are the basis for scientific notation.
Scientific notation is a standard way to write numbers using exponents with base 10. A number is
written in scientific notation if it is of the form a × 10n where a is a real number satisfying the
inequality 1 ≤ |a| < 10 and n is an integer.
The number 31,415 can be written using scientific notation as 3.1415 × 104. To convert a whole
number like 31,415 to scientific notation, remember that an implied decimal point is at the end of the
number. Move the decimal point to the left until there is only one digit to the left of it: Count
how many places the decimal moved to the left. That number becomes the exponent or the power of
10. Because I moved the decimal point over 4 places to the left, the power of 10 is 4, and 31,415 is
equivalent to 3.1415 × 104. It is easy to check the equivalence of 31,415 and 3.1415 × 104 by
multiplying 3.1415 by 104. Recall that multiplying by 10 is equivalent to moving the decimal point
one place to the right. Multiplying by 100 (or 102) is equivalent to moving the decimal point two
n
places to the right. Multiplying by 10 is equivalent to moving the decimal point n places to the right.
So multiplying 3.1415 by 104 is equivalent to moving the decimal point 4 places to the right, resulting
in the number 31,415.
We can also write numbers that are less than 1 in scientific notation. In this case, we will be
moving the decimal point to the right until there is just one non-zero digit to the left of the decimal
point. Each time that the decimal point is moved to the right the power of 10 decreases by 1. The
number 0.005958 has a scientific notation representation of 5.958 × 10-3 ; the power of 10 is –3
because the decimal point was moved to the right 3 places: . It doesn’t matter if the number
you are working with is positive or negative. The only thing that matters is the direction that you move
the decimal point.
Example 1
Write the following numbers using scientific notation:
a. 386,450
b. –1,922.5
c. 0.00000646
d. –0.0004987
Solution:
a. 386,450 = 3.8645 × 105
b. –1,922.5 = 1.9225 × 103
c. 0.00000646 = 6.46 × 10-6
d. –0.0004987 = 4.987 × 10-4

One nice thing about working with numbers in scientific notation is that extremely large or
extremely small positive numbers become more manageable. Specifically, multiplying and dividing
these extreme numbers becomes much easier. When multiplying two numbers written in scientific
notation, we will take advantage of the associative property of multiplication. Multiply the decimal
numbers together and the exponential expressions together. Then make sure that your final answer is
written in scientific notation. The same process holds when dividing two numbers written in
scientific notation. The following examples should help illustrate the process.

Example 2
Evaluate the expression and write the result in scientific notation:
a. (1.4 × 104)(7.6 × 103)

b.
c.
Solution:
a. (1.4 × 104)(7.6 × 103) = (1.4 × 7.6) × (104 × 103) = 10.64 × 107 = 1.064 × 108

b.

c.

Lesson 2-6 Practice

1. Write the following numbers in scientific notation:
a. 432,614
 b. 0.00482
2. Evaluate the following expressions and write your answer in scientific notation:
a. (3.42 × 103)(2.87 × 105)

b.

c.

Answer Key
Lesson 2-1
1. –36
2. 100
3. 96

Lesson 2-2
1. 312
2. (–5)8
3. 43
4. (–2)5
5. 632
6. 415

Lesson 2-3

1.
2. 4

3.

Lesson 2-5
1. 16b2
2. –27c3

3. 16a2 or

4.
5.

6.

Lesson 2-6
1. a. 4.32614 × 105
b. 4.82 × 10-3

2. a. 9.8154 × 108
b. 1.024 × 10-5
c. 5 × 105
 3
Equations and Equality

Lesson 3-1: Equations

Lesson 3-2: Equality
Lesson 3-3: Algebraic Properties of Equality
Lesson 3-4: Solving Linear Equations in One Step
Lesson 3-5: Solving Linear Equations Using Several Steps
Lesson 3-6: Equations Involving Absolute Value

So far we have been working with algebraic expressions. You can think of expressions as being
fragments of a sentence. In this chapter we will combine algebraic expressions to form equations, and
we will practice solving these equations. Every equation has two sides, and there are rules in place
that dictate what you can and cannot do to an equation.

Lesson 3-1: Equations

An equation is a statement that two expressions are equal. The two expressions that make up an
equation are separated by the symbol “=” which is called an equal sign. Usually equations will
contain variables, but they don’t have to. Remember that a variable is a symbol that can be replaced
by a variety of different numbers. Most of the time we use letters of the alphabet to represent
variables, but technically you can use a smiley face or any other symbol to represent a variable.
You have already seen several examples of equations in this book. The statements 23 = 2 · 2 · 2
and am · an = am+n are two examples of equations that you saw in Chapter 2. The first equation does
not contain any variables, and the second equation contains 3 variables. Equations can have numbers
and variables on both sides. The equations can be simple or they can be complicated. The important
thing about an equation is that whatever expression appears on the left is exactly equal to whatever
expression appears on the right. The two expressions don’t have to look alike, but they must be
equivalent.
Usually, when you are given an equation with only one variable your job will be to “solve the
equation.” This means that you will need to determine the specific numerical value (or values) of the
variable that “satisfy the equality,” or make the equation true. This process often involves moving all
of the numbers to one side of the equation and all of the terms involving variables to the other side.
When moving terms in an equation around, you must be sure to obey the rules.
An equation may contain terms that involve both a variable and a constant, like the term 3x. The
constant that is in front of the variable is called the coefficient of the variable. The expression 3x
means the same thing as 3 · x or x + x + x, and the expression 5x means the same thing as 5 · x or x + x
+ x + x + x.
Lesson 3-2: Equality
I need to spend a few minutes talking about equality. Equality is an important symbol and concept
used in mathematics. The concept of equality has very special properties. It is used to relate
seemingly distinct objects, like the expressions 23 and (10 – 8) × 2 + 4, and is called a relation. A
relation is something that compares two objects. For example, if I had 5 one-dollar bills and you had
1 five-dollar bill then we would have an equal amount of money, even though the form of our money
is different. If my son broke his piggy bank and discovered that he had 20 quarters, he would have the
same amount of money as each of us, even though his money would weigh significantly more than ours
did and would be better suited to be spent in an arcade. This example helps illustrate three important
properties of equality.
Equality is reflexive. This means that any object is equal to itself. This idea is almost self-
evident. To illustrate the reflexive property mathematically we write a = a. For example, 3 = 3.
Equality is symmetric. This means that if object A is equal to object B, then object B is equal
to object A. Basically it means that the order in which we equate objects doesn’t matter. It
doesn’t matter whether object A appears on the left or the right hand side of the =. To state this
idea mathematically we write: if a = b then b = a. For example, if 2 · 3 = 6 then 6 = 2 · 3.
Equality is transitive. This means that if object A is equal to object B, and object B is equal to
object C, then object A is equal to object C. Object B is just an intermediate object that can be
eliminated in the comparison; we can cut to the chase and set object A equal to object C. This
can be expressed mathematically as: if a = b and b = c, then a = c. For example, if 10 · 2 = 20
and 20 = 5 · 4, then 10 · 2 = 5 · 4.

Because these three properties are so important in mathematics, we call any relation that has all
three of these properties an equivalence relation. It is important to note that every equivalence
relation (just like equality) has all three of these properties. There are other relations besides equality
that we will use later on that are not equivalence relations. Those relations will be missing at least
one of the three required properties: either the reflexive, the symmetric, or the transitive property.

Lesson 3-3: Algebraic Properties of Equality

As I mentioned earlier, there are rules to obey when working with equations. Keep in mind that the
concept of equality is like a balanced scale. Whatever you have on the left side of the equal sign
exactly equals whatever you have on the right. You are not allowed to tip the scales and favor one
side over another side. Whatever you do to one side of the equation you must also do to the other side
of the equation.
The first algebraic property of equality is known as the addition property of equality. It states
that:
If a = b, then a + c = b + c
We did not favor one side of the equality over the other side; the quantity c was added to both sides
so that the balance is maintained. Looking back on the example with money, if you have a five-dollar
bill and I have 5 one-dollar bills then we each have the same amount of money. If a kind stranger
gives us each a twenty-dollar bill, then we are both still equally rich; we both have a total of $25.
Notice that in the addition property of equality, c can be a positive or a negative number. If I have 5
one-dollar bills and my son has 20 quarters, and we both decide to spend $2 on an ice-cream cone,
then we will both end up with $3. The addition property of equality is important because it allows us
to add (or subtract) the same number from both sides of an equation without changing the validity of
that statement.
The second algebraic property of equality is known as the multiplication property of equality. It
states that:
If a = b, then a · c = b · c
Again, one side is not favored over the other side; both sides are treated equally because both sides
are being multiplied by c. Let’s go back to our example with money. If you have a five-dollar bill and
I have 5 one-dollar bills, and we both double our money in a bet, then we both now have $10. Notice
again that with this property it doesn’t matter if c is a positive or a negative number. I also didn’t
address whether c was greater than 1 or less than 1. That’s because it doesn’t matter. I can multiply
(or divide) both sides of an equation by the same number and not change the validity of the statement.
These properties are certainly interesting, but, more importantly, they are crucial in your success in
solving algebraic equations. We’ll see how they are used in the next section.

Lesson 3-4: Solving Linear Equations in One Step

Linear equations are equations that involve only constants and one variable that is only raised to
the first power. To solve a linear equation you need to find the specific value that the variable has to
be in order to make the equation true. Finding the value of the variable requires you to isolate the
variable on one side of the equal sign and have a number on the other side of the equal sign. In other
words, if your linear equation involves the variable x your goal is to write an equation of the form x =
a number.
We can use the two algebraic properties of equality to help us solve linear equations. There are
key transformations that you will use over and over to isolate the variable. When you use these
transformations you will produce an equation that has the same solutions as the original equation. In
other words, you will be transforming the original equation into a different, equivalent equation
whose solution is easier to see. Remember that the goal is to get an equation of the form x = a, where
a is some number; you can’t get an easier equation than that to solve.
The first four transformations that we will practice are described in the table on page 64.
Anything that you do to one side of the equation must also be done on the other side of the
equation. This ensures that balance is maintained. Remember that the goal is to determine the value of
the variable that makes the equation true. In order to solve for the variable, you must get the variable
by itself. These transformations help you isolate the variable.
Example 1
Solve the equation: x – 5 = 9
Solution:
In order to isolate the variable, we need to get rid of the 5. To do this, add 5 to both sides and
simplify:

The last step is to check our work: substitute x = 14 into our original equation and simplify. Is 14 – 5
equal to 9? Yes. We can be confident that our answer is correct.

Example 2
Solve the equation: x + 8 = –10
Solution:
Subtract 8 from both sides and simplify:

Let’s check our work. Substitute x = –18 into the original equation: Is –18 + 8 equal to –10? Yes.
Example 3
Solve the equation: x–|–3| = 4
Solution:
In this case we must first simplify the equation by evaluating the absolute value of –3. Then we need
to isolate the variable by transforming our equation:

Checking our work we see that 7–|–3| = 7 – 3, and 7 – 3 is equal to 4, so our answer is correct.
Transforming equations using addition and subtraction is just the beginning. We can also transform
equations using multiplication and division. You’ll want to transform equations using multiplication
and division whenever the coefficient in front of the variable is any number other than 1. Remember,
the goal is to get the variable by itself so that the equation states what the variable is equal to.

You can also look at the division transformation in terms of multiplication. If you start with the
equation 3x = 12, you can multiply both sides of the equation by the reciprocal of the coefficient in

front of the variable. In this case, the coefficient in front of the variable is 3, and its reciprocal is .

So, in order to solve the equation 3x = 12 we could multiply both sides of this equation by :
This perspective is helpful when the coefficient in front of the variable is not an integer.

Example 4

Solve the equation:

Solution:
You may have gotten used to seeing the variable on the left rather than on the right. Don’t let that
bother you; switch them around if it makes you feel better. Then multiply both sides of the equation by
–4 and simplify:

The last step is to check our work. Is equal to 12? Yes it is.

Example 5
Solve the equation: 4x = –3
Solution:
Divide both sides of the equation by 4 and simplify:

Of course you could have just multiplied both sides of the equation by . The last step is to check our

work. Is equal to –3? Yes.

Example 6

Solve the equation:

Solution:

Multiply both sides of the equation by the reciprocal of (which is ) and simplify:

Finally, check our work. Is equal to 6? Yes.

The best way to determine whether or not you have the hang of the subject matter is to take things
into your own hands. Work out the following practice problems to see if you understand the concepts
we just discussed. We will be building on these problem-solving techniques in the next lesson, so it is
important that you work out some problems on your own before moving on. Be sure to check your
answers at the end of this chapter.

Lesson 3-4 Practice

Solve the following equations:
1. x + 5 = 9
2. x – 3 = 2
3. x + |–8| = 10

4.
5. 5x = –3

6.

Lesson 3-5: Solving Linear Equations Using Several Steps

Solving the problems in this section will involve applying the individual techniques discussed in
the last lesson. The equations to solve will be more complicated, but if you take it one step at a time
and remember to breathe, these problems shouldn’t throw you for a loop.
In general, when you want to solve a linear equation involving one variable, the first thing you
need to do is gather all of the terms that involve the variable over to one side of the equation and
move all of the terms that don’t involve the variable over to the other side of the equation. If, after
combining all of the terms together, the coefficient in front of the variable is a number other than 1,
you will need to multiply both sides of the equation by the reciprocal of the coefficient in front of the
variable. Once you have done that, you should have an explicit equation for what numerical value the
variable has to be. The last step is to check your work (using the original problem statement) to make
sure that your answer is correct. This last step is the one that is most often skipped, but it’s one that
you really should get into the habit of doing. By checking your work you will know whether your
answer is correct or not. If it’s not, you’ll have to go back and start over.

Example 1

Solve the equation:

Solution:
To isolate the variable, you must move the 4 that appears on the left side of the equation over to the
right side. This can be done by subtracting 4 from both sides of the equation and simplifying:

Next, we want the coefficient in front of the variable to be 1. You can transform this equation by
multiplying both sides of this equation by 3 and then simplifying:

Finally, check your answer. Is equal to –3? Yes.

Example 2
Solve the equation: 4x = 2x – 8
Solution:
In this case there are terms with variables appearing on both sides of the equation. Collect all of the
terms with variables on one side of the equation and then solve the equation using the same techniques
described earlier. In order to get all of the variables on one side of the equation, subtract 2x from both
sides and simplify:

Now that our variables are on one side and the numbers are on the other side we can solve the
equation. Divide both sides of the equation by 2 and simplify:

The last step is to check our work.

Is 4 · (–4) = –16 equal to 2 · (–4) – 8 = – 8 – 8= –16? Yes.

Example 3
Solve the equation: 5x + 4 = 2x + 10
Solution:
Gather the variables on one side of the equation and the numbers on the other side. Then solve the
equation:

Finally, we’ll check our answer. If x = 2 then 5x + 4 = 5 · 2 + 4 = 14

Example 4
Solve the equation: 3x + 4(x –1) = 10
Solution:
First distribute the 4, then solve for x:
Finally, check your answer.
If x = 2, then 3 · 2 + 4(2–1) = 6 + 4 · 1 = 10. So our answer is correct.

Example 5
Solve the equation 4x – 2(x –3) =2.
Solution:
First distribute the –2 carefully, then solve for x:

Finally, check your answer.

If x = –2, then 4(–2) – 2(–2 – 3) = –8 – 2(–5) = –8 + 10 = 2.
Our answer is correct.

Example 6

Solve the equation:

Solution:

Rewrite the equation so that the variable is on the left. You can either distribute the or multiply both
sides of the equation by its reciprocal and solve for x :
Subtract 2 from both sides: x + 2 – 2 = 6–2
Simplify: x=4
All that remains is to check our answer.

If x = 4 then , so our answer is correct.

There are potential problems that you have to look out for when you are working with an equation
that has more than one term involving the variable. One of the potential problems is that a solution to
the equation may not exist. For example, the equation x = x + 2 has no solution, because there is no
number that is equal to itself plus 2. If you subtract x from both sides of the equation and simplify, you
get:
x=x+2
x–x=x+2–x
0=2
Since this last equation is absurd, so is our original equation. Absurd equations have no solution.
Another potential problem is that there may not be a unique solution to the equation. For example,
the equation 2(x+1) = 2x + 2 is true regardless of what value of x you use. If you distribute the 2 on
the left side of the equation you get 2x + 2 = 2x + 2; 2(x+1) is always equal to 2x + 2. You can try any
value of x and see that it works. In this case there are infinitely many solutions to the equation.
Here is your chance to put all of the pieces together. Take your time, and follow the same
systematic approach that I used in the examples. Check your answers before moving on to the next
lesson.

Lesson 3-5 Practice

Solve the following equations:

1.
2. 10x = 3x – 14
3. 7x + 5 = 2x – 10
4. 4x + 2(x–1) = 7
5. 7x – 2(x–4) = –2

6.
Lesson 3-6: Equations Involving Absolute Value
The next wrench that will be thrown into the system involves absolute values. Remember that we
have an equation for the absolute value of a number:

The way you remove the absolute value symbols in an expression depends on what is inside of the
absolute value symbols. If the contents of the absolute value symbols is positive, you can just drop the
symbols. If the contents of the absolute value symbols is negative, then you are allowed to drop the
symbols only after you put a negative sign in front of whatever was inside. If there are variables
inside of the absolute value symbols, you won’t know whether the contents are positive or negative,
so you must explore both possibilities. In doing so, you will generate two equations when you remove
the absolute value symbols.
When working with an equation that involves a variable inside of an absolute value symbol, the
first thing you must do is isolate the absolute value part of the equation. It doesn’t matter whether
there are numbers or variables outside of the absolute value symbols, everything must be moved to
the other side. Once you have done this, use the definition of absolute value to write two equations,
depending on whether the contents of the absolute value symbols are positive or negative. Generate
two equations that you will need to solve (and check your answers).

Example 1
Solve the equation: |x| = 3
Solution:
Since the absolute value symbol is already isolated, we can write out our two equations and solve
them:
x=3 –x = 3
x = –2
Either x = 3 or x = -3, and we have two possibilities that we have to check. Is |3| equal to 3? Yes. Is
|-3| equal to 3? Yes. So both choices work: either x = 3 or x = -3. This can also be written as x = ±3.

Example 2
Solve the equation: |x+5| = 3
Solution:
Again, the absolute value symbol is already isolated. Generate the two equations and solve each one
by subtracting 5 from both sides:

So we have two solutions: x = –2 or x = –8. We must check each one. Is |-2+5| = |3| equal to 3? Yes. Is
|–8+5| = |–3| equal to 3? Yes. So both answers are correct: x = –2 or x = –8.

Example 3
Solve the equation: |x + 2|+3 = 6
Solution:
We first need to isolate the absolute value by subtracting 3 from both sides. Then we will generate
two equations that we can solve:

The two solutions are x = 1 and x = -5.

We need to check each solution. Is |1+2|+ 3 = |3|+3 equal to 6?
Yes. Is |-5+2|+3 = |-3|+3 equal to 6? Yes.
So both solutions are correct: x = 1 or x = –5.

Example 4
Solve the equation: 2|x+1| = 3
Solution:
Again, we need to isolate the absolute value by dividing both sides of the equation by 2. Once we
have done that we can generate the two equations and solve each one:
Let’s check each solution:

If , we have ,

and if we have ,

so both of our answers work: or .

Example 5
Solve the equation: |2x+1| = 5
Solution:
The absolute value is already isolated, so we just have to generate our two equations, solve them and
check our solutions:

Now to check our solution.

If x = 2 then |2 · 2+1| = |5| = 5 and if x = –3 then
|2 · (–3)+1| = |–5| = 5. Both solutions check out: x = 2 or x = -3.

Example 6
Solve the equation: 2|x+2|+2 = 4
Solution:
First isolate the absolute value:
2|x+2|+2 = 4
2|x+2| = 2
|x+2| = 1
Next, generate our two equations and solve them:

Finally, check our answers.

If x = –1 then 2|–1+2|+2 = 2|1|+2 = 4 and
if x = –3 then 2|–3+2|+2 = 2|–1|+2 = 4.
Both solutions work, so x = –1 or x = –3.
Here are a few practice problems to help solidify the techniques we just discussed. Be sure to
check your answers in the appendix before you move on to the next chapter. We will revisit absolute
values and build on these problems in Chapter 4.

Lesson 3-6 Practice

Solve the following equations:
1. |x+8| = 2
2. |x–1|+4 = 6
3. 3|x–1| = 5
4. 3|x–1| = 5

5.

Answer Key
Lesson 3-4
1. x = 4 (subtract 5 from both sides)
2. x = 5 (add 3 to both sides)
3. x = 2
4. x = –15 (multiply both sides by –3)

5. (divide both sides by 5)

6. or (multiply both sides by )

Lesson 3-5

1. or (add 3 to both sides and then multiply by )

2. x = –2 (subtract 3x from both sides and then divide by 7)
3. x = –3 (subtract 2x from both sides, subtract 5 from both sides, divide by 5)

4. or (distribute the 2 and collect terms)

5. x = –2
6. x = 17

(either distribute the and collect terms, or multiply both sides by )

Lesson 3-6
1. x = –6 or x = –10 (solve the two equations x +8 = 2 and –(x+8) = 2)
2. x = 3 or x = –1 (solve the two equations x– 1 = 2 and –(x–1)=2)
3. or (solve the two equations and )

4. x = 2 or (solve the two equations 3x–1 = 5 and –(–3x–1) = 5)

5. x = 1 or x = –7 (solve the two equations x +3 = 4 and –(x+3) = 4)
 4
Inequalities and Graphs

Lesson 4-1: Properties of Inequalities

Lesson 4-2: Solving Inequalities in One Step
Lesson 4-3: Solving Inequalities Using Several Steps
Lesson 4-4: Graphing Inequalities Using the Number Line
Lesson 4-5: Graphing Compound Inequalities
Lesson 4-6: Inequalities and Absolute Value

Up until now we have been working with equality. I spent a bit of time talking about equality as an
equivalence relation, and then I dropped the subject. Recall that an equivalence relation is a relation
that has three important properties. Those properties were the reflexive, symmetric, and transitive
properties. It’s time to introduce you to two new relations: less than and greater than. These two
relations are opposites of each other. Whatever I say about one of these relations also holds for the
other one.
An inequality is an algebraic statement that compares two algebraic expressions that may not be
equal. I mentioned four basic inequalities in Chapter 1 and I’ll summarize them on page 82.
A solution to an inequality is the collection of all numbers that produce a true statement when
substituted in for the variable in the inequality.
We can examine which of these inequalities, if any, are equivalence relations. I will examine < and
≤ in more detail.

To determine whether < (less than) is an equivalence relation, we need to check to see if it has all
three required properties:
Reflexive: Is a < a? In other words, is a number less than itself? No.
Symmetric: If a < b is b < a? No.
Transitive: If a < b and b < c, is a < c? Yes.
 So < is not an equivalence relation because it does not have the reflexive and symmetric
properties.
To determine whether ≤ (less than or equal to) is an equivalence relation, we need to check to see
whether it has all three required properties:
Reflexive: Is a ≤ a? In other words, is a number less than or equal to itself? Yes.
Symmetric: If a ≤ b is b ≤ a? Not always, so no.
Transitive: If a ≤ b and b ≤ c, is a ≤ c? Yes.

So ≤ is not an equivalence relation because it does not have the symmetric property.
You may be wondering why I care so much about equivalence relations. Well, in order to solve
inequalities we will need to establish some rules about how we are allowed to transform
inequalities. There are some transformations that we are allowed to do with inequalities that we are
not allowed to do with equalities. The difference in how we treat an equality versus an inequality
stems from the fact that equality is an equivalence relation whereas inequalities are not.

Lesson 4-1: Properties of Inequalities

Remember that we discussed two algebraic properties of equality: the addition property of
equality and the multiplication property of equality. Inequalities actually have two addition properties
and a restricted multiplication property.
The first addition property of inequality states that:
If a > b, then a + c > b + c
This property isn’t really surprising. Let’s go back to an example with money. Suppose that I have
$20 and you have $10. If someone gives us each $5, then I will still have more money than you. I’ll
have $25 and you’ll have $15. We will both be richer, but I’ll still be richer than you.
The second addition property of inequality states that:
If a > b and c > d, then a + c > b + d
Again, this is not surprising. If I have $20 and you have $10, and if some kind person gives me $20
and you $10, then I will definitely still have more money than you.
Inequalities are more flexible than equalities, but there is a limit to what you can get away with.
One thing that you are not allowed to do is disturb the inequality. In other words, either you give the
same amount to both sides of the inequality or you give more to “haves” then you do to the “have
nots.” You cannot try to make up for any injustice by giving more to the “have nots.” It may not seem
fair, but that’s why we call them inequalities.
The restricted multiplication property is also fairly clear. It states that
If a > b and c > 0, then a · c > b · c
The restriction that the number that you multiply by must be positive is very important, and worth
looking at in more detail. Consider the inequality 0 < 1. Suppose that we wanted to multiply both
sides of this inequality by a negative number; let’s multiply both sides of this inequality by –1. On the
left-hand side of the inequality you would have 0·(–1) = 0 and on the right-hand side of the inequality
you would have 1·(–1) = –1. Now, how does 0 compare to –1? Well, 0 > –1. Notice that we started
with 0 < 1 and when we multiplied both sides of the inequality by –1 we end up with the inequality 0
>–1. This leads us to an important rule about multiplying an inequality by a negative number: when
you multiply an inequality by a negative number you must also remember to flip the inequality from <
to > or vice versa. We can write this mathematically as:
If a < b and c < 0, then a · c > b · c
This flipping rule also holds when you divide both sides of an inequality by a negative number.

Lesson 4-2: Solving Inequalities in One Step

Solving an inequality is a lot like solving an equality. The goal is still to isolate the variable on
one side of the inequality. The transformation rules for inequalities are similar to those for equality.
The main difference in the transformations occur when you multiply or divide both sides of an
inequality by a negative number. You must be sure to flip the inequality when you multiply (or divide)
both sides of an inequality by a negative number.
The addition transformations are summarized in the table on the previous page. Notice that you no
longer have the ability to interchange the sides of the inequality. That’s because inequalities do not
have the symmetric property.

Example 1
Solve the inequality: x +3 < 4
Solution: Subtract 3 from both sides and simplify:
x+3<4
x+3–3<4–3
x<1
The solution is all real numbers less than 1.

Example 2
Solve the inequality: –3 > x –6
Solution: Add 6 to both sides and simplify:
–3 > x –6
–3 + 6 > x – 6 + 6
3>x
The solution is all real numbers less than 3.
The transformations involving multiplication and division are summarized in the table on page 86.

Example 3

Solve the inequality:

Solution: Multiply both sides by and simplify:

The solution is all real numbers greater than .

Example 4
Solve the inequality: 4x > 5
Solution: Divide both sides by 4 and simplify:
4x > 5

The Solution is all real numbers greater than .

Example 5
Solve the inequality: –3x < 9
Solution: Divide both sides by –3, flip the inequality and simplify:
–3x < 9

x >–3
The solution is all real numbers greater than –3.

Example 6

Solve the inequality:

Solution: Multiply both sides by –3, flip the inequality and simplify:

x<6
The solution is all real numbers less than 6.
These practice problems will give you an opportunity to get into the game. I have been having all
of the fun solving problems, so now it is your turn. These problems illustrate the two steps used to
solve inequalities. We will put them together and solve more complicated problems in the next
lesson.

Lesson 4-2 Practice

Solve the following inequalities:
1. x +5 <9
2. –2 > x – 10

3.
4. 3x > 8
5. –4x < 10

6.

Lesson 4-3: Solving Inequalities Using Several Steps

In general, when you want to solve an inequality involving one variable the first thing you need to
do is move all of the terms that involve the variable to one side of the inequality and move all of the
terms that don’t involve the variable over to the other side. If, after combining all of the terms
together the coefficient in front of the variable is a number other than 1, you will need to multiply both
sides of the inequality by the reciprocal of the coefficient in front of the variable. If this sounds a lot
like the technique we used to solve equalities using several steps in the last chapter, you would be
right.

Example 1

Solve the inequality:

Solution: Subtract 4 from both sides, then multiply by 3 and simplify.

The solution is all real numbers greater than –21.

Example 2
Solve the inequality: 2x + 10 ≥ 7(x +1)
Solution: First distribute the 7 on the right, then collect all the terms involving variables on one side
and the numbers on the other. Finally solve for x:

The solution is all real numbers less than or equal to .

Example 3
Solve the inequality: 12 > –2x –6
Solution: Add 6 to both sides and then divide both sides by –2. Remember to flip the inequality.
The solution is all real numbers greater than –9.

Example 4

Solve the inequality:

Solution: There are several ways to start this problem. You could distribute the and then move the

terms around. Or, you could first multiply by and then simplify. I will work the problem out the
second way, and leave it to you to work it out the first way:

The solution is all real numbers less than or equal to 4.

Here is your chance to shine. Put all the pieces together and see what you can do. Be sure to check
your answers before moving on to the next section.

Lesson 4-3 Practice

Solve the following inequalities:

1.
2. 3 < –4x–2

3.
4. 3x > 5x – 8
5. 2x + 4 ≤ x – 3
6. 3 – 2(x + 4) ≥ 2x + 11

Lesson 4-4: Graphing Inequalities Using the Number Line

When we solved the inequalities in the last section, our answers were written algebraically. There
wasn’t a unique answer, but rather there were many real numbers that satisfied the inequality. We
described the collection of these solutions with words, but a picture is worth a thousand words. It
helps to understand the solution to an inequality by being able to visualize it. To do this, we will make
use of the number line.
Zero is one of the most important points on a number line. The point 0 is called the origin.
Negative numbers lie to the left of the origin, positive numbers lie to the right. To draw a number line,
just draw a line with arrows pointing in both directions, and label a point 0. It’s best to keep your
number lines simple. Some people start labeling the integers around 0, but I recommend only labeling
points that are pertinent. And at this point, the only important point is 0. Take a look at my number line
shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 The number line.

Any real number can serve as the starting point for a ray. A ray is half of a line. A ray on the
number line looks like an arrow. A ray can either point to the left or to the right. It has a definite
starting point, but it never ends. Remember the dots after the counting numbers indicated that the
counting numbers never end. A ray is similar in that it goes on forever. A ray that points to the left
will include all of the points to the left of, or less than, the starting point. A ray that points to the right
will include all of the points to the right of, or greater than, the starting point. The direction that a ray
points depends on the inequality used to describe the ray. The set of all points less than a given point
is drawn as an arrow starting at the given point and pointing to the left. The set of all points greater
than a given point is drawn as an arrow starting at the given point and pointing to the right.
The starting point of a ray may or may not be included. The relations < (less than) and > (greater
than) are called strict inequalities. For strict inequalities, the starting point is not included in the ray.
The relations ≤ (less than or equal to) and ≥ (greater than or equal to) are just referred to as
inequalities, and for these inequalities the starting point is included in the ray (because of the
possibility that both sides of the inequality are actually equal to each other). An open ray is a ray that
does not include its starting point; a closed ray is a ray that does include its starting point.
To draw a ray, start with a number line and label your starting point. Once you have your starting
point labeled, determine if your ray is open or closed. If it’s open (meaning it involves the relations <
or >), draw an open circle at your labeled starting point. If it’s closed (meaning it involves the
relations ≤ or ≥), draw a filled-in circle at your labeled starting point. Then draw an arrow that
points in the correct direction (to the left for < or ≤ and to the right for > or ≥) to represent your ray.
Figure 4.2 shows the open ray representing the set of real numbers less than 2.
Figure 4.2: The open ray x < 2.

Figure 4.3 shows an open ray representing the set of real numbers less than –2 and the closed ray
representing the set of real numbers less than or equal to –2. Notice that the only difference between
these two rays is the circle at –2: the open ray has an open circle and the closed ray has a closed (or
filled in) circle. Both of these rays point to the left because we are describing points that are less than
(or less than or equal to) –2.

Figure 4.3: The open ray x <-2 and the closed ray x ≤ –2.

Figure 4.4 shows an open ray representing the set of real numbers greater than 4 and the closed
ray representing the set of real numbers greater than or equal to 4. Notice that the only difference
between these two rays is the circle at 4: the open ray has an open circle and the closed ray has a
closed (or filled in) circle. Both of these rays point to the right because we are describing points that
are greater than (or greater than or equal to) 4.

Figure 4.4: The open ray x > 4 and the closed ray x ≥ 4.

In the last section we solved several inequalities and described the solution in words. We will
take a minute to give a graphical solution to those same inequalities.

Example 1
 Graph the solution to the inequality:
Solution: The solution to this inequality is x >–21, which is the open ray shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5: The open ray x >–21.

Example 2
Graph the solution to the inequality: 2x + 10 ≥ 7(x + 1)

Solution: The solution to this inequality is , which is the closed ray shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: The closed ray .

Example 3
Graph the solution to the inequality: 12 >–2x – 6
Solution: The solution to this inequality is –9 < x, which is the open ray shown in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7: The open ray x >–9.

Example 4

Graph the solution to the inequality:

Solution: The solution to this inequality is 4 ≥ x, which is the closed ray shown in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: The closed ray x ≤ 4.

Now it is your turn to practice solving these problems. If you get stuck, take a look back at the
examples I worked. As you solve more problems you will start to recognize the similarities in how to
approach them. The strategy I showed you can be applied to solve all of these problems.

Lesson 4-4 Practice

Graph the solutions to the following inequalities:

1.
2. 3 < –4x – 2

3.
4. 3x > 5x – 8
5. 2x + 4 ≤ x –3
6. 3 – 2(x + 4) ≥ 2x + 11

Lesson 4-5: Graphing Compound Inequalities

Compound inequalities involve two inequalities. Since each individual inequality is graphed as a
ray, graphing compound inequalities requires you to graph two rays. Depending on the inequalities
involved, your solution will either consist of all of the points that lie on either ray or only those
points that lie on both rays. In order to determine the points that lie on both rays you will need to
focus on where they overlap.

Example 1
Graph the compound inequality: x > 3 or x ≤ 0
Solution: Graph each inequality separately, as shown in Figure 4.9. Since you can either be greater
than 3 or less than or equal to 0, the solution is the set of points that lie on either ray.

Figure 4.9. The set of all points x > 3 or x ≤ 0.

Example 2
 Graph the compound inequality: x ≤ 4 and x > 0
Solution: Graph each inequality separately. Because your solution must include all points that satisfy
both inequalities (as noted by the “and”), you are looking for where the two rays overlap (or
intersect). The solution is shown in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10: The set of all points x ≤ 4 and x > 0.

Figure 4.11: Closed, open, and half-open intervals.

In the event that you are looking at two rays that point in opposite directions and overlap, like you
saw in Example 2, your solution is called an interval. An interval is part of a number line that has
both a starting point and a stopping point. The starting point and the stopping point are called the
endpoints of the interval. The endpoints of an interval may or may not be included. If both endpoints
are included, the interval is called a closed interval. If neither endpoint is included, the interval is
called an open interval. If one endpoint is included and the other endpoint is not included, the
interval is called either a half-open interval or a half-closed interval. Figure 4.11 on page 96 shows
examples of the different types of intervals you will encounter here.

Lesson 4-5 Practice

Graph the following compound inequalities:
1. x > 2 and ≤ 5
2. x <–2 or x > 1
3. x ≤ 4 and x ≥ 0
Lesson 4-6: Inequalities and Absolute Value
When you solved absolute value equations, you’ll recall that you ended up creating two equations
after removing the absolute value part of the equation. Well, it shouldn’t surprise you that when you
mix inequalities and absolute value symbols, you will end up creating two inequalities when you
remove the absolute value symbols in the equation. Satisfying two inequalities in the same problem
means that the solution will be a compound inequality. Hopefully you are beginning to see how we
are building on what we have learned in earlier chapters and earlier sections. That’s a large part of
learning mathematics. We continually push to learn new skills, and then use those new skills to help
develop and explore new ideas. Every skill you learn will form the foundation on which new
knowledge is built. So let’s solve some more problems.
Your approach to solving inequalities with absolute value should be almost identical to the
approach you used to solve equations that involved absolute value. First, isolate the absolute value
part of the inequality. Then create two inequalities and solve each one using the rule for inequalities:

Put the solutions to the two inequalities together to get the final solution.
Usually, when your equation involves an absolute value of something that is less than (or less than
or equal to) a number, you will need to satisfy both of the inequalities that you generate and your
answer will consist of the regions where the two rays overlap. If your equation involves an absolute
value of something that is greater than (or greater than or equal to) a number, your solution will be all
of the numbers that lie on one ray or the other.
The inequality |ax + b| > c is used to create two inequalities, depending on whether ax + b is
positive or negative. If ax + b is positive, then |ax + b| = ax + b and the inequality |ax + b| > c
becomes ax + b > c. If ax + b is negative, then |ax + b| = –(ax + b) and the inequality |ax + b > c|
becomes –(ax + b) > c. The two inequalities ax + b > c and –(ax + b) > c represent the initial
meaning of the inequality |ax + b > c|. If we multiply the inequality –(ax + b) > c by –1, we get ax + b
< –c. The two inequalities ax + b > c or ax + b < –c represent the simplified meaning of the
inequality |ax + b > c|.
The inequalities ax + b > c and ax + b < –c represent two rays that do not overlap. The solution to
the inequality |ax + b |> c will be the set of points that satisfy one inequality or the other.
 This same analysis is done for the other three types of inequalities you will encounter in this book,
and the results are shown in the table on page 98. When I work out problems I will remove the
absolute values using the initial meaning. Then I will carefully transform the inequality, flipping the
inequality when necessary. I will include a graphic solution to each problem, to keep my graphing
skills fresh.

Example 1
Solve the inequality |x + 2| < 4 and graph the solution.
Solution: The absolute value is already isolated. So all we need to do is generate our two
inequalities by substituting for the absolute value symbols. We then solve both inequalities:

The solution is the set of real numbers that are less than 2 and greater than –6. Figure 4.12 shows the
solution graphically.

Figure 4.12: The graphical solution of |x + 2| < 4.

Example 2
Solve the inequality |2x–1|+2≥7 and graph the solution.
Solution: First isolate the absolute value by subtracting 2 from both sides:
|2x–1|+2≥7
|2x–1|≥5
Next, generate the two inequalities and solve them both:

The solution is the set of real numbers that are either greater than or equal to 3, or less than or equal
to –2. Figure 4.13 shows the solution graphically.

Figure 4.13: The graphical solution of |2x–1| + 2 ≥ 7.

Lesson 4-6 Practice

Graph the solutions to the following inequalities.
1. |x – 3| ≥ 3
2. |3x + 2| ≤ 8
3. |2x + 3|– 5 < 7
4. 2|3x–9| > 10

Answer Key
Lesson 4-2
1. x < 4 (subtract 5 from both sides)
2. x < 8 (add 10 to both sides)

3. or (multiply both sides by )

4. or (divide both sides by 3)

5. or (divide both sides by –4 and flip the inequality)

6. x < 10 (multiply both sides by –2 and flip the inequality)

Lesson 4-3
1. x < 5 (subtract 1 from both sides and then multiply both sides by 5)
2. or (add 2 to both sides, divide by –4 and flip the inequality)
3. x ≥–8 (multiply both sides by –3 and flip the inequality, then subtract 2)
4. x < 4
5. x ≤–7
6. x ≤–4

Lesson 4-4
1. x < 5

2. or

3. x ≥–8

4. x < 4

5. x ≤–7

6. x ≤–4
Lesson 4-5
1. x > 2 and x ≥ 5

2. x <–2 or x > 1

3. x ≤ 4 and x ≥ 0

Lesson 4-6
1. x ≥ 6 or x ≤ 0 (solve the two inequalities x –3 ≥ 3 and –(x – 3) ≥ 3)

2. and x ≤ 2 (solve the two inequalities 3x + 2 ≤ 8 and –(3x + 2) ≤ 8)

3. and (solve the two inequalities 2x + 3 < 12 and –(2x + 3) < 12)
4. or (solve the two inequalities 3x – 9 > 5 and –(3x – 9) > 5)
 5
Relations, Functions, and Graphs

Lesson 5-1: Relations

Lesson 5-2: Functions
Lesson 5-3: Formulas
Lesson 5-4: Tables
Lesson 5-5: The Cartesian Coordinate System
Lesson 5-6: Graphs of Functions and Relations

By now you have discovered that there are lots of rules in algebra. There are rules for how to add,
subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers, and there are rules for how to multiply exponential
expressions that have the same base.
Algebra also involves expressions. Algebraic expressions can be thought of as a set of
instructions that are specific to the problem being considered. Different sets of instructions have
different properties, and mathematicians have decided to categorize them as either relations or
functions, depending on the instructions involved.

Lesson 5-1: Relations

A relation is a mathematical way of establishing a relationship between two quantities. One of the
quantities is usually called the input and the other quantity is called the output. The input is also
called the domain, and the output is often referred to as the range or the co-domain. Sometimes
relations are written as a collection of ordered pairs.
Ordered pairs are an efficient way to keep track of information. An ordered pair consists of two
elements, the first element coming from the domain and the second one coming from the range. The
two elements are written side by side, separated by a comma, and surrounded by parentheses. I have
just used a lot of words to describe an object that looks something like (a, b) where a is the input and
b represents the output corresponding to the input value a.
A relation can be viewed as a collection of ordered pairs. Relations are fairly relaxed in the sense
that there are no restrictions or regulations regarding the number of output values that can be
associated with a particular input value. An example of a relation is the collection of ordered pairs
(1, 1), (1, 2), and (2, 1). In this collection of ordered pairs, the input value 1 has two different output
values (1 and 2). A relation can consist of any collection of ordered pairs.
Relations can be described in a variety of ways. You can describe a relation using words, a
formula, a table of input and output values, a list of ordered pairs, or a graph.
It may be helpful to give you a couple of examples of relations. A list of ordered pairs may look
something like (1, 3), (2, 6), (2, 4), (3, 9). This same relation could be represented using the table that
follows.

The problem with tables and lists of ordered pairs is that you are limited to the data provided. In
the relation described by the collection of ordered pairs (1, 3), (2, 6), (2, 4), (3, 9), you would not be
able to determine the output value that corresponds to an input value of 5. Not only that, but the output
isn’t necessarily a unique value determined by the input. As you can see in the previous table, an input
of 2 results in an output of 6 and an output of 4. The fact that a particular input can result in two
different outputs is not a good thing. Imagine taking a multiple choice test where there is more than
one right answer and the answer that will be graded as “correct” depends on the mood of the teacher?
Being able to have more than one output for a given input does not necessarily work to your
advantage.
Relations can also be specified by writing a formula and using variables to represent the input and
the output. A formula gives a set of specific instructions about what to do with the input value. If x
represents the input and y represents the output of our relation, I could give you the formula y = 2x + 1
and have you calculate the output for several values of the input. Having a formula enables you to
completely describe a relation without having to list every single ordered pair in the relation.
Relations that are described using words are very important in applying mathematics to our
everyday lives. For example, suppose you have a job that pays $8 an hour for up to 40 hours and
time-and-half for all hours over 40 hours in a week. You could use this relationship between time
worked and money earned to calculate your paycheck each week.
Finally, you could be given the graph of a relation. A graph of a function helps you visualize the
function so that you can understand its properties more thoroughly. For example, you could look at a
graph of the price of a stock over time and decide whether to buy or sell shares of the stock.

Lesson 5-2: Functions

Like a relation, a function is also a set of instructions that establishes a relationship between two
quantities. Functions have input and output values. The input is still called the domain and the output
is still called the range or the co-domain. The variable used to describe the elements in the domain is
called the independent variable, and the variable used to describe the elements in the range is called
the dependent variable. But there’s more to a function than there is to a relation. With a relation the
same input value could result in two or more different output values. With a function, this is not
possible. The distinguishing feature of a function compared to a relation is that with a function, each
input value is assigned a unique output value. We tend to focus on functions more than relations
because of this extra stipulation.
A function is usually given a name. Sometimes a function is given the name y, other times it is
given the name f(x). It doesn’t matter what you name a function, what matters is what you do with it.
Just like with relations, you can represent a function in a variety of ways. You can use words, a
formula, a table of input and output values, a list of ordered pairs, or a graph to describe a function.

Lesson 5-3: Formulas

A function is a set of instructions telling you how to change the input into the output. A formula
gives a very clear description of what the function does. It is a way to describe the function in
mathematical terms instead of using words. For example, the function that takes the input and triples it
and then adds 5 could be described by the formula f(x) = 3x + 5. The order of operations is very
important when working with formulas. Multiplication comes before addition, so when you read 3x +
5 you should realize that you need to take x and triple it first, then add 5. When you see a function like
f(x) = 3x + 5 you should recognize the important features: the variable that appears in parentheses in
the function name is the independent variable, and the formula for the function shows you how to
transform the input. This formula instructs you to take whatever is in parentheses and triple it first,
then add 5. Technically it doesn’t really matter what is in parentheses. For example, f(2) = 3.2 + 5 =
11 and f(4) = 3.4 + 5 = 17. But in a similar manner, f(Θ) = 3 · Θ + 5, and f(2x) + 5 = 6x + 5. As long
as you follow the rules and replace the independent variable with the object in parentheses, nothing
can go wrong.
A useful skill to develop is the ability to describe a function if you are given a formula, and being
able to write a formula if you are given its description. We will practice those skills in the next two
examples.

Example 1
Write a formula to represent the function that first adds 10 to a number and then doubles the result.
Solution: Since the function first adds 10, we would want to start with (x + 10). Then we have to
double this new number, so our formula would be f(x) = 2(x + 10).

Example 2

Describe the following function in words:

Solution: This formula is a bit tricky to interpret, mainly because there are some invisible

parentheses. The formula should actually be thought of as being . The formula takes a
number and first subtracts 5. Then it divides the result by 4.

Lesson 5-3 Practice

1. Describe the formula in words: f(x) = x2
2. Write a formula to represent a function that takes a number and divides it by 3, and then adds 12 to
the result.

Lesson 5-4: Tables

 Scientists often collect data from various instruments and recording that information in a table.
These tables can represent functions, and provide an easy way to describe a complex formula.
Reading a table is straightforward. If a table is written vertically then the column on the left
represents the independent variable, or the input, and the column on the right represents the dependent
variable, or the output. The columns will be labeled, so if you are in doubt just look at the top row to
see what each column represents. For example, the function described in the table below does not
have a formula associated with it, but by reading the table it is possible to determine that f (3) = 7 and
f(9)= 12.

If a table is written horizontally then the top row usually represents the independent variable and
the bottom row represents the dependent variable. But, if in doubt just check the first column to see
what each row represents. For example, the function defined by the table shown here also does not
have a formula associated with it, but you can see that g(0) = –5 and g(1) = 2.

Lesson 5-4 Practice

Using the table below, determine f(5) and f(15).

Lesson 5-5: The Cartesian Coordinate System

In order to graph a function you need to be able to graph both the input and the output values at the
same time. You will need to use one number line for the input and another number line for the output.
If you arrange these two number lines so that they are perpendicular to each other, as is shown in
Figure 5.1, you will have created what is known as the Cartesian coordinate system.
Figure 5.1: The Cartesian coordinate system.

The Cartesian coordinate system is named for Rene Descartes, who is credited with inventing this
system. This coordinate system brings geometry and algebra together, enabling us to use algebra to
solve problems in geometry and to use geometry to gain insight into algebraic results. We use this
system, which is sometimes called the coordinate plane, to locate points and draw figures.
The horizontal number line is called the x-axis and it is used to record the values of the input, or
independent variable. The vertical number line is called the y-axis and it is used to record the
function values, or the output. The two lines intersect at 0; the point where the two lines intersect is
called the origin.
Two numbers are used to describe the location of a point in the plane, and they are recorded in the
form of an ordered pair (x, y), where the first number represents the horizontal distance (using a
horizontal number line) from the y-axis to the point and the second number represents the vertical
distance (using a vertical number line) from the x-axis to the point. This should look familiar to you;
recall that relations and functions are sometimes given as a list of ordered pairs. The first coordinate
of the ordered pair is called the x-coordinate and the second coordinate is called the y-coordinate.
Points that are on the x-axis have a y-coordinate equal to 0, and points that are on the y-axis have their
x-coordinate equal to 0. Those points that lie to the right of the y-axis have a positive x-coordinate
and points to the left of the y-axis have a negative x-coordinate. Similarly, points above the x-axis
have a positive y-coordinate and points below the x-axis have negative a y-coordinate. The points (2,
3) and (–1, 2) are shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: The graph of the points (2, 3) and (–1, 2).

The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts, called quadrants. Quadrant I consists of those
points that have positive values for both their x-coordinate and y-coordinate. Quadrant I is located in
the upper right part of the plane. We continue on to Quadrants II, III, and IV in a counter-clockwise
progression. Quadrant II consists of those points that have a negative value for their x-coordinate and
a positive value for their y-coordinate. Quadrant III consists of those points that have negative values
for both their x-coordinate and their y-coordinate. Finally, Quadrant IV consists of those points that
have a positive value for their x-coordinate and a negative value for their y-coordinate. The signs for
the x-coordinates and y-coordinates are summarized in the table shown here.

Lesson 5-5 Practice

1. Graph points with coordinates (–3, –1) and (2, –4).
2. Read off the coordinates of the points P and Q shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Points P and Q.

Lesson 5-6: Graphs of Functions and Relations

It is in our nature to look for patterns and relationships between objects or concepts. A picture
certainly helps us discover these patterns, which is why graphing functions and relations is so
important. Graphing a function or a relation can involve plotting a lot of points in the coordinate plane
and then trying to connect the dots. But, if you can plot one point, you can plot them all, and if you plot
enough points you will gain some insight into the function or relation you are trying to study.
In this section, we will focus on graphing functions and relations that are specified by a list of
ordered pairs, a table, and a formula. We will explore graphs in the next few chapters as well, and
even after that we will have only touched the surface of graphing. A graphing calculator can be used
to graph many complicated formulas, and still there will be more to learn about graphing. It truly is a
rich part of mathematics.
A graph of a list of ordered pairs is sometimes called a scatter plot. To graph a list of ordered
pairs, just graph each ordered pair on the list. This is also a good time to review the differences
between relations and functions, and to get some graphical insight into their differences.

Example 1
Graph the following set of ordered pairs:
{(1,1),(2,3),(1,0),(0,2)} and determine if it is a relation or a function.
Solution: The graph is shown in Figure 5.4. It is a relation and not a function because the input value
of 1 has two different output values.
Figure 5.4: The graph of {(1, 1),(2, 3),(1, 0),(0, 2)}.

Example 2
Graph the following and determine if it is a relation or a function.

Solution:
The graph is shown in Figure 5.5. It is a function because each input value has only one unique output
value.

Figure 5.5: The graph of the function defined in Example 2.

Example 3
Graph the function f(x) = x2 for the domain {–1,0,1}.
Solution:
We need to generate the ordered pairs to graph. Plug each number in the domain into the formula for
f(x) to find the corresponding ordered pair. Then graph the ordered pairs. The domain {–1, 0, 1} will
generate the ordered pairs (–1, 1), (0, 0), and (1, 1). The graph of these ordered pairs is shown in
Figure 5.6. It is a function because each input value has only one unique output value.

Figure 5.6: The graph of f(x) = x2 for the domain {–1, 0, 1}.

Example 4
Graph the following: {(0, 2),(1, 2),(2, 2),(3, 2)} and determine if it is a relation or a function.
Solution:
The graph is shown in Figure 5.7. It is a function because each input value has only one output value.
Figure 5.7: The graph of {(0, 2),(1, 2),(2, 2),(3, 2)}.

Lesson 5-6 Practice

Graph the following and determine if they are relations or functions:
1. {(0, 2),(1, 3),(2, 2),(1, 0)}.

2.
3. f(x)= 2x for the domain {–1,0, 1, 2}.

Answer Key
Lesson 5-1
1. f(x) = x2 : the function takes a number and squares it.

2.

Lesson 5-4
1. f(5) = 8, f(15)= 22

Lesson 5-5
1. Graph of the points (–3, –1) and (2, –4).
2. P is the point (–3, –2) and Q is the point (4, 1).

Lesson 5-6
1. Graph of the points {(0, 2),(1, 3),(2, 2),(1, 0)}; it is a relation.

2. Graph of the points {(–2, 1),(–1, 0),(0,–1)}; it is a function.

3. Graph of the points {(–1,–2),(0, 0),(1, 2),(2, 4)}; it is a function.
 6
Linear Equations

Lesson 6-1: Linear Functions and Calculating Slopes

Lesson 6-2: Intercepts
Lesson 6-3: Point-Slope Form
Lesson 6-4: Slope-Intercept Form
Lesson 6-5: Standard Form
Lesson 6-6: Horizontal and Vertical Lines
Lesson 6-7: Graphing Linear Equations

A linear function is one of the nicest functions to work with. A linear function involves two
constants and one variable raised to the first power. The function f(x) = 3x + 2 is an example of a
linear function. Sometimes the function is called y instead of f(x); you may see the function f(x) = 3x +
2 written as y = 3x + 2. It doesn’t matter what we choose to name the function, what matters is the
formula that describes the function. The functions y = 3x + 2 and f(x) = 3x + 2 have different names
but are described using the same formula, so these two functions are really the same. We can examine
this function in more detail in the next section and make some observations. We will then turn our
observations into generalizations about all linear functions.

Lesson 6-1: Linear Functions and Calculating Slopes

The best way to understand a function is to generate a few points and plot them. Whenever you are
trying to examine a function it is best to pick points in a systematic way. I recommend using a
combination of evenly spaced negative and positive values for x. Evaluating the function when x = 0
is also helpful. I’ve evaluated the function f (x) = 3x+ 2 for seven values of x and given the
corresponding function values in the table below. Notice that all of the values of x are evenly spaced
and center around x = 0. Remember that x is called the independent variable. By “independent,” we
mean that we have control over what values we use (within reason, of course). The function f(x) or
the variable y is called the dependent variable. By “dependent” we mean that the value of the function
depends on what value x takes on.
Figure 6.1: The graph of f(x) = 3x + 2.

Once you have determined some of the ordered pairs that are generated by the function, I
recommend graphing them. A carefully drawn picture or a graph can give lots of insight into the nature
of the function. The graph of these ordered pairs is shown in Figure 6.1 on page 122.
Now that we have a picture of this function we can make some observations. First of all, notice
that all of the points appear to lie on the same line. This function was called a linear function, and
now that makes sense. Linear functions with one independent variable and one dependent variable
have graphs that look like lines.
The graph of f(x) = 3x + 2. is a line that is not horizontal like the x-axis, nor is it vertical like the
y-axis. It is worth measuring the slant, or slope, of lines that are not vertical or horizontal. The slope
of a line is defined as the ratio of the “rise” of a graph divided by the “run” of the graph, or the “rise
over the run” of the graph. The rise of the graph is a measurement of the change in the dependent
variable (the variable y), and the run of the graph is a measurement of the change in the independent
variable (the variable x):

Mathematicians often use the symbol Δ to represent change. In geometry we use the symbol Δ to
represent a triangle, but in algebra it is a short-hand way to abbreviate “change.” The change in a
variable is just the final value of the variable minus the initial value of the variable. You can calculate
the slope of a line using any two points on the line. If you have two points, say (a, b) and (c, d), then
the change in dependent variable would be found by taking the difference between the y-coordinates
of the two points: Δy =d-b. The change in independent variable would be found by taking the
difference between the x-coordinates of the two points: Δx=c–a. The slope of the line is found by
using the previous equation:

You may be wondering how I knew that the point (c, d) was the final point and (a, b) was the
initial point. In reality, it doesn’t matter. If I had switched them so that (a, b) was the final point and
(c, d) was the initial point, the result would have been the same:

It is not important which point is considered to be the final point and which point is considered to
be the initial point. It is important that the change in y is put into the numerator of the ratio and the
change in x is put into the denominator of the ratio. The other thing that is important is that you are
consistent in which point is the final point and which point is the initial point when calculating the
changes. If (a, b) is the final point when calculating Δy, it must also be the final point when
calculating Δx. Let’s use a couple of different points in the table to calculate the slope of the line y =
3x + 2:
Example 1
Calculate the slope of f(x) = 3x + 2. using point #1 and point #3.
Solution:

Point #1 is the point (–3, –7) and point #3 is the point (–1, –1). The slope is:

Example 2
Calculate the slope of f(x) = 3x + 2. using point #4 and point #7.
Solution:

Point #4 is the point (0, 2) and point #7 is the point (3, 11). The slope is:

We calculated the same slope in Example 1 and in Example 2. In fact, one of the things that make
lines so special is that their slope is constant. It doesn’t matter which set of points you use to
calculate the slope of a line, the slope will always be the same for a particular line.
Notice that the slope of the linear function f (x) = 3x + 2 is 3; 3 also happens to be the coefficient
in front of x. Could this be a coincidence? No! It is easy to pick out the slope of a linear function if the
function is written in this particular form: read off the coefficient in front of x. For example, the slope
of the linear function f(x) = 7x + 9 is…7!
Example 3
Pick 2 points and calculate the slope of the function:
f(x) = –2x + 1.
Solution:
We can see by the formula for f(x) that the slope is –2. It doesn’t matter which two points I pick, so
I will pick points corresponding to x = 0 and x = 1. The point corresponding to x = 0 is (0, 1)
(since f (0) = 1) and the point corresponding to x = 1 is (1, –1) (since f(1)=(–2).1+1=–1). The
slope of the line passing through (0, 1) and (1, –1) is:

Example 4
Find the slope of the line that passes through the points (4, –2) and (6, 3).
Solution:
Use the equation for the slope:

Lesson 6-1 Practice

1. Fill in the table and then graph the points for the function f(x) = –x + 2.

2. Find the slope of the function f(x) = 2x –4.

3. Find the slope of the line that passes through the points (–2, 1) and (4, –3).

Lesson 6-2: Intercepts

In addition to the slope of a line, there are other important features of a line that are worth
mentioning. Two important points of a line are called the intercepts. There is an x-intercept, which is
where the graph of the line crosses the x-axis, and there is a y-intercept, which is where the graph of
the line crosses the y-axis. Finding them is fairly straightforward.
 The y-intercept of a function is where that function intersects the y-axis. The y-axis consists of all
points in the plane where x = 0. So, to find the y-intercept of a function you need to evaluate the
function at x = 0. The y-intercept is the point (0, f,(0)).

Example 1
Find the y-intercept of the following functions:
a. f(x) = 3x + 1
b. f(x) = –2x +3
Solution:
a. The y-intercept is the point (0, f, (0)): if f(x) = 3x + 1, then f(0)= 3.0+1 = 1. The y-intercept is the
point (0, 1).
b. The y-intercept is the point (0, f, (0)): if f(x) = –2x –3, then f(0) = 2.0–3=–3. The y-intercept is the
point (0, –3).

Finding the x-intercept of a line requires a little more work than does finding the y-intercept.
Functions are written so that the values of y are easy to determine, but the price is that the values of x
are not as easy to find. The x-intercept is the point where the line crosses the x-axis; the x-axis is the
set of all points with a y-coordinate equal to 0. To find the x-intercept of a line, set the function f(x)
equal to 0 and solve for x. Because functions are sometimes called f(x) and other times called y,
finding the x-intercept involves setting y equal to 0 and solving for x.

Example 2
Find the x-intercept of the following functions:
a. f(x) = 3x + 1
b. f(x) = –2x –3.
Solution:
a. Set f(x) = 0 and solve for x:

0 = 3 x+1

–3x=1

The x-intercept is the point .

b. Set f(x)= 0 and solve for x:
0 = –2x–3
2x=–3
The x-intercept is the point .

Notice that the y-intercept can be directly read off of the equation, but finding the x-intercept
requires us to solve an algebraic equation.

Lesson 6-2 Practice

Find the slope, the x-intercept, and the y-intercept of the following lines:
1. f(x) = 3x + 2
2. f(x) = 5x +10
3. y = –2x–4

Lesson 6-3: Point-Slope Form

The fact that the slope of a line is always the same, regardless of which two points on the line you
use to calculate it, enables us to find the equation of a line very easily. If you need to find the equation
of a line, all you need are two things: a point and the slope. Think of a line as a set of points. Suppose
you know the slope of a line and also one point on the line. Then knowing the equation of the line will
enable you to find the corresponding y-coordinate for any given x-coordinate. I will discuss several
methods to determine the equation of a line, and there are many forms we use to write the equation of
a line. The first method involves using the point-slope formula, and it makes use of the constant slope
of a line.
Suppose that you know that a line passes through the point (a, b) and it has a slope m. If (x, y) is
any other point on the line, then the slope between (a, b) and (x, y) must be m. Let’s calculate the
slope between (a, b) and (x, y):

We can then multiply both sides of this equation by (x – b):

This last equation is the point-slope equation for a line. If you know one point on the line, (a, b),
as well as the slope, m, you can use this equation to write the equation of the line.

Example 1
Find the point-slope form of the equation of the line passing through the point (1, 3) having slope
5.
Solution:
Using the point-slope formula, the equation of the line is y - 3 = 5 (x–1).

Example 2
Find the point-slope form of the equation of the line passing through the points (–1, 4) and (3, 2).
Solution: The point-slope formula requires us to know a point and a slope. We are given two points,
so the first thing we need to find is the slope:

Now that we have the slope we are ready to use the point-slope equation. It doesn’t matter which
point we use.

I will use (3, 2):

This equation is equivalent to the equation , which is the equation you would
have generated if you used the point (–1, 4). If you solve each equation for y, you will see that you
have the same formula in both cases, which is why the two representations are equivalent.
The point-slope form of a line is usually an intermediate step. We usually like our equations to be
in slope-intercept form or in standard form, which we will discuss next.

Lesson 6-3 Practice

Use the point-slope formula to find the equation of the following lines:
1. The line passing through the point (1, 2) having slope 3.
2. The line passing through the points (2, –1) and (4, 1).
3. The line passing through the points (–4, 2) and (0, 1).

Lesson 6-4: Slope-Intercept Form

The slope-intercept form of the equation of a line is written
y = mx + b
where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. This form should look familiar: when I discussed linear
functions earlier I used functions of the form f(x)= mx+ b. A function by any other name (like y)
represents the same thing; you already have experience using the slope-intercept form of a line. It is
not surprising that the slope-intercept form of a line is sometimes called the function form of a line.
Now it is time to practice writing equations of lines in this form. There are several ways to approach
these problems. If you are given the slope and the y-intercept directly, just put that information into the
slope-intercept equation of a line. Otherwise, I recommend starting with the point-slope equation of a
line and then solving for y.

Example 1
Find the slope-intercept equation of the line with slope 2 and y-intercept –3.
Solution: The slope-intercept equation of a line is y = mx+b. We are given both the slope and the y-
intercept, so just plug them into the equation. The equation of the line is then y = 2x–3.

Example 2
Find the slope-intercept equation of the line passing through (–2, 5) having slope 4.
Solution: In this case we are given a point, (–2, 5), and the slope, 4. The slope-intercept equation of
a line has y on one side of the equal sign and everything else on the other side. To find the slope-
intercept equation of this line we need to start with the point-slope equation of a line and then solve
for y :

Example 3
Find the slope-intercept equation of the line passing through (3, 4) and (–1, 1).
Solution: In order to use the point-slope equation we need a point, which we have, and a slope,
which we don’t. So first find the slope:

Next, use the point-slope formula and solve for y (it doesn’t matter which point you use):

Lesson 6-4 Practice

Find the slope-intercept equation of the following lines:
1. The line with slope 6 and y-intercept –2.
2. The line that passes through the point (1, 4) and has slope –3.
3. The line that passes through the points (2, –3) and (–2, 6).
Lesson 6-5: Standard Form
The equation of a line written in standard form looks like
A x + By = C
where A, and B represent constants that are in front of the variables and C is a constant. The
variables x and y represent the independent and dependent variables, respectively. There are many
times that you will be given an equation in standard form and will have to extract useful information
from it. Other times you will be asked to write your equation in standard form with integer
coefficients. If you are given the equation in standard form, often times the best thing to do is to put it
in slope-intercept form. Then you will be able to read off the slope and the y-intercept easily. What
you do depends on the instructions given in the problem. So be sure to read each problem carefully so
you can answer it correctly.

Example 1

Write the equation in standard form with integer coefficients.

Solution:
To write the equation in standard form with integer coefficients, the first thing you need to do is clear
out all of the fractions. You’ll want to carefully multiply both sides of the equation by 5 (using the
distributive property where necessary) so that all of the coefficients are integers. Then you need to
make sure that all of the variables are on one side, numbers on the other:

Example 2
Find the equation of the line in standard form that has slope –2 and passes through (1, 4).
Solution:
Start with the point-slope equation, and simplify, moving the variables to one side and the numbers to
the other:
y–4 = –2(x–1)
y–4 = –2x+ 2

y= –2x+6
2x+y = 6

Example 3
 Find the equation of the line in standard form with integer coefficients that passes through (–3, 1)
and (2, 2).
Solution:
In order to find the equation of the line we need a point and a slope. So we need to find the slope:

Now we are ready to use the point-slope formula, clear out the fractions and simplify:

It is worthwhile to examine the relationship between standard form and slope-intercept form. If we
start with an equation in standard form and solve for y, our line will then be expressed in slope-
intercept form:

So if you have an equation in standard form Ax +By = C, then the slope is and the y-intercept

is . There are some people who would just memorize these formulas, but if I remembered every
formula I was ever shown, I would never be able to remember my phone number! I prefer to
understand where the formulas come from. That way I don’t have to rely on my memorization skills.
All you have to realize is that if you have an equation in standard form, the key to determining the
slope and the y-intercept is to solve for y!

Lesson 6-5 Practice

Find the equation of the following lines. Write your answer in standard form with integer coefficients.

1. The line with slope –4 and y-intercept .

2. The line passing through the point (–1, 4) having slope 2.
3. The line passing through the points (3, –2) and (5, 2).

Lesson 6-6: Horizontal and Vertical Lines

 Lines can be horizontal, vertical, inclined to the left, or inclined to the right. As we have already
discussed, lines that are inclined to the left or the right have slopes that can be calculated using the
equation

Horizontal and vertical lines are special lines with special properties. Horizontal and vertical lines
are in a class by themselves, so it’s best to examine them separately.
Any line that is parallel to the x-axis is a horizontal line. The x-axis itself is an example of a
horizontal line. What distinguishes a horizontal line from every other kind of line is that the y-
coordinate of every point on a horizontal line is the same, and a horizontal line can be completely
specified by specifying what that y-coordinate is. Every horizontal line can be written as y = a, where
a is a real number representing the y-coordinate of that line. For example, the equation of the x-axis is
y= 0.
Any line that passes through two points that have the same y-coordinate, but different x-
coordinates, will be horizontal. We can calculate the slope of a horizontal line using the equation for
the slope of a line:

Since the y-coordinates of all points on a horizontal line have the same value, the rise of a
horizontal line is always 0, making the slope of a horizontal line 0 (since 0 divided by any non-zero
number is 0). A horizontal line has a whole lot of run and no rise. An important characteristic of a
horizontal line is that its slope is 0. That’s not surprising because a horizontal line has the equation y
= a and we can re-write the equation y = a as y = 0. x + a.
A vertical line is any line that is parallel to the y-axis. With a vertical line, all of the points on the
line have the same x-coordinate. Writing the equation of a vertical line involves specifying the x-
coordinate, and in general it is written x = a where a is a real number that represents the x-coordinate
of the line. A vertical line has a whole lot of rise and no run. This means that Δx = 0. If you tried to
calculate the slope of a vertical line you would run into problems because the denominator of the
slope (the run) would be 0, and we aren’t allowed to divide by 0. So there is no point in calculating
the slope of a vertical line and we say that a vertical line has no slope. Recognize that there is a
difference between “zero slope” (i.e. a horizontal line) and “no slope” (i.e. a vertical line). “No” and
0 mean two different things in this context, and you must be careful to mean what you say and say
what you mean.
The nice thing about vertical and horizontal lines is that all you need is 1 point to describe them,
because you already know the slope (if the slope exists then the line is horizontal with slope 0 and if
the slope doesn’t exist then the line is vertical).

Example 1
Write the equation of the horizontal line passing through (3, 2).
Solution: All you need to describe a horizontal line is the y-coordinate of a point. The equation of the
horizontal line passing through (3, 2) is y = 2.

Example 2
Write the equation of the vertical line passing through (4, –2).
Solution: All you need to describe a vertical line is the x-coordinate of a point. The equation of the
vertical line passing through (4, –2) is x = 4.

Example 3
Find the equation of the line passing through (2, –1) and (2, 3).
Solution: Because the x-coordinates of these two points are the same, we are dealing with the
vertical line x = 2.

Example 4
Find the equation of the line passing through (–2, 1) and (3, 1).
Solution: Because the y-coordinates of these two points are the same, we are dealing with the
horizontal line y = 1.

Lesson 6-6 Practice

Find the equation of the following lines.
1. The vertical line that passes through the point (1, –3).
2. The horizontal line that passes through the point (–4, 7).

Lesson 6-7: Graphing Linear Equations

Now that we understand the various ways to write an equation of a line, it’s time to get a picture of
what our lines look like. The key to graphing linear functions, or lines, is that all you need is two
points and a straightedge (or ruler).
In order to find two points on the line, pick two different values for x, substitute those values into
the equation to find the corresponding values for y. Then plot the two ordered pairs and connect the
dots with a ruler. That’s all there is to it. You can use any two points that you want.
Another way to graph a line is to find both intercepts and plot them. The way to find the x-intercept
is to set y = 0 and solve for x; to find the y-intercept set x = 0 and solve for y. I’ll use the intercept
method in my examples, just so that we can review how to find them as well as how to solve
equations. The more you practice, the better you’ll get. You don’t have to do it my way, though. You
can draw your graphs using your two favorite points and compare your graphs to mine. It doesn’t
matter which two points you plot and connect, as long as the points actually lie on the line in question.

Example 1
Graph the line given by the equation: y = 2x + 1
Solution: First, find the y-intercept by setting x = 0:
y = 2x+ 1
y = 2.0+1 = 1
Then find the x-intercept by setting y = 0:

Then plot the two intercepts (0, 1) and and connect the points.

Figure 6.2: The graph of y x = + 2x + 1.

Example 2
Graph the line given by the equation: 3x + 2y = 6
Solution: First, find the y-intercept by setting x = 0:
3x + 2y = 6
3.0 + 2y = 6
2y = 6
y=3
Then find the x-intercept by setting y= 0:
3x + 2y =6
3x + 2.0 = 6
3x = 6
x=2
Then plot the two intercepts (0, 3) and (2, 0) and connect the points.

Figure 6.3: The graph of 3x + 2y = 6.

Example 3
Graph the line given by the equation y = 3x.
Solution:
First, find the y-intercept by setting x = 0: y= 3. 0 = 0. Notice that this line passes through the origin
(0, 0) which means that the x-intercept and the y-intercept are the same point. So we will need to pick
a different value of x in order to come up with another point on the line. It doesn’t matter what value
we pick for x; to keep it simple, pick x = 1. Use that value to solve for y: y = 3. 1 = 3. Then plot the
two points (0, 0) and (1, 3) and connect them.

Figure 6.4: The graph of the line y = 3x.

Lesson 6-7 Practice
Graph the following lines:
1. y = -2x+ 1
2. x–3y = 3

3.

Answer Key
Lesson 6-1

1.
Graph of the points {(–2,5)(–1,4),(0,3),(1,2),(2,1)}

2. The slope is 2.

3. The slope is .

Lesson 6-2
1. The slope is 3,
 the x-intercept is , and
the y-intercept is (0, 2).
2. The slope is 5,
the x-intercept is (–2, 0), and
the y-intercept is (0, 10).
3. The slope is –2,
the x-intercept is (–2, 0), and
the y-intercept is (0, –4).

Lesson 6-3
1. y–2 = 3(x–1)
2. y–1=1(x–4) or y+1=1(x–2), depending on the point used.

3. or , depending on the point used.

Lesson 6-4
1. y = 6x= –2
2. y = –3x7

3. The slope is .

Use the point-slope formula and solve for y:

Lesson 6-5
1. 8x + 2y = 1
2. –2x + y = 6
3. The slope is 2; use the point-slope formula and move the variables to the left of the equal sign: –
2x+y=–8

Lesson 6-6
1. Read off the x-coordinate of the point: x = 1
2. Read off the y-coordinate of the point: y = 7

Lesson 6-7
1. Graph of the line y = –2x + 1

(x-intercept , y-intercept (0, 1))

2. Graph of the line x – 3y = 3 (x-intercept (3, 0), y-intercept (0, –1).

3. Graph of the line (x-intercept and y-intercept are both (0, 0), find another point: (2, 3)
 7
Systems of Linear Equations

Lesson 7-1: The Graphical Method

Lesson 7-2: The Substitution/Elimination Method
Lesson 7-3: The Addition/Subtraction Method

A system of linear equations refers to a collection of linear equations. A solution to a system of

linear equations consists of all of the ordered pairs (a, b) that satisfy all of the equations in the
system. That means that any solution of a system of linear equations must lie on all of the individual
lines that make up the system. In other words, the solution of a system of equations consists of all
points that lie at the intersection of all of the linear equations in the system.
I will discuss three ways to solve systems of linear equations. While these are not the only
methods available, they are the ones that use the skills that you have learned so far.
When solving systems of linear equations, it is important to keep in mind how many points there
are that satisfy all of the equations in the system. The key to understanding how many answers you are
looking for is to keep in mind the properties of lines. Recall that two points determine the equation of
a line. If you have two lines, there are only a few possibilities:
The two lines are parallel and do not intersect. In this case, there are no points that lie on both
lines. In other words, there is no solution to the system of equations.
The two lines are different representations of the same line and the two equations are
equivalent. If the two equations are equivalent then every point that satisfies one of the
equations also satisfies the other equation. In other words, there are infinitely many solutions to
the system of equations.
The two lines are not parallel and the equations are not equivalent to each other. In this case,
the two lines will intersect at one unique point and there is only one solution to the system of
equations.

We will see examples of each of these cases, though our focus will be on the third situation.

Lesson 7-1: The Graphical Method

The most direct method for solving systems of equations is to graph all of the equations in that
system and find the point of intersection. Because the solution of a linear system of equations must
satisfy each equation in the system, the solution must lie on the graph of both equations. If the solution
has integer values for both coordinates, a careful graph will yield the solution directly. Otherwise, the
graphical solution will only give an approximate answer and indicate in which quadrant the solution
lie. Any answer that you get using this method must be checked by substituting the values for x and y
into both equations. If they are both satisfied then your answer is correct.
Example 1

Solve the system of equations given by:

Solution: Graph each line separately and look for the point of intersection. When graphing a line all
you need is two points.
I usually pick the intercepts whenever possible. If a line goes through the origin, then both the x- and
y-intercepts are the same point. In that case I abandon my bias toward the intercepts use another point
on the graph as my second point. To find the x-intercept of the line x + y= 4 substitute y = 0 into the
equation and solve for x:
x+0=4
The x-intercept is the point (4, 0). To find the y-intercept of the line x + y = 4 substitute x = 0 into the
equation and solve for y:
0+y=4
The y-intercept is the point (0, 4). Similarly, the x-intercept (and the y-intercept) of the line 3x – y = 0
is the origin, or (0, 0). I will need to find a second point, so I will let x = 1 and solve for y:
3x – y = 0
3·1–y=0
y= 3
So the second point on the line 3x – y= 0 is (1, 3). The graph of both of these lines is shown in Figure
7.1. Looking at the graph we can see that the intersection of these two points is the point (1, 3).

Figure 7.1: The graph of the system of equations.

The last thing to do is check to see if the point (1, 3) satisfies both equations. Check the first equation:
x+y=4
1+3=4
Check the second equation:
3x – y = 0
3·1–3=0
The point (1, 3) satisfies both equations. Therefore the point (1, 3) is a solution of the system of

equations

Lesson 7-1 Practice

Solve the following systems of equations by graphing each equation:

1.

2.

3.

Lesson 7-2: The Substitution/Elimination Method

The substitution/elimination method is an algebraic method for solving systems of equations. It
involves solving for one of the variables in one of the equations in terms of the other one, and then
substituting the expression for that variable into the other equation. In this process one of the
variables is eliminated, making it possible to solve for the remaining one. I recommend using this
method if at least one of the coefficients of one of the variables in one of the equations is either 1 or –
1; in that case one variable is easy to isolate and you don’t have to complicate the problem by having
to work with fractions.

Example 1

Solve the system of equations:

Solution: Since the coefficient of x in the top equation equals 1, this method will work well. Use the
first equation to solve for x:
x + 2y = 5
x = –2y + 5
I will refer to this equation as the substitution equation. Use this equation for x to eliminate the
appearance of x in the second equation. In other words, replace every x in the second equation with
the expression –2y + 5. After that, solve for y:
Now that you know the value of y, use it in the substitution equation to solve for x:
x = –2y + 5
x = –2(1) + 5
x=3
The last step is to check your work. Make sure that the point (3, 1) satisfies both equations:

Both equations are satisfied, so the system of equations has solution (3, 1).

Example 2

Solve the system of equations

Solution: Because the second equation has a variable with a coefficient of –1, that is the equation that
we will use to isolate y:
4x – y = –2
–y = –4x – 2
(–1) (–y) = (–1) (–4x – 2)
y = 4x + 2
Use this substitution equation to eliminate y in the first equation and solve for x:
Now that we know the value of x we can use the substitution equation to solve for y:
y = 4x + 2
y = 4(–1) + 2
y = –2
So the solution consists of the point (–1, –2). The last step is to check our solution to make sure that it
satisfies both of the equations in our system:

Both of these equations are satisfied, so the system of equations

has solution (–1, –2).

The substitution/elimination method will work even if all of the coefficients of all of the variables
in both of the equations are not 1 or –1. In that situation, I prefer to use the method that will be
discussed in the next section. In the meantime, work out the three practice problems to make sure that
you understand the methods being used. You will want to make sure you understand these problems
before trying to solve the problems in the next lesson.

Lesson 7-2 Practice

Use the substitution/elimination method to solve the following systems of equations:

1.

2.
3.

Lesson 7-3: The Addition/Subtraction Method

This method is sometimes referred to as solving a linear system by using linear combinations. It
should be used when all of the coefficients of the variables are real numbers other than 1 and –1. The
procedure is easier to understand with an example, so I will talk you through the logic and then walk
you through a couple of examples so you can see how the technique is used. Then you will have a
chance to apply what you have learned.
To begin with, you should write each equation in standard form and write the variables in the
same order. Line up your equations one on top of the other and decide which of the variables
you want to eliminate.
Look at the coefficient of that variable in each of the two equations. Your goal is to make those
coefficients the same. The best way to do that is to find the least common multiple (remember
that the least common multiple is the smallest number that both coefficients divide into evenly).
Figure out what you have to multiply each equation by in order to get those coefficients to be
the same.
Once you multiply each equation by it’s particular constant, you are ready to add or subtract the
two equations, depending on the signs. If the two coefficients are the same sign, subtract one
equation from the other; if the two coefficients are opposite in sign, add the sides of the two
equations together. After you do that you will be left with only one variable.
Solve for that variable and then use that value in either one of the original equations to solve
for the value of the other variable. Let’s see the method in action.

Example 1

Solve the system of equations:

Solution: Each equation is already written in standard form. Notice that the coefficients of x are 4
and 2; the coefficients of y are 3 and 5. The least common multiple of 4 and 2 is 4; the least common
multiple of 3 and 5 is 15. If I wanted to get rid of x I would want the coefficient of x to be 4 in both
equations; if I wanted to eliminate y, I would want the coefficient of y to be 15 in both equations. I
will have to do less work if I eliminate x, so that is the variable I will go after. The way to have both
equations have the same coefficient for x is to multiply the second equation by 2 (and leave the first
equation alone, because the coefficient of x is already 4 in the first equation). When we multiply the
second equation by 2, we will still have an equivalent equation, and hence an equivalent system of
equations:

Notice that when I multiplied the second equation by 2, I had to multiply each term in the equation by
2. Remember that mathematics is an egalitarian system: whatever you do to one side of an equation
you must also do to the other side in order to keep the scales balanced. Now the system that we are
solving is:

Because the two coefficients in front of the variable x are the same, we can subtract the bottom
equation from the top equation to get:

Be sure that when you subtract the bottom equation that you subtract each and every term. You are
using the distributive property: on the left-hand side of the equation you are evaluating 4x + 3y – (4x
+ 10y) and on the right-hand side of the equation you are evaluating 18 – 32. Now we can solve
directly for y by dividing both sides of the equation by –7:

Now that we know the value of y, we can use it to substitute into either of the original equations and
solve for x. I will use the first equation to find x:

So the solution to the system of equations is the point (3, 2). The last thing to do is to check the
solution in the second equation. Plug in the value of y into the second equation:
4x + 10y = 32
4 · 3 + 10 · 2 = 32
So the point (3, 2) satisfies both equations and is therefore the solution.

Example 2

Solve the system of equations:

Solution: Because none of the coefficients are equal to 1 or –1, the method to use would be the
addition/subtraction method. The numbers we pick to multiply the first and second equation by
depend on which variable you want to eliminate. In order to eliminate x from the system you would
need to multiply the first equation by 3 and the second equation by 2. If you wanted to eliminate y
from the system you would need to multiply the first equation by 2 and the second equation by 3. In
the last example I eliminated x, so in this example I will eliminate y. First I will transform both
equations:

Now that the coefficients in front of the variable y are the same, I will carefully subtract the bottom
equation from the top of the equation:

Finally, use the resulting equation to solve for x:

Now that I have a value for x, I can use either of the original equations to solve for y. I will plug the
value of x into the original second equation and solve for y:
3x – 2x = 5
3 · 3 2y = 5
9 – 2y = 5
–2y = –4
y=2
So the solution to the system of equations is the point (3, 2). The last step is to check our answer by
substituting our point into the first equation:
2x – 3y = 0
2·3–2=0
Because the point (3, 2) satisfies both equations, it is the solution to the system of equations.
Work out the following problems to be sure that you understand the technique used and can
successfully apply it. Be sure to check your answers in the appendix before moving on to the next
chapter.

Lesson 7-3 Practice

Use the addition/subtraction method to solve the following systems of equations:
1.

2.

3.

Answer Key
Lesson 7-1

1. Graph of the system of equations

2. Graph of the system of equations

3. Graph of the system of equations

Lesson 7-2
1. (2, 1)

2.
3. (0, –2)

Lesson 7-3
1. (–1, 1)
2. (3, –1)
3. (–2, 1)
 8
Monomials and Polynomials

Lesson 8-1: Terminology

Lesson 8-2: Adding and Subtracting Monomials
Lesson 8-3: Multiplying and Dividing Monomials
Lesson 8-4: Monomials as the Base of an Exponential Expression
Lesson 8-5: Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
Lesson 8-6: Multiplying Polynomials
Lesson 8-7: Special Products
Lesson 8-8: Dividing Polynomials by Monomials
Lesson 8-9: Factoring Techniques
Lesson 8-10: Solving Factored Equations

Your experiences with functions have exposed you to some mathematical expressions that are very
important in algebra. For example, the function f(x)= x2 is the function that takes whatever is in
parentheses and squares it. Functions will involve numbers and variables that are combined by using
the four basic operations. Algebra is all about building on the foundation of numbers, and numbers
can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. Because functions are directly related to numbers,
it should not surprise you that functions can also be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. In this
chapter we will begin to explore the algebra of functions.

Lesson 8-1: Terminology

The expression x2 is an example of a monomial. A monomial is an expression that only involves a
product of numbers and variables whose powers are positive integers. A monomial in one variable is
an expression of the form k. xn where k is a real number and n is a positive integer. The degree of a
monomial in one variable is the power that the variable is raised. The degree of the monomial k. xn.
A constant can be viewed as a monomial of the form k · x0 (since any non-zero number raised to the
0th power is 1), so a constant is a monomial of degree 0.
A monomial with two variables is an expression of the form k · xn · ym. The number k is called the
coefficient of the monomial. The degree of a monomial in more than one variable is the sum of the
powers of all of the variables that appear. A monomial of the form k · xn · ym has degree n + m. The
monomials 3x4, 5xy, 7x2y4, have degree 4, 2, and 6, respectively.
A polynomial is the sum of two or more monomials. The sign of k determines whether the
monomial is added to or subtracted from the other monomials in the chain. The monomials that make
up a polynomial are usually written in descending order based on the degree of the monomial. In other
words, you start writing a polynomial by writing the monomial with the highest degree first, then the
second highest degree, and so on. This is considered the standard form of a polynomial. When a
polynomial is written in standard form, the coefficient of the first term is called the leading
coefficient. The polynomials 3x2 + 2, 4xy + y+1 and x3+ x2+1 are written in standard form, and their
leading coefficients are 3, 4, and 1, respectively.

Some polynomials have special names. A polynomial that is made up of two monomials is called a
binomial. A polynomial that is made up of three monomials is called a trinomial. The table on page
162 gives examples of some of the more common types of monomials and polynomials that you will
encounter in algebra.

Lesson 8-2: Adding and Subtracting Monomials

The only time that you can effectively combine (by addition or subtraction) two monomials is
when both monomials involve the exact same variables raised to the exact same powers. The only
possible variation in the monomials is in their coefficients. For example, you can add the monomials
2x2y3 and 5x2y3 together to get 7x2y3, because x is squared and y is cubed in both monomials. If you
try to add the monomials 2x2y3 and 5x2 y2 together you will get 2x2y3 + 5x2y2. There is no further
simplification that you can do at this point because y is cubed in the first monomial and y is squared
in the second monomial. I will work out a few examples to show you some monomials that can and
cannot be combined.

Example 1
Combine the following monomials, if possible:
a. 5xy+ 9xy
b. 3x2+x2
 c. 12xyz –16xyz
d. 12xy2–3xy
Solution:
a. The only difference in the two monomials is the coefficient, so it is possible to add them together:
5xy + 9xy = 14xy
b. The powers of x match in each of the monomials, so it is possible to add them together: 3x2 + x2=
4x2
c. The powers of x, y, and z are the same in both monomials, so it is possible to write: 12xyz–
16xyz=–4xyz
d. No further combination is possible because the powers of y are different in the two monomials:
12xy2–3xy = 12xy2–3xy

Lesson 8-2 Practice

Combine the following monomials:
1. 4x – 6x
2. 13xy2 +2xy
3. 3xz + 5xz
4. 6xy – 9xy

Lesson 8-3: Multiplying and Dividing Monomials

In Chapter 2 I promised you that the rules for exponents would play an important role in Chapter 8.
If these rules don’t sound familiar, it may be worth your while to go back to Chapter 2 for a quick
review. I will remind you of the product, quotient, and power rules for exponents here, so you can
judge whether it is best to go on or to review:
Product rule: When you multiply two exponential expressions that have the same base, you add
the exponents:
am × an = am+n
Quotient rule: When you divide one exponential expression into another exponential
expression with the same base, you subtract the exponents:

Power rule: When you raise an exponential expression to a power, you multiply the exponents:

Multiplying monomials is more relaxed than adding or subtracting them. In order to add or subtract
monomials we had to make sure that the variables in each monomial were exactly the same, down to
the power. The nice thing about multiplying monomials is that it doesn’t matter which variables are
involved in the monomials or what their powers are. All that matters is that the only operation
involved is multiplication. The strategy for multiplying monomials is as follows:
First, multiply the coefficients as a group.
Then, focus on each variable involved in the product.
Use the rules for how to multiply exponential expressions and you can’t go wrong. The following
example should help illustrate the process.

Example 1
Simplify the following expressions:
a. (x2) (2x4)
b. (4x4) (3x6)
c. (x3 y4) (-xy2)
d. (–4x4) (–6xy) (3y2)
Solution:

d. (–4x4) (–6xy) (3y2) =(–4)(–6)(3))(x4x)(yy2) =72x5y3

Division proceeds just like multiplication. Check for common factors of the coefficients that you
can cancel, and use the rules for dividing exponential expressions to handle the variables in the
expression. The next example should help you understand the process. Notice that the expressions are
starting to get complicated. We can combine multiplication and division of monomials in the same
expression. When that happens, I recommend that you simplify the numerator and the denominator first
and then do the division. I have tried to break things down step by step, so you can follow all of the
changes.

Example 2
Simplify the following expressions:
Solution:

Try your hand at solving some of these problems. By the time you are through, you should have a
solid understanding of the product and the quotient rules for exponents.

Lesson 8-3 Practice

Simplify the following expressions. Your answer should only contain positive exponents:
1. (3x2) (2x6)
2. (–5x4 y2)(–2x3y)

3.

4.

5.
6.

Lesson 8-4: Monomials as the Base of an Exponential Expression

Now it is time to apply the power rule for exponents and write some more interesting expressions
using monomials. To simplify an exponential expression that has a monomial as the base, just apply
the rule:

If you are careful to raise each term in the base to the power n, you can’t go wrong. Remember that
we worked similar problems in Chapter 2.

Example 1
Simplify the following expressions:

Solution:

Lesson 8-4 Practice

Simplify the following expressions:

1.

2.

3.

4.
Lesson 8-5: Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
A polynomial is a sum of monomials. Because of the commutative and associative properties of
addition, adding or subtracting polynomials is equivalent to adding or subtracting monomials.
Remember that you can only combine monomials that have the exact same variables raised to the
exact same powers. When you add or subtract polynomials, you have to look for monomials that
match up and combine them. When you are subtracting one polynomial from another polynomial you
must be sure to subtract each term in the polynomial being subtracted. This is equivalent to
distributing the negative sign throughout the polynomial that is being subtracted, as you will see in
Example 1.

Example 1
Simplify the following expressions:
a. (x2+3x–2)+ (3x2–5x–6)
b. (3x–8y)+(5x+2y)
c.(x2y–3x)-(4x2y+3x
d.(x2+3x–2)- (2x2–5x–6)
e. (3x–8y)-(x+2y)
Solution:
a. Combine the terms that involve x2, then combine the terms that involve x, and, finally, combine the
constant terms together:
(x2+3x–2)+(3x2-5x–6) = 4x2–2x–8
b. Combine the terms that involve x, then combine the terms that involve y:
(3x–8y) + (5x+2y) =8x–6y
c. Distribute the negative in front of the polynomial being subtracted, and then combine monomials
that match up:
(x2y–3x)–(4x2y +3x) = (x2y–3x)–4x2y +3x= –3x2y–6x
d. Distribute the negative in front of the polynomial being subtracted, and then combine monomials
that match up:
(x2+3x+2) - (2x2–5x–6) =(x2+3x+2)–2x2+5x+6 = -x2+8x+8
e. Distribute the negative in front of the polynomial being subtracted, and then combine monomials
that match up:
(3x–8y)–(x+2y) = (3x–8y)–x-2y = 2x–10y

Lesson 8-5 Practice

Simplify the following expressions:
1. (2x2+3x–1)+ (x2+2x+7)
2. 3(x2+2x+1)–(x2–2x+1)
3.(x2y+3x+2)+ (x2y+6x–1)
4.(3x+2y)–(4x–2y)

Lesson 8-6: Multiplying Polynomials

In order to understand how to multiply two polynomials together, it is best to start with how to
multiply a monomial and a polynomial. The key to multiplying a monomial and a polynomial together
is to use the distributive property and the rules for multiplying numbers with the same base.

Example 1
Find the product: 3x2(2x3+x–8)
Solution:
The 3x2 term gets distributed to each of the terms in the polynomial:
3x2(2x3+x–8) =(3x2)(2x3)+(3x2)(x)+(3x2(–8) = 6x5+3x3–24–2
Multiplying two polynomials together uses the same principle. There is just more to keep track of.
The process of multiplying binomials together is often referred to as FOIL which stands for first,
outside, inside, and last. This represents one way of doing the multiplication as shown in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1: The face of FOIL.

For example, when you multiply two binomials, you are using the distributive property twice:
(a+b)(c+d) = a(c+d)+b(c+d) = ac+ad+bc+bd
It doesn’t matter whether the binomials involve addition or subtraction. You distribute the sign.
For the product (a–b) (c+d), the negative sign in front of b tags along in front of b throughout the
entire process:
(a–b)(c+d) = a(c+d)–b(c–d) = ac–ad+bc–bd
For the product (a–b) (c–d), the negative sign in front of d tags along in front of d throughout the
entire process:

(a+b)(c–d) = a(c–d)–b(c–d) = ac–ad+bc–bd

For the product (a–b) (c–d), the negative signs in front of both b and d tag along throughout the entire
process. The last step makes use of the fact that a negative times a negative equals a positive:

(a–b)(c–d) = a(c–d)–b(c–d) = ac–ad–bc+(–b)(–d) =ac–ad-bc+bd

Example 2
Find the product: (x + 3)(x + 2)
Solution:
Use the distributive property twice and gather like terms:

Example 3
Find the product: (x + 3)(x – 4)
Solution:
Use the distributive property twice and gather like terms:

Example 4
Find the product: (2x – 3)(x+ 1)
Solution:
Use the distributive property twice and gather like terms:

Example 5
Find the product: (x – 3)(x – 5)
Solution:
Use the distributive property twice and gather like terms:

Multiplying a binomial and a trinomial is done in the same way as multiplying two binomials.
There is just another term to keep track of as you multiply things together. The key is to keep
distributing until you have multiplied everything together that should be multiplied together.

Example 6
 Find the product: (x – 3)(2x2 – 5x + 1)
Solution:
Apply the distributive property and collect similar terms:

Lesson 8-6 Practice

Find the following products:
1. 4x5(x3+ 2x + 1)
2. (x + 2)(x – 3)
3. (2x + 1)(x + 2)
4. (x – 1)(x + 1)
5. (x – 1)(x2 + x + 1)

Lesson 8-7: Special Products

There are a few special products that come up frequently in algebra. If we take some time to work
out a few specific examples and make some observations, it will cut our work down in later sections.
The first product we will examine is the square of a binomial. If we square the binomial (a + b),
we get:

Notice that the first and last terms in the expansion are just the squares of the first and last terms in
the binomial itself. The middle term is the twice the product of the terms of the binomial expression.
I’ve written out a few examples to help you see the pattern:
 Because squaring binomials is common in algebra, I would recommend that you familiarize
yourself with this process so that it becomes second nature. If the binomial involves subtraction
instead of addition, that negative sign will only affect the middle term:

I’ll give you a few examples so that you can see the difference the sign makes.
 The second special product involves two binomials that involve the same terms but differ in one of
the signs. Specifically, the product looks something like (a + b)(a – b). Expanding this product gives:

The expression a2 – b2 is called the difference between two squares. Notice that when you
expand the product (a + b)(a - b) the result is a binomial with no middle term. It’s worth writing out a
few examples, just to see the pattern clearly:

Lesson 8-7 Practice

Expand the following products:
1. (x + 10)2
2. (3x – 2)2
3. (x – 8)2
4. (2x + 1)2
5. (x – 6)(x + 6)
6. (4x + 1)(4x – 1)

Lesson 8-8: Dividing Polynomials by Monomials

The first step in dividing a polynomial by a monomial is to turn this problem into several problems
that involve a monomial divided by another monomial. This is done by looking at the polynomial in
the numerator as the sum of several individual monomials. Once you have turned this one problem
into several smaller problems, the division can be done by using the rules of exponents.

Example 1

Simplify the ratio:

Solution:
Use the rules for adding fractions to break up the polynomial:

Then cancel where you can and divide using the rules for exponents:

Example 2

Simplify the ratio:

Solution:
Use the rules for adding fractions to break up the polynomial:

Then cancel where you can and divide using the rules for exponents:
Lesson 8-8 Practice
Simplify the following ratios:

1.

2.

Lesson 8-9: Factoring Techniques

Now that you have learned how to use the distributive property to expand products of binomials,
it’s time to practice going in the opposite direction. In other words, if you have an expanded
polynomial, can you write it as the product of monomials and binomials? This is similar to learning
your multiplication tables first, and then learning how to draw factor trees.
The nice thing about working with numbers is that there is a systematic approach to factoring:
work with prime numbers. With algebraic expressions, the concept of primes is a little less intuitive.
But there is a systematic approach to factoring algebraic expressions, and I’ll walk you through some
of the basics.
The first step in trying to factor a polynomial is to look at each monomial that makes up the
polynomial. Look at all of the coefficients involved and see if they all share a common factor.
Then look at the variables involved in each term. Is there a variable that is common to all of the
monomials? If so, look at the power of that variable in each of the monomials. The monomial
with that variable to the lowest power controls everything. You have to keep looking until each
term has nothing in common with the others.
I recommend checking your work after each step, just to be sure that you haven’t made a
mistake. To check your work you just multiply things out and undo all of your hard work.

Example 1
Factor: 5x + 10
Solution:
Each coefficient in the binomial is divisible by 5, so we can factor out a 5: 5x + 10 = 5(x + 2). Notice
that x and 2 have nothing in common, so we are done. We can use the distributive property to check
our work: is 5(x + 2) the same thing as 5x + 10 ? Yes.

Example 2
Factor: 3x2 + 5x
Solution:
The coefficients of each term are relatively prime, so there aren’t any constants that we can factor out.
Next, turn your attention to the variables: the first term involves an x, and so does the second term.
The first term has x2, the second term has x1. The second term has the lowest power of x, so that one
determines how many x’s you can factor out. In this case I can factor out x1:
3x2 + 5x = x(3x + 5)
Now my terms are 3x and 5. They share no common constant factors and they share no variables, so
that’s all I can do. But I’ll check my work just to be sure of my answer: x(3x + 5) = 3x2 + 5x

Example 3
Factor: 9x4 + 12x2
Solution:
The coefficients of each term are multiples of 3, so I can factor out a 3: 9x4 + 12x2 = 3(3x4 + 4x2).
Next, look at the variables: the first term has x4 and the second term has x2. The smaller power of x is
the one that I can factor out:
3(3x4 + 4x2) = 3x2 (3x2 + 4)
The last step is to check our work by distributing:
3x2 (3x2 + 4) = 9x4 + 12x2, so our answer is correct.

In the next chapter I will discuss factoring quadratic polynomials in much greater detail. This is
just a warm-up to get you started.

Lesson 8-9 Practice

Factor the following algebraic expressions:
1. 6x – 12
2. 6x2 + 15x
3. 9x3 + 3x
4. 12x4 + 15x3

Lesson 8-10: Solving Factored Equations

Factoring polynomials is very important in algebra. In fact, it is a skill that is used in many math
classes beyond algebra. You’ll be surprised at how much easier life (or at least algebra) will be once
you master the factoring techniques discussed in this book. One of the main reasons to factor
equations is because it is much easier to solve factored equations than it is to solve un-factored
equations.
Solving factored equations relies on one of the special properties of 0. Remember that 0 is the
only number with the property that if a · b = 0 then either a = 0, or b = 0. When you factor a
polynomial, you are writing the polynomial as a product of its factors. If that polynomial happens to
be equal to 0, then you know that the only way that a product of numbers equals 0 is if at least one of
the products equals 0. So finding the values of x that make a complicated equation equal to 0 becomes
a matter of setting each factor equal to 0 and solving these simpler equations.
Example 1
Solve the equation (2x – 1)(x + 3) = 0.
Solution: Because the product of (2x – 1) and (x + 3) is equal to 0, we know that either (2x – 1) = 0
or (x + 3) = 0. Solve each of these equations for x:

That means that either , or x = –3.

These problems involve solving linear equations and making use of the property of 0. Having
thoroughly learned both of these ideas, these new problems are no problem!

Example 2
Solve the equation: (3x + 2)(x – 5)(x + 1) = 0
Solution: It doesn’t matter whether there are two factors, three factors, or a million factors. The
process remains the same: set each factor equal to 0 and solve for x:

So either , x = 5, or x = –1.

Lesson 8-10 Practice

Solve the following equations:
1. (3x + 1)(x – 2) = 0
2. (2x – 4)(x + 1) = 0
3. (x + 1)(x – 2)(2x – 1) = 0
4. (x + 4)(x – 3)(x + 5) = 0

Answer Key
Lesson 8-2
1. –2x
2. 13xy2 + 2xy
3. 8xz
4. –3xy
Lesson 8-3
1. 6x8
2. 10x7y3

3.

4.

5.

6.

Lesson 8-4
1. 27x6
2. 1,024x5y10
3. 4x8y12
4. 64x6y3z9

Lesson 8-5
1. 3x2 + 5x + 6
2. 2x2 + 8x + 2
3. 2x2 + 9x + 1
4. –x + 4y

Lesson 8-6
1. 4x8 + 8x6 + 4x5
2. x2 – x – 6
3. 2x2 + 5x + 2
4. x2 – 1
5. x3 – 1

Lesson 8-7
1. x2 + 20x + 100
2. 9x2 – 12x + 4
3. x2 – 16x + 64
4. 4x2 + 4x+ 1
5. x2 – 36
6. 16x2 – 1

Lesson 8-8

1.

2.

Lesson 8-9
1. 6(x - 2)
2. 3x(2x + 5)
3. 3x(3x2 + 1)
4. 3x3 (4x + 5)

Lesson 8-10

1. or x = 2
2. x = 2 or x = –1

3. x = –1 or x = 2 or
4. x = –4 or x = 3 or x = –5
 9
Quadratic Equations

Lesson 9-1: Square Roots

Lesson 9-2: The Difference Between Two Squares
Lesson 9-3: Factoring Quadratic Expressions of the Form x2 + bx + c
Lesson 9-4: Factoring Quadratic Expressions in General
Lesson 9-5: Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring
Lesson 9-6: Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square
Lesson 9-7: Solving Quadratic Equations Using the Quadratic Formula

Quadratic expressions are algebraic expressions of the form ax2 + bx + c, and quadratic
equations are equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0. With both quadratic expressions and quadratic
equations, the value of the leading coefficient, a, cannot be 0. The other coefficients b and c can be 0,
but the leading coefficient cannot. Because quadratic expressions involve squaring numbers, solving
quadratic equations sometimes involves finding the square root of a number. So before we delve into
the quadratics we must take a detour and study square roots.

Lesson 9-1: Square Roots

Squaring a number involves multiplying a number by itself. For example, the square of 4 is 42 =
16; the square of –3 is (–3)2 = 9. Notice that squaring a positive number gives a positive number, and
squaring a negative number also results in a positive number. The square of 0 is 02 = 0. So if you
square any real number (whether it is positive, negative or 0) you will get a number that is either
greater than 0 or equal to 0, but never less than 0. In other words, if a is any real number, then a2 ≥ 0.
There is no way that the square of a real number can be negative.
Finding the square root of a number involves reversing the process: if b2 = a, then b is called the
square root of a. For example, 42 = 16 so 4 is the square root of 16. Notice that (–4)2 = 16 so –4 is
also the square root of 16. In fact, all positive real numbers have two square roots: a positive square
root, sometimes called the principal square root, and a negative square root. The two square roots
have the same magnitude but are opposite in sign. Square roots are written using a “square root”
symbol: . This symbol is called a radical. The number underneath the radical is called the
radicand. To write things more compactly, the square roots of a number are sometimes written
together as . We could write the two square roots of 16 as ±4. Be careful with this notation and
the terminology. If we write we are limiting ourselves to the positive square root of 4, whereas,
in general, 4 has two square roots: . The radical by itself refers to the principal (or positive)
square root.
 Simplifying a square root involves factoring the radicand and pulling out the “perfect squares.”
Perfect squares are numbers whose square roots are integers. For example, since 42 = 16 we could
write . Because the square root of 16 is 4 (an integer), we say that 16 is a perfect square. It is
easy to list the perfect squares: just start squaring the natural numbers. The first ten perfect squares
are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100. To simplify a radical you need to factor the radicand and look
for perfect squares. Then make use of the rule that if a is positive, then .
Square roots follow the same rules as exponents. In particular, if a and b are positive numbers then
. We can use this relationship to simplify square roots by pulling out the perfect
squares: .

Example 1
Simplify:
Solution: Because 64 is a perfect square (you can see it in the list: 82 = 64) we can write

Example 2
Simplify:
Solution: See if 50 has any perfect squares as factors. Since 50 = 25.2 we can write

Example 3
Simplify:
Solution: Factor 120 into products of perfect squares: 120 = 4·30 so

The easiest way to approach these problems is to look at the list of perfect squares and check to
see if any of them divide the radicand evenly. Like most ideas in math, the more you work with
perfect squares, the more you will recognize them without having to rely on the list. If there is a
perfect square that evenly divides into the radicand, factor the radicand into a product of the perfect
square and its corresponding factor:
Radicand = Perfect Square × Other Factor
Now do the same thing with the other factor: see if any other perfect squares divide that other
factor. If they do, keep factoring. If not, pull all of the perfect squares that you found out of the radical.
It turns out that the only way for the square root of a number to be an integer is if it is a perfect
square. The square roots of any other kind of number will be an irrational number.
We can also evaluate expressions that involve square roots. For example, consider the expression
. We can substitute various values for a, b and c and evaluate the expression. In this

expression, the parentheses are invisible, or implied; it should be thought of as . This

expression is so useful that I thought we should take some time now to play with it.

Example 4
Evaluate the expression for a = 2, b = 3, and c = –2.
Solution: Substitute the values of the variables and work it out. Remember that you must do the
addition/subtraction first, and then take the square root:

Lesson 9-1 Practice

Answer the following questions.
1. Simplify the following radicals:

2. Evaluate and simplify the expression for a = –3, b = 11, and c = 12.

Lesson 9-2: The Difference Between Two Squares

In general, a quadratic expression looks something like ax2 + bx + c, but we’ll start out by
assuming that b = 0. In other words, we will first turn our attention to a special group of quadratic
expressions that have no middle term, or no variable with degree 1: ax2 + c. Now, if both a and c are
the same sign (either both are positive or both are negative) then there is nothing you can do with this
expression. You can’t factor it, and if you set it equal to 0 you can’t solve it. To understand why, let’s
take a specific example: x2 + 1. Set this expression equal to 0 and try to solve it:
x2 + 1 = 0
x2 = –1
Hmmmm……x is a real number whose square is negative. We just got through studying squares of
numbers and observed that the square of any real number is greater than or equal to 0; –1 is less than
0, so that’s a problem. The only way around this problem is if we declare that there are no real
solutions to the equation x2 + 1 = 0.
Quadratic equations of the form ax2 + c = 0 will only have solutions if the coefficients a and c
have opposite signs. And if the coefficients a and c have opposite signs, then the quadratic expression
ax2 + c will look like the difference between two squares that we discussed in Chapter 8.
Recall that when we multiplied two factors of the form (a + b) (a – b) we ended up with a result
that we called the difference between two squares:
 (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2
So we can work backwards and factor expressions that are the difference between two squares:
a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)
Why would we want to factor the difference between two squares after we went through all of the
trouble to multiply it out and make our observations? Because algebraic equations can be solved
easily if the equations are written as a product of terms that multiply to give 0. And writing
expressions as products involves factoring. So we will learn how to factor, starting with expressions
that involve the difference between two squares.

Example 1
Factor the expression: x2 – 4
Solution: x2 – 4 = (x + 2)(x – 2)

Example 2
Factor the expression: x2 – 25
Solution: x2 – 25 = (x + 5) (x – 5)

Example 3
Factor the expression: x2 – 3

Solution:
Notice that the difference between two squares doesn’t have to involve perfect squares. Any
positive number can be thought of as the square of a number, since . All you have to do is
take the square root of each of the terms and follow the pattern.

Example 4
Factor the expression: 4x2 – 5

Solution:

Lesson 9-2a Practice

Factor the following expressions:
1. x2 – 36
2. x2 – 15
3. 9x2 – 4
Now that we have mastered factoring the difference between two squares, it is time to use that
technique to solve some quadratic equations. We’ll make use of the fact that in order for a product to
equal 0, at least one of the factors must be equal to 0. By factoring our quadratic expression and using
this important property of 0 we can solve many quadratic equations.

Example 5
Solve the equation: x2 – 16 = 0
Solution: Factor the expression, set each factor equal to 0 and solve it:

There are two solutions to this equation: x = ±4

Example 6
Solve the equation: x2 = 12
Solution: The key to solving equations is to set a product equal to 0. There is not a 0 to be found in
this equation. That’s okay, though. Look at what happens when we subtract 12 from both sides of the
equation:
x2 = 12
x2 – 12 = 0
Now we have an equation in a familiar form (the difference between two squares) so we can solve it:

There are two solutions to this equation:

Notice that the solutions to the equation x2 = 12 are . We can generalize this
observation: the equation x2 = c has solutions . This generalization is the basis for the
process “take the square root of both sides and throw in the ± sign.” We can apply this general rule to
the problem in Example 6: x2 = 12. On the left side of the equation, we have the perfect square x2, so
its square root is just x. On the right side of the equation, we have the number 12, and its square root
is just . Toss in the ± sign and we’re done: This simplified process cuts to the chase; it
gives steps for how to obtain the solution quickly while masking the reasons why the process works,
but we can use this generalization to help us solve more complicated equations.

Example 7
Solve the equation: (x + 1)2 = 9
Solution: Using our earlier observation, (x + 1)2 is a perfect square with square root (x + 1). On the
right, we have another perfect square: 9. Its square root is 3. Toss in the ± and we’re almost done: (x
+ 1) = ±3. We’re not quite finished because the goal was not to solve for (x + 1) but rather to solve
for x. The equation (x + 1) = ±3 is really two equations: x + 1 = 3 and x + 1 = –3. We need to solve
each equation separately:

So we have two solutions to our equation: x = 2 or x = –4. We can check to make sure that both
solutions work: if x = 2 then (2 + 1)2 = 32 = 9 and if x = –4 then (–4 + 1)2 =(–3)2 = 9. So both
solutions work.
In general, we can apply this process to solve equations of the form (x - a)2 = c:

Lesson 9-2b Practice

Solve the following equations:
1. x2 = 81
2. x2 = 27
3. (x + 2)2 = 4
4. (x – 2)2 = 10

Lesson 9-3: Factoring Quadratic Expressions of the Form x2 + bx + c

In order to factor a quadratic expression of the form x2 + bx + c where b and c are integers, we
need to find two linear factors, say x + r and x + s, whose product gives the expression x2 + bx + c.
We can expand the product (x + r)(x + s) and compare that result to our expression x2 + bx + c to
determine the values of r and s:
(x + r)(x + s) = x2 + (r + s)x + rs
We want the product (x + r)(x + s) to equal x2 + bx + c, which means that r + s = b and r. s = c.
By trial and error, we need to find two integers, r and s, whose sum is b and whose product is c.
There are some clues to help us home in on the values of r and s. It is best to think about this problem
in two parts: finding the signs of r and s and finding the magnitude of r and s. We can break things up
into two cases, depending on the sign of c.
If c is positive, the r and s must have the same sign: either both will be positive or both will be
negative. Their actual sign will depend on the sign of b:
1. If b is positive, then r and s are positive.
2. If b is negative, then r and s are negative.
 So, if c is positive, r and s have the same sign that b has, and you will be looking for two
numbers whose product is c and whose sum is b.
If c is negative, then r and s must have opposite signs.
1. The larger of r and s will have the same sign as b,
2. The smaller of r and s will the opposite sign of b.
So if c is negative the magnitude of r and s will be two positive numbers whose product is c
and whose difference is b. I’ll summarize this in a table to help you keep it straight.

You are looking for values r and s whose sum (or difference, if c is negative) is b and whose
product is c. That may sound difficult at first, but after you work through some problems you’ll start to
get the hang of it. Of course, if c is a prime number, there aren’t many integers whose product is c:
just c and 1. So, in that case, the problems are fairly straightforward. Things can get a bit tricky when
c is a composite number.

Example 1
Factor the expression: x2 + 6x + 5
Solution: We are looking for r and s that satisfy the equation
x2 + 6x + 5 = x2 + (r + s)x + rs.
Because c is positive (it is +5), both r and s have to have the same sign. Because b is positive (it is
+6), both r and s have to be positive. We are looking for two positive integers whose product is 5 and
whose sum is 6. Because 5 is prime, our only options for r and s are 1 and 5; fortunately, they work:
1.5 = 5 and 1 + 5 = 6. It doesn’t matter which value you pick for r and which value you pick for s.
The important thing is that their product is 5 and their sum is 6. The linear factors are (x + 1)(x + 5).
Check your answer by multiplying these two binomials together to see if I’m correct: (x + 1)(x + 5) =
x2 + 6x + 5.

Example 2
Factor the expression: x2 – 8x + 7.
Solution: Because c is positive (it is +7), both r and s have to have the same sign. Because b is
negative (it is –8), both r and s have to be negative. We are looking for two negative integers whose
product is 7 and whose sum is –8. Since 7 is prime, our only options are –1 and –7, and they work: (–
1).(–7) = 7 and –1 + (–7) = –8. So the linear factors are (x – 1)(x – 7). Multiply these two binomials
together to see if I’m correct: (x – 1)(x – 7) = x2 – 8x + 7

Example 3
Factor the expression: x2 – 6x – 7
Solution: Because c is negative, we know that r and s must differ in sign. So r + s = –6 and r.s = –7
and r = –7 and s = 1 works: x2 – 6x – 7 = (x – 7)(x + 1)

Example 4
Factor the expression: x2 – 5x + 6
Solution: Because c is positive, both r and s have the same sign. Because b is negative, both r and s
are negative. In this case, however, c is a composite number: 6 can be factored as (–1).(–6) or as (–
2).(–3). You need two factors of 6 that add up to –5; –2 and –3 are the values of r and s:
x2 –5x + 6 = (x – 2)(x – 3)
The more familiar you are with factoring whole numbers, the easier it will be to factor quadratic
expressions. Sometimes you have to use a trial and error method: try all possible combinations and
see which ones work. You can always check your answers by multiplying everything out.
This factoring technique works well when the linear factors have integer coefficients. If that
always happened, then this chapter on factoring would be short. There is a quick way to determine
whether the linear factors of a quadratic expression have integer coefficients, and it involves
evaluating the expression , where a, b, and c are the coefficients of the quadratic
expression ax2 + bx + c. If the expression is a perfect square, then the factors will have
integer coefficients. For example, we saw that the quadratic expression x2 – 5x + 6 could be factored
into two binomials with integer coefficients. Let’s evaluate for this expression. In this
case a = 1, b = –5, and c = 6, so = 25 – 4.1.6 = 25 – 24 = 1. Notice that 1 is a perfect
square.
The expression b2 – 4. a. c is so useful that it has a name: it is called the discriminant.
The linear factors of a quadratic polynomial will have integer coefficients only if the discriminant is
a perfect square.

Example 5
Evaluate the discriminant of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 2x – 2 and determine whether its linear
factors have integer coefficients.
Solution: Evaluate the discriminant, , for the polynomial x2 + 2x – 2. In the polynomial x2
+ 2x – 2, a = 1, b = 2, and c = –2, and the discriminant is:

Because 12 is not a perfect square, we know that the linear factors will not have integer coefficients.

Lesson 9-3 Practice

1. Factor the following quadratic expressions:
a. x2 – x – 2
b. x2 + 5x – 6
c. x2 + 5x + 4
d. x2 – 6x + 8
2. Evaluate the discriminant for the following polynomials and determine whether their linear factors
have integer coefficients or not.
a. x2 – 3x – 4
b. x2 + 3x – 2

Lesson 9-4: Factoring Quadratic Expressions in General

We will now turn our attention to factoring quadratic expressions whose leading coefficient is not
1. To factor an expression of the form ax2 + bx + c you must find the factors of the leading coefficient,
a, (call them m and n) and the factors of c (call them s and t) so that the product (mx + s)(nx + t) is
ax2 + bx + c. Expanding the product (mx + s)(nx + t) and comparing it to ax2 + bx + c, we see that
(mx + s)(nx + t) = (mn)x2 + (mt + ns)x + (st).
From this we can see that the sum of the mixed products mt + ns must equal b. The first couple of
times that you factor these types of expressions, you will probably do some sort of trial and error
approach: try possible combinations of these mixed products until you find the winner.

Example 1
Factor: 2x2 + 11x + 5
Solution: Mix and match the possible factors of 2 (1 and 2) and the possible factors of 5 (1 and 5) so
that the sum is 11; you can mix these factors up two ways:
1.1 + 2.5 = 1 + 10 = 11
1.5 + 2.1 = 5 + 2 = 7
The first combination gives 11 and the second combination gives 7. The middle term in our quadratic
expression is 11, so we want the first combination. Another way to look at this problem is to mix and
match the factors and form two binomial products: (1x + 1)(2x + 5) and (2x + 1)(1x + 5). Expand
each product and choose the one that matches the quadratic expression you set out to factor:
(1x + 1)(2x + 5) = 2x2 + 7x + 5, which is not what we want.
(2x + 1)(1x + 5) = 2x2 + 11x + 5, which is what we want.
Either way, we can factor the quadratic expression 2x2 + 11x + 5 as (2x + 1)(1x + 5).

Example 2
Factor: 3x2 – 4x – 7
Solution: First, notice that the sign of c (the constant term) is negative and the sign of b (the middle
term) is also negative. That means that our linear factors will involve different signs. We will have to
mix up the factors that get multiplied together as well as the signs associated with each product. We
will need to combine the factors of 3 (1 and 3) and the factors of 7 (1 and 7) so that their difference is
–4. Use a trial and error method and try all possible combinations and stop when you find the one that
gives you 3x2 – 4x – 7:

So the correct factorization of 3x2 – 4x – 7 is (3x – 7)(x + 1).

The more practice you have expanding products of binomials the quicker you will be able to see
the right combination that works. Don’t feel like you have to try every possible product before
deciding on the right factors. Once you find two binomials whose product is what you were given,
write your answer down and move on to the next problem. I am providing all possible combinations
solely for your benefit.
The first two examples were special because both a and c were prime; there was only one way to
factor a and c, so our choices were limited. If a or c are composite numbers, then you have to mix and
match all combinations of all possible ways to factor a and c. These problems can get a bit long, but
the good news is that you will get lots of practice multiplying binomials together.

Example 3
Factor: 3x2 + 2x – 8
Solution: Notice that c is negative and b is positive, so the constant terms in each factor must have
different signs. Also, a is prime but c is composite. Mix and match the factors of 3 (1 and 3) and the
two ways to factor 8(1.8 and 2.4) together with the different arrangements of the signs, do the
multiplication and see which one gives you 3x2 + 2x – 8:
 Factoring quadratic expressions requires patience and practice. I have given you three more
quadratic expressions to factor. The more practice you have, the easier factoring will become.

Lesson 9-4 Practice

Factor the following polynomials:
1. 3x2 – 10x + 8
2. 4x2 – 16x + 15
3. 6x2 – 29x – 5

Lesson 9-5: Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring

The key to solving factored polynomial equations is to use the very special property of 0:
whenever a product of terms is 0, you know that at least one of the terms has to equal 0. So if you
have a factored polynomial that equals 0, just set each factor equal to 0 and solve. Now we can
complicate things a bit. In order to solve a quadratic equation you must first collect all of the terms on
one side of the equation, and have 0 on the other side of the equation. Then you factor the quadratic
polynomial using the techniques we just discussed. Finally, set each factor equal to 0 and solve. Each
one of these examples enables us to put our factoring abilities on the line.

Example 1
Solve the equation: 7x2 – 10x + 3 = 0
Solution: Factor the quadratic expression on the left:
7x2 – 10x + 3 = (7x – 3)(x – 1).
Next, set each factor equal to 0:
Our solution is: or x = 1

Example 2
Solve the equation: 10x2 + 5x – 10 = 2x + 8
Solution: Collect all of the terms on the left side of the equation and get a 0 on the right:
10x2 + 5x – 10 = 2x + 8
10x2 + 3x – 10 = 8
10x2 + 3x – 18 = 0
Next, factor the quadratic expression:
10x2 + 3x – 18 = (5x – 6)(2x + 3)
Finally, set each factor equal to 0 and solve:

Our solution is: or

Solving quadratic equations provides more opportunities for you to practice your factoring skills.
So if you were disappointed by the number of practice problems available in the last section and
wanted to factor more, here are some more problems!

Lesson 9-5 Practice

Solve the following quadratic equations:
1. x2 – 2x – 8 = 0
2. 2x2 – x – 1 = 0
3. 3x2 + 8x – 3 = 0
4. 6x2 – x – 1 = 0

Lesson 9-6: Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square

 The factoring technique discussed in Lesson 9-5 only works if the linear factors have integer
coefficients. In other words, only when the discriminant is a perfect square. We need a technique to
solve a quadratic equation when the discriminant is not a perfect square. That technique is completing
the square.
Completing the square is a useful little trick for solving quadratic equations. The idea makes use
of the technique used to solve x2 = c. Remember that the solution to this type of equation is .
2
We will try to turn our quadratic equations into equations of the form (x – k) = p. We can then solve
this equation for x:

One advantage of this technique is that there is no need to factor!

You need to understand the differences between this technique and the factoring technique
discussed in the last lesson. The factoring technique discussed in the last lesson involved comparing a
factored quadratic expression to 0. Each factor was then set equal to 0 and solved. Completing the
square is one of the rare times when 0 doesn’t play a key role. When completing the square, the key is
to collect all of the terms that involve variables on one side of the equation, and put all of the constant
terms on the other side. We will then make use of what we observed when we squared a binomial:
(x + k)2 = x2 + 2kx + k2
Notice that the middle term of the trinomial is twice the value of the constant term in the binomial,
k. From a different perspective, observe that the constant k in the binomial is one-half of the
coefficient of the middle term in the trinomial. Also notice that the constant term of the trinomial is k2,
which is the square of the constant term in the binomial. We will start with the first two terms in the
trinomial, and our goal will be to determine the value k.
Let’s start with a quadratic equation with leading coefficient equal to 1 and middle term
coefficient equal to b, and start moving things around:
x2 + bx + c = 0
x2 + bx = –c
Next, we need to add a number to both sides so that the expression on the left is a perfect square.
Based on our earlier observations, the value of k in the in perfect square is one-half the value of the

coefficient of the middle term. In other words, . The constant term that we need on the left is

k2, or . Our expression on the left needs that constant term, so we’ll need to add it to both
sides of the equation in order to keep the balance:

Now the expression on the left is a perfect square. It has to be, because we added the constant that
made it a perfect square. Because it is a perfect square, we can factor it:
 From here we know how to solve for x. The general form may look messy, but don’t let that
intimidate you. Try to focus on how it was derived rather than trying to memorize the final formula.

Example 1
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 4x – 2 = 0 by completing the square.
Solution: Keep the terms involving variables on one side of the equation and move the constant over
to the other side:
x2 + 4x – 2 = 0
x2 + 4x = 2
Determine what you need to add to both sides: take one-half of the coefficient in front of x and square

it: . Add this to both sides of the equation:

x2 + 4x = 2
x2 + 4x + 4 = 2 + 4
Now, the expression on the left is a perfect square:
x2 + 4x + 4 = 6
(x + 2)2 = 6
Finally, we can solve for x:

Example 2
Solve the quadratic equation x2 – 6x – 5 = 0 by completing the square.
Solution: Keep the terms involving variables on one side of the equation and move the constant over
to the other side:
x2 – 6x – 5 = 0
x2 – 6x = 5
Determine what you need to add to both sides: take one-half of the coefficient in front of x and square

it: . It doesn’t matter whether the middle coefficient is positive or negative; when you
square it you will always end up with a non-negative number. Add this to both sides of the equation:
x2 – 6x = 5
x2 – 6x + 9 = 5 + 9
Now, the expression on the left is a perfect square:
x2 – 6x + 9 = 14
(x – 3)2 = 14
Finally, we can solve for x:

Example 3
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + x – 4 = 0 by completing the square.
Solution: Keep the terms involving variables on one side of the equation and move the constant over
to the other side:
x2 + x – 4 = 0
x2 + x = 4
Determine what you need to add to both sides: take one-half of the coefficient in front of x and square

it: . Add this to both sides of the equation:

Now, the expression on the left is a perfect square:

Finally, we can solve for x:

Lesson 9-6 Practice

Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the square:
1. x2 – 3x – 2 = 0
2. x2 + 4x – 4 = 0
3. x2 + x – 1 = 0
4. x2 – 3x + 1 = 0
Lesson 9-7: Solving Quadratic Equations Using the Quadratic Formula
The quadratic formula is a formula that will solve quadratic equations very easy. You can solve
any solvable quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula. Unfortunately, not all quadratic
equations are solvable; some quadratic equations have no solutions. One way to determine whether or
not a quadratic equation is solvable is to evaluate the discriminant. You remember the discriminant.
Given the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the discriminant is the value:
b2 – 4ac
The quadratic equation will be solvable as long as the discriminant is not a negative number. This
will be clear once I write out the quadratic formula.
The quadratic formula is a generalization of completing the square. The quadratic formula allows
you to cut to the chase rather than working out all of the details involved in completing the square.
The quadratic formula gives the solutions to the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. The solutions to
this equation are:

Take a moment to look at this equation, which is called the quadratic formula. While I would
advise you to memorize it, I also would like you to understand where it came from. First of all, notice
that underneath the radical is the expression b2 – 4ac. We have seen this expression before; it is
called the discriminant. Recall that if the discriminant is a perfect square then the solutions to the
quadratic equation will be rational numbers (or maybe even whole numbers if we are lucky!). The
quadratic formula helps you understand why this is true. If the discriminant is a perfect square, then
the square root of the discriminant will be a whole number. If b and a are also integers, then x will be
a ratio of integers (or a rational number). Also, if the discriminant is a negative number, then using the
quadratic formula to solve a quadratic equation will involve taking the square root of a negative
number. As we have already discussed, there is no real number that, when squared, is a negative
number. We have already established that we will not take the square root of a negative number at this
point in our mathematical career.
The motivated reader will want to know where this formula came from. I would answer that this
formula is derived by completing the square; if you start with the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 and
complete the square carefully, you will end up deriving the quadratic formula. For now, I will focus
on using the formula correctly.

Example 1
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 4x – 2 = 0 using the quadratic formula.
Solution: In this case, a = 1, b = 4, and c = –2. Using the quadratic formula we have:
Now, we can factor 24: 24 = 4·6, and pull out the perfect square:

Example 2
Solve the quadratic equation x2 – 6x – 5 = 0 using the quadratic formula.
Solution:
In this case, a = 1, b = –6, and c = –5. Using the quadratic formula carefully we have:

Now, before we move on to the next problem, there is some simplification that we can do. We can
factor 56 as 56 = 4·14, and 4 is a perfect square:
Example 3
Solve the quadratic equation 2x2 – x – 4 = 0 using the quadratic formula.
Solution:
In this case, a = 2, b = –1, and c = –4. Using the quadratic formula carefully we have:

Because 33 has no factors that are perfect squares, our work here is done.

Lesson 9-7 Practice

Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula:
1. x2 – 2x – 1 = 0
2. x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
3. 2x2 – 3x – 7 = 0
4. 3x2 – 2x – 5 = 0

Answer Key
Lesson 9-1
1.
2.

Lesson 9-2a
1. (x – 6)(x + 6)

2.
3. (3x – 2)(3x + 2)

Lesson 9-2b
1. x = ±9
2.
3. x = 0 or x = –4
4.

Lesson 9-3
1. a. (x – 2)(x + 1)
b. (x + 6)(x – 1)
c. (x + 4)(x + 1)
d. (x – 2)(x – 4)
2. a. The discriminant is 25 which is a perfect square, so the linear factors will have integer
coefficients.
b. The discriminant is 17 which is not a perfect square, so the linear factors will not have integer
coefficients.

Lesson 9-4
1. (3x – 4)(x – 2)
2. (2x – 5)(2x – 3)
3. (6x + 1)(x – 5)

Lesson 9-5
1. (x – 4)(x + 2) = 0; x = 4 or x = –2

2. (2x + 1)(x – 1) = 0; or x = 1

3. (3x – 1)(x + 3) = 0; or x = –3
4. (3x + 1)(2x – 1) = 0; or

Lesson 9-6

1.

2.

3.

4.

Lesson 9-7
1.

2.

3.

4.
 10 Rational Expressions

Lesson 10-1: Simplifying Rational Expressions

Lesson 10-2: Multiplying Rational Expressions
Lesson 10-3: Dividing Rational Expressions
Lesson 10-4: Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

When thinking of things we can do with functions, we look at the things we can do with numbers.
Using the integers as our basic building block, other kinds of numbers were created. Taking ratios of
two integers enabled us to create the rational numbers. If we use polynomials as our basic building
blocks in algebra, we can take the ratio of two polynomials to create a new function, called a
rational expression, or a rational function. The rules for manipulating rational expressions will be
directly related to the rules for manipulating fractions. You should draw from your understanding of
fractions (or rational numbers) as we study rational expressions.

Lesson 10-1: Simplifying Rational Expressions

When you see a fraction like the first thought that you have may be that this fraction is not in
reduced form. A fraction is in reduced form if the numerator and the denominator do not have any
factors in common. This is the first idea that we will make use of with rational expressions.
A rational expression may or may not be in reduced form. Your familiarity with numbers helped
you determine whether a fraction was written in reduced form. But if a fraction involves large

numbers that you are not familiar with, like the fraction , you may find yourself creating factor
trees for the numerator and the denominator in order to see if there are any common factors. The same
holds true for rational expressions. The factors of a polynomial don’t always jump out at you. It will
take some work, by way of factoring, to determine whether or not a rational expression is in reduced
form.
To see whether a rational expression is in reduced form or not, the first thing you need to do is
factor the polynomials in the numerator and the denominator. This will help you find any common
factors that can then be cancelled. The instruction for writing a rational expression in reduced form is
“simplify.” When you see the instruction “simplify” followed by a rational expression, you should
immediately address whether or not the rational expression is in reduced form. And to do that, you
will need to factor both polynomials involved in the rational expression.

Example 1

Simplify the expression:

Solution: Factor the numerator and denominator using the techniques discussed in the last chapter and
then cancel any common factors:

You may be tempted to try to cancel other things in this fraction. Be very careful when you cancel
terms. You are only allowed to cancel factors; you can only cancel terms that are being multiplied
together. You cannot cancel across an addition or subtraction sign. Even though there is a 2 in the
numerator and a 4 in the denominator, they are being subtracted, not multiplied. You need to think of
linear terms like (x – 2) as a unit…the 2 is attached to the x through subtraction, and any terms that are
connected by subtraction (or addition) cannot be canceled by themselves. Putting parentheses around
any terms that involve addition or subtraction will help remind you that you must treat those terms as
a group, and you cannot cancel individual terms in a group.

Example 2

Simplify the expression:

Solution: Factor the numerator and denominator using the techniques discussed in the last chapter and
then cancel any common factors:

An important step in simplifying rational expressions is to factor the numerators and denominators
correctly. It is very important that you master factoring.

Lesson 10-1 Practice

Simplify the following rational expressions:

1.

2.

3.

Lesson 10-2: Multiplying Rational Expressions

Multiplying rational expressions is a lot like multiplying fractions. When you multiply two
fractions you multiply the numerators together to get the new numerator and you multiply the
denominators together to get the new denominator. We will do the same thing when multiplying
rational expressions. To keep our expressions simple, we will factor and cancel wherever possible.
Keep your final answer in factored form.
Example 1

Find the product:

Solution: Before you start multiplying numerators and denominators together, I recommend factoring
every polynomial. Use parentheses to help keep the terms grouped together where they belong. Once
everything is factored you can cancel any common factors:

Example 2

Find the product:

Solution: Factor each polynomial and cancel what you can. Don’t be afraid to use parentheses to
organize the factors:

Lesson 10-2 Practice

Find the following products:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Lesson 10-3: Dividing Rational Expressions

Fractions are the motivation for manipulating rational expressions. Dividing one rational
expression by another rational expression will follow the same rules established for dividing one
fraction by another fraction. When you divide one fraction by another fraction, the fraction that is in
the denominator (or the fraction that is the divisor) is inverted and the resulting two fractions are then
multiplied.
 There are several ways to write the ratio of two fractions. Sometimes one format is easier to read
than the others. I will mention two specific formats that represent the same ratio.

In the ratio , the numerator is and the denominator is

In the ratio , the numerator is and the denominator is

The second way is a bit easier to read than the first way, and that will be the format of choice in this
section.
Because rational expressions behave like fractions, it should not surprise you to learn that when
you divide one rational expression by another rational expression you will invert the rational
expression in the denominator and multiply.

Example 1

Simplify the expression:

Solution: The key is to invert the denominator, which in this case is the expression , and then
multiply. After you have inverted the denominator and are getting ready to multiply, you will want to
factor all of the polynomials and cancel any common factors:

Example 2

Simplify the expression:

Solution: Invert, multiply, factor, and cancel:
Lesson 10-3 Practice
Simplify the following expressions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Lesson 10-4: Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

Adding and subtracting fractions was more involved than multiplying and dividing fractions.
Similarly, adding and subtracting rational expressions is a bit more involved than multiplying or
dividing rational expressions. Recall that you can only add two fractions if they have a common
denominator. If the denominators are the same, then you are all set. But if the denominators are
different then you have to find a common denominator. The best common denominator is the least
common denominator. In order to find the least common denominator you must factor both
denominators completely and look for common factors.

Example 1

Simplify:
Solution: The denominators are the same, so all you have to do is add the numerators. Remember the
rules for adding polynomials. Only like terms can be added (or subtracted) from each other:

Example 2
 Simplify:
Solution: Notice that neither denominator can be factored. Therefore, the least common denominator
is found by multiplying the terms in the denominator together: (x - 2) (x + 3). Then, remember, that to
get the two denominators to match we can multiply by the number 1 disguised using the term that is

needed in each denominator. The first term in the expression is ; it should be multiplied by .

The second term in the expression is ; it should be multiplied by . Once the denominators are
the same you will need to expand the numerators and perform the addition:

Example 3

Simplify:
Solution: Neither denominator can be factored, so we’ll follow the same approach as we did in
Example 2.
 Before continuing to the next example, I would like to remind you of how to calculate the least
common multiple of two numbers. One way that we calculated the least common multiple was to take
the product of the two numbers and divide by the greatest common factor. To find the least common
multiple of 15 and 25, we would first factor each number to find the greatest common factor: 15 = 3 ×
5 and 25 = 5 × 5. The greatest common factor of 15 and 25 is 5. To find the least common multiple,

evaluate . The least common multiple of 15 and 25 is 75. We can apply this
technique to finding the least common multiple of two polynomials, as we will see in the next
example.

Example 4

Simplify:
Solution: In this case, notice that the denominators have factors in common. To find the least common
denominator, factor each denominator completely: 4x = 2.2.x and 6x2 = 2.3.x.x. Notice that the two
denominators have some factors in common: they both have a factor of 2x. To find the least common

multiple of 4x and 6x2, evaluate the ratio :

The least common multiple of 4x and 6x2 is 12x2.

Now let’s return to the problem of finding the sum .

In order to make the denominator of the first expression 12x2 we will need to multiply the first
expression by .
In order to make the denominator of the second expression 12x2 we will need to multiply the second

expression by

Lesson 10-4 Practice

Simplify the following expressions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Answer Key
Lesson 10-1

1.

2.

3.

Lesson 10-2
1.

2.

3.

4.

Lesson 10-3

1.

2.

3.

4.

Lesson 10-4

1.

2.
3.

4.
 11 Applications

Lesson 11-1: How to Approach Word Problems

Lesson 11-2: Rates and Percentages
Lesson 11-3: Finding Integers
Lesson 11-4: Rate, Time, and Distance Problems
Lesson 11-5: Money Problems
Lesson 11-6: Mixture Problems

The reason that algebra has been around for so long is because it is so useful: it provides a
systematic way to solve problems. Until now, I have given you equations and asked you to solve
them. In this chapter, the tables will be turned. I will describe a problem in words and you will get to
come up with the mathematical equation to solve. You will also have to solve the equation that you
create.

Lesson 11-1: How to Approach Word Problems

A word problem involves a description of a situation, and a request for an answer to a question.
There are no variables in the word problem; it is your job to come up with the variables, and to write
an equation based on the information given in the problem. You could generate one equation or a
system of equations. Once you have an equation (or equations), you will need to solve it (or them)
and then use your solution (or solutions) to answer the question asked in the problem.
Some of the equations that you create will be linear, others could be quadratic. If you generate a
quadratic equation you will either need to factor it or use the quadratic formula to solve it.
I recommend using a systematic method for approaching and solving word problems. Here is one
problem-solving approach that will help you solve word problems.
Read the problem description and pick out the important information. Determine what it is that
you are given and what you are asked to find. Choose variables to represent what you are given
and what you need to find. You are creating the equations, so you can choose the variables.
Don’t limit yourself to the variables x and y; sometimes it’s helpful to use the first letter of what
the variable represents. If you get too deep into a problem it’s easy to forget what your
variables mean, so it’s a good idea to make a note of it somewhere.
Read the word problem and interpret the description of the problem in terms of your variables.
Be sure to pay attention to the units involved. There are many ways to represent addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. Words such as “sum,” “more,” “and,” “total,” “plus,”
or “increase” indicate that terms should be added. Words like “difference,” “less than,”
“fewer,” or “decreased” indicate that terms should be subtracted. Multiplication is often
referred to using words such as “product,” “times,” “twice,” “percent” or “of.” Division will
 be involved when you see words like “ratio,” “divided by,” “half,” or “quotient.”
Solve the equation or evaluate the expression for a particular value of one of your variables.
Use the problem-solving strategies discussed in the earlier chapters to help you solve
equations. Be sure to check your answers to catch any mistakes.
Re-read the question and be sure that the answer you found actually addresses the question
asked. You should think about your answer to make sure that it makes sense.

If you use this approach to solve word problems, you should have great success solving word
problems, and as much fun solving them as I have.

Lesson 11-2: Rates and Percentages

A rate is a ratio of two quantities that are measured in different units. For example, the rate that
you drive on some interstates is 60 miles per hour. This is a ratio of distance (miles) divided by time
(hours). A unit rate is a rate where the denominator of the ratio is 1. You can think of the rate 60
miles per hour as 60 miles per 1 hour. A proportion is an equality between two rates. Proportions
can be used to solve many problems. The algebraic step necessary to solve many proportions is to
cross-multiply to clear out the fractions:

Example 1
At the local print shop, 15 copies cost $0.50. At this rate, how much would it cost to make 120
copies?
Solution: Set up a proportion. Let c represent the cost of 120 copies.

Then c is to 120 as 0.5 is to 15: . Cross-multiply and solve for c:

Interpret your answer: It would cost $4.00 for 120 copies.

Example 2
The current exchange rate between dollars and euros is 1 Euro = $1.20. If Nathan is traveling in
Europe and wants to buy his sister a t-shirt that costs 10 Euros, how much does the shirt cost in
dollars?
Solution: Let e represent the price, in euros, and d represent the price, in dollars. Set up a proportion
relating these two currencies:

Substitute in the price of the shirt in euros and solve for the price in dollars by cross-multiplying:

Interpret your answer: d represented the price, in dollars, so the answer to the question is that the t-
shirt costs $12.
A percent means “out of 100.” Decimals can be written as percents and percents can be written as
decimals. To convert from a decimal to a percent, multiply the decimal by 100; this is the same thing
as moving the decimal two places to the right. To convert from a percent to a decimal divide by 100,
or move the decimal two places to the left. As you’ll see in this example, percents and proportions go
hand in hand.

Example 3
Suppose that in an algebra class 15% of the students will earn an “A” in the class. There are 40
students in the class. How many of them will earn an “A” in the class?
Solution: Let s represent the number of students in the class and let a represent the number of students
who will earn an “A” in the class. Set up a proportion:

Replace s by the number of students in the class (40) and solve for a:

Since a represents the number of students who earn an “A” in the class, there are 6 students who will
earn an “A” in the algebra class.

Lesson 11-2 Practice

1. Adam has designed a hybrid car that can travel 55 miles per gallon of gasoline. If the gas tank
holds 12 gallons of gasoline, how far can the car travel on one tank of gas?
2. Alan works for a roofing company. Each “square” represents 100 square feet of roof. Alan is paid
 $80 per square to shingle a roof. If a roof requires 44 squares, how much will Alan get paid to
shingle the roof?
3. Julia has invested in the stock market and must now pay taxes on her capital gains. If the IRS taxes
Julia at a rate of 22%, how much will Julia owe on $30,000 in capital gains?

Lesson 11-3: Finding Integers

In these types of problems you are given clues about the relationships between two integers, and
you have to find the integers.

Example 1
The sum of two integers is 4 and their difference is 20. Find the two integers.
Solution: Let x represent one integer and y represent the other one. Since their sum is 4 we know that
x + y = 4. The fact that their difference is 20 means that x - y = 20. Now we have a system of two
equations and two unknowns that we can solve:

We can solve this system using the substitution method: use the second equation to solve for x:
x - y = 20
x = 20 + y
Now substitute this expression for x into the first equation:

So the two integers are 12 and –8. Check to make sure that this answer makes sense: their sum [12 +
(–8)] is 4 and their difference [12 – (–8)] is 20.

Example 2
The sum of two integers is 15. One integer is three more than twice the other integer. Find the two
integers.
Solution: Let x represent one of the integers and y represent the other integer. Then their sum is 15
and we have our first equation:
x + y = 15
The second equation is a bit more tricky. One of the integers has to be three more than twice the other.
So we will need to double one of our numbers and then add 3 to get the other one:
x = 2y + 3
Once again we have a system of equations that we can solve:

Again, use the elimination method to solve for x and y. Our second equation is ready to substitute
into the first equation:

So the two integers are 4 and 11.

Check to see if this answer makes sense:
their sum (4 + 11) is 15 and 11 is 3 more than two times 4.

Lesson 11-3 Practice

1. The sum of two integers is 65 and their difference is 25. Find the two integers.
2. The sum of two integers is 40. If one integer is 5 less than twice the other, find the two integers.

Lesson 11-4: Rate, Time, and Distance Problems

Rate problems revolve around the idea that rate times time equals distance. If r represents the rate,
t is the time and d represents the distance, then this equation can be written:

Example 1
April plans to drive 595 miles to Tallahassee, Florida, to watch the Florida State Seminoles play
the Clemson Tigers. If she drives at a rate of 70 miles per hour, how long will it take her to make
the trip?
Solution: Start with the equation . We know the distance (595 miles) and the rate (70 miles
per hour) so we can easily find the time:

It will take her 8.5 hours to make the trip.

Example 2
Debra is training to enter a triathlon which consists of a 3 mile run, a one-half mile swim and a 15

mile bicycle ride. Debra can run at a rate of 10 miles per hour, she can swim at a rate of of a
mile per hour, and she can bike at a rate of 25 miles per hour. How long should it take her to
complete the race?
Solution: In this problem we have several rates and corresponding distances for each leg of the race.
We need to find the time it takes to run, swim and bike each part of the race and then add these
individual times together to get the total time. In order to find the individual times, we will need to
solve the rate equation for t (time):

Now find the individual times by substituting into the equation:

Because each calculation resulted in the same units for time, we can just add up the individual times
to get the total time. Be sure to pay attention to the units given. It is really easy to slip in a rate with
units of miles per minute, in which case the time you calculated would have been measured in minutes
instead of hours. Add up the individual times to get the total time to finish the race:

It will take Debra 3.4 hours to complete the race.

Lesson 11-4 Practice

1. Steven is driving at a rate of 60 miles per hour. How many hours will it take him drive 300 miles?
2. Cathy must be at work at 8 a.m. She lives 35 miles from her office and is running late. If she
leaves her house at 7:18, how fast, will she have to drive in order to get to work on time? Give
her rate in miles per hour.
3. Ken likes to shop at the outlet malls in St. Augustine. Unfortunately, the malls are 150 miles from
where he lives. He decides to make the trip to the mall in one day. He leaves his house at 9 a.m.
and would like to be home by 8 a.m. He drives 60 miles per hour, and doesn’t stop driving until he
reaches his destination. How many hours will he be able to spend shopping?
4. Mike is flying from Orlando, Florida to Green Bay, Wisconsin. His estimated time of arrival is 6
a.m. Nicole is planning to pick him up at the airport. She lives 44 miles from the airport and
would like to be there on time to pick him up. She leaves her house at 5:10 and gets stuck in rush
hour traffic. If she can only drive 48 miles per hour, at what time will she get to the airport?

Lesson 11-5: Money Problems

Problems that involve money usually involve either different coins or bills. If you always work in
dollars (when the problems involve bills) or cents (if the problem involves coins), you’ll end up
dealing with whole numbers instead of fractions or decimals.

Example 1
Tony’s parents give him money for getting good grades on his report card. His parents give him
$10 for every A and $5 for every B. If Tony earned either an A or a B in each of his 7 classes and
his parents gave him $60, how many A’s did Tony have on his report card?
Solution: Let a represent the number of As on Tony’s report card, and let b represent the number of
Bs on his report card. Tony earned only As and Bs on his report card so we know that a + b = 7. Each
A is worth $10, so he earned $10a for his As; each B is worth $5, so he earned $5b for his Bs. The
total amount of money he earned must satisfy the equation 10a + 5b = 60. Now we have a system of 2
equations that we can solve:

Solve this equation using the substitution/elimination method:

Tony earned 5 As on his report card.

Example 2
Betty always gives her grandchildren money for their birthday. The amount she gives them depends
on their age. If she gives them $10 plus $5 for every year over 13, how much money will she give
her granddaughter, Emily, on her sixteenth birthday?
Solution: Let G represent the amount of the gift, and let a represent Emily’s age. Then the amount of
the birthday gift is given by the equation:
G = 10 + 5(a - 13)
Because Emily will be turning 16, so we will need to evaluate the expression on the right when a =
16:
G = 10 + 5(16 - 13) = 10 + 5.3 = 25
Emily will receive $25 from her grandmother on her 16th birthday.

Lesson 11-5 Practice

1. Alic has twice as many ten-dollar bills as five-dollar bills. If he has $200, how many five-dollar
bills does he have?
2. A cell phone plan costs $40 per month for 300 minutes and $0.35 per minute for any overage time.
Find the amount of the cell phone bill if a customer uses 350 minutes in one month.

Lesson 11-6: Mixture Problems

Mixture problems usually involve “conservation laws.” When you mix two items together, the total
weight will be the sum of the weights of the separate items. If you mix 100 pounds of potatoes with 5
pounds of butter, you will have 105 pounds of mashed potatoes. We say that the weight of what is
being mixed is conserved. Money is also conserved in mixture problems. If 100 pounds of potatoes
cost $50 and 5 pounds of butter costs $15, then 105 pounds of mashed potatoes cost $65. We say that
the money spent on the materials being mixed is conserved. These two conservation concepts play an
integral role in creating the equations that need to be solved when working with mixture problems.

Example 1
KMM HealthFoods makes and sells a trail mix that includes mixed nuts and dried fruit. The mixed
nuts cost $2 per pound and the dried fruit costs $1.50 per pound. Chris needs to make 50 pounds of
trail mix that will cost $1.80 per pound. How many pounds of mixed nuts and how many pounds of
dried fruit will he have to use?
Solution: Let m represent the amount of mixed nuts and d represent the amount of dried fruit. Because
Chris needs to make 50 pounds of trail mix, so we have our first equation:
m + d = 50
Now we are ready to work with the money involved: the mixed nuts cost $2 per pound, so if we use
m pounds of mixed nuts it will cost us $2m. The dried fruit costs $1.50 per pound, so if we use d
pounds of dried fruit it will cost us $1.5d. Chris will end up with 50 pounds of trail mix that will cost
$1.80 per pound, so the total cost is:
We can generate our second equation:
2m + 1.5d = 90
The first term is the cost of the nuts, the second term is the cost of the fruit and the third term is the
total cost of the trail mix. We have a system of 2 equations that we can solve:

Use the substitution/elimination technique to solve this system of equations:

So Chris needs to use 30 pounds of mixed nuts and 20 pounds of dried fruit in order to make the trail
mix.

Lesson 11-6 Practice

1. Tim is running a successful landscaping business. If he hires 2 crew chiefs and 5 cutters, his daily
payroll is $800. If he hires 3 crew chiefs and 8 cutters, his daily payroll is $1,240. How much
does Tim pay his crew chiefs each day?
2. Dan sells fresh poultry to the local butchers. He sells 10 turkeys and 5 chickens for $120. He also
sells 15 turkeys and 10 chickens for $190. How much does Dan charge for a chicken?

Answer Key
Lesson 11-2
1. Set up a proportion between the miles traveled on 12 gallons of gas to the gas mileage in general:

. Solve for x.
The car can travel 660 miles on 12 gallons of gas.

2. Set up a proportion between the price for 44 squares and the price per square: . Solve for
 x.
Alan would earn $3,520 to shingle the roof.
3. Remember that percent means “out of 100” and a tax rate of 22% means $22 out of every $100

goes to the IRS. Set up a proportion between the tax on $30,000 and the tax on $100: .
Solve for x.
Julia will owe $6,600 to the IRS.

Lesson 11-3
1. Set up a system of two equations and two unknowns:

Solve the system of equations. The two integers are 45 and 20.
2. Set up a system of two equations and two unknowns:

Solve the system of equations. The two integers are 25 and 15.

Lesson 11-4
1. Substitute into the equation .
It would take Steven 5 hours to drive 300 miles.

2. Use the rate equation: . The distance is 35 miles and the time is 42 minutes, or of an
hour. Solve for the rate.
Cathy must travel at a rate of 50 miles per hour to get to work on time.
3. The total time that Ken will devote to his travels is 11 hours. The time he spends driving can be
found using the rate equation . The driving distance is 300 miles and the rate is 60 miles
per hour. The total driving time is 5 hours.
Ken will be able to spend 6 hours shopping at the mall.
4. Nicole will drive 44 miles at a rate of 48 miles per hour. Use the rate equation to find the time it
will take Nicole to drive to the airport. The time is hours, or 55 minutes.
Nicole left at 5:10, so she will get to the airport at 6:05 P.M.

Lesson 11-5
1. Set up a system of two equations and two unknowns:

Solve the system of equations.

Alic has 8 five-dollar bills and 16 ten-dollar bills.
2. The equation to model the cell phone bill is
bill = 40 + 0.35(t - 300).
Evaluate this function when t = 350.
The cell phone bill will be $57.50.

Lesson 11-6
1. Set up a system of two equations and two unknowns:

Solve the system of equations.

Tim pays the crew chiefs $200 per day.
2. Set up a system of two equations and two unknowns:

Solve the system of equations.

Dan charges $4 for a chicken.
 Final Exam

1. Which of the following is a correct classification of the number 3.1415?

a. Irrational
b. Rational
c. Natural
d. Integer
e. Whole
2. The least common multiple of 150 and 200 is the same as which of the following?
a. The least common multiple of 125 and 225
b. 50
c. 3,000
d. The least common multiple of 24 and 25
e. None of the above.
3. Solve the inequality 5 < 1 - 3x ≤ 10

e. None of the above.

4. Solve for x: |3x - 6| = 9
a. x = –1
b. x = 1
c. x = 1 or x = 5
d. x = –1 or x = 5
e. None of the above.
5. Solve the inequality: |x + 1 ≥ 4
a. (–5,3)
b. [–5,3]
c. (–∞,–5]∪[3,∞)
d. (–∞,–5)∪(3,∞)
e. None of the above.
 6. The Walker family will be attending a wedding. Jasper and Kelsey leave a day early and arrive in
the town where the wedding will take place in 3.5 hours. Mary and Cindy leave the morning of the
wedding, drive an average of 10 mph faster than their parents did the day before, and arrive in 3
hours. How far away was the town from the Walker residence?
a. 165 miles
b. 180 miles
c. 60 miles
d. 210 miles
e. None of the above.
7. The sum of two consecutive positive integers whose product is 552 is:
a. 23
b. 45
c. 54
d. 47
e. None of the above.
8. The midpoint of the line segment with endpoints (4,5) and (–6,–3) lies in:
a. Quadrant I
b. Quadrant II
c. Quadrant III
d. Quadrant IV
e. None of the above.
9. Find the product of the solutions of the quadratic equation: 2x2 - 11x + 12 = 0
a. 4
b. 6

e. None of the above.

10. The distance between the x-intercept of the line 2x + y = 4 and the y-intercept of the line x + 4y =
10 is:
a. 6

e. None of the above.

11. The sales of various types of lawn and garden tools vary according to the season. At a certain
hardware store, the monthly sales of shovels, S, declines from July to October, whereas the
monthly sales of rakes, R, increases during this same interval. Suppose that the sales of these two
items during the time period July to October can be modeled with the equations:
S(t) = 64 - 6t
R(t) = 17t - 97
where t is the month (t = 7 corresponds to July). In which month does the number of rakes sold
equal the number of shovels sold?
a. July
b. August
c. September
d. October
e. None of the above.
12. The product of two consecutive whole numbers is 240. Find the smaller of the two numbers.
a. 14
b. 15
c. 16
d. 17
e. None of the above.
13. Find the discriminant of the quadratic polynomial: 4x2 - 5x - 2
a. –7
b. 57
c. 42
d. –22
e. None of the above.
14. Find the slope of the line whose x–intercept is (2, 0) and whose y–intercept is (0, –3).

e. None of the above.

15. If the perimeter of a rectangular flag is 34 inches and the diagonal is 13 inches, what is the area of
the flag?
a. 12 in2
b. 60 in2
 c. 289 in2
d. 169 in2
e. None of the above.
16. Find the equation of the line passing through (3, 6) and (12, –6).

e. None of the above.

17. What is the degree of the polynomial –3x2 +6x4 –4x5 + 7?
a. 2
b. 4
c. 5
d. 7
e. None of the above.
18. Find the sum of the zeros of the quadratic function:
x2 –20x + 64
a. 20
b. 40
c. 34
d. 12
e. None of the above.
19. The y-coordinate of the solution to the system of equations

a. Between –1 and –2
b. Between 1 and 2
c. Between –2 and –3
d. Between –3 and –4
e. None of the above.
20. A combination of 12 coins consisting of quarters and nickels is worth $1.60. How many quarters
are there?
a. 4
b. 5
 c. 6
d. 7
e. None of the above.
21. Columbian coffee costs $6 per pound, and French Roast coffee costs $9 per pound. How many
pounds of Columbian coffee should be mixed with French Roast coffee to obtain 100 pounds of a
blend that costs $7.65 per pound?
a. 35 pounds
b. 45 pounds
c. 55 pounds
d. 65 pounds
e. None of the above.
22. Craig paid $31.25 in cab fare from the airport to the hotel. The cab charged $3.75 for the first mile
plus $2.50 for each additional mile. How many miles did the cab travel from the airport to the
hotel?
a. 11 miles
b. 12 miles
c. 13 miles
d. 14 miles
e. None of the above.
23. Subtract: –2p + 2w + 7 from 5p – 4w + 9
a. –7p + 2w – 16
b. 7p – 2w + 16
c. –7p + 6w –2
d. 7p – 6w + 2
e. None of the above.
24. Simplify: (–4x-2y)(–2x5y3)

b. –8x3y4
c. –8x10y3
d. 8x3y4
e. None of the above.
25. Find the distance between the point (–1, –3) and (2, 3).

b. 1

d. 3
e. None of the above.
26. If (x + 4) is a factor of –x2 –11x – w, then the value of w is:
a. –60
b. –28
c. 28
d. 60
e. None of the above.
27. One leg of a right triangle measures 15 inches, and the hypotenuse measures 17 inches. What is the
perimeter of the triangle?
a. 32 inches
b. 40 inches
c. 60 inches
d. 127.5 inches
e. None of the above.
28. Solve the inequality: |3x + 1| ≤ –5
a. x ≤ –2
b. x ≥ –2
c. All real numbers
d. No solution
e. None of the above.
29. At what point do the lines y = 4x + 7 and y = –4x – 11 intersect?

d. The lines do not intersect.

e. None of the above.
30. During a local performance of a play, the box office sold 247 tickets and collected $1,716. If a
posh ticket cost $8 and a general admission ticket cost $6, compare the number of posh tickets to
the number of general admission tickets sold.
a. 13 more posh tickets than general admission tickets were sold.
b. 25 more general admission tickets than posh tickets were sold.
c. 13 more general admission tickets than posh tickets were sold.
d. 25 more posh tickets than general admission tickets were sold.
e. None of the above.

Final Exam Answer Key

 1. b
2. d
3. c
4. d
5. c
6. d
7. d
8. b
9. b
10. c
11. a
12. b
13. b
14. c
15. b
16. a
17. c
18. a
19. d
20. b
21. b
22. b
23. d
24. d
25. a
26. c
27. b
28. d
29. c
30. c
 INDEX

absolute value, 26
adding and subtracting fractions, 32
addition property of inequality,
first, 83
second, 83
addition/subtraction method, the, 153–158
additive
identity, 21
inverse, 22
algebra and other fields of study, 12
applications, 223–240
associative property of addition and multiplication, 21
binomial, 163
calculating slopes, 121–126
Cartesian coordinate system, 110–113
closed interval, 96
closure, 20
co-domain, 105
coefficient, 60, 162
common divisor, greatest, 16
common factor, greatest, 16, 18
common multiple, least, 17
communicative property of addition and multiplication, 20
composite, 16
compound inequalities, 95
counting numbers, 14
degree, 162
denominator, 14
discriminant, 206
distributive property, 23, 36–37
dividing fractions, 30
divisor, greatest common, 16
domain, 105
endpoints, 96
equality, 60–61
equation, 59
equations
and equality, 59–80
involving absolute values, 74–78
equivalence relation, 61
evaluating expressions, 37–38
exponent, zero as an, 51–52
exponential expressions, 167–168
exponents, 41–58
rules for, 45–49
expressions, 105
algebraic, 59
evaluating, 37–38
factor, greatest common, 16, 18
factor, trivial, 15
factoring
quadratic expressions, 193–197
techniques, 177–179
form,
function, 131
point-slope, 129–130
slope-intercept, 130–132
standard, 132
fraction,
improper, 27
proper, 27
fractions,
adding and subtracting, 32
dividing, 30
function form, 131
graphical method the, 148–150
graphing
inequalities using the number line, 90–95
linear equations, 138–141
graphs of function and relations, 114–117
greatest common
divisor, 16
factor, 16, 18
horizontal and vertical lines, 135–138
identity,
additive, 21
multiplicative, 22
improper fraction, 27
inequalities and graphs, 81–104
inequalities,
compound, 95
strict, 91
inequality, 81
integers,
definition of, 14
finding, 229–232
negative, 14
positive, 14
interval, 96
closed, 96
half-closed, 97
half-open, 97
open, 97
inverse,
additive, 22
multiplicative, 22
irrational numbers, 15
language of numbers, 13
leading coefficient, 163
least common multiple, 17
linear combinations, 153–158
linear equations, 121–145
in one step, solving, 63–68
solved in several steps, 68–73
lines, horizontal and vertical, 135–138
manipulating rational numbers, 27–34
mathematics and patterns, 11
method,
graphical, 148–150
the addition/subtraction, 153–158
the substitution/elimination, 150–153
money problems, 234–236
monomial, 161
monomials and polynomials, 161–183
monomials,
adding and subtracting, 163–164
dividing polynomials by, 176–177
multiplying and dividing, 164–167
multiple, least common, 17
multiplication property, restricted, 83
multiplicative
identity, 22
inverse, 22
multiplying fractions and reducing, 29
natural numbers, 14
negative integers, 14
powers, 49–51
non-trivial, 15
notation, scientific, 54–57
numbers as tools, 13
numbers,
irrational, 15
natural, 14
odd and even, 15
rational, 14
real, 15
whole, 14
numerator, 14
odd and even numbers, 15
open interval, 97
operations and symbols, 19
operations, the order of, 34–35
order of operations, the, 34–35
pair, ordered, 106
percentages, rates and, 227–229
perfect squares, 186
point-slope form, 129–130
polynomials,
adding and subtracting, 168–170
 monomials and, 161–183
multiplying, 179–173
positive integers, 14
powers, 41–45
power rule, 48
powers of quotients and products, 52–54
powers,
negative integer, 49–51
positive integers, 41–45
prime numbers, 15, 16
principal square roots, 186
problems, mixture, 136–238
product rule, 164
proper fraction, 27
properties of
equality, algebraic, 62–63
real numbers, 20–23
zero and one, 23–26
property of
inequality, first addition, 83
inequality, second addition, 83
property restricted multiplication, 83
property,
associative, 20
communicative, 20
distributive, 23
the distributive, 36–38
transitive, 21
trichotomy, 21
quadrants, 112–112
quadratic equations, 185–212
quotient rule, 47, 164
radicand, 186
range, 105
rates and percentages, 227–229
rational expression, 213
adding and subtracting, 219–222
dividing, 217–219
 multiplying, 216–217
simplifying, 213–215
rational numbers, 14
ray, 91
closed, 92
open, 92
real numbers, 15
properties of, 20–23
reciprocal, 23
reducing, multiplying fractions, 29
reflexive property, 82
reflexive, 61
relation, 60, 105
relatively prime, 16
rule for inequalities, 97
rule,
power, 48
product, 47, 164
quotient, 47, 164
rules for exponents, 45–49
scientific notation, 54–57
slope, 123
slope-intercept form, 130–132
slopes, calculating, 121–126
solving quadratic expressions, 197–200
special products, 173–176
square roots, 185–188
standard form, 132
strict inequalities, 91
substitution/elimination method, the, 150–153
symbols and inequalities, 82
symbols, operations and, 19
symmetric, 61
symmetric property, 82
system of linear equations, 147
techniques, factoring, 177–179
terminology, 161–163
transformations and linear equations, 64, 66
transitive property, 21, 82
transitive, 61
trichotomy property of real numbers, 21
variable,
definition of, 13
dependent, 108
independent, 107
whole numbers, 14
word problems, approaching, 225–227
x-axis, 111
x-coordinate, 112
x-intercept, 127
y-coordinate, 112
y-intercept, 127
zero and one, properties of, 23–26
zero as an exponent, 51–52
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

DENISE SZECSEI earned Bachelor of Science degrees in physics, chemistry, and mathematics from
the University of Redlands, and she was greatly influenced by the educational environment cultivated
through the Johnston Center for Integrative Studies. After graduating from the University of Redlands,
she served as a technical instructor in the U.S. Navy. After completing her military service, she
earned a PhD in mathematics from the Florida State University. She recently returned to graduate
school to study epidemiology and biostatistics at the University of Iowa. She has been teaching since
1985, and hopes that the FSU Seminoles and the UI Hawkeyes never meet in a BCS bowl game.