MHI

Copy 3

FM 21-6
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

TECHNIQUES OF
MILITARY
INSTRUCTION

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT UF ITHI ARMY

JANUARY 1967
 * FM 21-6

FIELD MANUAL HEADQUARTERS

DEPARTMENT OP THE ARMY
No. 21-6 WASHINGTON, D.C., 20 January 1967

TECHNIQUES OF MILITARY INSTRUCTION

Paragraph Page

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1,2

________________________________-- 2
2. THE ARMY INSTRUCTOR ----------------------- 3-7 3
3. PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION ---------------- 8-11 8
4. PRESENTING ORAL INSTRUCTION ---------- 12-16 17
5. SPEECH TECHNIQUES _________________________ 17-25 24
6. QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES ------------------ 26-32 33
7. TRAINING AIDS _______________________________--- 33-38 41
8. THE DEMONSTRATION ------------------------ 39-42 56
9. APPLICATION __________________________________ 43-49 63
10. PROGRAMED INSTRUCTION -------------------- 50-59 73
11. PREPARATION FOR INSTRUCTION ------------ 60-66 93
12. EVALUATION ___________________________________ 67-77 108.
13. INSTRUCTOR TRAINING ----------------------- 78-84 148
14. MILITARY BRIEFINGS -_____----------- -------- 85-88 155
15. TELEVISION ___________________________________ 89-92 160
APPENDIX A. REFERENCES _____________--__________-_________ --
___ 179
B. LESSON OUTLINES FOR AN INSTRUCTOR
TRAINING COURSE _____________-------------- ----- 180
C. STUDENT CRITIQUE SHEET ------------------- ----- 225
INDEX ________________________________________------ .----
_____ 226

*This manual supersedes FM 21-6, 19 May 1954.

 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1. Purpose to insure understanding and complete evalu-

a. This manual, designed to assist Army ation. Comments should be submitted directly
instructors, presents specific methods and tech- Commandant, U.S. Army Armor School,
niques of military instruction that will tend Fort. Knox, Ky. 40121.
to insure successful teaching. All officers and
noncommissioned officers must know how to 2. Scope
teach. As specialists, they may have an excel- This manual contains principles and tech-
lent knowledge of some phase of the military niques both for use in the instruction of Army
profession; but, to teach others, they must also personnel and for use in the training of in-
know the best methods and procedures for structors. Recommended lesson outlines are
imparting their knowledge. included in the appendixes; these will help in
b. Users of this manual are encouraged to presenting the subject matter to which the out-
submit comments or recommendations to im- line pertains. The illustrations in the manual
prove its effectiveness. Comments should be are suggestions for training aids. These illus-
keyed to the specific page, paragraph, and line trations may be used on an opaque projector,
of the text in which change is recommended. traced on acetate and used with an overhead
Reasons should be provided for each comment projector, or enlarged and used as charts.

2
 CHAPTER 2
THE ARMY INSTRUCTOR

3. The Instructor's Role in Training viduals and units receive during training. The
success of any plan for training will depend
The combat success of the Army depends on upon the soldier-instructors who present sub-
the effectiveness of the instruction that indi- jects to soldier-students. First-class instruction

THE
INSTRUCTOR
Is THE
KEYSTONE

QUESTIoNN 'ta.

EVALUATION

PERFORMANCE

/
STPECHNIQUES fly @ TRAINING

AEPLANATION
PRESENTATION r TRAINING
PUBICAION

TRAINING
PREPARATION S SOP'STRAINING
~~FPREPARATION
igr Ting ... arcSOP'S.

Figure 1. The trainingarch.

3
 LEADERSHIP ABILITY

PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDE

KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUBJECT

POSITIVE PERSONALITY
KNOWLEDGE OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Figure 2. Characteristicsof a good instructor.

helps to produce a first-class Army, and first- knowledge of how to instruct is a prerequisite
class instruction is the result of having well- to good instruction and is the reason for con-
trained instructors-instructors who know ducting instructor training courses in the
their subjects thoroughly and know how to Army. The instructor must be able to apply
present their subjects to others. The instructor the principles, methods, and techniques of in-
is the keystone in the training arch (fig. 1). struction that are discussed in this manual.
c. Positive Personality. Personality can be
4. Characteristics of A Good Instructor defined as the sum total of all of those things
An instructor should possess the following about an individual to which other people re-
characteristics (fig. 2): spond, either favorably or unfavorably. A good
personality-one that gets a favorable response
a. Knowledge of the Subject. It is obvious
a. Knowledgeoftec. I i. -- is not some mysterious inborn quality. It can
that the instructor must know his subject if he
be developed by concentrating upon and im-
is to teach it to others. As far as possible, in-
proving specific features of the personality.
structors should have both field experience and Each instructor should strive to develop in him-
ia thorough knowledge of applicable training self those characteristics that contribute to suc-
literature. An instructor will make a serious
mistakehcessful
if. heasue teaching, such as enthusiasm and sin-
mistake if he assumes that field experience
alone
alone will
will give
give him
him sufficient
sufficient knowledge
knowledge to
to cerity, and to avoid those characteristics that
teach, without further preparation and continu- interfere with effective instruction, such as
superiority and indifference.
ous study of training literature. Field experi-
ence should enable him to evaluate the material d. Leadership Ability.
:in training manuals and to present it in a man-
ner that will be realistic to students. He should
know more about his subject than he will have
develop proper habits, attitudes, ap-
preciations
preiations and
and character
character traits
traits in
in
time to teach and, certainly, should be prepared
to answer virtually any question on the subject. their students as well as teach the
basic information required in a course.
b. Knowledge of Teaching Techniques. A They see that discipline is maintained

4
 and that students conduct themselves (1) The instructor who has the proper
as soldiers at all times. They maintain professional attitude continually adds
control of their classes and see that to his storage of knowledge and skills
the classes run smoothly. in his subject and makes every effort
(2) Course management is an important to improve his teaching ability. He
responsibility of leadership. This must also have a sympathetic under-
management includes detailed plan- standing of his students' problems and
ning of the course, obtaining and dis- be fair in dealing with each individual.
tributing supplies and equipment, (2) Everything an instructor says and
keeping records, reducing waste, ad- does during classes, as well as the
justing the program to the needs of manner in which he says and does
students, making reports, and accom- things, reflects his attitude toward his
plishing a number of other adminis- students, his subject, and the training
trative details that are necessary for program. His attitudes have a tre-
effective teaching. Courses must be mendous influence upon student atti-
managed if they are to be taught tudes and morale, for students tend to
effectively. adopt both the attitude of the instruc-
tor and his point of view toward the
e. ProfessionalAttitude. the subject and the training.

HOW THE INSTRUCTOR

CAN IMPROVE

KNOW WHAT MAKES GOOD INSTPUCTION

OBSERVE OTHER INSTRUCTORS

ANALYZE YOUR OWN CHARACTERISTICS

CONCENTRATE ON SPECIFIC ELEMENTS

SEEK HELP OF ASSOCIATES

MAKE CONSTANT EFFORT TO IMPROVE

Figure 3. Instructor improvement.

5. Instructor Improvement tor's strengths and weaknesses more readily
than can the instructor himself.
An instructor can improve himself only by
constant effort (fig. 3). The fact that an in- f. Make Constant Effort to Improve. The
structor has taught for some time does not instructor's attitude toward his work is best
mean that he has made significant improve- judged by the effort he makes to improve. After
ment, nor does the fact that an instructor is each lesson, the good instructor will ask him-
rated superior this year mean that he will be self how he could have done the job better.
superior next year. He will not be satisfied with anything but the
best. Constant alertness in seeking the best
a. Know What Makes Good Instruction. In methods to improve his students' learning is the
his efforts to improve, the instructor must start most important single ingredient in the in-
with an appreciation of the basic elements of structor's recipe for improvement.
good instruction. He must set certain stand.
ards for himself. 6. Developing Good Relationship with
b. Observe Other Instructors. The instruc- Students
tor must maintain his own individuality while To be successful, instructors must have the
improving his technique. He should observe respect of their students. Instructors gain the
other instructors for the purpose of learning respect of their students by displaying correct
from them, but should not imitate even the attitudes toward them. The respected instruc-
most capable ones to too great an extent. Two tor displays interest that is sincere and objec-
highly competent instructors may have radi- tive. He respects the personality of each stu-
cally different personalities and use entirely dent, regardless of racial, geographical, or in-
different techniques, yet both do a superior job tellectual grouping. He guards against over
of teaching. Instructors should determine what familiarity with his students. And, finally, he
they can do well and then develop techniques is firm and frank when it is in the best interest
based on their known abilities rather than on of the student and the Army. An excellent way
abilities that they admire but lack. of developing the proper attitude toward stu-
c. Analyze
c. Analyze Yoder Own Characteristics. Self-
YrOwn
Self- Characteristics.
dents is to think of them as possessing the
evaluation and self-analysis are essential to im- following characteristics (fig. 4):
provement. The instructor should constantly a. With a few exceptions, they are mentally,
attempt to evaluate his own teaching and emotionally, and physically mature.
analyze his own characteristics to find out just
what his strengths and weaknesses are. He b. They have a serious purpose and are eager
should discover strengths and build upon them; to get the most from their training.
discover weaknesses and correct them.
c. They are keenly interested in the practical
d. Concentrate on Specific Elements. Prog- applications of theory and knowledge. They
ress is made by concentrating upon specific judge instructions in terms of their needs and
techniques and working out a systematic plan the demands of their jobs. They are inter-
for their improvement. A general attitude on ested in the why and how of what they are
the part of an instructor to do well, while com- asked to do.
mendable, rarely brings the significant im- d. They are quick to appreciate and respect
provement desired; attention must be given to instructors who know their subject and who
improving specific aspects of instruction. have the ability to present effective instruction.
e. Seek Help of Associates. An instructor They are equally quick to detect the incompe-
cannot always evaluate his own work objec-
tively. He should encourage others to criticize e. Men vary in their physical characteristics,
his instruction and should welcome their sug- intelligence, general education, past experience,
gestions. Other instructors, assistant instruc- determination or desire to achieve, and emo-
tors, and supervisors can identify an instruc- tional stability. Instructors must be aware of

6
MATURE c. Do not use sarcasm or ridicule. Since
iMiiiUi) students are helpless to retort, they become re-
SINCERE sentful. When an individual is resentful, his
PRACTICAL mind is closed to learning.
d. Do not talk down to a class. The instruc-
DISCERNING tor should make the class feel that he considers
DIFFERENT himself fortunate to have acquired the experi-
ence and knowledge that he wishes to share
with fellow members of his profession.
e. Do not lose patience. Slowness or appar-
ent inability to learn may mean that the in-
structor will have to use other methods and
Figure 4. Student characteristics.
Figure4. Student characteristics.
techniques.
these differences and take them into consider-
ation. However, most men are capable of
mastering the essentials of military training if
they are well taught.

7. Advice to Instructors
The instructor must follow certain rules of
conduct (fig. 5):
a. Do not bluff to cover lack of knowledge.
An instructor must know his subject thorough-
ly, but even then, questions may arise that he
cannot answer. If he does not know the an- 2. DO NOT USE PROFANITY OR OBSCENITY.
swer, he should admit it, find the correct an-
swer, and give it to the class as soon as 3. DO NOT USE SARCASM OR RIDICULE.
practicable.
4. DO NOT TALK DOWN TO A CLASS.
b. Do not use profanity or obscenity. When
the instructor does, he loses dignity and class 5. DO NOT LOSE PATIENCE.
respect. Figure 5. Advice to instructors.

7
 CHAPTER 3

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION

8. General attitudes. It is the instructor's responsibility

to provide learning situations that make maxi-
An who has
instructor who
An instructor only aa few
has only vague ideas
few vague ideas mum use of the senses and produce the desired
about learning will likely meet with limited responses. Lessons should
responses. Lessons should appeal
appeal toto aa variety
variety
success. To achieve maximum effectiveness an of senses. This is one reason why practical
instructor must be familiar with the nature of exercises, t raining and aids,
demonstrations
learning, the basic instruction process, and are valuable.
the general principles or guides for creating an
effective teaching-learning situation. c. Types of Learning. The products of stu-
dent learning may be divided into three types:
knowledges, skills, and attitudes. Knowledges
9. The Nature of Learning or understandings are often designated as
The desired outcome of all instruction is awareness of facts, principles, meanings, con-
student learning. If students are no better cepts, and relationships. Skills refer to physical
equipped to do something at the end of a lesson and mental abilities such as specific habits,
than they were before, no learning has resulted manipulations, and adjustments. Mental skills
from the instruction. The instructor must ac- or abilities include problem solving, critical
cept responsibility for his students' learning thinking, analysis, synthesis, and judgment.
and if learning for which he is responsible does Attitudes include appreciations, ideals, prefer-
not take place, he should look first to himself ences, and values.
and his presentation for the cause.
10. The Instructional Process
a. Learning--an Active Process. Learning
cancanbe
be defarning-aned
defined as as the
the pprocess
rocess
of acquiring
of acquiring new
new The instructional process (fig. 6) is the basic
knowledge, skills, techniques, and appreciations procedure for teaching a single lesson objective
that will enable the individual to do something or an entire phase of a subject. It is a three-
that he could not do before. Notice the empha- stage process of presentation by the instruc-
sis is placed upon doing. Learning is essen- tor, application by the student, and evaluation
tially an active process; it is not passive ab- by the instructor. Within this framework the
sorption. Students must be given purposeful, instructor applies specific instructional methods
worthwhile work to do; they must be kept ac- and techniques for achieving the most effective
tive both mentally and physically. teaching-learning situation.
b. Learning Through the Senses. Learning a. Presentation. The student gains the con-
cept of the subject--by completing a study as-
cept of the subjectby completing a study as
can also be defined as the change that takes
place in the individual as a result of his mental spgnmenti by listening to an explanation by
and physical responses to stimuli. The five participating in a conference, or by watching a
demonstration. For most military subjects,
senses are thesenses are the through
channels
channels which the
through which the effective presentation will consist of a combina-
individual is stimulated; through the senses of tion of these activities: study by the student,
sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell he makes
contact with things about him. As a result of
these contacts, he makes responses that lead b. Application. The student is given an op-
to the acquiring of new knowledge, skills, or portunity to apply the new concepts gained in

8
 PRESENTATION EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE

Figure 6. The instructionalprocess.

the presentation stage. The application stage BACKGROUND

is the most important. All learning requires
conscious and successful response by the stu-
dent. In planning and conducting instruction,
the instructor should remember that it is not REALISM
so much what the instructor does or says that
teaches, but rather what he causes his students
to do.
c. Evaluation. The instructor checks student RESPONSE
responses to keep them informed of their prog-
ress and to prevent them from practicing in-
correct responses. Evaluation includes formal INCIDENTAL
testing at the end of a period or phase of LEARNING
instruction; however, the most important type __
of evaluation is informal and is concurrent with \
the presentation and application stages of the REINFORCEMENT
M E E7 N
REINF0OCEMEN
instructional process. Such evaluation is ac-
complished by oral questions to the class follow-
ing the explanation or demonstration of a Figure 7. The principles of instruction.
teaching point, by close observation of students
during practical work to detect errors and
make on-the-spot corrections, and by checking should guide the instructor in using the instruc-
student understanding of previous related in- tional process and in selecting and using spe-
struction. cific methods and techniques of instruction.
These principles are-
11. Principles of Instruction a. Motivation. The student must want to
The principles of instruction describe condi- learn before he can be taught (fig. 8). To de-
tions and requirements for effective teaching velop in the student the desire to learn and to
and, thus, effective learning (fig. 7). They sustain this desire so that he will pay attention

9
 held. The use of personal force and
enthusiasm, examples, and illustra-
tions will help keep interest high. The
more interesting the material can be
made for students, the more readily
they will learn it. The instructor,
however, must keep in mind that his
responsibility is to teach, not to enter-
tain.
(4) Encourage early success. Early suc-
cess motivates students. An individ-
ual's success tends to drive him to
further effort and additional successes.
For the normal person, achievement
brings a certain amount of pleasure
and satisfaction, and stimulation to-
-sw d - rward greater activity. During the early
stages of a training program, instruc-
tors should have students work at an
activity that they can complete suc-
Figure 8. Motivation. cessfully.
(5) Give recognition and credit. These
to the presentation and try to follow directions provide strong incentives for learning.
in the practical work is a major requirement Students desire, and have a right to
for effective instruction. The following are expect, credit for work well-done. In-
some of the techniques (fig. 9) that instructors structors must mention the good
can use to motivate students: points of students' work and not dwell
(1) Show a need. It cannot be assumed entirely on their mistakes. Start with
that men will recognize the impor- favorable comments; then lead into
tance of learning the lessons presented suggestions for improvement.
in a training program. Many impor- (6) Feelings and emotional responses.
tant things may seem unrelated to the Avoid feelings and emotional re-
work of the soldier when he first hears
sponses that interfere with efficient
of them. Instruction must include learning. Feelings affect learning.
valid reasons for learning and an ex- Students who are
Students who are angry,
angry, resentful,
resentful, em-
em-
planation of how the things taught barrassed, frightened, or otherwise
will be used. emotionally upset think about the
(2) Develop an intent to learn. Before in- source of their disturbance rather
struction is presented, the student than the subject being taught.
must be made to realize that he is re-
sponsible for learning. It is not enough (7) Use competition. Friendly competi-
that the student is physically present tion stimulates learning. Such com-
for training; he must be mentally petition between two or more groups
prepared to learn. The instructor or teams normally achieves efficient
must check class progress frequently learning if the intensity of the compe-
and insist that each man apply him- tion does not obscure learning goals.
self. A student learns more when he When possible group competition is
is made to feel responsible for learn- preferable to one individual soldier
ing. against another. Having a student
(3) Maintain interest. Interest is essen- compete against his own, past record
tial if attention is to be gained and provides effective competition.

10
 TO MOTIVATE STUDENTS

SHOW A NEED

DEVELOP AN INTENT TO LEARN

MAINTAIN INTEREST

ENCOURAGE EARLY SUCCESS

GIVE RECOGNITION AND CREDIT

AVOID EMOTIONAL RESPONSES THAT

INTERFERE WITH EFFICIENT LEARNING

USE COMPETITION

USE REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT

Figure 9. Techniques of motivation.

(8) Use rewards and punishment. Re- and what is expected of him (fig. 10 and para
wards are powerful incentives. On 14 and 61). At the beginning of each period
the other hand, punishment is perhaps of instruction, instructors should set forth the
the least desirable form of motivation. goals that the student is to achieve-exactly
The imposition of punishment that the what the student should be able to do and how
students consider to be unjust or too well he should be able to do it as a result of the
severe may breed resentment, an- instruction. Further, the student should be
tagonism, and failure to learn the told how each lesson fits into the overall pro-
subject with which punishment is as- gram of instruction and how the course of in-
sociated. struction prepares him for his job.
b. Objective. Learning is more efficient when c. Response. A student learns only what he
the student knows exactly what he is to learn does or responds to (fig. 11). This may take

11
 PRINCIPLE OF OBJECTIVE
A SOLDIER
~z MUST

iit~ A1B~~KNOW
- ~ '!4 : i/ HIS
V ~~OBJECTIVE
-~~~~

Figure10. Objective.

many forms-listening, observing, reading, re- planned so that evaluation is concurrent with
calling, taking notes, reciting, writing, practic- the presentation and application stages of in-
ing, or solving problems. The instructional struction. Immediate on-the-spot correction of
process of presentation-application-evaluation errors is essential to effective instruction and
centers on the instructor's applying this prin- efficient learning. Formal examinations at the
ciple of instruction. Every period of instruc- end of an hour or phase of training will not ade-
tion should be planned to require the student to quately accomplish the principle of reinforce-
respond frequently in a form than can be ob- ment because of the delay between response and
served and evaluated by the instructor. "Prac- knowledge of results.
tice makes perfect" only when the student prac-
tices correctly. e. Realism. The instructor should insure that
learning activities in training relate closely to
d. Reinforcement. Efficient learning requires the situations in actual practice (fig. 13). Each
that the student know whether his responses lesson, or main point of a lesson, should be
are right or wrong (fig. 12). Application of this subjected to the test of these questions:
principle as the heart of the evaluation stage
of instruction is well-established in the psy- (1) Is this the way this material will be
chology of learning. For a student to know that used by the soldier in actual practice?
his response is right or successful strengthens Material presented must be realistic
the response and tends to "fix it in mind." A from the standpoint of its field appli-
student should also be informed of incorrect cation. However, during the introduc-
responses and given an opportunity to correct tory phases of instruction in a subject,
them. Ideally, the student should know whether the desire for realism should not be
he is right or wrong immediately after each allowed to obscure learning. The fact
response. The longer the delay between re- that a soldier in combat may have to
sponse and knowledge of results, the weaker re- consult a map during a snowstorm
inforcement becomes. Instruction should be while under enemy fire does not mean

12
 you," or "You will use this in this
way."
f. Background. Learning is based on experi-
ence; new experiences are interpreted on the
basis of past experience (fig. 14). A person
seeing an airplane for the first time may call it
a "strange bird" because that describes the new
object in the light of things familiar to him.
(1) An Army instructor can explain many
new things by using illustrations
drawn from the past experience of
students and relatink these past ex-
periences to the new material. Resist-
ance to the flow of electrical current
through various gage wires is likened
to the resistance to the flow of water
through different diameters of pipes.
Describing carburetion as "the atom-
ization of combustible material to
facilitate combustion of ingredients"
may be entirely correct, but few stu-
dents will get the full meaning from
this explanation.
(2) Past experience of students varies;
therefore they may not all attach ex-
actly the same meaning to an explana-
/ tion. Instructors must select and pre-
sent illustrations carefully so that all
students will get the desired meanings.
In early stages of Army training, in-
structors must draw illustrations from
common civilian experiences. As
Figure 11. Response. training advances, more and more
illustrations can be drawn from
that preliminary instruction in map earlier phases of the training program.
reading should be presented under (3) Instructors apply this principle in the
similar conditions. Realistic obstacles introduction to a lesson by reviewing
should be introduced into practical previous instruction. This helps stu-
work after a soldier has mastered dents to recall what they have learned
basic principles and techniques. previously, which makes up their back-
(2) Is my presentation realistic as far as ground or past experience for the
the level of the class is concerned? lessons to be presented.
Instruction beyond student compre- g. Incidental Learning.
hension is unrealistic; however, rela- (1) Learning is complete only when the
tively difficult subject matter can be student has acquired the attitudes,
presented to classes of different levels values, appreciations, interests, ideals,
if it is adapted to their specific needs. and habits of conduct that will enable
Make instruction more realistic to the him to apply correctly the things
student by using such personal refer- learned (fig. 15). This statement is of
ences as "Here's what this means to such importance in military training

13
 Figure 12. Reinforcement.

·\.

MOST INSTRUCTION CAN BE MADE

REALISTIC TO THE STUDENT
Figure13. Realism.

14
 t rinmnno
taki eel orelsicstatosinwih hs

subjectmte.qaiishveteopruiyt
teach

Figure 14. Background.

that it should be considered a funda- will to fight, initiative, resourceful-

mental principle for the guidance of ness, and the spirit of the offensive.
instructors. The military instructor These desirable ends are not taught
must not only concern himself with directly; they are developed indirectly
the teaching of skills and information as a result of three basic factors:
that contribute directly to his lesson (a) Instruction that recognizes that
objectives; he must also be alert to these attributes are the byproducts
the development of correct appreci- of good teaching.
ations and attitudes, which determine (b) Leadership that emphasizes and
how effectively the soldier will apply contributes to the ultimate objec-
the knowledge and abilities he has tives of military training.
acquired in the training program.
This principle emphasizes the fact
intrctrs Te iltayintrctr
(c) Carefully designed training pro-
hee esrbl edsar nt a eh

ultimate
that the instructor's real,thatultimate
the instructor's real, grams numerous
that provide numerous
grams thatprovide
task is to train men-not merely to realistic situations in which these
teach subject matter. qualities have the opportunity to
(2) Many Army training publications develop.
recognize the validity of this principle (3) To apply this principle in his teach-
of learning when they call for such ing, the instructor must be alert to
training results as aggressiveness, the every facet of the student's develop-
 COMPANY B

CONDUCT
LT SHARP

Figure 15. Incidental learning.

ment. He must recognize that his men marks and voicing personal opinions
learn many things from his instruc- that do not contribute to the desired
tion in addition to the material pre- student attitude. The instructor should
sented. He must set a good example, give advance thought to the desirable
and employ a positive attitude toward attitudes, appreciations, interests,
his instruction. Students are quick to ideals, and habits of conduct that may
pattern their reactions to the attitude result from instruction, and make
of the instructor. The instructor must every effort to contribute to their
refrain from making incidental re- development.

16
 CHAPTER 4
PRESENTING ORAL INSTRUCTION

12. General (1) Good speech techniques (see para 17-

Effective communication between the instruc- 25).
tor and the student is essential. This chapter (2) An effective opening statement.
deals with the organization and presentation of (3) A reference to previous instruction.
oral units of instruction. The chapter is orga- when applicable, and any reference of
nized into three parts: the introduction, the ex- special interest to the class.
planation, and the summary or review. This (4) A startling statement.
is the basic organization for effective oral (5) Story or example.
presentations-in other words: "Tell them what (6) Rhetorical question.
you are going to tell them; tell them, and then
tell them what you have told them."
(8) Skit or demonstration.
13. The Introduction b. To disclose the scope and objectives of the
By means of the introduction, the instructor subject, tell the class what they will learn and,
sets the stage for his presentation. The introduc- therefore, be able to accomplish (objectives),
tion will vary in length, depending upon the and why the subject is important to them
nature of the subject and the teaching situation. (reasons) (fig. 17).
The introduction should (fig. 16): establish con-
tact between the instructor and his class, arouse 14. Elements of the Introduction
student interest in the subject and disclose the
The objectives of the lesson and the reasons
scope and objectives of the subject. for learning the lesson should always be in-
a. To establish contact, to arouse interest, cluded in the introduction. Other elements,
and obtain attention-use one or more of the which may or may not be included, are a re-
following: view of previous instruction and the proce-

INTRODUCTION I
1. TO ESTABLISH CONTACT. 2. TO AROUSE INTEREST.

3. TO ESTABLISH THE GOALS OF THE CLASS.

Figure16. Purpose of the introduction.

17

475-774 0 - 72 - 2
 INTRODUCE YOUR LESSON WITH

Many year { ... And wh

|during the |AAxvIis survival,
days of the important to
crusades, the the combat

Good opening
statement Rhetorical
questions

o e rm ed
r
Ddivrs ion hamse

vehice'--...... ..

Sls ik
If you will
direct your attention S ti o
to your right flank Stories or

lof i P~ttin I
Quotations

Skits or
demonstrations Statement
what and why
Figure17. Introducing the lesson.

18
 that could be helpful in saving the soldier's life,
tell him so. Make your reasons convincing.
Makes students feel that it is important for
them to learn the lesson. Use real-life examples
and illustrations. Relate some personal experi-
ence that will drive the point home, or use a real
OBJECTIVES or hypothetical example that will show the value
MUST CNAIN
REASONS of learning the subject. Whenever possible,
stress the battle importance of the lesson.

o. Brief Explanation of the Procedure to be

Followed. When students know what is to take
place, they will be more attentive. To illus-
trate: "During the next 2 hours we will follow
REVIEW this procedure. I will explain the steps as my
MAY CONTAIN · PROCEDURES assistant instructor goes through the disassem-
bly and assembly of the weapon. Watch him
closely, and disassemble and assemble each part
immediately after he does. The assistants will
check you as you proceed. When this has been
completed, you will disassemble and assemble
the weapon at your table under the supervision
of the assistants. Enough time is allowed to
Figure18. The introduction.
permit you to do this several times. Practical
dure to be followed in conducting the lesson. tests will be conducted during the last 30 min-
utes so that each of you can see "how well you
These elements follow no set order, and the have learned the lesson."
instructor should not develop a stereotyped
pattern. For each lesson he should have in d. Review of Previous Instruction. In every
writing or clearly in his mind what he intends unit of instruction that is a continuation of
to say in his introduction and then be sure that previous instruction, the introduction should
he has included all the necessary and desirable contain a tie-in or a brief review of the previous
elements (fig. 18). instruction. This is one application of the prin-
a. Objectives of the Lesson. State briefly and ciple of background and serves to recall infor-
clearly what is to be learned. State objectives mation the student has already learned as well
in terms of what the students will be able to do, as to place every member of the class on a com-
the conditions under which they should be able mon level.
to perform, and the performance standards
they must achieve. Students learn best when 15. The Explanation
they have clearly defined goals. Insure that
students know when they must memorize a pro- In the explanation or body of the oral presen-
cedure, be able to perform an operation, define tation, instructors actually present their teach-
terms, identify components, etc. State lesson ing points. Subject matter is explained, under-
objectives forcefully and enthusiastically. standing is developed, and appreciations are
Never preface your remarks with such state- stimulated.
ments as, "This is the driest subject in the
a. Organizationof the Explanation. The ex-
Army," or "Regulations require that this sub-
planation must be so organized that the stu-
ject be taught; so bear with me." dents can follow the order of presentation (fig.
b. Reasons for Learning the Lesson. Amer- 19). An organization that is completely under-
ican soldiers like to know the why of things, standable to the instructor, or to someone else
and every instructor should strive to satisfy familiar with the subject, may not be logical
that curiosity. If you are to teach something for presentation to students acquiring their

19
 STUDENTS CAN FOLLOW LESSON
ORGANIZATION IF
IT'S LOGICAL

MAIN POINTS ARE LIMITED

TRAINING AIDS ARE USED

Figure19. Organization.

first knowledge of the material. Limit the num- The teaching vehicle serves to show the rela-
ber of main topics discussed. Students can tive position of the learning material under
easily remember 2 or 3 main topics, and can consideration within the context of the whole
remember 4 or 5 with little difficulty, whereas lesson.
the presentation of 8 or 10 main points may
confuse them. Help students follow the organi- b. Transitions Between Points. Getting from
zation by using training aids that list or illus- point to point is a problem that instructors must
trate main points. Decide which material solve in presenting oral instruction. A well-
should logically come irst and which material presented lesson progresses by steps. When
should follow. If you are teaching procedure, presented smoothly, the parts are connected by
this is not too great a problem because obvi- transitional words, phrases, sentences, or state-
ously you must perform step one before you ments (fig. 20). Transitions make it easy for
perform step two and three. Some subject mat- students to follow the instruction and to know
ter can be organized around a single progressive when one point is finished and the next one
situation or example to provide unity to your introduced. Some techniques that help instruc-
lesson. The lesson may revolve around the prob- tors to make smooth transitions are listed
lems faced by Lt X and each time you take up a below. Vary these techniques; do not use the
new problem or portion of this problem you same one or two all the time.
refer to Lt X. It may revolve around a pro- (1) Refer often to the objectives of your
gressive combat situation and each time you lesson. For example, in teaching the
take up new material you explain how the com- principles of war, go to the next prin-
bat situation has enlarged to require new action. ciple by referring to your objective:

20
 FOR EFFECTIVE TRANSITIONS

THE PATHWAY

TO AN

EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

USE QUESTIONS
(ACTUAL AND RHETORICAL).

Figure20. Going from point to point.

"Another principle of war that we all severe as signals that one idea is
must consider is the principle of being closed and another being opened.
mass." This is one very good reason Do not overwork one particular con-
for putting titles on slides and charts; nective, and avoid such terms as
it is possible to go back to the title in "now," "all right," or "now we'll take
making transitions. up."
(2) Use frequent subsummaries. This is (5) Enumerate points. Use numericals-
a valuable teaching technique because "first," "second," etc,--or list points
it makes use of repetition. The in- on a slide or chart.
ternal summary is also an excellent
way to get from one point to another. c. Maintaining Student Interest. The instruc-
For example, in the lesson on princi- tor must make every effort to vitalize his mate-
ples of war: "We have considered the rial so that the interest of his class will be high.
principles of simplicity, unity of corn- He should never state or imply that his subject
mand, and the offensive; now let us is dry. When the instructor merely talks, stu-
consider the principle of maneuver." dent interest is soon lost. To keep classes active
(3) Use rhetorical questions. For exam- and to promote learning, use the following:
ple: "What other principle can we use (1) Specific explanation. The specific and
as a guide to the exercise of command? the concrete are of interest; the gen-
We gain advantage over the enemy by eral and the abstract usually are hard
applying the principle of surprise." to follow and destroy interest. Be
Here the instructor answers his own specific and avoid talking around a
question. subject in vague or general terms.
(4) Use connective words and phrases. (2) Stories and experiences. Army instruc-
Words such as "however," "more- tors are unusually fortunate in that
over," "therefore," and "accordingly" they have a wealth of stories and ex-

21
 periences that are applicable to their FOR INTEREST AND EMPHASIS
subject matter. These stories vitalize
presentation. An instructor with com-
bat experience can often emphasize
the importance of a subject by telling
just how it was applied in his unit.
Further, Army professional publica-
tions contain stories and examples
that can be used. A quotation from
some prominent military leader helps SPEECH TECHQUES
to stimulate interest and vitalize in-
struction. W NG
(3) Illustrations and examples. People
are visual minded; they like to have
ideas presented in picture form. Use
illustrations and examples real or
hypothetical; they are easily remem-
bered and make abstract ideas clear.
(4) Questions. Questions bind instructors
and students together. They arouse
the sluggish; they compel those who Figure 21. Emphasis and interest.
hear to seek an answer.
use of summaries throughout the lesson helps
(5)
Training aids. The use of charts, students to keep main points clearly in mind.
diagrams, models, and other training The lesson should always be concluded with a
aids helpsUse
training aidskeep
asubject interest- complete summary-an overall picture of what
ing. Use training aids at points in the has been presented in the lesson. This final sum-
oral presentation where the lesszon mary or review is the instructor's opportunity
may seem dull. Aids used to vitalize to wrap up the lesson into a compact package
oral instruction, hold attentiong arouse for the students. Keep in mind that the review
interest, and help get teaching poraints must be brief; do not try to reteach the lesson.
across. For an explanation of train- The review (fig. 22) should contain at least the
ing aids, see chapter 7. following elements:
d. Emphasizing Main Points. If main teach- a. Answering student questions.
ing points are not emphasized (fig. 21), the
student may not grasp them, or he may soon b. A re-emphasis of important ideas, steps
lose them. One of the most effective methods of procedure, and safety precautions, when ap-
of gaining emphasis is repetition; this is an- plicable.
other reason for using frequent summaries in a c. A strong closing statement. The The closing
closing
lesson. Remember, repetition has its limits; it statement should leave a positive impression i
must be well-done and distributed properly or the minds of the students. It may include a re-
it becomes monotonous. mark or two on some favorable results that
were obtained by proper use of a principle, or
16. The Summary or Review the disastrous result of malpractice. Above all,
The summary should be used at any point in it must be related to the objectives of the lesson
the lesson where there is a need for a brief and leave the students with a feeling of having
recapitulation of the points covered. Frequent accomplished their mission.

22
 INTHE REVIEW

Gentlemen, are
.-- -) 1 there any questions
AJ'~- - Ion the material
~..., ~ Icovered this
•~~~~morning ?

Give student an opportunity

to ask questions on the
material covered in class.

oDuring our discussion

ofthe attack we said
that surprise is an
essential ......

In t e final ana ysis

it is the individual
\ \ ~'~'~ J~soldier who determines

m ;Rehals iZe theI ;'

7J

he outcostatement
of .....

| Make
Make a closing
closing|

Figure22. The review.

23
 CHAPTER 5
SPEECH TECHNIQUES

17. General stressed. An instructor who has no serious

speech defect should be able to
Military leaders who can speak with clarity speech
deliverydefect should be
significantly if to improve
ablemakes
he improve his
his
a genuine
and logic possess an art that will always serve
them well. The ability to speak effectively is effort to apply these fundamentals.
essential not only to personal military leader- 18. Instructor-Student Contact
ship, but also to efficient instruction. Much Instructors must realize that they are not
of our military training and education takes making speeches, or talking at students, but are
the form of oral instruction. Unless oral in- really talking with them. The purpose of speech
struction is presented with good speech tech- is to communicate ideas. The instructor must
niques, interest succumbs to boredom, under- establish personal contact with the class and
standing is replaced by confusion, and soldiers keep that contact (fig. 23). Here are some sug-
are discouraged in their desire to learn. An gestions that will be helpful-
instructor may know his subject thoroughly, he a. Get the Attention of the Class First. Do
may have an effective teaching personality, he not start the class until you have the attention
may have made complete preparation for pre- of the students. In some cases, walking to the
sentation of a lesson, nevertheless, the quality center of the platform will cause men to quiet
of his oral instruction will depend largely upon down and listen; more often, it will be neces-
the degree of his skill in the specific techniques sary to ask for their attention. A simple
of delivery. This chapter deals with certain "Your attention, please!" will produce the
specific speech techniques. Fundamentals are desired result.

ARE YOU MAINTAINING CONTACT?

Figure 23. Maintainingcontact.

24
 b. Look at and Talk to Your Students. Ob- that they are more interested in the subject
serve people in earnest conversation and you than in the instructor. Think of the subject
will notice that the speaker does not look out and of the learning that should result from the
the window or at the floor or ceiling. He looks instruction, and nervousness will take care of
his listeners in the eye. He probably is not itself.
conscious that he is doing so; the earnestness of b. Assume the Proper Mental Attitude. The
his purpose naturally finds its expression in most reliable weapon the instructor has for
this personal contact. Address your students overcoming nervousness is a proper frame of
and not the training aids or the distant land- mind toward himself, his students, and the en-
scape. Give every student the feeling that you tire instructional setup. To assume a proper
are looking at and talking directly to him. Keep frame of mind, he must make an intelligent, ra-
eye contact. tional analysis of the situation. He must realize
c. Speak in. a Conversational Tone. Do not that the basis for the very unpleasant mental
let your voice reflect an impersonal, indiffer- and physical reaction he experiences when be-
ent attitude. Do not orate or declaim. Make fore a class is fear-not of bodily injury, but
frequent
frequent use
use of
of the
the pronoun "you"; identify
pronoun "you"; identify of what the students will think of him and his
instruction. Students expect their instructor to
"we." Leave the impression that you and they have full knowledge of the subject and to be able
something
ehave in commpon. tht o adthy to teach it effectively. Although students focus
their attention upon instructors, they do not
d. Be Alert! Look Alert! Know what is going immediately place them on trial. If the instruc-
on in your class. Pay close attention to students' tor has mastered his subject and has made thor-
responses. Listen carefully and evaluate their ough preparation, he has eliminated the real
comments and answers to your questions. Be reason for fearing the reaction of the students;
quick to spot an inattentive student. Look he has every right to a feeling of self-confidence,
directly at him. Take a step toward him-or which will go far toward making his presenta-
ask him a question. Continually ask yourself, tion a success.
"Do my students understand?" Check fre- c. Have Initial Re'marks Well in Mind. The
quently to make sure they are following you. first few moments are the most difficult; get
past these and things will go well. It is advis-
19. Controlling Nervousness able to have the lesson introduction so well in
Almost every instructor experiences nervous- mind that no notes are needed.
ness to some degree prior to his initial appear- d. Review Previous Instruction. By starting
ance before a class. Nervousness simply indi- with a reference to a phase of training previ-
cates that the instructor is aware of the class ously completed, the instructor immediately
and is concerned about their reaction to his causes the students to focus their attention on
instruction (fig. 24). Instructors who complete- something with which they are familiar. The
ly lack nervousness are likely to be stolid, instructor thus meets the students on common
unimaginative individuals who probably will ground.
never do more than a mediocre job of instruc- e. Tell a Story. Nothing releases tension so
tion. Under control, nervousness usually re- quickly as a bit of humor injected early in the
sults in a more enthusiastic and expressive introduction. Remember that the story should
delivery. Good instructors usually devise their make a point that can be related to the subject.
own particular techniques of making their When setting out to get a laugh, try to get one,
nervousness work for them instead of against but don't be discouraged if your students
them. Some of these techniques are- don't burst their sides; the next class may re-
a. Be Thoroughly Prepared. The first step spond more vigorously. No great harm is done
the instructor can take to overcome excessive if a story falls flat once in a while.
nervousness is thorough mastery of the subject f. Be Deliberate-Slow Down. When a per-
and the plan for teaching it. Then he must son is nervous, body activities tend to speed up.
realize that the students are there to learn and Instructors should remember this when they

25
 CONTROL NERVOUSNESS spontaneous. Remember to be natural at all
times.
a. Maintain Good Posture. Take a position
from which the entire class can see you and
from which you can see all of the class. Stand
erect, with weight evenly balanced on your
feet. Look physically and mentally alert, but do
not stand rigidly at attention. Relax. Let the
hands and arms hang freely at your sides. The
hands do not appear as large and awkward to
pN W
i \ H students as they might seem to you. If you
simply cannot let them rest at your side until
ready to use them, clasp them in back of you,
or let one hand rest on the speaker's stand
temporarily. Do not wring and twist them ner-
vously. The basic rule to remember is modera-
tion. Don't remain glued to one spot and don't
keep on the move all of the time. When you do
move, move briskly and with purpose. As your
skill and experience increase, you will find
movement becoming less obvious and more
meaningful.
b. Use Gestures. A gesture is the movement
of any part of the body to convey a thought or
emotion, or to reinforce oral expression. Your
Figure24. Controlling nervousness. arms, hands, and body are your principal tools
of gesture. When instructing, let your gestures
are faced with nervousness. They should be
deliberate in movement and careful not to talk
too fast. After a few moments of deliberate
control, the stage fright will pass and the in- .a
structor's normal poise and bearing will take MAINTAIN
over.

20. Maintaining Bearing \ a

Because students react to what they see as MILIT
well as to what they hear and understand, in- MILIT
structors must make certain that they meet BEARING
military standards of appearance, bearing, and
bodily control (fig. 25). Posture, bodily move-
ments, and gestures can be highly expressive.
They can make the difference between an ex-
cellent, enthusiastic presentation, which stimu-
lates students to effective learning, and a. dull,
uninteresting lesson, to which students make a
weak response. Any physical attitude assumed,
any bodily movement, or any gesture that at-
tracts attention to itself is distracting and,
therefore, is a hindrance rather than an aid.
Movements should appear free, natural, and Figure25. Military bearing.

26
 AVOID MANNERISMS

Figure26. Mannerisms distract.

be natural; never rehearse specific gestures c. "The walkie-talkie"--the pacer who never
for use at definite points in your presentation. stands still.
They should arise spontaneously from enthusi- d. "The chained elephant"-who stands with
asm, conviction, and emotion. Do not try to his weight first on one foot and then on the
emphasize every statement with a gesture; to other
do so will defeat the purpose of gestures.
e. "The change counter"-who counts the
21. Avoiding Distracting Mannerisms change in his pockets every two minutes.
A rule to remember is that instructors should f. "The swordsman"-who tries to duel with
avoid those things that cause the class to con- the pointer, and forgets to put it down when
centrate upon the instructor's mannerisms not in use.
rather than on the subject matter (fig. 26).
Instructors may not be aware of their peculiar 22. Being Enthusiastic
mannerisms unless they ask associates for con- There is no substitute for a physically vital
structive criticisms of their delivery. Here are and enthusiastic delivery (fig. 27). Enthusiasm
some common habits to be avoided: is contagious. It is evident in one form or an-
a. "The dying warrior"-the instructor who other whenever a person is doing something he
leans heavily on the lectern, wears an air of sincerely likes. If an instructor is sold on his
exhaustion, and never moves. subject and conveys this feeling to the class,
he will keep his students interested and eager
b. "The fig leaf stance"-hands clasped in to learn. Further, an enthusiastic instructor
front below the waist, feet immovable. will help his students to develop a favorable

27
 BE ENTHUSIASTIC natural pitch that is used in conversa-
tion. The instructor should determine
the pitch level at which he can speak
with greatest ease and clarity and
then vary this pitch to produce em-
phasis where needed. Variation of
pitch breaks monotony and adds in-
.c<
~.-
\-terest to the delivery.
(2) Volmne of voice. The instructor must
/speak >\/>
-// \\viF4\ loud enough for all students to
hear without difficulty. On the other
hand, too loud a voice is deadening
and the hearing or hearing attention
of the student soon dulls in self-
defense. Loudness requires volume-
that is, the space-filling character of
,~/
/rt~~~ ~the ~~ voice. A thin voice call be loud,
but mere loudness is not sufficient. If
the instructor's voice has the proper
Figure 27. Enthusiasm. volume, the students feel comfortable
while listening. The instructor should
attitude and appreciations for training pro- vary the volume with the size of the
grams. The basis for an instructor's enthusi- class and the conditions under which
asm is a thorough knowledge of the material the instruction is given. He can change
being taught and its usefulness to his students. volume to accent the proper syllables
of words. Accent in pronunciation is
23. Using the Voice described as a greater force or stress
The instructor's voice is his best teaching on a particular syllable. This means
tool because it is his most direct means of com- change in volume. Too great a volume
munication with the class. Most individuals of voice makes it difficult to change
have speaking voices adequate for instruction volume for accent and variation, and
if they learn to manage a few factors that are more difficult for the student to catch
basic
basic to
to good
good speech.
speech. these changes in volume. Proper vol-
ume is especially important when
a. Voice Quality. Voice quality (fig. 28) is teaching outdoors or in a building with
the characteristic that distinguishes one voice poor acoustics. By watching student
from another. Some voices have a pleasant qual- reaction an instructor can tell if they
ity; others are unpleasant. However, the aver- are having difficulty in hearing. If
age instructor has a voice quality that can be there is any possibility that the volume
made pleasant to his listeners, and further de- of your voice is not satisfactory, have
veloped by overcoming any tendencies he may an assistant in the rear signal you so
have toward nasality, hollowness, hardness, that you can adjust your voice to the
throatiness and monotone. A monotone has a
deadening effect on students. Inflection will as-
sist in overcoming monotone, in providing (3) Rate of speed. Rate of speech should
proper emphasis, in making the presentation be governed by the thought, idea, or
more intelligible, and in providing a pleasing emotion that is being communicated
variation that will hold students' attention. Ex- to the students. Complex material
pressive speech may be obtained by change in should be presented slowly. The in-
the pitch, volume (loudness), rate of speech, structor should also consider the learn-
or by a combination of all three. ing ability of the class in determining
(1) Pitch. Pitch of the voice should be the his speed of delivery. Change in the

28
 VARIETY IS THE KEY

PITCH
___

_
HUNN-
I SQUAD _

' D RATE
Figure 28. Voice quality.

TO ACHIEVE UNDERSTANDING

CHOICE OF WORDS.
FORMATION OF SENTENCES.
PAUSES.
ENUNCIATION AND PRONUNCIATION.
THINKING WHILE SPEAKING.
Figure 29. Being understood.

rate of speaking will create pleasing variety and emphasis. Beginning in-
variations and produce emphasis. Ex- structors should tape record a presen-
pression and variety can be obtained tation to check the rate of speech.
by a change in pace. Advance your Between 120 and 150 words per min-
speed once in awhile, but also slow ute, is a normal speaking rate. If you
down or pause occasionally to lend speak over 160 words per minute, stu-

29
 dents may have difficulty keeping up tion of speech. The proper use of
with you; if you speak under 90 words pauses accomplishes four things: stu-
per minute, you normally will cause dents are able to absorb ideas more
students to lose interest. Over-rapid easily; you get an opportunity to con-
delivery tends to confuse students; centrate on your next point; you give
over-deliberate delivery tends to irri- emphasis, meaning, and interpretation
tate them. to your ideas; and you get a chance
to breathe. They should be clear and
b. Being Sure You Are Understood. Success- decisive; the "er-r-r," "ah," or "uh-h"
ful instruction depends on how well students in the pause is a mental crutch that in-
understand instructors (fig. 29). Certain prin- structors cannot afford to use. The de-
ciples of planning and delivering lectures will liberate pause should not be confused
heighten this understanding. with the uncertain hesitation. Pauses
(1) Choice of Words. Since language is are a definite part of the art of
the most important single tool of the speaking.
instructor, he must develop a healthy (4) Enunciation and pronunciation. In-
regard for words. His words must be structors must speak clearly and dis-
carefully chosen and his sentences tinctively. Strive for clarity of expres-
must be developed clearly and logi- sion. It makes no difference what part
cally. The right word in the right of the country you are from; enunciate
place is the keynote of effective speech clearly, and students from all parts
as well as effective writing. Verbal of the country will be able to under-
communication depends on using stand you. It's not necessary to change
those words that have the exact shade your whole pattern of speech. Pro-
of meaning to make the thought clear. nounce or accent each syllable dis-
Consider the educational level of the tinctly and
tinctly and clearly. It may
clearly. It may be be neces-
neces-
group you are teaching. Use terms sary to enunciate more forcefully and
that are common to
to the
that are the vocabularies
vocabularies
common deliberately when instructing a large
of your students. Do not try to impress group than when carrying on a con-
students by using words with which versation. Be particularly careful to
they are not familiar. An instructor's enunciate each syllable of new terms
purpose is to clarify, not to confuse. that may not be common to the vocab-
If certain complex terms are essential, ulary of your students. Avoid slurring,
use them, but define each new term the swallowing, or mumbling words.
first time it is used. Use strong, mean-
ingful, descriptive verbs that will leave (5) Thinking while speaking. Speaking is
vivid impressions. Add interest and not a purely mechanical procedure.
color to your presentation by using a Instructors' words must not only be
variety of descriptive terms. Use a spoken clearly and distinctly, they
variety of connective words; "and" is must also be chosen and grouped to
not the only connective in our lan- express clear and definite ideas. An
guage. idea to be expressed clearly, must first
(2) Forrnationof sentences. Careful selec- be thought out. Ideas are formulated
tion of words implies that they must with words. The faulty choice of words
be grouped properly in order to ex- that makes for weak expression is in-
press ideas clearly and accurately. Use dicative of faulty, weak thinking.
short sentences. Signal the end of Learn to think while standing before
your sentences by voice inflection. the class; think on your feet. During
Eliminate unnecessary words and the pause that follows a statement,
phrases. Do not pad sentences and formulate the next sentence. As you
clutter delivery with trite expressions. speak, think about what you are say-
(3) Pauses. Pauses provide the punctua- ing. If you have difficulty finding

30
 MAKE NO EXCUSES

hisdoesn'tlookmuchli
This is a circle!):h~c~lacircle does it?

Figure 30. No excuses.

words to express yourself when stand- under which instruction must be given. Excuses
ing before your class, try writing the only accent weaknesses (fig. 30).
key points of the lesson, in short, com-
plete sentences. You can clarify your 25. Developing Effective Speech Habits
thinking and improve your presenta-
Instructors will improve their speech only
tion by writing the complete text of if they carefully analyze it, determine their
ouwhat you intendrt to say; however, an weaknesses, adopt a plan for improvement, have
outline, rather than the written lesson, a desire to improve, and practice speech im-
should be used when actually present- provement. Some of the major concerns in
ing the material. As a last resort, developing effective speech habits are-
memorize key statements.
a. Critical Understanding. First, develop a
24. Avoiding Excuses critical understanding of why the speech of
others is either good or needs improvement.
Do not apologize or reflect an apologetic at- While listening to a television or radio speaker,
titude. Do not make any comment that can be try to analyze the speech techniques employed.
construed as an excuse for lack of preparation, In other words, become alert to how others
knowledge, ability to teach, or the conditions speak.

31
 b. Standards. Then, establish standards for at all times. Too often we have one set of speech
your own speech. Through such measures as techniques for the platform, others for conver-
self-analysis, friendly criticism from associates, sation, and still others for home. Good speech
and listening to your recorded speech, find should be practiced constantly. Make use of
what your strengths are; work to make them recordings; take every opportunity that comes
stronger. Learn your weaknesses and work to your way to address an audience, and consider
correct them. every period of instruction an opportunity to
c. Practice. Finally, practice good speech improve speech techniques.

32
 CHAPTER 6

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

26. Student Participation questions and encourage student questions are

promoting the students' intent to learn.
a. Instruction, whether in a classroom, tac-
tical training area, or on a firing range, must c. Adjusts Instruction to Class Level. Ques-
not be a one-way street. Mere exposure of stu- tions help the instructor to adjust his instruc-
dents to the instructor's explanation and dem- tion to the rate of learning of the class. If the
onstration of ideas offers little guarantee of students consistently fail to respond correctly,
learning. Assuming receptiveness and under- the instructor must simplify or expand upon his
standing on the part of students, the instructor previous explanation. Questions also reveal mis-
may anticipate absorption of the information understanding that can be corrected on the spot.
he presents. However, the difference between
passive absorption and active learning is often d. Reveals Student Attitudes. Students' re-
in proportion to the students' participation in sponses often indicate their interests and atti-
discussion and application of the ideas pre- tudes towards the subject or, perhaps, the'en-
sented by the instructor. tire training program. Student attitudes are im-
portant
portant toto the
the instructor,
b. This chapter is concerned with techniques instructor, as
as they
they reveal
reveal the
the
that can be used by instructors to actively en-
gage the student in the learning situation even e. Permits Student Contributions. From
though specific practical exercises are not in- their experiences or reading, students will have
cluded in the lesson plan. Methods and tech- new ideas and new applications of the lesson
niques for planned practical work are presented material and should be encouraged to contribute
in chapter 9. these to the class. Such participation is most
desirable, as it stimulates interest, adds variety,
27. Advantages of Questioning and also adds material to the lesson.
(fig. 31)
a. Improves Student Interest. Class interest f Provides Emphasis and Reinforcement of
increases when student participation is obtained Main Points. Retention of important points is
by questions, whether asked by the instructor made easier by frequent recall. The mere fact
or in response to his solicitation of student that a question is asked on a partiular point
questions. Students generally are more inter- provides obvious emphasis of that idea. Re-
ested in hearing one of their group than the sponses to questions and proper evaluation by
continuous discussion of the material by the the instructor serves to reinforce the correct
instructor. They feel that they contribute to ideas in the students' minds.
the instruction if they are permitted to ask g. Checks the Effectiveness of the Instruc-
questions and respond freely to questions posed tion. One of the best methods for checking the
by the instructor. understanding of ideas is by direct questioning
b. Stimulates Student Thinking. Students during instruction. This reveals the effective-
are more alert when they are held responsible ness of the methods, techniques, and approach
for learning. They will pay closer attention and used by the instructor. Student answers to these
think more about the subject if they know that questions reveal the specific areas where the in-
questions will be asked. Instructors who use struction has been- the least effective.

33
475-774 0 - 72 - 3
 1.FiNCREASE STUDENT INTEREST

2. STIMULATE THINKING

3. GEAR INSTRUCTIONS TO THE ABILITY OF THE CLASS

.4. PROVIDE OPPORTUNITY FOR EXPRESSION OF ATTITUDES
5. INTRODUCE STUDENT EXPERIENCES
6. EMPHASIZE MAIN POINTS OF THE LESSON
7. TEST EFFECTIVENESS OF INSTRUCTIONS

Figure 31. The value of questions.

28. Planning for Questions promotes class participation. The background

and experience of the class will influence the use
The use of questions requires careful prep- and nature of questions; however, the lack of
aration. Planned questions should be written knowledge and inexperience of the students are
into the lesson plan to emphasize main points, not valid reasons for absence of participation.
to stimulate interest, and to insure class par- The skilled instructor can obtain some degree
ticipation at various points. Improvised ques- of participation in all teaching situations. All
tions should be used whenever they appear to instructors should understand the following
be desirable. Solicitation of student questions three key questioning techniques:

34
 THE GOOD QUESTION SHOULD
HAVE A SPECIFIC PURPOSE

A QUESTION IS ASKED TO

EMPHASIZE A POINT

STIMULATE THINKING

· I KEEP STUDENTS ALERT

CHECK UNDERSTANDING

REVIEW MATERIAL

Figure 82. A good question.

a. Proper phrasing of questions. be designed for definite purposes (fig. 32). One
question may be used to emphasize a major
b. Best procedure for asking questions.
point, another to stimulate thought, and another
c. Effective control of response. to arouse class interest and make students more
alert. A question may have as its purpose a
29. Phrasing the Question check on immediate understanding, whereas a
later question on the same point may be asked
Poorly expressed questions actually discour-
age active participation
age active participation and serve
and serve toto confuse
confuse for recall. Instead of asking "Any questions?",
,theclass. A good question should- the instructor should be more specific and re-
late his inquiry directly to the understanding
a. Have a Specific Purpose. Questions should of the subject matter just covered.

35
 GOOD QUESTIONS SHOULD
BE UNDERSTOOD BY ALL STUDENTS

r -

FigureSS. Understanding the question.

b. Be Understood by Students. Questions d. Require a Definite Answer. State the ques-

should be phrased in terms and language so tion so that a definite answer is required. Do
that students understand what is wanted. Avoid not allow student to bluff. A vague and indefi-
lengthy questions that require clarification. nite question invites a vague answer (fig. 35).
Simply worded, direct, and easily understood
questions serve best (fig. 33). e. Discourage Guessing. Avoid questions that
can be answered "yes" or "no" unless you re-
c. Emphasize One Point. Avoid asking two .
questions in one. If the question requires sev- quire, the students to explain their answers.
eral responses, distribute the requirement Questions that strongly suggest the correct
among several students. Furthermore, it is gen- answer should not be used. If a student's re-
erally unsound and unfair to require one stu- sponse does not reveal whether he understands
dent to make a lengthy and detailed response the point or has merely guessed the answer
when dividing the requirement would result in the question has probably been poorly phrased
more equitable participation (fig. 34). (fig. 36).

36
 EMPHASIZE ONLY ONE POINT

Figure 34. Emphasizing one point.

30. Asking the Question remainder of the class tends to relax while the
Apply the following procedure (fig. 37) in qbeingasked.
asking a question: c. Pause briefly between asking the question
and calling on a student, to provide stimulation
a. Alert the class to the fact that a question for student thinking.
is about to be asked. Little is accomplished by
"sneaking in" questions that only a few stu- d. Distribute questions among the class for
dents recognize. Ask the question in a natural, fullest student participation in the discussion.
interested, and conversational tone, and make Avoid calling on students in any set order or
sure that it is heard by all of the class. This limiting questions to the most alert or superior
technique invalidates such responses as--"I students.
didn't hear the question," or "would you please
repeat the question?" 31. Handling Student Answers
b. Address the question to the entire class a. Require the student to address his re-
before designating a student to answer. This sponse to the entire class and speak loud enough
to be heard by all. If necessary, cause him to
holds the attention of the whole group. Each repeat his response.
student is motivated to think and to form a
tentative answer because he knows he may be b. Require the student to raise his hand if
the one who will be called upon. Conversely, he wants recognition and not to answer without
if the instructor first names the student, the being called upon.

37
 A GOOD QUESTION SHOULD
REQUIRE A DEFINITE ANSWER

Figure 85. Requiring definite answers.

c. Evaluate each student answer according 32. Encouraging Student Questions

to its merit. If necessary, elaborate or have the a. Encourage students to ask questions. Let
student clarify his answer when it is vague. them know, at the beginning, that questions
In many instances, it is beneficial to delay final are welcome. Pause frequently during the ex-
evaluation of a response until other students planation and solicit questions. The number of
have given their answers. Do not proceed from questions asked by students is often an indica-
the discussion of a question or a problem with- tion of their interest in the subject.
out assurance that the class understands the b. Relaying student questions to other mem-
correct answer. bers of the class is an acceptable technique in
d. Encourage the student to respond to the obtaining maximum participation.
best of his ability even though he may be un- c. Don't bluff in the event you cannot answer
certain of his knowledge. Do not accept "I a students question. Tell the class that you will
don't know" without some effort to draw a find the answer and give it to them later; then
positive response from the student. keep your promise.

38
 THE GOOD QUESTION SHOULD
DISCOURAGE GUESSING

INSTEAD OF IN PLACE OF

Do we need
Does th olumn surprise a
formation provide night attack?
all around security?

Iag R~;]
T i What are the r
advantages of Why is surprise
the column / l important in
formation? a night attack?

Figure 36. Discouragingguessing.

39
 1. ASK THE QUESTION.

2. PAUSE.

3. CALL ON THE STUDENT.

4. RECOGNIZE AND EVALUATE

THE STUDENT'S ANSWER.

Figure37. How to ask questions.

40
 CHAPTER 7
TRAINING AIDS

33. Value of Training Aids appeal to students through more than

Training aids are essential to effective in- one sense more
is much channel, visual than
effective instruction
words
struction (fig. 38). In the hands of good in- alone
structors they are powerful tools. As do skilled
craftsmen, instructors must know how to make b. Interest the Student. Training aids add
the best use of the tools of their profession. interest and vitalize the instruction. They focus
They must be expert in the selection, procure- the students' attention upon the lesson being
ment, construction, and use of training aids. presented. When properly used, they add vari-
Good instructors use training aids because they ety to the presentation. In many training situa-
recognize their real value. The use of training tions use of the actual object, a model, or a
aids helps the instructor to- training film adds realism to the subject, pro-
a. Appeal to the Senses. viding the student motivation that helps main-
tain his state of readiness for learning.
(1) Learning begins with stimulation of
the senses. The more senses involved c. Develop Understanding. The most impor-
in the learning process, the more likely tant reason for using training aids is to make
it is that learning will take place. it easier for students to learn. Good aids sim-
Words, whether written or spoken, plify, add emphasis, and help to clarify diffi-
fade away and are often inadequate cult points of subject matter. Through their use,
to convey delicate meanings, under- students' impressions become more intense, re-
standings, and appreciations to the suiting in a clearer understanding of things
minds of students. By using training taught. This is true not only with slow learners
aids, instructors are able to reach the but also with students of high levels of intelli-
minds of men through more than one gence. Training aids help provide uniformity
sense channel. in teaching and frequently assist in the pres-
(2) More people see alike than hear or ervation of continuity of thought. This is par-
read alike. For example, consider a ticularly true in training situations where
situation in which members of a class students are required to remember a certain
on the caliber .50 machinegun read a procedure or to learn such principles as those
description of how it functions, or of fire and maneuver.
the instructor explains its functioning d. Save Time. Training aids help students
without the use of training aids. In to learn faster. It would be impossible to teach
both instances, the description itself most Army subjects in the time available with-
may be accurate, but few members of out the use of aids.
the class will receive the same mental
picture. Yet the same group, given an
opportunity to see the functioning 34. Selection of Training Aids
along with the instructor's explana- a. Carefully examine the lesson objectives
tion, will get mental images that will to determine where training aids are needed
be quite similar and will correspond to aid student learning. Do not fit the instruc-
closely to the actual facts the instruc- tion to the training aid; fit the training aid
tor wants to get across. Because of its to the instruction. Use of too many training

41
 Figure 38. Training aids.

increase student learning and interest. How-

ever, do not interrupt the flow of ideas by using
more aids than are necessary to assist in sup-
/.~~~~~ ~~porting the point.
c. Instructors should constantly examine the
subjects they teach with a view to improving
training aids and developing new ones for more
<9A2\WHAT
ARE THE I effective student learning. Publications contain-
WHAT AR[ TH[ ing training aids information are listed in
CHARACTERISTICS appendix I.

> OF AID /
1A\GOOD 35. Characteristics of A Good Training Aid
(fig. 39)
1. APPROPRIATE For an aid to be effective, it must have cer-
2. SIMPLE tain characteristics-
3. ACCURATE a. Appropriate. Any training aid should be
4. PORTABLE AND DURABLE relevant to the subject matter and to the back-
5. MANAGEABLE ground of the class being taught. It should re-
6. ATTRACTIVE flect good taste and judgment on the level of
7. NECESSARY intelligence of grown men. In planning for the
use of an aid, the instructor should consider
the size of the class, the place where the aid
Figure 39. Characteristicsof a good trainingaid. will be used, and whether the aid can be seen
from the rear of the class. Lettering should be
aids will create confusion and hinder student a minimum of 1 inch for every 32 feet of view-
learning. Remember, there are many types of ing distance.
training aids and each has certain advantages
and limitations. b. Simple. Training aids should be easy to
understand. They should be geared to the aver-
b. By using a variety of training aids you age training level of the class. Unduly compli-

42
cated aids may cause attention to be focused successful accomplishment of the learning ob-
on the aid rather than the subject. Eliminate jectives. Training aids should never be used
all unnecessary information and details. merely for "eyewash," to fill in time, or to
entertain students. The use of too many aids
c. Accurate. Be sure that all facts and fig- tends to decrease their value to the presenta-
ures are correct and based on current doctrine. tion.
tion. The
The expense
expense and
and effort
effort of
of construction
construction
d. Portable and Durable. Training aids should be justified by the value of using the
should be light in weight or constructed for aid. In many instances the actual item of equip-
takedown into easily assembled components, to ment is better than an aid. For purposes of
insure portability. Aids should be constructed economy, standard aids or locally produced
with durable materials that will withstand use charts should be used whenever they will ac-
out of doors and rough handling. complish the learning objective, in preference
e. Manageable. An aid should be easy to to fabricating elaborate models or cutaways.
operate and manipulate. Intricate special de-
vices are of value in certain types of training, 36. Techniques in Use of Training Aids
but usually the most effective aid is simple, a. Prepare For the Use of the Aid. Know
neat, and practical. A good training aid should your aids thoroughly and be prepared to answer
be designed to illustrate the lesson being taught any questions concerning them (fig. 40). Re-
without breaking its continuity. The aid should hearse the lesson several times using the aid
be so constructed that it can be presented to as it is to be used in the actual presentation.
the class conveniently without distracting at- Make thorough -advance preparation for using
tention. the aid. For example, when using Army graphic
f. Attractive. The aid should attract the training aid portfolios or throwover charts,
attention of the student. Neat, clear labels and tab with paper clips or similar devices those
correct spacing will lend eye appeal and make pages that are to be used in the presentation
important points stand out. Too many words so that you can quickly recognize the right
will clutter the aid. Color, used carefully, helps charts. Another technique is to write lightly
to emphasize main points; too much color is on each page the title of the next page to be
distracting. used. Either technique will help smooth out
the transition from one point to another.
g. Necessary. Each training aid should illus-
trate essential material and contribute to the b. Explain the Aid to the Class. Elaborate

Figure 40. Preparationfor the use of the training aid.

43
 EXPLAIN THE AID

Figure 41. Explanationof the trainingaid.

aids are often used to illustrate highly compli- aid so that all students can see it (fig. 43). If
cated and technical subjects. When first show- the aid is a chart or graphic portfolio, view
ing such an aid briefly explain its purpose or it from the rear of the room to make sure that
function (fig. 41). Otherwise, students will at- it is legible. Change the seating arrangement
tempt to find their own explanation of the aid to enable students to see better. The finest aid
and miss part of your presentation. is of little value if all students cannot see it.

c. Keep the Aid Covered When Not in Use. e. Talk to the Class, Not to the Aid. Some
Large charts can be covered by tacking or instructors become so involved with their train-
stapling sheets of wrapping paper over them. ing aids that they forget their students (fig.
If a chart contains lines of printing, covering 44). Even while disassembling a piece of equip-
strips of paper can be cut to the size of each ment, the instructor should maintain eye con-
line, and later removed one at a time. Machin- tact with his class. When explaining a chart or
ery, weapons, and similar aids can be covered chalkboard drawing, stand, if possible, along
with target cloth or some like material. Sheets side the aid; this will help eliminate any ten-
of plain paper can be inserted into an Army dency to talk to the aid rather than the class.
graphic training aid portfolio to keep the pages
covered until the instructor desires to use them. f. Use a Pointer. A pointer is useful in
These practices will prevent the aids from dis- focusing the students' attention on a partic-
tracting students' attention when not being used ular part of the training aid (fig. 45). Hold
(fig. 42). it steadily on the part of the aid that you want
the class to observe. Hold the pointer in the
d. Show Aid So All Can See. Display the hand nearest the aid to enable you to maintain

44
 KEEP THE AID COVERED WHEN NOT IN USE

Figure42. Keeping the trainingaid covered when not in use.

better eye contact with the class. Holding the each has certain advantages and limitations,
pointer across the body tends to cause you to depending upon the mission of the lesson and
talk to the aid rather than to the students. Put the nature of the subject matter. Too many
the pointer away when it is not needed; it is ideas presented at one time or too many details
easy to acquire distracting mannerisms with a on any one training aid will tend to confuse
pointer that is not being used. and hamper student learning. Many times a
g. Use Assistants to Best Advantage. If particular aid is constructed to be used as a
you use assistant instructors, make sure that memory guide and does not accomplish the
they are well-rehearsed, so that they will know desired results. Decide what type aid will best
exactly what they are to do and when (fig. 46). assist student learning. Training aids should
If an assistant is to show projected aids for be distinguished from training equipment and
you, have a prearranged signal so that he will training facilities. For the purpose of this
know when to change slides or turn off the manual, the items listed below, when used for
projector. training purposes, are classified as training
h. Display Aids Smoothly. When using sev- aids.
eral aids, number the aids in the order in which a. Actual Equipment. The actual equipment
they are to be used. If heavy equipment is to is the most realistic training device. However,
be used during the class, make sure that it can the instructor must consider the size of the
be moved in quietly without undue disturbance student body when using actual equipment.
(fig. 47). During instruction on the disassembly and as-
sembly of a weapon, students should be ar-
37. Types of Training Aids ranged so that all can see. The actual equipment
There are many types of training aids, and is not always the best aid. For example, when
45
 SHOW AID SO ALL CAN SEE sional representations of the real item (fig.
48). They are usually built to scale. An exam-
ple of using the model effectively is the use
ji of miniature tanks on a terrain board or sand
table.
c. Mockups. Mockups are imitations of the
real thing. They may, but do not have to be
*, ' ,similar in appearance. Some elements may be
\ .. eliminated to focus attention on others.
;j~~ f rj~~~i 3 d. Graphic Materials.
(1) Graphic training include charts, dia-
grams, graphs, sketches, cartoons,
maps, and wall boards. Graphic mate-
!t
<:.ilii:::~':' :y Arials should be used in connection with
the device being explained.
t<-..
:~ ~i;~i~
jiiii!!'~----~ (2) Color adds to the effectiveness of
............. t... -- ~ graphic training aids. When color is
used the instructor should explain its
purpose. For example, the color red
could be used to emphasize the elec-
trical system of a vehicle engine, the
color green to identify the fuel system,
and the color yellow to identify the
hydraulic system. Color should be used
primarily for emphasis.
It~~~~
A~~~~ 1
e. Displays.
(1) The display may include a wide vari-
ety of devices. Walls, floors, ceilings,
hallways, barracks, orderly rooms, day
.\i~Wii~i~~ Hrooms, outdoor training areas, and
motor parks are frequently used by the
instructor to display material that be-
comes a functional part of learning.
Displays help create an atmosphere
and environment for learning.
Figure 43. Showing the training aid so that all can see. (2) To be effective the display must be
carefully visualized and planned. The
showing how to adjust a carburetor, time a content of the display and the arrange-
vehicle engine, or remove spark plugs, use of ment must be designed to support
the actual equipment would make it difficult learning. The cleverness of the display
for students to see. During such instruction the is the result of careful planning and
actual equipment should be used in conjunc- hard work.
tion with other types of aids, or by suspend- Venetian Blind. The Venetian blind is a
ing a mirror over the engine compartment so
very effective training aid when used to outline
that all students can see what the instructor is
doing, ~~~~~. ~the lesson objectives or supporting material.
The lettering on Venetian blind strips should
b. Models. Models are frequently used in be neat, attractive, and orderly. Capital letters,
conjunction with or in place of actual equip- large enough for all to see and read, should be
ment. Models are recognizable three-dimen- used. The items should be exposed one at a

46
 TALK TO CLASS, NOT TO AID

Figure44. Talking to the class, not to the trainingaid.

Figure 45. Using a pointer.

47
 USE ASSISTANTS TO BEST ADVANTAGE

Figure 46. Using assistants to best advantage.

time, and each discussed thoroughly before the board. By use of the overhead pro-
next item is exposed. Venetian blind strips jector or the opaque projector,
should be summarized in the order they were transparencies, pictures, graphs,
taught; in other words, start from the top and newspaper clippings, and magazine
summarize from the top. This provides a mental articles can be shown on the chalk-
drill for the student. The instructor should not board and traced in chalk to present
try to question from the unexposed portion of needed visualization.
the Venetian blind, as he would be asking the (c) The templet can be used for drawing
student to guess what would be exposed next. on the chalkboard when drawings
g. The Chalkboard. need to be accurate, exact, or will be
(1) Description. used repeatedly.
(a) The chalkboard is a flexible and (d) Pencil marking or tracing placed on
useful training aid. It is often mis- the chalkboard in advance can be
used, because of the lack of under- traced with chalk to provide a
standing of the technique of use and clearer and more professional pic-
the potential of the chalkboard. ture to the student.
(b) The chalkboard can serve the in- (e) Many chalkboards are designed to
structor in many ways. He can place be used as magnetic boards, thus
topics, questions, sketches, dia- providing a means for using a com-
grams, teaching points, supporting bination of materials on the chalk-
material for teaching points, prob- board.
lenis, and solutions on the chalk- (f) Fluorescent chalk used in conjunc-

48
 DISPLAY AIDS SMOOTHLY

Figure 47. Displaying aids smoothly.

tion with black-light creates special black). Green chalkboards do much

effects that will enhance student in- to overcome glare and eye fatigue;
terest. For example, nuclear fire- these boards can be constructed by
balls can be dramatically reproduced painting a hard smooth wood, such
on the chalkboard. as plywood, with a flat green oil
(g) The chalkboard is an excellent medi- paint. Yellow chalk stands out more
um to promote class participation. clearly than any other on these
Students feel that they contribute boards. More colors of chalk can
to the class when their answers, be used on green chalkboards than
suggestions, or comments are placed on black chalkboards.
before the class on the chalkboard. (c) Keep the chalkboard clean. A dirty
(2) Using the chalkboard (fig. 49). chalkboard gives the impression
(a) Obtain everything needed for chalk- that the instructor is not prepared.
board work before the class meets- (d) Plan your work in advance. Show
chalk, ruler, eraser, etc. layouts in the lesson plan. Before
(b) Check for glare. Be sure that every the class begins, use a pencil to
student will be able to see the work. sketch the work on the chalkboard-
Check the lighting; sometimes it the class cannot see the markings.
will be necessary to lower a shade You can follow the penciled sketch
or turn off certain lights. If the when writing or drawing with
chalkboard causes a glare, use wrap- chalk.
ping paper as a board and draw (e) Keep material simple and brief.
with colored chalk (purple or Concise statements are most effec-

49

475-774 0 - 72 - 4
 ACTUAL SIZE

REDUCED

ENLARGED

MODELS
Figure48. Models.

tive. One word, with oral explana- tive than too many points crowded
tion by the instructor, will often onto the chalkboard.
serve to clinch the point. (i) Erase unrelated material. Having
(f) Print and draw legibly, and large other work on the board distracts
enough so that printing and draw- attention from the point you are
ings are visible throughout the making. Use an eraser or cloth, not
classroom. Do not allow printing to your fingers.
decrease in size gradually. (j) Prepare complicated illustrations
(g) Use color for emphasis and variety. beforehand and cover them with
Yellow and green are sometimes paper. Strip them when needed.
effective for underlining material. This saves time and makes the
However, some colors do not show presentation smoother.
up clearly; try them in advance. It h. Blanket and Magnetic Boards. These dis-
is worth the extra effort. play devices are especially useful in teaching
(h) Do not crowd the work. A few such subjects as organization, formations, and
well-spaced points are more effec- tactics where visualization requiles a progres-

50
 Figure49. The chalkboard.

sive build-up or movement of symbols or cut- teach faster and more fully than the lecture
out silhouettes. The blanket board can be made and can reach even those students who have
by stretching an Army blanket over a frame little education. For maximum training value,
and by backing appropriate cardboard cut outs the instructor should follow certain procedures
with coarse sandpaper. When these cut outs are in showing the film.
slapped against the blanket, they adhere to it. (1) Carefully preview and study the film
The same effect can be achieved with cut outs in advance. No training film is perfect.
backed with pressurized adhesive tape and Select the key points to be emphasized,
"slapped on" a chalkboard or any other smooth items that may be omitted or touched
flat surface, and with cut outs backed with small upon lightly, and portions that are
magnets and "slapped on" a metal chalkboard. obsolete or need explanation. Plan
i. TrainingFilms. The training film (fig. 50) in advance your introduction and
is effective in illustrating and demonstrating followup activities. Instructor's film
concepts and activities difficult to explain in references are available through film
the classroom in any other manner. Films pre- libraries for most training films and
sent standard instruction to successive and will assist you in planning your pre-
widespread audiences. They are effective in sentation. These film references con-
arousing emotions and changing attitudes. They tain such information as the running

51
 1. PREVIEW

2. CHECK EQUIPMENT
3. INTRODUCE

a. PRACTICAL APPLICATION
b. ORAL DISCUSSION
c. SHORT QUIZ
d. DEMONSTRATION AND EXHIBITS
e. SECOND SHOWING

Figure50. Training films.

time of the film, a short synopsis, sug- the class for observing the film. Tell
gested introductory remarks, and a the students what the film is about and
suggested quiz as a followup of the why it is shown, its battle importance,
film. the key points to observe, and the
(2) Make a final check of the film and relation of the film to earlier training,
equipment prior to class. Show a short experience, and duties. Such proce-
portion of the film to insure that you dures make the difference between
have the proper film and that all merely showing training films and
equipment is in order. using them effectively as aids to
(3) Following this preparation, prepare instruction.

52
 (4) Stop the film to explain a difficult the film strip requires more activity on the part
point or emphasize a key point. of the instructor. It is best to have an assistant
(5) Carefully plan your followup activi- operate the projector so that the instructor is
ties. Include an oral discussion to free to explain and to use a pointer to direct
emphasize key points, or an oral or student attention to specific features of each
written quiz. In some cases, instruc- picture. The picture sequence can be stopped
tors will use demonstrations to empha- at any time for discussion and clarification of
size procedures and techniques shown points not understood.
in the film. When practicable, the k. The Overhead Projector.
showing of the film should be followed
by applicatory exercises; then, if time which projects large transparencies
. . .' which projects large transparencies
permits, it is advisable to follow up
onto a screen or flat wall surface, is
applicatory exercises with a second
widely used by the Army instructor
showing of the film as part of the cri-
tique. Experencehashoand
tique. Experience has shown that is available through audio-visual
communication centers. It can be used
learning and retention are appreciably
in lighted and ventilated rooms, per-
increased by a second showing, and, The
having taken part in the exercise, the mitting students to take notes. The
student will gather more information instructor can face the student body
student will gather more information while operating this projector, thus
the second time he sees the film. maintaining contact. A wide variety
maintaining contact. A wide variety
j. Film Strips. A film strip consists of a of techniques. may be used to prepare
length of standard motion picture film contain- materials for use on the overhead pro-
ing still pictures of a specific subject. Showing jector. The instructor can point out

~~~I. E~ ~ ~_-~
SLIDE PROJECTOR

OPAQUE PROJECTOR

MOTION PICTURE PROJECTOR OVERHEAD PROJECTOR

Figure 51. Projectors.

53
 features appearing on the screen by technique is also effective for enlarg-
pointing to the materials on the pro- ing maps.
jector itself. (4) A disadvantage of using the opaque
(2) Negative transparencies are easily projector is that the room has to be
constructed, appear brighter on the completely darkened, thus students are
screen, are easier on the students' unable to take notes, and the instruc-
eyes, can be colored by the instructor tor has difficulty observing class or
with acetate and India inks, and are individual reactions.
relatively inexpensive. m. The 35-mm Projector (fig. 51). 35-mm
(3) By use of the acetate roller attach- slides are effective and inexpensive to use. The
ment and grease pencils, the instruc- instructor can use 35-mm slides from private
tor can design his own situations. collections, order 35-mm slides from commercial
(4) A wide variety of transparencies are agencies, or take the pictures himself. 35-mm
available through service schools, color slides can be shown in conjunction with
training aid centers, and audio-visual transparencies or actual equipment to add em-
communication centers. phasis to instruction.
(5) With the polarizing spinner attach- n. Sand Tables. The sand table is an effec-
ment to the overhead projector and tive aid in depicting tactical situations, forma-
specially treated acetate transparen- tions, control measures, and historical combat
cies, the illusion of motion can be examples. By using sponges dipped in green
achieved. This is especially valuable paint to portray vegetation, and blue water
demonstrating the flow of electricity, color for lakes and rivers, by bending welding
rotation of cylinders, flow of oil in rods into correct symbols, by adding miniature
engine blocks, rotation of gears, and tanks and cannons, and by using ribbons to por-
many other motions. tray control measures, a realistic situation can
be developed at little cost. By wetting and re-
1. The Opaque Projector. molding the sand, a variety of problems can be
(1) The opaque projector (fig. 51) is used projected, thus reducing repetition.
to project on a wall or screen illustra- o. Flourescent Paint and Chalk. Special
tive material from textbooks, field effects may be produced by using flourescent
manuals, magazines, newspapers, tech- material in conjunction with black-light. This
nical material, and other printed ma- light causes the flourescent material to glow.
terial. All features that are high- For charts, Venetian blind strips, chalkboard
lighted in color or special print will problems, and displays, this is an effective
appear on the screen in the same man- method of emphasizing and vitalizing subject
ner. material.
(2) This projector is effective in assisting
the instructor in fabricating various 38. Fabrication of Training Aids
training aids. For example, the out- There are many simple devices that the in-
line of actual equipment can be drawn structor can use to produce his own aids when
on a piece of cardboard, chalkboard, or time is limited, new ideas are developed on the
wrapping paper by merely placing the spur of the moment, or training aids are not
illustrated or printed material in posi- available. Articles available for construction
tion at the bottom of the projector, of aids are-
turning on the projector light, and a. Felt-tip ink pens for printing Venetian
tracing the outline. blind strips, drawings, and charts.
(3) Material can be projected in actual
size by moving the projector rearward
until the desired size is obtained. This c. Grease pencils and artist pens for draw-

54
ings, printing, charts, and use on acetate trans- and variety to his instruction. Recording equip-
parencies. ment is available from Army audio-visual com-
d. Salvaged materials. For example, worn munication centers. DA Pam 108-1 contains
tentage can be used to teach canvas inspection, a listing of prepared tapes and phono record-
and ordnance salvage can be used to show ings.
ruptured or bent cartridges. f. Colored cardboard and paper, colored
e. Tape and phono recordings: By using re- chalks, paints, and inks and pencils are all avail-
cordings, an instructor can add drama, interest, able to add color to any chart or display.

55
 CHAPTER 8
THE DEMONSTRATION

39. Importance of the Demonstration demonstration are realized depends upon the in-
The objective of virtually all military in- structor's planning and presentation. For Army
struction is to train the soldier to do. Because effectively, they must undestration method
of this emphasis on doing, Army instructors
must show as well as tell. They must provide (1) For what purposes the demonstration
demonstration in the presentation stage to give can be used.
the students a pattern for doing and to set (2) The forms that the demonstration may
standards of performance (fig. 52). take.
a. The effectiveness of the demonstration lies (3) The techniques that should be followed
in its appeal to several senses. Generally, its in planning and conducting a demon-
appeal is to the sense of sight, which is the stration.
most valuable of the senses for stimulating
learning. The demonstration also stimulates a 40. Purpose of the Demonstration
high degree of student interest. The demonstration is not a separate teaching
b. Whether or not these advantages of the method, but one to be used in combination with

THE DEMONSTRATION

THE INSTRUCTOR SHOWS-- THESTUDENTOBSERVES

AND GETS THE IDEA.

Figure 52. The demonstration.

56
others. It is usually preceded and accompanied student a visual image of how it should be done
by an explanation employing either the lecture (fig. 53). A demonstration that sets out to show
or the conference method, or both. When the the right way of doing a thing must be perfect
demonstration is used to teach skills or tech- in every necessary detail. Each step must be
niques, it should be followed by practical work. demonstrated slowly, so that the students will
Although the demonstration is most commonly grasp it thoroughly. Such military skills as the
considered an introductory method of teach- disassembly of weapons consist of a series of
ing skills and techniques, it can also be used complicated movements and must be divided
for other purposes."7The demonstration is effec- into individual steps or subtasks. Each step
tive in teaching- must be demonstrated separately and then per-
formed by the students before going on to the
a. How To Do Something. Skills are physi- next. It may be necessary to repeat each step
cal or mental acts performed with dexterity. several times to insure student understanding.
They are acquired and improved by accurate, Instructors must remember that even the best
repeated practice. In training to develop skills, students remember only a few images at a time;
the demonstration serves to establish for the the re, the
therefore, the number
number of
of steps
steps demonstrated
demonstrated at
at
one time might be limited.
TO DEMONSTRATE b. Why it Works. An understanding of cer-
HOW TO DO SOMETHING tain basic principles and theories is essential
to the successful performance of the work in-
volved in most technical fields. The demonstra-
tion can be used to develop this understanding
(fig. 54).
c. How it Works. For example, in teaching
the machinegun, the instructor may demon-
strate functioning by using an enlarged cut-
away model, a training film, or closed circuit
TV presentation that reveals the movements of
the component parts (fig. 55).
d. The Way it is Executed. Here the demon-
stration is used to teach how to apply skill and
knowledge to solutions of factual problems (fig.
56). The sand table or chalkboard may be used,
or actual tactical manuevers may be conducted
in the field. In this way standards and pro-
cedures are established. Showing what the
whole activity looks like when skillfully per-
formed creates interest and an appreciation of
ultimate standards.
1. SCHEDULE WITH PRACTICAL EXERCISE
e. How Men Work Together. This type
2. SHOW STEP BY STEP demonstration often takes the form of a skit or
prepared exhibit. The operation of a message
3. STRESS PROCEDURE AND TECHNIQUES center, staff procedures, and other such activ-
ities can be taught by means of demonstration.
4. KEEP GROUPS SMALL Procedures taught in this manner are realistic
5. ASK QUESTIONS and specific in showing each man what he
should do in his job (fig. 57).
6. REPEAT IF NECESSARY f. Appreciations. A smooth, efficient demon-
Figure 53. Demonstrationof how something is done. stration will produce within the students an

57
 TO DEMONSTRATE
WHY SOMETHING WORKS

16:

II

Figure 54. Demonstration of theory and principle.

appreciation of the skill or technique being

demonstrated (fig. 58).
TO DEMONSTRATE HOW
SOMETHING WORKS 41. Forms of the Demonstration
There are five general forms of the demon-
stration (fig. 59).
a. Procedural Demonstrations. This is the
"ii.".!i.i'i!'-i 7 ~ form of demonstration used to show and explain
operation and functioning of equipment. It is
usually conducted in the classroom and is widely
FIRING DEVICE used throughout basic and specialist training.
s RELEASE TYPE a zD b. Displays. The displayed materials should
be arranged so that each item can be seen by all
students at the same time. For large classes,
use duplicate displays or divide the class into
sections, the sections rotating from one exhibit
to another.
c. Field Demonstrations. This form of
demonstration is used widely in combat train-
1. SET THE STAGE. ing. Complicated demonstrations can be shown
one part at a time; later, the complete perform-
2. TELL WHAT TO OBSERVE. ance can be shown. One phase must be properly
3. MAKE PRINCIPLE OR OPERATION OBVIOUS. assimilated before the next phase claims the
students' attention.
4. ASK QUESTIONS. d. Motion Pictures. Training films or tele-
Figure 55. Demonstrationof how something works. vision presentations are ready-made demon-

58
 TO DEMONSTRATE
THE WAY SOMETHING IS EXECUTED

Figure 56. Demonstrationof tacticalmovements.

strations. Here the student has the opportunity quires special attention. It is necessary to ar-
to see internal workings of equipment, or troops range for use of equipment, tools, and related
in combat-things that could otherwise only be materials. If students are to perform the oper-
imagined. ation following the demonstration, arrange-
e. Skits. Instructors or assistants may act ments must be made for conducting the prac-
ments must be made for conducting the prac-
out operations or procedures. This form of
demonstration has proved an effective means of a. Plan the Details of the Demonstration
demonstrating staff procedures, phases of first Carefully. Careful planning of the following
aid, military courtesy, and similar subjects. is essential for an effective demonstration:
Skits assist in the development of student ap-
preciations and attitudes. Skits may be de- (1) Arrange all tools and equipment to
signed to show the wrong way; however, the eliminate any loss of time. If they are
instructor must insure that the right way is to be moved in during the demonstra-
obvious, or show the correct way later. Skits tion, arrange them so that they can
must be carefully planned and smoothly pre- be moved quickly and quietly.
sented; this requires repeated rehearsals. (2) Make sure that all students can see
and hear. Consider the size of the
42. Planning and Conducting a class, the equipment to be used, and
Demonstration the length of the demonstration. If
The physical setup for a demonstration re- equipment noise makes it impossible

59
 TO DEMONSTRATE
HOW MEN WORK TOGETHER

Figure57. Demonstrationof procedurees.

for the students to hear, do not talk forming an operation, a separate and
until the noise has subsided. distinct demonstration should be given
for each method to be taught.
(3) Have lesson plan available to insure
that the accepted technique of per- b. Be Alert to Needs of the Class.
forming the operation is followed.
,forming
tulhe operation is followed. (1) Be sure students can see. Position
This, in turn, will promote the devel- yourself to one side, or behind the
opment of exact habits and techniques piece of equipment, so as not to ob-
in the students. piece of equipment, so as not to ob-
struct the view. Repeat a performance
(4) Keep a specific purpose in mind. as often as necessary to insure that all
Demonstrate one thing at a time. students have seen it completed.
Students should be able to recognize (2) During a demonstration, you obviously
distinct breaks between the phases or want the student to watch the demon-
steps of the activity being demon- stration and also listen to the explana-
strated. If it is necessary for students tion. If you are demonstrating an
to learn more than one way of per- item of equipment, speak to the stu-

60
 TO DEVELOP APPRECIATION (5) When equipment is being used in a
demonstration, have available addi-
tional training aids that may be help-
ful. For example, a large chart or
model is valuable to show how to make
fine adjustments on a small item. Cut-
away models may be used to show the
adjustment of parts concealed by a
covering or housing. In demonstra-
tions consisting of several steps or
phases, list each step, as it is per-
formed, on a chart or chalkboard. This
helps the students remember the steps
in proper sequence.
(6) Use a summary at the completion of a
demonstration. This summary should
include an enumeration of all steps
in the order in which they were
demonstrated. Brief summaries should
also be used after each individual step.
c. Coordinate the Explanation and Demon-
stration. Show how and explain how at the
same time. Immediately before each step, tell
1. MUST APPEAL TO THE UNTRAINED exactly what you are going to do next. During
the step, explain what is being done, and indi-
2. MUST BE SKILLFULLY PRESENTED cate why the step must be performed in a par-
Figure
58. Demonration to develop appreciatio. ticular manner. Time explanations so that only
short pauses occur between remarks. Eliminate
awkward gaps. The interest and attention of
dents, not to the equipment. If you the class are diverted when a delay occurs, for
are explaining while an assistant in- example, in bringing in an item of equipment.
structor demonstrates the equipment, Effective use of assistants will help in this re-
direct the students' attention to the gard. Rehearse the demonstration to check
demonstrator. It is not uncommon for procedures and to insure that every instrument
students to watch an instructor and or piece of equipment will function properly.
fail to realize that an assistant in- Students lose confidence in instructors who
structor is demonstrating the steps of experience difficulty; too, blunders are distract-
the operation. ing. If the demonstration contains a particu-
larly difficult step, acquaint the students with
(3)
Check frequently to make sure that this fact before beginning the operation, re-
call students underfstand. At the con- questing their close attention; then, if some-
clusion of each major step in an oper- thing goes wrong with the demonstration, you
ation, ask questions to verify student can capitalize on it.
understanding.
d. Emphasize Safety Precautions. General
(4) Encourage students to ask questions safety precautions, rules, and regulations
at frequent intervals, but only between should be taught early in the training program.
major steps of the operation. Students These should be reiterated and specific precau-
generally should not be allowed to in- tions should be pointed out during demonstra-
terrupt the demonstration of a step. tions.

61
 ' ? ii
!iiii~iiii~i~ U·...........

DIS PLAYS

PROCEDURAL
DEMONSTRATIONS

,r

·
i.,, , ' , ' ,".......
'.. ' .

FIELD
DEMONSTRATIONSI

1 age 1--i ilsS4XI

. .. .........LM....

SKITS

Figure 59. Forms of the demonstration.

62
 CHAPTER 9
APPLICATION

43. Importance of Application c. Application of military knowledge cannot

be left to chance. The instructor must under-
stand the general considerations for planning
sizes doing. In most training programs at least and the general considerations for planning
65 percent of the instruction will be applicatory and conducting practical work. It is this type
(fig. instructors
(fig. 60). Army 60). Army must
instructors must understand
understand of learning that pays off in the training of a
and be able to use the various methods of appli-
catory training.
44. Opportunities for Application
b. An instructor must first understand how a
man learns to do something, in other words, Opportunities for application can be found
the basic steps of learning that are involved in most Army instruction. For example,
in acquiring a skill. There are basic methods through application-
that are used in applicatory training, and the a. Soldiers can learn to inspect and use tools,
military instructor must understand what they weapons, and equipment, and to perform close
are, how each works, and when to use the ap- and extended order drill.
propriate method.
b. Personnel can be taught movement under
TO TEACH MILITARY SKILLS enemy observation or fire, scouting techniques,
terrain sketching, and use of the compass.
c. Supply clerks can fill out requisitions, re-
PRACTICE ports of survey, shipping forms, and bills of lad-
ing.
d. Administrative clerks can be given prob-
lems relating to morning reports and service
records.
e. Men can learn procedures to be used when
a gun stoppage occurs, the effect of wind on
sight adjustments, and the construction of strip
maps and circuit diagrams.
DEMONSTRATION
f. Men can work problems involving the mil
:::"DEMONSTRATION
.. relation, practice initial fire commands, and
participate in extensive map exercises.

EXPLANATION 25% 45. Application in the Teaching Process

a. Active participation by the students
10% * throughout the lesson is highly desirable. In-
stead of relying consistently upon separate
TELL SHOW DO practical work periods that follow explanations
and demonstrations, the instructor may con-
Figure 60. Teaching military skills. sider an integrated explanation, demonstration,

63
and application to each step in teaching a skill (5) Accept the best solution as the course
or procedure. The nature of the skill and the of action.
actual situation will dictate the appropriate
technique and the sequence of applicatory 47. Basic Methods Used in the Application
methods. (See para 47 for a discussion of meth-
ods of application.) There are several methods of employing ap-
plication. The best method to use depends on
b. Instructors must realize the importance the state of training and the skill being learned.
of classroom "pencil-and-paper" exercises in
addition to the conventional practical work a. Controlled PracticeMethod.
periods. The adapability of these exercises for (1) In controlled practice (fig. 62) all men
many military subjects is often overlooked. in a class do the same thing, at the
same rate, and at the same time, under
46. Learning Skills and Techniques the supervision of instructors. The
steps in this method are-
In the application stage, soldiers develop (a) Explain and demonstrate a step in
physical or mental skills and techniques, or the procedure while students ob-
learn how to solve problems. the procedure while students ob-
serve.
a. Learning a Skill. Three basic steps are (b) Lead the students through an imita-
involved in acquiring a skill (fig. 61). tion of the demonstrated step.
(1) Building a concept of the skill-learn- Make on-the-spot corrections.
ing of what the skill consists. This is (2) This procedure is applied to each
usually accomplished by: step until the operation is covered
(a) Demonstration. completely. Initial application in most
(b) Explanation. skills and operations, such as the dis-
(c) Directing students to other informa-
assembly of weapons, should be taught
tion, such as study assignments, in- by the controlled practice method.
structional sheets, and similar (3) Controlled practice affords maximum
references. control and observation of student ac-
tivities, facilitating on-the-spot cor-
rection of errors in the imitation step.
(a) The student imitates the demonstra- Clear directions are essential; for
tion. example, at the beginning of a lesson
(b) His activities are directed. on the disassembly of a weapon, the
(c) The instructor evaluates progress instructor should tell the class that-
and encourages the student to (a) He will explain and demonstrate
evaluate his own progress. step by step the process of disassem-
(3) Practicing for accuracy, speed, and bly.
making the act or procedure auto- (b) Students are to give careful atten-
matic. tion to the explanation and demon-
stration.
b. Problem Solving. The primary objective
in developing problem solving techniques is to
(c)) Students are not to perform the
Student are not to perform the
teach how to solve problems rather than how to
arrive at approved solutions. The student demonstration and then only when
should use a thought process similar to that
used in the estimate of the situation. Briefly, (d) Students are to perform only the
this process is- step demonstrated and are at no
(1) Recognize the problem. time to get ahead of the instruction.
(2) Assemble data bearing on the problem. (4) Controlled practice is especially suited
(3) Determine possible solutions. to the first two steps in learning a
(4) Evaluate the possible solutions. skill, gainiog the concept and imitat-

64
 LEARNING A SKILL

2. DEVELOP THE SKILL

1. BUILD A CONCEPT OF THE SKILL./ " --- 'a THROUGH IMITATION.
/ _ ·-

3. PRACTICE TO MAKE THE SKILL AUTOMATIC.

Figure 61. Steps in learning a skill.
ing the movement pattern. The last a whole (fig. 63). Through independent prac-
step-making the skill automatic- tice he can establish the skill so that it becomes
must be carried on by a method that automatic.
does not limit the student-independ- c. Coach-and-Pupil Method. This method
ent practice. (fig. 64) is used for teaching students who have
b. Independent PracticeMethod. The student acquired the fundamentals of a skill. Students
works at his own rate of speed without control are paired off and act alternately as coach and
but with supervision to perform an operation as pupil under direction and supervision of the

65

475-774 0 - 72 - 5
 1. EXPLANATION AND DEMONSTRATION.
2. IMITATION AND ON-THE-SPOT CORRECTION.
Figure 62. Controlledpractice method.

the student should be trained first as an indi-

vidual and then as part of a team such as a
tank crew, a rifle squad, or the crew of a crew-
served weapon. Team practice exercises (fig.
65), in which students serve as team members,
normally are conducted in two phases: first, a
walk-through-by-the-numbers practice in which
techniques are emphasized; second, opportun-
ities to apply these techniques in a realistic
situation.
(1) First phase. In the walk-through-by-
the-numbers phase, only team funda-
mentals should be stressed. The
introduction of simulated battle condi-
tions too early tends to obscure the
learning of fundamentals. Instructors
1. WORK AT OWN SPEED. make on-the-spot corrections.
2. PRACTICE TO PERFECT AND MAKE AUTOMATIC. (2) Tactical phase. As teams master the
3. INSTRUCTOR SUPERVISES AND CORRECTS ERRORS. fundamentals, the applicatory exer-
cises should be expanded in scope to
Figure 6S. Independent practice method. include all phases of combat oper-
ations. A variety of individual sub-
instructor and his assistants. This method jects should be fitted together into a
causes students to think as well as do; it de- single training period; conditions and
velops initiative and self-reliance in perform- requirements should be varied so that
ing military skills. It lends itself to the teach- team members develop judgment and
ing of such subjects as bayonet practice, un- facility in applying skills and tech-
armed defense, first aid, and marksmanship. niques to solutions of new and varied
d. Team Practice. In the application stage tactical problems.

66
 1. STUDENT UNDERSTANDS FUNDAMENTALS.
2. PUPILS PERFORM THE SKILL.

3. COACHES CORRECT ERRORS.

4. INSTRUCTOR SUPERVISES.
Figure 64. Coach-and-pupilmethod.

48. General Considerations for Applicatory the students. State the objective in
Training terms of student behavior rather than
Knowledge of the general considerations in subject matter; for example, "today
planning and conducting all types of applica- you will learn how to locate your posi-
tion enable the instructor to anticipate many tion
tion on
on aa map"
map" will
will motivate
motivate student
student
problems and plan a more effective application performance more than all about grid
stage (fig. 66). period you will learn all about grid
a. Students Must Be Motivated to Learn. coordinates.
Learning will result in the application stage if (2) Evaluating progress made. Knowl-
understanding of the materials taught is de- edge of one's progress is a very effec-
veloped by effective instructional techniques effective incentive. At appropriate
in the presentation stage, and if students are intervals, inform the student of the
motivated to put these materials into practice. quality of his performance. If it is
Motivation, in the application stage, can be satisfactory, the feeling of accom-
accomplished by- plishment spurs him to further effort;
if it is unsatisfactory, he becomes
(1) Setting definite objectives. Be sure conscious of the need to do better and
that students know what they are to will usually strive to improve his
do and why it is important. Be sure record. Judicious praise stimulates
that the exercise emphasizes a few the learner, but commendation should
simple principles, rather than several not be used to the extent that it
complex situations that may confuse becomes ineffective.

67
 TACTICAL PHASE

1. WALK-THROUGH BY-THE-NUMBERS PHASE.

2. TACTICAL DRILL.
3. INSTRUCTOR SUPERVISES AND CRITIQUES.

Figure 65. Team practice method.

(3) Using competition. In application (5) Making application realistic. Strive

there are many opportunities for the for realism whenever the activity is
use of competition. Students may com- such that realism is important. This
pete against their past records, with motivation technique is best used in
each other-individually and in team performance activities. Some
groups, and with standards set by individual types of application, such
instructors. Competition, properly as use of the compass, preparing indi-
conducted, will motivate students to vidual field fortifications, and tactical
wholehearted effort. training of the individual soldier,
(4) Varying procedures. One of the best make wide use of realism to motivate
ways to maintain student interest dur- learning.
b. Insure That Practice Does Make Perfect.
Soldiers will do in combat about the same
to vary the procedures. As an example, things they do in training; their performance
in teaching battle drill have students must be perfected in the practical exercises of
occupy different roles of platoon the training program. In order to set up appli-
leader, squad leader, fire team leader, catory exercises that will enable students to
etc. approach perfection, the instructor must-
68
 MOTIVATE STUDENTS TO LEARN.

- L ENSURE THAT PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT.

KEEP ACHIEVEMENT STANDARDS

PROGRESSIVE.

KEEP CONDITIONS REALISTIC.

APPLY AS TAUGHT.

ASSIST INDIRECTLY.

ENSURE THAT EACH STEP IS LEARNED

BEFORE MOVING ON.

SUPERVISE CONSTANTLY.

Figure 66. Planningand conducting practicalexercises.

(1) Make a correct start. The most com- then these actions should be prac-
mon procedure for giving the learner ticed together in an exercise that close-
a correct start is to demonstrate the ly approximates a real situation. The
act to be performed, and then let him number of exercises should vary
practice it. The controlled practice with the difficulty of the response
is especially effective in making a desired.
correct start. (3) Employ problem-solving techniques.
(2) Provide practice or drill exercises. These are especially valuable in team
Exercises should provide for repeti- performance exercises and in situ-
tion. Single out a specific action for ations where students have developed
isolated practice-for example, the on-
guard position in bayonet drill. When some skill through practice. The
a series of specific actions is needed use of problems will motivate the stu-
in the performance of an act, exercises dent and make the instruction more
for each action should be provided; realistic.

69
 c. Keep Achievement Standards Progressive. must insure that he can give affirmative an-
In initial applicatory exercises, the student swers to these questions:
should perform each step thoroughly and accur- (1) Do the students know the what, how,
ately under close supervision. In succeeding and why of the activity?
exercises, standards should be raised progres- (2) Does the activity contribute to the
sively-better and faster work should be re- realization of the objective?
quired, and less assistance should be given. (3) Are the students performing accord-
Mere repetition of an activity has little value ing to instructions?
unless higher standards are set. Soldiers should (4) Is maximum use being made of equip-
be made aware -of the progressive nature of ment, materials, and personnel?
their practical work; otherwise they may feel (5) Are safety measures being observed?
that the exercise has been designed merely to (6) Is ample time provided for completion
keep them busy. of the performance?
d. Keep Conditions Realistic. Keep condi- (7) Are the students constantly improv-
tions of the applicatory exercise as nearly as ing?
possible like those that would be encountered
in battle or other actual use. In the initial 49. The Problem Exercise
exercises, however, it is often more important a. General. The problem exercise employs
to provide ideal conditions than to insist on
realism, so that students can learn to perform graph 46b, and is used when solutions are based
correctly; realistic conditions can be introduced upon
upon the
the application
application of
of principles,
principles, techniques,
techniques,
in succeeding exercises. or procedures to the problem situation. Suc-
e. Procedures and Skills Should Be Applied cessive situations in a problem exercise may
as Taught. Perfection is achieved through vary from a few minutes to several hours. It
practice only if the student practices the right may- be a simple situation presented orally and
movements and' procedures. The instructor followed by questions, or it may be a written
must make sure that students practice skills or exercise. The problem exercise not only pro-
techniques as they have been taught. vides for learning by doing, but it also places
the student in realistic situations facing the
f. Indirect Assistance Is Best. The initiative problems he will face later in job assignments.
and resourcefulness so necessary for success By its very nature, a problem stimulates inter-
in battle can be developed in the application est and concentration, which are so necessary
stage only if instructors train men to depend for learning. Most persons enjoy the challenge
on their own abilities in the solution of problems. of a problem or puzzle in anticipation of suc-
Instructors must prevent the formation of cess in solving it. It provides valuable student
faulty habits, but, at the same time, they must practice in acting and reacting correctly when
encourage soldiers to use their own resource- the need arises, in much the same manner as a
fulness. After the initial applicatory exercises, rifleman is trained to react automatically under
most assistance should be indirect. conditions of strain and urgency.
g. Each Step Must Be Learned Before Mov- b. Preparing the Exercise. In preparing a
ing to the Next. Do not introduce too many problem exercise, follow the basic steps for
operations, procedures, principles, or problems lesson outlining. Prepare your introduction as
at any one time. Introduce a few learning ac- for a conference unit of instruction, with spe-
tivities, provide for adequate practice, review cial emphasis upon methods to be used-what is
and critique the material taught and practiced, to follow, and whether individual or group
and examine the students' work; then, if they solutions are desired. Your review should in-
are proficient, proceed to the next step. elude a critique of student performance. The
development or body of the exercise contains
h. Constant Supervision Is Imperative. The the teaching points and the means by which
fact that students are busy is not a guarantee they are applied--situations, requirements,
that learning is taking place. The instructor solutions, and discussions of solutions. In plan-

70
ning for a conference unit of instruction, you reference tables. After you have deter-
prepare thought-provoking questions and con- mined the information necessary to
sider the likely student answers. In planning solve the problem, state the situation
a problem exercise, you prepare requirements clearly, concisely, and as realistically
and situations and consider the likely student as possible. Insure that the situation
solutions you will receive. actually poses a problem, based upon
(1) Situation-requirement. The problem your knowledge of student back-
exercise consists of two parts. The ground. In the situation, avoid state-
first part, or situation, details the spe- ments that make the solution obvious
cific facts of the general or special or restrict the student to only one pos-
military situation; the second part, sible solution. If the requirement does
the requirement, directs the student not provide a challenge to the student,
to perform certain actions to solve the it is too elementary; revise it.
problem. (4) Good problems. A good problem is
(2) Preparing requirements. Prepare challenging in itself. Do not include
your requirement first, since it should unnecessary information to lead the
be directly related to your lesson ob- student astray or to force him to waste
jectives. A good requirement causes time on matters not related to the les-
application of a teaching point; it is son objective.
specific and its solution requires (5) Solutions. Provision for discussion of
careful thought and analysis. You aa solution is a critical stage in your
solution is a critical stage in your
can gain added realism by wording re- preparation, for here is the climax of
quirements in the second person and student learning. You must give care-
by using the present or future tense. ful consideration to al reasonable
(3) Preparing situations. Prepare situ- solutions. Prepare analyses of the
ations to set the stage for your prob- most likely student solutions. In your
lems. Since you have already prepared analyses, consider the effectiveness
your requirement, you must first iso- with which appropriate principles are
late the factors necessary to solve the applied. Explain why the preferred
requirement. For example, what is solution was selected. When situations
the present tactical situation, the or- and requirements are presented in
ganization's mission, and the outlook written handout form, the solution
for the future based upon enemy in- and the discussion thereof are included
formation? Will terrain and weather as the first portion of the handout con-
affect the problem? How many rounds taining the subsequent situation and
of each type of ammunition remain in requirement.
each unit? ... in the supply and c. Conducting a Problem Exercise. Here are
maintenance area? What is the avail- some suggestions for conducting a problem
able supply rate? In isolating neces- exercise
sary information, solve the problem
yourself to insure that you have in- (1) Present the situation and the require-
cluded all information necessary for ment. A variety of techniques are
the solution. Check your solution with available in presenting problems to
your fellow instructors to insure that students. The printed handout is the
all factors have been considered. Make most commonly used technique; in
note of the specific reference data fact, it may be used too often. For
needed, if appropriate, and decide simple problem exercises, an oral
whether to refer students to specific presentation of the problem can keep

71
 the exercise fast moving and more in- present important variations from the
teresting. You can also obtain more in- preferred solution, followed by a stu-
terest by using skits, films, recordings, dent solution that approximates the
slides, map and terrain models, and preferred solution. Develop from the
actual equipment, either by themselves student the reasons why he chose his
or in conjunction with printed hand- particular solution. To encourage for-
outs or oral presentation. Films are ward thinking, give credit for all
currently available for presentation sound solutions, or the portions there-
of problems in leadership. Oral pre- of that represent sound application of
sentation of the situation forces the principles. Evaluate solutions by these
student to make brief notes and trains criteria: Will it do the job? Can it be
him to listen critically. be done this way with the means avail-
(2) Have students solve the requirement. able? Are the consequences accept-
able? In simple problems, with brief
Circulate among students as they work ableu In simple problems, with brief
on theand
problem,
help those who solutions not requiring the use of vis-
ual aids, students may present their
require assistance. Observe student ual aids, students may present their
solutions orally "in place." For more
solutions and select several represen-
tative solutions for the discussion that lengthy solutions, especially in map
will follow. or terrain exercises, students will pre-
sent their solutions more effectively
(3) Discuss student solutions. Have a before the class. Appropriate aids
student present his solution. Be sure should be provided students for these
that the entire class can hear him. presentations. The technique of hav-
Using conference techniques, develop ing students present their solutions by
a discussion of several solutions in acting out roles has been used effec-
turn. If possible, select students to tively in leadership instruction.

72
 CHAPTER 10

PROGRAMED INSTRUCTION

50. General problem involving that increment of informa-

tion. Not only must the student read the infor-
a. An ideal teaching situation is one in which
there is one qualified instructor for each stu- mation, but he must also actively participate
by responding to each frame. The program
dent. In such a situation, the instructor can guides him to respond by constructing and writ-
concentrate entirely on developing the knowl- ing his own answers, by choosing answers to
edge and skill of his student; he can guide him
step by step through the lesson, ask questions questions, by labellig parts of a diagram
even byby assembling a device or an electrical
each step of the way, confirm the student's even assembling a device or an electrical
answers immediately, and allow the student to circuit. Immediately after each response, the
learn at his own pace. Most importantly,
sprogram
the confirms the response as being correct
learn at his own pace. Most importantly, the or incorrect. Although the program gives suffi-
instructor can control the learning process to
insrure that the student performs the desired t cient help in each series of frames to insure that
the student responds correctly, it is designed to
tasks correctly. Of course, a one-to-one ratio gradually withdraw the help and put the stu-
gradually withdraw the help and put the stu-
of instructors to students is seldom possible,
dent on his own. Unlike conventional methods
when
when many students must
many students
particularly particularly must be
be of instruction, the student learns at his own
taught with a limited schedule. Programed pace; he is neither held back nor forced to speed
instruction permits a student to learn a job by
himself, at his own pace, and with little or no below are the most imortant characteristics of
supervision by an instructor. This method below are the most important characteristics of
simulates the one-to-one ratio and for many
learning situations it is more effective than a. Step by Step learning.
conventional methods. b. Active student participation.
b. The purpose of this chapter is make the
Army instructor aware of the basic character-
istics and types of programs, the general pro- d. Low error rate.
cedure for preparing programs, and consider-
ations in the application and administration of
programed instruction. Instructors can become
proficient programers by additional study, re- 52. Types of Programs
search, training, and experience. Programs are generally classified under two
main types, depending upon how the student
51. Basic Characteristics responds to the frames and the sequence of the
Programed learning is a method of instruc- frames.
tion that usually takes the form of a special a. Linear Type. In this type of program,
type textbook called a programed text or self- the student reads an increment of information
tutor text. The material in the text consists of and is then directed to make a response. He
a series of carefully planned and sequenced may have to respond by writing a single word
items, or steps, called frames, each of which or a complete sentence, by labelling parts of a
teaches an increment of information and re- diagram, by setting switches on a device, or by
quires the student to respond to a question or measuring some value with a testing device.
73
Immediately following his response, he checks gramed learning is the most efficient method,
his answer against the one given either just you must plan the lesson, write the program,
below the item or on the back of the page. After and, finally, try out the program.
checking his answer, the student goes on to the a. Planning the Program. This requires a
next frame and follows this fixed sequence careful
careful and critical analysis
and critical analysis of
of the
the job
job to
to be
be
throughout the complete program. Figures 67
taught. You cannot write a single frame unitil
and 68 show sequences from linear type pro-
grams. Figure 67 is a series of frames taken youu have
have ccompleted this analysis, which in-
cludes defining the job or skill, determining
from a program that teaches the use of a multi-
competence required after instruction, con-
meter (a device for measuring electrical quanti- structing a criterion test, listing job aids; iden-
ties). Notice that the first frame (25) presents
a bit of information followed by a fill-in type of
of the
the job
job or
or skill,
skill, and stating
and stating the specific
the specific ob-
ob-
response. Notice that succeeding items gradu-
ally develop the student's learning by giving
him more examples of the concept and by mak- b. Writing the Program. Here is where you
ing him respond to the most relevant points of teach. This may actually require less work than
the lesson. Figure 68 is another example of a that required to analyze the task to be taught to
linear sequence, which teaches a student how the student. In this step, you construct se-
to read a schematic diagram. quences or frames that teach and guide the stu-
dent to perform the desired job or skill.
b. Branching Type. In this type of program,
each item usually contains larger bits of infor- c. Conducting Student Trials. Here you are
mation than those in the linear type. The term trying to find out how well the program teaches.
branching applies because the sequence of This phase measures the effectiveness of the
frames varies according to the responses of the program and indicates what specific revisions
student (fig. 69). Multiple choice questions are are necessary to make the program a better
used not only to test whether the student has "teacher."
learned the information, but also to diagnose
any misconceptions indicated when the student 54. Steps in Planning the Program
fails to answer correctly. Notice that next to a. Defining Job or Skill. Think of what the
each multiple choice answer is a page number student is doing when he is on the job. Describe
that directs the student to the next page of in- his activity or operation. This is the objective
formation he is to read. A correct answer the program will meet-terminal behavior. The
usually earns the student a compliment for program will have met its objective if the stu-
alertness, and he is then given additional infor- dents are able to perform the job you have de-
mation. A wrong answer leads him to remedial scribed. However, it is not sufficient merely
information; after this he is usually directed to state the program objective in such general
to return to the original page to select another terms. Further analysis will be required, as
answer. outlined in f below.
b. Determining Competence Required.
53. Planning and Writing the Program Think of the degree of accuracy or speed re-
quired. Consider any time limit. This is re-
Use programed learning when you are con- quired as a guide to writing frames later on.
vinced that it can do a better instructional job
The programer will need to know how exten-
than conventional methods. Determining which
method is most method
eeffective
is,v mot
rrequires
e aa careful sively and intensively the program will cover a
topic. It is a question of knowing what scope
evaluation of numerous factors, such as student
population, population,
number
number ofquaand
of qualified instructors emphasis will pertain to each part of the
available for the particular lesson, objectives program. The decision made here will have a
of the lesson,o subjt
the lesson,
subject m
matter,, time and, cer- far-reaching effect on the way the program is
tainly, the comparative costs of the various
methods of instruction. After you critically c. Constructing a Criterion Test. Here you
examine these factors and decide that pro- want test items to cover all essential aspects of

74
the job. The test should be such that successful (3) Student identifies all operating con-
completion indicates acceptable job competence. trols on Radio Set (not
After a student completes his training, he "Student knows control of Radio Set
should be able to pass this test. Test items ").
should be a test of each stated objective. (4) Student states that the resonant fre-
d. Listing Job Aids. List tools, books, and quency of a tank circuit depends on the
diagrams normally used. Consider if the stu- values of L and C (not "Student knows
dent must be able to perform without them. the theory of resonant circuits").
(5) Student calculates standard deviation
e. Identifying the Student. Here you deter- from raw scores (not "Student under-
mine the prerequisites for the course. Describe stands standard deviation").
what the student should know in order to take
(6) Student measures road distance on
the program. Do this in terms of what previous map by use of graphic scale (not "Stu-
training he should have had, what tests he must dent knows how to use graphic scale").
pass, what aptitude or achievement scores he
Note. You are still describing the activity
must have attained-in short, what identifiable (or behavior). You are not specifying hov
or measurable qualities he must have. Of course, the student will learn.
this implies that you have some control over
which students should take the program. But g. Insuring That the Job Components Are
even if you do not, it is still important that you Arranged In Some Logical Sequence. Note
have in mind (but preferably on paper) what which activities must precede others on the
kind of student you are writing for. Such job. (The program normally would follow this
knowledge will govern, among other things, sequence.) This is the stage at which the out-
your approach to the student, your style, your line of the program is taking shape. At this
vocabularyyourand degree of repetition u time, you also scrutinize the components to see
and your degree of repetition.
vocabulary, if any can be further subdivided. The more
f. Analyzing the Components of Job or Skill. thorough you are at this stage, the easier the
Look on this as a diligent search for the implied actual programing will be, because you will have
abilities and operations required in doing the a detailed scheme of all objectives you wish to
job. If the job is soldering electronic equip- reach.
ment, some implications are that the student
must be able to tin a soldering iron, hold it 55. Structure of the Program
properly, and distinguish between a poorly
soldered joint and a well-soldered joint. Be a. The structures of linear and branching
sure to include negative aspects such as programs differ not only in the size of each step
"poorly soldered." These implications can be but also in the sequence of steps. Most linear
called sub-objectives or implied objectives. If programs require that the student read each
you can set them down in logical order at this frame in the program. Thus, the student follows
time, do so, by reviewing in your mind the job a single "in-line" instructional path throughout
as it is actually performed. What you are striv- the program. Figure 70 is a sequence diagram
ing for is a breakdown of the job components that illustrates the instructional path. Because
that will give you one objective for each the student is directed through a single path,
achievement unit (i.e., from 5 to 10 frames). the program is called a linear program. Branch-
At this stage you have what amounts to a sen- ing type programs differ in form from the
tence outline. For a useful format, use complete linear type in that they provide the student
sentences and specific statements. For example: with two or more paths or branches for each
frame; the branch the student takes depends
(1) Student calculates I = E/R when upon the answer he chooses. If he selects the
given values of E and R (not "Student wrong answer, he is directed to a branch that
knows Ohm's law"). gives him remedial help (fig. 70). A right an-
(2) Student selects the proper flux for swer choice will direct him to the main branch
soldering printed circuits (not "Stu- of the program. Thus, a branching type pro-
dent knows about flux"). gram is sometimes called a multiple choice pro-
75
gram; technically, it is also called an intrinsic they form a pattern and become more
program, because the student's action deter- complex.
mines the path he takes. (2) These frames must not be haphazard-
b. Each type of program, linear and branch- ly constructed. They must follow some
ing, consists of several series of frames called logical line, and that line should be
criterionunits or achievement units. Each unit evident to the student. Ideally, upon
teaches one of the implied objectives of the reaching the prover frame, the stu-
program. An average achievement unit in a dent should be able to retrace the steps
linear program usually consists of about 5 to 10 by which he came. This is the stage at
frames. Branching programs usually have which the programer's skill will be
fewer frames in an achievement unit, but the most taxed, but the degree of difficulty
frames are larger. will depend on how well the programer
has analyzed the program objective.
c. Each achievement unit (fig. 71) consists (3) Start with the minimum number of
of a series of "teaching" frames that develop teaching frames. Let the actual tests
the student's ability to "master" the skill de- of the program tell you when you have
scribed in the objective and a final frame that enough; otherwise you have no way
tests the student's ability to perform the skill; of knowing when you have overpro-
the teaching frames are called lead-up frames gramed.
and the final frame is called a criterion frame
or a prover frame. 57. Trying the Program

56. Steps in Writing the Program a. Try out your program after you have com-
pleted about 100 frames of a linear program
a. First, Write CriterionFrames. Write one and about 25 frames of a branching program.
to correspond to each implied objective. Write It is even better to try out one achievement unit
this frame so that a successful response will at a time. The student taking the program
prove or demonstrate that the student has mas- should be encouraged to point out any difficul-
tered the skill or knowledge you want. These ties as he encounters them. You should take
are the "pay-off" or "prover" frames; they may notes on each difficulty so that you will be able
closely resemble the items you wrote as criter- to revise intelligently. You will probably be
ion test items. This is the first step in writing able to make some revisions after even one trial,
the actual program. but often three or more trials will be needed
b. Next, Write Teaching Frames. This is before you can revise efficiently. Of course, each
where you start teaching. Here you write the revised version of the program should also be
lead-up frames for each criterion frame. The tried out. For the instructor, this may be the
teaching frames plus the criterion frame consti- most monotonous part of programing, but do
tute an achievement unit-the basic component not minimize the necessity of this phase; the
of a program. You are in a sense backing away student trial and revision phase is one of the
from the criterion frame to a point where you most important of the entire programing
feel you can make a beginning. That point is process.
where you made contact with what the student b. Formal field testing and evaluation, using
already knows or can do and begin edging him the criterion test, must follow the completion
toward the first goal. In the teaching frames of the program. Revision then, if necessary,
you are causing the student to learn in a way must precede overall implementation of the
that will carry him step by step to the objective program.
you have already determined.
(1) At this stage the student is learning 58. Application of Programed Learning
terms and definitions, applying them, Programed learning can be used to teach al-
discriminating, solving problems, most any subject. The method can teach verbal
drawing conclusions, making infer- information such as the theory of electricity and
ences. As these activities accumulate, it can even teach the operation and use of de-

76
vices such as the multimeter, slide rule, or gramed texts usually are written from a set of
micrometer. Because the programed method is specific duty-oriented objectives that state ex-
a self-instructional technique, an instructor actly what the student will be able to do after
can issue a program for use in the classroom he completes the text. Careful study of these
or for use away from class as a self-study as- objective statements will help you to determine
signment. whether the program parallels the desired
a. Use in the Classroom. Many instructors lesson. The criterion for the instructor is that
legitimately complain that they do not have
the program must teach the desired subject
enough time to complete their duties as effi-or better than other methods.
ciently as they would like. Lack of time for b. Know the Contents of the Program. Ana-
preparation of equipment for demonstrations lyzing the objectives is not enough. You must
and practical exercises and for preparation of also carefully read the program to prepare
tests and lesson plans is often a problem. By yourself for questions that students may ask
scheduling programed learning sequences with- about certain subject areas within the program.
in the lesson plan, along with conventional con- Knowing the depth of subject matter and how
ferences and demonstrations, the instructor can the program treats it will help you to guide the
gain useful time while students use the pro- student in the proper use of the program.
gram. Using programed instruction, the role
of the instructor can be shifted from one of c. Tell the StudentsHow to Use theProgram.
"information giver" to that of counselor or This applies particularly to students who have
leader. never used programs. Because the programed
format is usually unlike the conventional text
b. Use Away From Class.
e Obviously,
aa stu- format, you must demonstrate how to read and
dent away from class does not have an instruc- respond to the sequence of frames to prevent
tor available to help him to review subjects
confusion and loss of motivation. Do not under-
already taught or to prepare for subjects that estimate the importance of telling the student
will be taught. A programed text used for these
applications can serve as a private tutor to re- how to make use of introductions, reviews,
view or introduce the essential lessons of the summaries, self-tests, and any other informa-
course. Programed texts can also be used effi- tion contained in the program:
ciently as remedial assignments for students d. Provide Enrichment Activities for Stu-
who need extra help. They can also be used to dents Who Complete ProgramsEarly. Because
accelerate graduation of highly qualified stu- the programed activity is self-paced, some stu-
dents.
dents finish sooner than others. For those
who do complete the program early, you should
provide enrichment activities that enable them
Administering a programed text in a class is to apply and reinforce what they have learned
as important as administering any other class in the program. The activity may be a demon-
assignment; the programed phase of the lesson stration, a practical exercise, a television pre-
will fail if not administered properly. Here are sentation, or additional programed material on
a few rules to help you to administer programs advanced work. Do not provide activities, such
successfully: as detail work, that imply a penalty for finish-
a. Select the Appropriate Program. Pro- ing the program early.

77
 25. To measure resistance you must place e
the black probe on one end of the resistor and the e
red probe on the other end. We thus connect the

meter across the resistor. In this illustration,

the meter is connected R.

a ohm resistor. RiE

25. across;

26. The TS-352/U on the right is shown

measuring the (5) (10)-ohm resistor because B

e e e
the rne ter is connected
that resistor.

5n

across

Figure 67. Sample of a linear program.

78
 27. The TS-352/U is shown measuring

the total resistance of resistors (A and B)

(A, B,and C). A

27. A and B

28. Which resistors are being measured ..

in this figure? (A only) (A and B) (B and C) A .. 6.

B MM

Ce e

28. A, B, and

Figure 67-Continued.

79
 *29. The TS-352/U is shown measuring -:

the resistance of resistor (A) (B) (C). To

measure resistors A and B together, you would

2 A
have to connect the probes across terminal

numbers and and to

B
measure resistors A, B, and C together,

connect probes across terminal numbers

and

*29. B;

1 and 3;

1 and 4

Figure 67-Continued.

80
 110. You know that this arrangement of battery, wires, switch, and lamp makes up a

Draw arrows to indicate direction of current flow.

SWITCH

110. circuit

SWITCH

111. Here's the same circuit again. In part A, we use pictures, but in part B we use

symbols to represent (stand for) the actual parts of a

\ 1

111. circuit

Figure 68. Sample of a linear program.

81

475-774 0 - 72 - 6
 112. The symbolic diagram of a circuit is called a SCHEMATIC. Symbols are used to

represent the actual parts of the circuit below. Hence, this is called a

diagram.
BATTERY

LAMP
SWITCH

112. schematic

113. When symbols are used to represent actual parts of a circuit, the diagram is called

113. schematic

*114. Which diagram is a schematic?

114. A

Figure 68-Continued.

82
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION

1
INTRODUCTION

What is the BEST method of instruction? Asking this question is like

asking a mother of ten children-- "Which one do you love the most?" She

would find it impossible to select one from among the ten. Similarly,

it would be impossible to say that one instructional method is better

than all others. Each teaching situation must be carefully examined to

select an instructional method which will best achieve the objectives of

that lesson. If one method will do a better job than all others, then it

is the best method to use for THAT particular lesson.

In this publication we will concern ourselves with the various

methods of instruction. Specifically, you will learn the definition,

advantages, and limitations of the lecture, conference, demonstration,

practice, case, and incident process methods of instruction; and receive

a general description of automated instruction, including use of teach-

ing machines, programed texts, and Trainer-Tester.

Please turn to page 4.

Figure69. Sample of a branching program.

83
 2

You are NOT following instructions!

This publication is not put together like an ordinary book or

pamphlet. Although the pages are numbered in sequence--that is: 1, 2,

the information will make sense only if you follow the instruc-
3, etc. --

tions that are listed on each page.

Now, please turn to page 4.

Figure 69-Continued.

84
 3
(Cont from page 4)

YOUR ANSWER: No. The lecture method would not be suitable for

teaching a mechanical skill such as the disassembly of the M14 rifle.

You hit the nail right on the head! The lecture method is char-

acterized by minimum student participation and strict control by the

instructor of both the organization of material and the pace of the les-

son. It would not be suitable for teaching mechanical skills, since the

student must actively participate in a lesson in order to practice or

learn the specific skill being taught.

However, despite the apparent disadvantages to the students, the

lecture method does have several points in its favor. An instructor can

present his material to a large audience, and can cover a large amount

of material in a relatively short time by controlling the pace and

organization of the lesson.

Based on this information, what type of lesson would be best suited

to the lecture methbd?

Page

Course orientation or introductory type 6

Detailed, factual, or discussion-type academic 5

Disassembly of an item of equipment 7

Figure 69-Continued.

85
 4
(Cont from page 1)

THE LECTURE METHOD

The lecture method of instruction has been defined as "teaching by

telling," wherein the instructor has strict control of both the lesson

organization and its pace.

In other words, the student assumes a rather passive role in that

he does not overtly participate in the lesson. His function is to listen

to the instruction and to absorb the subject matter. In this method,

the student has little opportunity to ask questions and receive further

clarification of teaching points, or to physically participate in the

lesson.

In light of the above, would the lecture method be suitable for

teaching a mechanical skill such as the disassembly of the M14 rifle?

Page

Yes 8

No 3

Figure 69-Continued.

86
 5
(Cont from page 3)

YOUR ANSWER: Detailed, factual, or discussion type academic lessons

are best suited to the lecture method.

Although there may be exceptions to the rule, we will have to dis-

agree with you. With most academic lessons it is important for the

student to participate in the lesson in order to better understand the

material presented. In the lecture method, this participation is not

required. The pace of the lesson may be too fast for the student to

readily grasp each teaching point. Finally, there is no requirement for

the instructor to question the students in order to determine if they

are comprehending the material.

The lecture method can be used to good advantage for large groups,

or where the instructor must cover a lot of material in a short period

of time. This makes it particularly suited to the orientation and

introductory type lessons. Another method should be used to present the

more detailed academic type lessons.

Turn back to page 3 and reread the information there; then try again.

Figure 69-Continued.

87
 6
(Cont from page 3)

YOUR ANSWER: Course orientations or introductory type lessons are

best suited to the lecture method.

You're right! Orientations and introductory type lessons require

little, if any, overt participation on the part of the students. In
orientations, particularly, the students receive administrative instruc-
tions, information concerning scheduling, textbooks, etc. Introductory
lessons usually prepare them for the more detailed academic lessons or
practical work to follow.

With most academic lessons, it is important that the student be en-

couraged to participate in class discussions. It is also important that
the size of the audience be limited, in order to permit the instructor
to estimate student comprehension and observe student reaction to the
instructional material. This is not possible, of course, with the
lecture method. As you shall soon discover, there are other methods of
instruction designed with these factors in mind.

So far, you have seen that the lecture method is primarily teaching
by telling; that it is especially appropriate for lessons in which a lot
of information has to be presented in a limited amount of time, and that
little or no overt student participation is required when it is used.

Based on what you now know, which of the following would you consider
to be a limitation of the lecture method?
Page
The lecture method is suitable for use with large groups
of students only 24

Students have no control over the pace and organization

of a lecture 14

The instructor has few means of determining whether stu-

dents are learning when he employs the lecture method 16

Figure 69-Continued.

88
 7
(Cont from page 3)

YOUR ANSWER: Disassembly of an item of equipment lessons are best

suited to the lecture method.

To disassemble an item of equipment requires mechanical skill, and

we just stated on page 3 that the lecture method is not suited to teach-

ing that type of skill.

Turn back to page 3 and reread the information there; then try again.

Figure 69-Continued.

89
 8
(Cont from page 4)

YOUR ANSWER: Yes. The lecture method would be suitable for teach-

ing a mechanical skill such as the disassembly of the M14 rifle.

I'm afraid that you missed this one! In teaching mechanical skills

it is necessary for the student to actively participate in the lesson,

and actually do work in the desired mechanical skill. For example, a

mechanic could not learn to disassemble a motor by listening to a

lecture; he would have to physically participate in the motor disassembly

in order to learn the proper procedures.

In the lecture method, remember, we said that the student assumes

a passive role and that the instructor controls the organization and

pace of the lesson. There is little opportunity for the student to

actively participate in the lesson.

Now, please return to page 4 and select the other answer.

Figure 69-Continued.

'90
 A. LINEAR PROGRAM

B. BRANCHING (INTRINSIC) PROGRAM

E 2

2A1 2A2 2A3

SEQUENCE OF LINEAR AND BRANCHING PROGRAMS

Figure 70. Sequence of linear and branching programs.

91
 ACHIEVEMENT UNIT 1 ACHIEVEMENT UNIT 2

Frame 5
Frame 1 (lead-up)
(lead-up)

Frm 2Frame 6
(lead-up)
Frame 2
(lead-up)(

. Frame 7
.( .(lead-up)

3 Frame
(lead-up)
Frame 8
(lead -up)

Frame 4*
(prover) Frame 9*
(prover)

STRUCTURE OF AN ACHIEVEMENT UNIT

Figure 71. Structure of an achievement unit.

92
 CHAPTER 11
PREPARATION FOR INSTRUCTION

60. General the desired outcomes may be achieved. Criteria

The instructor has a dual task of preparing for good lesson objectives are that they
himself to instruct and of preparing his stu- a. Be Attainable. A lesson objective must be
dents to receive his instruction. To accomplish attainable within the period of instruction. The
this task the instructor should follow the logi- lesson objective, "Be able to use demolitions,"
cal approach outlined below. may be too broad to be realized within a short
period of instruction; consequently, it is not
61. Determining Lesson Objectives attainable. On the other hand, the lesson ob-
jective, "Using the demolition card GTA 5-14,
First the instructor must determine what he
has to teach. This should be based upon what be able to determine the amount of charge
needed to destroy a timber or steel obstacle,"
he expects his students
studentshisto
he expects to be
be able
able to
to do as aa
do as is more limited and can, therefore, be attained
student
result of his instruction. Theseresult
student learn- by the student within a short period of instruc-
ofhisinstruction.
learn- These
ing outcomes are called lesson objectives. Some-
times the lesson objectives, in broad terms,
may be given to the instructor when he re- b. Be Expressed in Terms of Specific Be-
ceives his instructional assignment. On other havior that the Student Can Demonstrate and
occasions the instructor may have to determine the Instructor Can Observe. A statement of an
the lesson objectives. He may refer to appropri- objective should designate what the student
ate Army training publications to ascertain must be able to do or perform when he masters
the principles, procedures, and skills he has to the objective. Because the instructor cannot
teach. As an example, the instructor assigned look into the student's mind to determine what
to teach tank platoon battle drill would note he knows, he can only determine the degree of
that the ATP calls for him to teach combat the student's knowledge or skill by observing
formations, use of hand and arm signals, flag some phase of his action or performance. The
and other visual signals, and crosscountry student's action or performance may be varied.
movements. The instructor can get additional He may be asked to answer questions orally or
help on what must be taught by consulting the in writing, or to perform a certain skill, or to
appropriate Army Subject Schedule and the solve certain kinds of problems. No matter
MOS description as found in current directives. what method is used, the instructor can only
For example, the Army Subject Schedule indi- determine the state of the student's ability
cates that teaching combat formations should through observations of his performance. Thus,
include the purpose, advantages, and limita- the most important criterion of a lesson objec-
tions of each formation and how each formation tive is that it identifies the kind of performance
is executed. In determining what to teach, the acceptable as evidence that the student has
instructor is guided by what the student should attained the lesson objective. Contrast the
be able to do at the end of the instruction. following statements of objectives in terms of
These student behaviors should be so clearly demonstratable learning outcomes: "To under-
perceived by the instructor that he will be able stand the operation of the AN/VRC-12 radio"
to express them clearly as lesson objectives. and "To be able to identify by name each of
Clearly stated lesson objectives will help the the controls located on the front of the AN/
instructor in guiding student learning so that VRC-12 radio." The first statement does not
93
tell the instructor what the student will be ing conditions, in further limiting the lesson
doing when he is showing that he has reached objectives.
the objective. The second statement clearly
indicates what the student will be doing when 62. Determining Subject Matter To Be
demonstrating his attainment of the objective Taught
-identify by name. It further tells the student
the kind of response that will be expected of a. Analysis of the Subject.
him when his mastery of the objective is tested. (1) After determining the lesson objec-
The way to write an objective that meets this tives, the instructor decides what
criterion is to write a statement describing one skills or knowledge the student must
of the instructor's training missions and then learn for successful performance of
modify it until it answers the question, "What the lesson objective. This breaking
must the student do to demonstrate that he down of the lesson objective into
has reached the desired lesson objective? major instructional steps is called
c. State Conditions of Performance. For the analysis of the subject. For example,
student to know more precisely what he is an analysis of the lesson objective,
expected to do, the instructor will sometimes "Given the width of the target and
have to further define the conditions of per- the mil angle, be able mentally
formance. For example, instead of simply to solve for range, using the mil
stating "to be able to solve problems of range relation," results in a break down
in tank gunnery" the instructor could improve into the following instructional steps:
his statement of lesson objective by wording explain and show what the mil rela-
it-"Given the width of the target and the mil tion is; explain and demonstrate how
angle, be able mentally to solve for range, using to divide the mil angle into the width
the mil relation." By answering the following of the target; explain and demon-
questions about identifying important aspects strate how to convert the R factor
of the learning outcomes he wishes to develop, into range; have the students solve
the instructor can ensure that the conditions problems for range first by paper and
of performance are stated accurately: pencil and then by mental computa-
(1) What will the student be given? tion.
(2) After breaking down the lesson objec-
(3) What are the conditions undernied? tives into instructional steps, the
()theWhat
conditions
are under which - instructor should support each in-
the student is to demonstrate his at- structiona step with the necessary
tainment of tainment
the
the lesson
lessonofobjective?
objective? subpoints in the form of facts, prin-
(4) Are there any skills that the instruc- cipes, and procedures for the student
ciples, and procedures for the student
tor is not trying to develop? Does the to be able to accomplish each step.
to be able to accomplish each step.
The instructor gets these facts, prin-
d. State Standards Acceptable. As a further ciples, and procedures from studying
means of specifying lesson objectives, the in- the recognized reference material on
structor can incorporate the standards or levels the subject. He must have well-refer-
of performance considered acceptable. For ex- enced, up-to-date information. The
ample, the following statement of lesson objec- importance of the instructor's study
tive guides the student in ascertaining the level of his subject as an important phase
of proficiency he must attain-"Given illustra- of his preparatory efforts cannot be
tions of 20 hand and arm signals, the student over-emphasized. He should not de-
must be able to identify and write the meaning pend solely on field experience to
of at least 18 signals." In using the four cri- carry him through.
teria stated above to define the lesson objec- (3) In addition to supporting each main
tives, the instructor should also consider such -point or instructional step with the
things as state of training, time available, necessary subject matter, the instruc-
equipment, facilities, training aids, and train- tor should plan to use other means of

94
 TYPE CHARACTERISTICS USE

1. EXAMPLES

a. Specific instance a. Since each specific in- a. Excellent for proof.

(short example). stance must be brief, Adds weight to argu-

several instances, clear, ment. Adds strength

accurate, and to the point to ideas.

should be used in support

of each idea developed.

b. Illustration b. Stimulates interest

(long example). and holds attention.

(1) Factual. (1) Must be something that (1) Gives clarity to

has already happened, ideas. Can be used

described in detail. for proof. De-

Must be clearly related scribed in detail,

to the point at hand. it carries conviction.

(2) Imaginary or (2) Must be realistic, vivid (2) Value is doubtful

hypothetical. and consistent with when used for proof.

known facts. Should be Should be used for

something that could making abstract

happen and most prob- ideas more concrete,

ably will unless cer- and for explaining

tain steps are taken. complicated tasks.

Figure 72. Ways of supportingpoints.

support, such as short examples, illus- tual information, principles, and procedures are
trations, and comparisons, to add in- well known to the instructor and need not be
terest to the subject. dwelled on further. However, the use of exam-
b. Specific Ways of Supporting Points. The ples, testimony, comparisons, statistics, and
usual ways of supporting main points by fac- restatement gives the instructor an opportunity

95
 TYPE CHARACTERISTICS USE

2. TESTIMONY 2. Select an authority in the 2. Helps to convince.

particular field. Establish Adds interest. May

the individual as an author- be used in cumulative

ity if he is not well-known form to good advantage.

by stating his qualifica-

tions. Make sure that his

statement is first-hand

knowledge, that he .is not

prejudiced, and that the

audience respects his

opinion.

3. COMPARISONS

a. Literal or a. Items being compared must a. Relating known to

precise. be alike in characteristics unknown. Pointing

important to the comparison. out similarities.

b. Figurative b. Avoid triteness. Comparison b. Adds richness and

(analogies, must be clearly related to color, thereby hold-

similes, meta- the ideas. Analogies should ing attention.

phors, fables). have more than one point of Clarifies ideas.

comparison and should be Does not constitute

easily grasped. proof. Beware of

carrying beyond

reason.

Figure 72--Continued.

96
 TYPE CHARACTERISTICS USE

4. STATISTICS 4. Use round numbers (about 4. Used to show the pro-

4,000 instead of 4,129). If portion of instances

a number must be remember- of a certain kind.

ed, write it on the chalk- Used judiciously,

board. Figures should be they are impressive

compared one to another and convincing. Use

and related to previous with other types for

experiences. added emphasis. Be-

ware of using too

many figures; by

themselves they are

unimpressive, espe-

cially large ones

such as "4 billion."

5. RESTATEMENT 5. Consists of saying the 5. Restating ideas in

same thing, but saying more familiar and

it in a different way. realistic terms in-

creases the impression

the student will re-

tain. Use for clari-

fication of facts and

ideas presented.

Figure 72-Continued.

to make his instruction more interesting, mean- 63. Determining How the Lesson Will Be
ingful, and realistic. To derive full benefit from Taught
the use of these vitalizing ways of supporting
points, the instructor should be aware of their a. Organization. So far in his preparatory
characteristics and uses as outlined in figure 72. efforts the instructor has concerned himself

97

475-774 0 - 72 - 7
largely with subject development-what to (5) Orderly in space. When explaining
teach. Now he has to consider two other impor- the nomenclature and composition of
tant factors-how to organize the subject mat- equipment or complex aids, proceed
ter (the sequence of main points and subpoints) from left to right or vice-versa, top
and what methods and techniques to use to best to bottom or vice-versa, outside to in-
enable the student to attain the lesson objec- side, etc., whichever appears to be the
tives. Some common sequences are- most logical.
(1) Chronological. With learning that in- b. Methods and Techniques. The instructor
volves procedures or steps, the in- should plan to use methods and techniques that
structor should arrange them in the are best designed to help the student attain the
time order in which they will logically lesson objectives. For example, to help the stu-
occur. For example, if he were teach- dent attain the lesson objective of being able
ing "March Orders," he would present to adjust the head space on the machinegun,
his instruction in the sequence in caliber .50, the instructor should plan for
which a movement takes place, i.e., ample practical work-controlled practice and
0800-Cross starting point independent practice (see para 47). In addi-
0820-Arrive check point Alfa tion to insuring that his methods are in con-
0845-Arrive check point Bravo sonance with the learning outcomes, the in-
0900-Arrive release point. structor should apply the following guiding
(2) Procedural. Often, the reference ma- principles in devising his instructional plan:
terial that an instructor studies will (1) Present material in small, cohesive
already be written in a sequence suit- segments. To facilitate learning, the
able for teaching. For example, "The instructor should break down the in-
four life saving steps," "The five- struction into learnable steps. Too
paragraph fihld order," etc. often the instructor who fails to make
(3) Whole-part-whole. This is the develop- this breakdown creates confusion in
mental order that psychologists claim his students' minds because they can-
is best to learn new material. Give the not readily absorb the mass of mate-
big picture, then details, then restate rial he presents.
or summarize with the overview or (2) Require maximum student participa-
big picture. For example, in present- tion in each segment. To insure full
ing instruction on "The Mission of a student learning of each segment, the
Rifle Company" the instructor could instructor should plan to ask ques-
state the rifle company's mission (the tions, have students solve problems,
whole) then the responsibilities or or do practical work after having
mission of the platoons, squads, fire learned a segment or closely related
teams, etc. (the parts), then his sum- segments.
mary would lead back up to the rifle
company's mission (the whole). (3) Present material in logical sequence.
(4) Simple to complex. Start with the Students will learn so
ments presented better
thatifthe
eachentire
seg-
most basic points and build slowly instruction makes sense to them. The
step by step into the most difficult re- instructor should make the student
quirements. For example, in teaching aware of the relationship betweent
"Grid Coordinates" to new soldiers, segments of the instruction by use of
the instructor could start by showing well planned transitions (see para
an enlargement of one grid square
(simple) then show how that one grid
square is divided into tenths (more (4) Design work to insure successful re-
complex) and finally, a map contain- sponse. A student's successful re-
ing many grid squares (most com- sponse to a question or successful
plex). completion of a step in the perform-

98
 ance of a skill motivates him to to the class. Instead, he uses the plan
continue learning. Furthermore, suc- to make a few brief notes that he can
cessful response, particularly in skill readily consult during the presenta-
learning, helps eliminate wasteful tion of his unit of instruction. He
trial-and-error learning. should keep the lesson plan handy dur-
(5) Correct errors on the spot. The in- ing class in the event he has to consult
structor should plan to supervise it for some detail.
practical work carefully. Long periods (2) As a guide. Except for the instruc-
of practical work in which evaluation tor's manuscript, the typical lesson
of student performance is scheduled plan merely outlines subject and tech-
as a formal critique at the end are niques; it does not include everything
generally ineffective. that the instructor says and does dur-
(6) Select methods that give the instruc- ing class. To make the instruction
tor maximum control of student learn- meaningful, the instructor must in-
ing. During a long, uninterrupted lec- clude in the lesson plan examples,
ture, demonstration, or training film, illustrations, and practical applica-
the instructor does not know how the tions.
student is- responding to his instruc- d. Types. Lesson plans are written in outline
tion. He does not know whether the form; outlines may be topical, sentence, or
student is learning or paying atten- paragraph. The instructor's manuscript, which
tion. Such methods generally are less contains everything that is to be said and done
effective than those that require the during a period of instruction, is a variation of
student to participate in the instruc- the lesson plan.
tion. Good instruction generally re-
quires a combination of methods ap- (1) Topical plan. In the topical plan, a
plied repeatedly throughout a period common type, the main points and
of instruction. subpoints are indicated by brief
phrases or single words.
64. Preparing A Lesson Plan Example:
a. Content. The lesson plan is the blueprint (1) Characteristics of a good mes-
of the instructor's planned activities. It in- sage.
cludes a checklist of administrative matters, in (a) Accuracy.
() Accuracy.
the form of a heading; an indication of instruc- ( revity.
tor and student activities, and an outline of the
the main points of subject matter, properly (2) Text of the message.
supported by subpoints and illustrative mate- (2) Sentence plan. In the sentence plan
rial (see fig. 73). either the main points or subpoints or
both are indicated by complete sen-
b. Purpose. An instructor makes a lesson tences.
plan to serve as a check of his preparatory
efforts to insure that the lesson is complete. By
(1) Characteristics of a good mes-
reviewing the lesson plan, the instructor fixes in sage
his mind the sequence of the main points and (a) Information contained in a
subpoints, the time he will devote to each point, message should be factual,
the methods he will use, the questions he will not hearsay.
ask, and the places where he will use training b Messages should be written
aids. Because the instructors may use the lesson as
as briefly
briefly as
as possible,
possible, con-
con-
plan, it must be sufficiently detailed, clear, and sistent with clarity.
complete. (c) Messages should be so writ-
c. Use. ten as to be clearly under-
(1) As a basis for making notes. The in- standable to the addressee.
structor does not read the lesson plan (2) The text of the message.

99
 (3) Paragraph plan. In the paragraph strate the disassembly of a part and
plan the main points are indicated by immediately have the students dis-
topics or sentences and the subpoints assemble the part, then (3) to allow
by paragraphs. the students to disassemble the en-
tire weapon at their own speed
The type of lesson plan the instructor should under
under close supervision of
close supervision of the
the in-
in-
make depends on his desires and those of his structor and his assistants, and (4)
organization. No matter what type plan is finally to summarize the lesson. He
made, it should be clear, sufficiently detailed, would outline the lesson as follows:
and usable.
1. INTRODUCTION
e. Format. 2. EXPLANATION, DEMON-
(1) The organization of a lesson is re- STRATION, AND PRACTICAL
flected in the major divisions of the WORK
lesson plan. The major divisions are 3. APPLICATION
the major instructional activities 4. REVIEW
through which the lesson objectives (2) The determination of the major divi-
are to be attained. The major divi- sions of a lesson plan is flexible. Be-
sions should be in the exact sequence cause instructors have to teach many
in which the lesson is to be taught. different lessons, using various in-
For example, if the instructor plans structional activities, it is difficult to
first to introduce the lesson, then to try to cast all lesson plans into a pre-
explain the main ideas, and last to determined format. Instead, the in-
summarize these ideas, he should out- structor should plan how he is going
line his lesson plan as follows: (See to teach each lesson and then make the
fig. 74.) major divisions of his lesson plan re-
1. INTRODUCTION flect that sequence.
2. EXPLANATION (3) After the determination of the major
3. REVIEW divisions of a lesson, he should develop
When the instructor desires to fol- each major division to reflect in
low his explanation with a practical detail:
exercise that he will critique as the (a) Outline of subject matter. Indicate
exercise progresses, and then give the main subject points and sub-
a test he should outline the major points.
-instructional activities (major divi- (b) Methods of instruction and time.
sions of the lesson plan) as follows: 1. INTRODUCTION (Conference-3
(See fig. 73). minutes)
1. INTRODUCTION 2. EXPLANATION, DEMONSTRA-
2. EXPLANATION AND/OR TION, AND PRACTICAL WORK
DEMONSTRATION (Controlled Practice-47 minutes)
3. APPLICATION 3. APPLICATION (Independent
4. EXAMINATION Practice-45 minutes)
5. REVIEW 4. REVIEW (Conference-5 minutes)
When major instructional activities (c) Instructional procedures. The in-
are so closely interwoven that it structor should indicate where he
would accomplish no purpose to intends to use instructional proced-
separate them into distinct major ures by the use of such terms as
divisions. For example, in initially NOTE, EXAMPLE, SUMMARIZE,
teaching the disassembly and as- CAUTION, TRANSITION. (See
sembly of a weapon, the instructor fig. 73.)
plans to (1) introduce the subject, (d) Oral questions and answers. The
then to (2) explain and demon- instructor should insert the ques-

100
 LESSON PLAN

(HEADING)

INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: (What is the subject to be presented?)

TYPE: (Which methods will be used? Lecture, conference, demonstration,

evaluation, practical exercise.)

TIME ALLOTTED: (How much time?)

CLASSES PRESENTED TO: (Who will receive the instruction?)

TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: (What items will the instructor need

to supply to the students?)

PERSONNEL: (What instructors are needed?)

TRAINING AID%: (What training aids will be required? Detailed descrip-

tion of aids may be put into an annex to the lesson plan.)

REFERENCES: (Where is the subject matter found?)

STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: (What should the student study before the class?)

STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: (How should the student dress, and what

should he bring?)-

TROOP REQUIREMENTS: (What demonstration troops, if any, will be needed?)

TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: (What form of transportation, if any, will

be needed to take students to training site?)

Note. Place all information regarding preparation necessary for the con-

duct of the lesson in the heading of the lesson plan. Do not omit

elements of the heading; if they do not apply, write None. The

heading serves as a checklist for the preparation stage.

Figure 73. Sample lesson plan format.

tions and, when appropriate, an- Arabic numerals and lower case
swers at the places in the plan letters. See figures 73 and 74 for
where he expects to ask the ques- sample outline forms showing
tions. (See fig. 73.) designation of topics.
.. Outlining.
f. Outlining. (b) Do not use any number or letter
designation preceding instructional
(1) What to designate. Designate the procedures. (See fig. 73.)
following: major divisions or major Examples:
instructional activities, main points of WRONG
subject matter and supporting points (1) Fundamental logistical
of subject matter. considerations.
(2) How to designate. (a) Supply is a function
(a) For the sake of uniformity use only of command.

101
 (BODY)

1. INTRODUCTION (Indicate method and time required.)

Note. If some special technique is used to gain the attention of the

class, such as a demonstration or skit, put it into the lesson

plan as a NOTE.

a. Objective. List the specific things the students are to learn.

b. Reasons. Tell why the students are to learn the subject.

Stress its importance.

c. Review. Indicate the tie-in with previous instruction.

d. Procedure. Indicate the instructional activities that will

occur during the lesson.

Note. The objective and reasons should be included in all lessons.

The review and procedure may be used when appropriate. These

elements of the introduction may be outlined in any order that

seems best for the presentation.

2. EXPLANATION AND/OR DEMONSTRATION (Indicate method and time required.)

a. All main subject matter points of the explanation and/or demon-

stration should be designated a, b, c, etc.

b. Supporting points for the main subject matter points in subpara-

graph 2a above are indicated by (1), (2), (3), etc. If these supporting

points need further support the instructor should indicate such support

by (a), (b), (c), etc.

c. When notes, training aids, questions, and other instructional

procedures supplementary to the lesson are used, they are put into the

plan as follows:

Note. Show slide 7.

Figure 7S--Continued.

(b) Impetus of supply (a) Supply is a function

from rear to front. of command.
(c) Need for advanced (b) Impetus of supply
flexible planning. from rear to front.
(d) Adequate reserves in (c) Need for advanced
all echelons. flexible planning.
(e) Summarize considera- (d) Adequate reserves in
tions. all echelons.
RIGHT Summarize: Funda-
(1) Fundamental logistical mental considera-
considerations. tions.

102
 QUESTION: What are the advantages of the platoon line combat formation?

ILLUSTRATION: Draw circuit diagram on chalkboard.

CAUTION: Do not give the injured man alcohol.

EXAMPLE: Combat story of a poorly planned patrol action.

SUMMARIZE: First three points covered.

d. When a demonstration is used, outline the steps of the procedure

in proper order. Include questions to check understanding, notes on use

of equipment, and safety precautions.

3. APPLICATION (Indicate method and time required.)

a. Directions to Students.

(1) Purpose.

(2) Tools and equipment to be used.

(3) Procedure for the conduct of the practical work.

(4) Safety precautions to be observed.

b. Directions to Instructors.

(1) How to introduce the practical work.

(2) How to conduct the practical work.

(3) Checks to be made on the presence and working conditions of

tools and equipment.

(4) Supervision of students and assistant instructors.

(5) Duties of the assistant instructors.

(6) How to summarize the practical work.

c. Practical Work.

(1) Description of the practical work.

(2) List of problems and answers.

Figure 73-Continued.

(c) Since a topic is not divided unless regard and follow the order of presentation.
there are at least 2 parts, an outline Instructors should use the indicated training
should have at least 2 headings in aids, ask questions where called for in the
each order. If there is a (1), there lesson plan, conduct the scheduled demonstra-
must be a (2); if there is an (a), tions, and if practical work or examination is
there must be a (b). used, check it during the rehearsal. The phys-
ical setup should as closely duplicate the actual
65. Rehearsing the Lesson situation as possible.
A rehearsal of each new lesson provides the b. Assistant instructors must be present and
final check on the instructor's plan (fig. 75). rehearse their duties as they would perform
a. Rehearsals should be complete in every them during the actual lesson.

103
 (3) Practical exercise situations and requirements are normally

included as an annex to the lesson plan.

4. EXAMINATION (Indicate method and time required.)

a. Written Tests. Include complete test with directions in an

annex to the lesson plan.

b. Oral Tests. Include questions to be asked.

c. Observation of Student Work.

(1) List specific points to check.

(2) Indicate how to rate or score the students.

5. REVIEW (Indicate method and time required.)

a. Clarification of Points of Difficulty. Ask students if they

have any questions.

b. Summary of the Lesson.

(1) List the main points.

(2) List the key ideas of the main points.

c. Closing Statement. Outline in detail or write out.

ANNEXES: (If annexes are used to supplement the lesson plan list them

on the last page of the lesson plan, following the closing

statement.)

Figure 73-Continued.

c. An audience consisting of one or more through the mainpoints of the lesson and fix
persons, who can give the instructor valuable in mind his approach to the instruction.
constructive criticism, should be present. Points
of criticism include clarity and organization of 66. Making A Final Check
the material; effectiveness in use of training
aids; proper delivery and manner; effective- Prior to the class, the instructor and his
ness of questions, demonstrations, and practi- assistants must insure that everything is ready
cal work; and overall timing of the lesson. (fig. 76). The instructor should check to see
that-
d. If time does not permit a complete re-
hearsal, the instructor must at least talk a. The necessary equipment is on hand.

104
 Note. A lesson that does not use all of the instructional activities

indicated in figure 73 will number only those instructional

activities used and omit the others. A lesson requiring the use

of only oral instructional activities is outlined in the following

sample:

1. INTRODUCTION (Lecture--3 minutes.)

a. Objectives.

(1)

(2)

(3)

b. Reasons.

(1)

(2)

2. EXPLANATION (Conference--25 minutes.)

a. First Main Subject Matter Point.

Note. Use slide 1.

(1)

(2)
Supporting points for a above.
(3)

(4)

b. Second Main Subject Matter Point.

(1) Supporting point for b above.

(2) Another supporting point for b above.

QUESTION: Write out question.

(3) Another supporting point for b above.

Note. Use slide 2.

Figure 74. Sample lesson plan format.

b. The seating, heating, ventilation, and e. All training aids are on hand and are
lighting are properly arranged or adjusted. properly arranged for use.
c. All instructional materials for students'
use are on hand and ready for distribution. f. Lesson plan and notes for use during the
lesson are on hand.
d. All assistants are present and understand
their duties. g. He is properly dressed and groomed.

105
 c. Third Main Subject Matter Point.

(1) Supporting point for c above.

Note. Use chalkboard.

(2) Another supporting point for c above.

(a) Subordinate point for (2) above.

(b) Another subordinate point for (2) above.

1. Item to support (b) above.

2. Another item to support (b) above.

Note. Use slide 3.

3. REVIEW (Conference--2 minutes.)

a. Student Questions.

b. Recap of Main points.

(1) First main subject matter point.

(2) Second main subject matter point.

(3) Third main subject matter point.

c. Closing Statement. Outline in detail or write out.

Figure 74-Continued.

106
 CHECKLIST

) 1. CLARITY.

3. INSTRUCTOR TECHNIQUES

8 4. TRAINING AIDS.

l 5. DEMONSTRATIONS.

v 6. PRACTICAL EXERCISES.

' 7. USE OF ASSISTANTS.

l 8. TIMING.

Figure 75. Rehearsal checklist.

pLANS
PRIOR TO CLASS a

TRAI

MAKE
AFINAL
CHECK

MAKE A FINAL CHECK

Figure 76. Making a final check.

107
 CHAPTER 12
EVALUATION

67. General and more vividly those points that are

covered in an examination. Tests en-
"How am I doing?" The instructor as well
courage students, as well as instruc-
as the student needs an answer to this question. tors, to review the materials that have
And the question needs to be asked and an- been presented and to organize vari-
swered repeatedly. Evaluation is an essential ous phases of instruction into a mean-
phase of the instructional process and includes ingful set of skills, techniques, and
a variety of devices and methods that the in- knowledge.
structor uses to keep himself and his students (3) Evaluating instructional methods.
informed of their progress. Some of these de- Tests measure not only student per-
vices and methods of evaluation were described formance but also instructor perform-
in earlier chapters of this manual, such as oral ance. By studying the results of tests,
questions - to check student understanding instructors can determine the relative
during the presentation phases of instruction, effectiveness of their various methods
and on-the-spot correction of errors during the and techniques.
application phase. This form of evaluation, in- b. Tests Provide an Incentive for Learning.
formal and immediate, is an integral part of the Students learn better when made to feel re-
teaching process; for maximum learning, it sponsible for learning. For example, they
must not be separated from ongoing instruction. are more likely to pay close attention to a train-
This chapter deals with another form of evalua- ing film if they know that a test will be given
tion-achievement testing. The primary pur- when the picture is over. Generally, instruc-
pose of this form of evaluation is to measure tors who give frequent tests will find that their
student retention of the knowledge, skills, abili- students will be more alert and learn more.
ties, and attitudes required for job proficiency. There is a danger, however, in overemphasiz-
ing tests and test results as the basic motiva-
68. Purpose of Tests tion for learning., Student interest in test
scores is a superficial one that can easily lead
The use of tests in Army training accom- to efforts to study for the test rather than learn
plishes four major purposes (fig. 77): the subject matter for its value in the future.
a. Tests Aid in Improving Instruction by- The instructor should give rigid tests and give
them frequently, designed to require the stu-
(1) Discovering gaps in learning. Proper- dent to apply what he has been taught
ly constructed tests reveal gaps and
misunderstandings in student learn- c. Tests Provide a Basis for Assigning
ing. If frequent tests are given, such Grades. Another purpose of testing is to deter-
weaknesses can be discovered and in- mine which students have attained the mini-
structors can correct them by reteach- mum standard of performance and which have
not. In many cases it is desirable to indicate
the extent to which students exceed or fall
(2) Emphasizing main points. A test is below the standards required. Students learn
actually a valuable teaching device in different amounts; the grade recorded for each
that students tend to remember longer student should be an accurate index of what

108
 IMPROVING INSTRUCTION.
!. AID IN
2. PROVIDE AN INCENTIVE FOR
LEARNING.
3. PROVIDE A BASIS FOR ASSIGNING
GRADES.
4. PROVIDE A BASIS FOR SELECTION
:i~iti AND GUIDANCE.

Figure 77. Reasons for tests.

he has learned. Unless a sound testing pro- performance, the test results become a valuable
gram is employed, it is impossible to determine basis for determining whether a student should
the relative achievement of students. be placed in a new job, whether he should
receive advanced training, or whether he
d. Tests Furnish a Basis for Selection a should be recommended for promotion to a job
Guidance. Instructors should be familiar with requiring greater ability
those Army tests that are especially designed
to help in the classification of men and their
subsequent selection for various Army assign- 69. Forms of Evaluation
ments. These include area aptitude batteries Formal evaluation can be classified into
and MOS evaluation tests. In addition, the three major categories-written tests, per-
results of training achievement tests furnish formance tests, and observation ratings. Each
valuable supplementary information for selec- form has its specific uses, advantages, and
tion and guidance of personnel. If tests are limitations. For a well-rounded test program,
well-constructed and actually measure student all techniques should be used.

109
 a. Written Tests. Written tests can measure (1) Provide the most direct means of de-
knowledge, mental skills, and abilities. Short- termining whether men can actually
answer type written tests have the added value do a physical task and do it well. A
of affording a rapid measure of student knowl- student may pass a written test on
edge over a large area of subject matter. Be- how to reline brakes, but commit
cause written tests can only indirectly measure several errors while actually carrying
manipulative skills, in most Army training pro- out the task.
grams, performance tests should be used. The (2) Reveal better than any other type of
various types of written tests and their con- test specific difficulties that students
struction are discussed in paragraph 72. encounter when doing a job.
b. Performance Tests. A performance test (3) Provide the only effective way of re-
measures how well students can do or perform vealing whether students--
a manual task. Students are required to make, (a) Handle tools effectively.
service, repair, operate, shape, assemble, or dis- (b) Observe all necessary safety pre-
assemble something, and are checked on their cautions.
speed, quality of work, and procedures. Per-
formance tests measure manual skills, and (c) Carry out the operations in the cor-
ability to apply knowledge in manipulative rect order or sequence.
tasks (see para 73). The advantages of per- (d) Can operate under pressure.
formance tests are- (e) Care for tools properly.

THE
$ TEST? COMPREHENSIE.
/' I

Figure 78. Characteristicsof a good test.

'110
 c. Observation. If the problem is to evaluate will not realize what is being covered;
students on leadership, observers must see the hence, he will be unable to respond as
students in situations that permit them to anticipated. Such a test cannot be
demonstrate their leadership ability, such as valid.
giving commands, directing activities of a (5) Elimination, so far as is possible, of
small unit, making and executing decisions. those factors that are not directly re-
Similarly, to judge a student's ability as an lated to the measurement of the teach-
instructor, he must be observed as he handles ing points. A test that requires a very
classes under varying conditions. Observation high proficiency of reading ability to
and observation techniques (see para 74) are measure proficiency in preventive
of great importance in Army training because maintenance, for example, may lack
many phases of student achievement and be- validity for the average reader. A
havior cannot be measured by the more formal test that is not within the capabilities
kinds of tests. of the students as to time or educa-
tional level may fail to measure their
70. Characteristics of A Good Test actual learning in the course.
There are six important factors that affect b. Reliability. An examination is reliable if
the quality of an examination (fig. 78). These the results obtained are consistent; that is, if
factors, while not considered to be separate the test tends to measure student achievement
and distinct, are defined and discussed sepa- so as to yield comparable results each time it
rately, in order to develop a clear understand- is administered. In order for the test results of
ing of the characteristics of all forms of one class to be compared with those of other
evaluation. classes, a high degree of reliability must be
a. Validity. The most important character- inherent in the testing procedures. The follow-
istic of a good examination is validity; that is, ing factors will influence the reliability of a
the extent to which a test measures what it is test:
intended to measure. The instructor insures (1) Administration. It is essential that
that his test items are valid by following ac- each student have the same time,
cepted test construction procedures that in- equipment, instructions, assistance,
clude- and examination environment. Test
(1) Use of the lesson objectives as a basis directions should be strictly enforced.
for the test requirements. An exami- (2) Scoring. Objectivity in scoring con-
nation so constructed will tend to tributes to reliability. Every effort
measure what has been taught. should be made to obtain uniformity
(2) Review of the test items and the com- of scoring standards and practices.
plete examination by other instruc- (3) Standards. The standards of per-
tors. formance that are established for one
(3) Selection of the most appropriate class should be consistent with those
form of test and type of test item. used in other classes. A change in
Thus, if the instructor desires to grading policies not based upon facts,
measure "ability to do," he must select uniform standards, and experience
that form of test that will require the factors gained from other classes will
student to demonstrate his "ability affect the reliability of test results.
to do." If another less desirable form (4) Instruction. The reliability of test
is used, it must be recognized that the results will be affected if the instruc-
validity of the measurement has been tion presented to a class tends to over-
reduced. emphasize the teaching points in-
(4) Presentation of test requirements in a cluded in the examination. This is
clear and unambiguous manner. If often known as "teaching the test"
the test material cannot be inter- and is undesirable. The instructor
preted accurately by the student, he should stress the teaching points in

111
 each unit of instruction because of administered to the students who have
their contribution to the military significantly different achievements.
training requirement; when he does (2) Will include items at all levels of diffi-
this in a conscientious manner he will culty. Some items will be relatively
be giving sufficient stress to the sub- difficult and will be answered cor-
ject matter that will be included in the rectly only by the best students;
test. When the instructor gives stu- others will be relatively easy and will
dents obvious clues as to the test re- be answered correctly by most stu-
quirements, he not only affects the dents. If all students answer an item
reliability of the test, but he insults correctly, it lacks discrimination.
the intelligence of his class. e. Comprehensiveness. For a test to be com-
(5) Length. The more responses required prehensive, it should sample major lesson ob-
of students, the more reliable will be jectives. It is neither necessary nor practical to
the test or measuring device. test every objective that is taught in a course,
but a sufficient number of objectives should be
c. Objectivity. A test is objective when in- included to provide a valid measure of student
structor opinion, bias, or individual judgment achievement in the complete course.
is not a major factor in scoring. Objectivity is f. Usability. A test should be relatively easy
a relative term. Some tests, such as written to
examinations that are machine graded, are
to administer,
administer, to to score,
score, and
and to
to interpret;
interpret; in
in
other words, it can be administered,
other words, it can be produced, administered,
highly objective; others, such as essay ex- and
and scored
scored at
at aa reasonable cost of time and per-
aminations, written exercises, and observa- sonnel.
sonnel. Individual test
Individual test requirements
tion techniques, are less objective. Sometimes
requirements should
should
observation is the only effective way of deter-
also be evaluated in terms of their practic-
nnining proficiency; this is true, for example,
in some phases of instructor training. In such student to respond to the test requirement
should be justified in terms of the resulting
cases, the instructor must strive to make his measurement and ing
observations as objective as possible.
d. Discrimination. The test should be con- 71. Constructing Tests
structed in such a manner that it will detect or a. Select Specific Objectives To Be Measured.
measure small differences in achievement or The best sources of content material are the
attainment. This is essential if the test is to be programs of instruction, lesson plans, and
used for ranking students on the basis of indi- training publications used in the course. From
vidual achievement or for assigning grades. It these sources the instructor will select specific
is not an important consideration if the test lesson objectives, which will provide the basis
is used to measure the level of the entire class for his examination (see para 61). The exami-
or as an instructional quiz where the primary nation must be constructed so that it will
purpose is instruction rather than measure- measure ability to apply and use the informa-
ment. As is true with validity, reliability, and tion and skills that have been taught. This re-
objectivity, the discriminating power of a test quires that the course content be translated into
is increased by concentrating on and improve- terms of student behavior. A worksheet that
ing each individual test item. After the test lists lesson objectives and main teaching points,
has been administered, an item analysis (see and how these are applied is especially helpful
para 77) can be made that will show the rela- in test construction.
tive difficulty of each item and the extent to
b. Develop a Test Outline. The test outline
which each discriminates between good and should show, as a minimum, the number of
poor students. Often, as in obtaining reliability,
should show, as a minimum, the number of
items to be used for each objective. It may
it is necessary to increase the length of the test also include the tentative plan for the use of
to get clear-cut discrimination. A discriminat- various types of test items and performance
ing test- requirements. As a general rule, the more im-
(1) Produces a wide range of scores when portant the objective, the greater the number

112
of test items that should be assigned to it. Since (2) Directions.
the test items usually are grouped by subject (a) Directions for each type of question
matter, the test outline can be used in assem- must be complete and concise, stat-
bling the final test. The test outline should be ing clearly what students are re-
regarded as a worksheet subject to modification quired to do, how the response or
at any stage in the development of the final test. answer is to be indicated, and
c. Construct Test Items. The next step is where the response is to be placed.
that of constructing the test items and require- If a separate answer sheet is to be
ments. In preliminary phrasing of the test used, the directions must so indi-
items, do not spend much time refining the cate.
wording; this can wait until later. Prepare 25 (b) Examples should be included as
to 50 percent more items than the plan re- part of the directions, showing at
quires; this will permit selection of the best least one example of an item an-
ones. Place each tentative test item on a card; swered correctly. They may be used
this makes it easy to rearrange or discard items to teach certain points, as well as to
in setting up the final test. Do not be bound by direct student attention to the
the test outline; if it develops that a topic is proper method of indicating re-
better adapted to a type of question different sponses.
from that shown in the outline, change the out- (3) Items.
line. Remember that the test will be no better (a) Use as many items as possible that
than its individual items. require the student to apply learn-
d. Assemble the Test. ing rather than merely to recall or
recognize facts.
(1) General form. (b) Leave sufficient space for all re-
(a) The first page of each test should sponses where answers are to be
give a full identification and de- indicated on the test.
scription of the
scription of the test.ntest.
This
This page
page (c) Include items at all levels of diffi-
should also give general instruc-
tions for taking the test; listing the culty; this range
win tend
significant of testtoscores.
sure a
texts and equipment, if any, that
the students may need; giving the (d) Insure that each item is realistic
time uallowed; and explaining the and practical; each should deal with
method of recording answers. The an important and useful aspect of
instructions should always be in- the lesson. A good procedure is to
cluded, regardless of the student's determine first what information is
experience with similar tests. desired, then write the desired re-
sponse, and finally construct the
(b) Group items by types (multiple
test item from the response.
choice, true-false, etc.). Within each
type, arrange the items so that (e) Underline words that are critical to
those concerning related material the meaning of the item.
appear together. (f) Avoid "catch" questions.
(c) Do not include an item that sup- (g) Word questions in such a way that
plies, or is dependent upon, the an- knowledge of the subject is required
swer to another. for the correct answer. Keep word-
(d) Arrange the items so that it will not ing as simple as possible.
be necessary for the students to (4) Answer sheets. The use of an answer
refer to more than one page in sheet eliminates the necessity for
answering any given item. turning pages when marking the test,
(e) Arrange the items so that the cor- decreases the probability of errors in
rect responses will form a random scoring, and makes possible the use
pattern. of a templet for rapid scoring. Also,

113

475-774 0 - 72 - 8
 its use allows the student to retain g. Revise the Test. If the test is to be admin-
the test booklet during the critique istered to other classes, student responses
that should follow the examination; should be studied carefully and every effort
if this is to be done, the student should made to revise and improve the examination.
indicate his answers on the answer One effective way to accomplish this is to place
sheet and also mark his test booklet. each item on an individual card that is classi-
Use of answer sheets for objective- flied according to course objectives, and to show
type questions is efficient, but such on the card an analysis of past student per-
sheets are not practical for essay-type formance on that item. Revisions of the item
questions requiring long answers. In- can be made on the card and performance
structor-made answer sheets should analyses can be accumulated from class to class.
be similar to those used for machine
grading, especially if the students are 72. Preparing Written Test Items
likely to use machine-graded answer a. Multiple-Choice Items. A multiple-choice
sheets in other tests. item consists of two parts-a stem, which asks
a question, states a problem, or takes the form
of an incomplete statement; and several alter-
(1) Ideally, an examination should be natives, which are possible answers to the ques-
tried out on a cross section of the stu- tion or problem posed, or grammatically correct
dents who are to take it; however, completions of the stem. One alternative must
this is seldom feasible. The next best be either the clearly best answer or the only
plan is to give the test to a group of correct answer. The other alternatives should
instructors and assistant instructors be fairly plausible.
who are not directly concerned with (1) Examples.
the instruction covered by the test. DIRECTIONS: Each of the incom-
This group should take the test just plete statements or questions listed
as the students do. A comparison of below is followed by several possible
the time required by an instructor answers. From these, select the best
group to complete an examination answer for each test item, and mark
with the time required by the students the appropriate space on your answer
will help in determining time require- sheet as shown in the example below.
ments for future examinations. Such Points for each test item: 2.
tryouts also help to locate errors in EXAMPLES
questions or answers, "catch"' ques- X. In which general direction should
tions, and ambiguous wording. a soldier go to follow a magnetic
(2) A review board of instructors, or azimuth of 2200?
other personnel competent to pass A. Northwest.
judgment, should evaluate every test. B. West.
Members of the review board should C. South.
actually take the test, check the time D. Southwest.
required, and compare results; then Note. The answer should be shown on the
the instructor should give out ap- answer sheet in this manner.
proved solutions and critique the test. A B C D
f. Preparethe Materials for the Test. These
include copies of the test, solution sheets, scor- X. // // // r
ing keys, and other such materials. The work in (2) Characteristicsof the multiple-choice
this step is mechanical and may be handled by test item.
clerk-typists, but it must be closely supervised (a) The multiple-choice item can be de-
by the instructor. The effectiveness of the test signed to measure the student's
can be affected seriously by such things as lack ability to form judgments and make
of sufficient copies or a missing page in the ex- application of things learned.
amination booklet. (b) It can be used to measure what a

114
 student can recognize, which repre- X. The slippage and accuracy
sents a much wider field than what test on the azimuth indicator
a student can recall. A. is performed by the tank
(c) It can effectively present problems crew.
involving reasoning and judgment B. is performed by ordnance.
based on knowledge applied to situ- C. is made by standard shop
ations, rather than memory for instruments.
facts. D. cannot be performed when
(d) It can be varied to suit many kinds the instrument is assem-
of subject matter and to measure bled.
various types of achievement, such 2. Improved-stem asks specifically
as command of fundamentals, ap- who performs the test.
plication of principles, and forma- X. The slippage and accuracy
tion of judgments. test on the azimuth indicator
(e) Its scoring is objective. is performed by
(3) Points to be observed in constructing A. the tank crew.
multiple-choice test items. B. the turret mechanic.
(a) The stem of the item should contain C. the tracked vehicle me-
a central problem. It should not be chanic.
merely an incomplete statement D. ordnance shop personnel.
that fails to present a problem. (c) The item should be realistic and
1. Poor-no central problem. practical. It should not be academic
X. When an absentee is dropped and artificial.
from the rolls of his unit 1. Poor-academic definition, text-
A. his clothing will be secured bookish. Soldier does not use
and credited on his form knowledge in this manner.
32.
B32.
all persons notified of aa-X. A third-degree burn is defined
B. all persons notified of ab- as one in which the
sence will be sent DD AGO A. skin has been blistered.
Form
C.payForm No.
No. 46.
allowanceB.
46. skin has been destroyed to
C. pay and allowances will aa considerable
considerable depth
depth but
but
cease. not completely destroyed.
D. money left behind will be C. skin has been destroyed or
deposited with a disburs- charred.
ing officer.
2. Better--central problem presented.
X. An absentee who has been severely injured.
dropped from the rolls of his 2. Better-practical problem. This
unit has left $30.00. With item asks the soldier something
whom will the money be de- he will do. He uses his knowl-
posited? edge.
A. First sergeant. X. A soldier is burned by a par-
B. Company commander. tide of white phosphorous. In
C. Personnel officer. treating his burn, he should
D. Disbursing officer. first
(b) The stem should be sufficiently clear A. apply. a bandage from a
that an informed student could give first aid kit.
a correct answer from the stem if it B. paint the burned area with
were written as a completion item iodine.
with no choices given. C. flush the burn with water.
1. Poor-the stem does not clearly D. apply a dressing of sodium
indicate what is desired. bicarbonate.

115
 (d) The item should deal with an impor- C. remain motionless where
tant and useful aspect of the job. It you are.
should not deal with trivial details D. shoot at the plane.
and useless information. (f) Each item should be an independent
1. Poor-rarelyused by the soldier. problem and should not reveal the
Not a useful aspect of his job. answer to another item. The follow-
X. A map with a scale of 1: ing two items, for example, are not
25,000 is a independent; one gives the answer
to the other.
A. large-scale map.
B. small-scale map. X. When it is desired to know what
C. medium-scale map. test score will divide a group
D. medium-large scale map. exactly in half, which measure
of central tendency should be
2. Better-a requirement for the used?
soldier to use the map scale.
A. Arithmetic mean.
X. The distance in meters be-
tween point A (59801869) and C. Mode.
point B (59631960) on your D. Geometric mean.
D. Geometric mean.
map is
X. The median is a measure of
B. 960. A. central tendency.
C. 1,000. B. skewness.
C. 1,000.
D. 1,040. C. dispersion.
D. kurtosis.
(e) The item should present a problem () The problem should contain only
that requires knowledge
that requires of the
knowledge of job
the job (g) The problem should contain only
its solution
Questions that
or the instruction material relevant to its solution
Quebastis
orn te basis oftt i(unless
insteructon.
in- selection of what is relevant
can be answered on the
telligence or general knowledge is part of the problem). The under-
lined portion of the example below
alone should not be included in this
is not essential in the solution of
test. the requirement.
1. Poor-requiresonly ordinary in-
X. You are a tank platoon leader,
operating as a part of a com-
X. What is the main advantage pany team that is participating
of marching at night? in an exploitation in which ar-
A. There is less strain on the mor elements are striking at ob-
eyes. jectives deep in the enemy's
B. Men can go without food rear. You would elect to move
longer. your platoon in a line formation
C. The enemy is less able to if you wanted to
notice troop movements. A. have a formation easier to
D. Troops can move more control than the wedge for-
quickly. mation.
2. Better-specific application of B. have good fire to the front
knowledge is required. and flanks.
X. On night patrol you are C. have maximum fire to the
caught in the light of a flare front or rear.
dropped from an enemy plane. D. Provide for a sustained ef-
The best thing for you to do fort.
is to (h) Do not include choices that are triv-
A. run for the nearest cover. ial, implausible, or obviously wrong.
B. drop to the ground. The distracters (wrong answers)

116
 should be plausible answers repre- attack. What should your
senting common errors and miscon- squad do?
ceptions. A. Retreat.
1. Poor-ridiculous distracters. B. Attack.
X. An important qualification C. Fire rapidly.
for a truck driver is that he D. Take cover in previously
have prepared positions.
A. a knowledge of the history 4. Choices should have parallel
of transportation. grammatical construction.
B. friends in the motor pool. (a) Example of a lack of parallel
C. a license to drive a truck. construction of choices:
D. a good speaking voice. X. You are a platoon leader
2. Better-plausiblewrong answers. commanding the leading
X. An important qualification tank platoon, acting as an
for a truck driver is that he advance guard. You have
have just made contact with an
A. no accidents against his enemy force. What is the
record. first thing you should do?
B. no physical deficiencies. A. Report the enemy situ-
C. a license to drive a truck. ation to your higher
D. 20/20 vision without headquarters.
glasses. B. The situation should be
(i) The best answer should not be developed.
given away by irrelevant details. C. A course of action must
Avoid clues to the correct answers. be selected that will in-
The following examples are easily sure the accomplish-
answered by reading alone, because ment
ment yof our assigned
of your assigned
of the clues that are written into mission.
each item: D. Immediately deploy your
1. Improper use of articles (a, an,
platoon and inform your
commander.
the) in stem:
(b) Example of improved item:
X. On a military map, a trail is (b) Example of improved item:
shown - ~ by a ~note that each choice par-
allels the others:
A. single broken line. X. You are a platoon leader
B. two parallel broken lines. commanding the leading
C. dots and dashes. tank platoon, acting as an
D. two parallel solid lines.
advance guard. You
You have
have
2. Common elements: This item just made contact with an
gives away the correct answer. enemy force. The first
X. The multiplier is a term used thing you should do is to
A. report the enemy situ-
A. multiplication. ation to your higher
B. division. headquarters.
C. addition. B. develop the situation so
D. subtraction. as to determine enemy
S. Choices should be about the same strengths, dispositions,
length. A longer and more com- etc.
plete choice is usually correct. C. choose a course of action
X. The enemy is shelling your that is appropriate and
position in preparation for an- will insure the accom-

117
 plishment of your mis- B. Green and orange.
sion. C. Orange.
D. deploy your platoon im- D. Red and Green.
mediately and inform (m) Place words or phrases that are
your commander. common to all alternatives in the
(j) When a negative item is used, the stem.
negative word or phrase should be Poor-words underlined should
emphasized. Negative items should have been included in the stem.
also be checked to be certain that a X. Ground-controlled approach is
double negative has not been used.
When a negative is used in the
A. directing aircraft for land-
stem, a negative should not appear
in the alternatives. B. directing aircraft for climb-
X. Which one of the following is ing to altitude.
not an example of a simple ma- C. directing aircraft for taking
chine? off.
off.
A. Wedge. D. directing aircraft for forma-
B. Crowbar. tion flying.
C. Pulley. (n) Do not weight items differently
D. Try square. within the same section of the test.
(k) Choices that are numerically or If more weight is desired for a cer-
logically related in a sequence tain objective, include more items
should be placed in proper order. on it.
X. You are firing the caliber 7.62- (o) Include at least 4, but not more than
mm coaxial machinegun at a 5, alternatives or possible re-
ground target. What length sponses.
bursts should you fire? (p) When several items have the same
A. 5- to 10-round. alternatives, consider using a
B. 10- to 20-round. matching type item.
C. 20- to 25-round. (q) Do not use absolute words such as
D. Continuous. all, none, never, always.
(I) Do not use blank spaces in the stem.
Place the choices at the end of the b. True-False Test Items. The true-false test
statement. This makes for conti- item consists of a simple statement which stu-
nuity
nuity of
of reading
reading and
and is
is less
less confus-
confus- dets must identify as true or false.
ing for the student. (1) Examples.
1. Poor. DIRECTIONS: Listed below are a
X. The flag(s) should number of statements; some are true
be displayed when a misfire and some are false. If any part of a
has just occurred in your statement is false, the entire state-
tank. ment is false. Make your decision
with regard to each statement, and
A.
B. green
green and
and orange,
orange. mark the appropriate space on the an-
C. orange. swer sheet. The first item is answered
D. red and green. as an example. Points for each test
2. Better.
X. The principal advantage in the use
X. A misfire has just occurred of radio as a means of communica-
in your tank. What flag(s) tion is secrecy
should be displayed?
Note. The answer would be shown on
A. Red and orange. the answer sheet in this manner.

118
 T F consistently longer than the false
statements, or vice versa.
X. // v (c) Limit each statement to one main
idea or point.
FM radios cannot net with AM radios.
1. (d) Avoid negatives and involved state-
ments.
T F (e) Make application of things learned
in as many of the items as possible.
Answer: 1. v // (f) Avoid using such words as all, none,
never, and always.
(2) Characteristicsof the true-false test (g) Where possible, make the crucial
item. element come near the end of the
(a) The true-false item can be used statement.
effectively as an instructional test
item to promote interest and to c. MatchingTest Items. The matching type of
introduce points for discussion. test item includes two lists of columns of related
(b) It can effectively sample wide topics such as words, phrases, clauses, or sym-
ranges of subject matter. bols. Students are required to match each item
in one list with the item in the other list to
(c) It is easily and objectively scored. which it is most closely related.
(d) It can be made a factual question
or a thought question that requires (1) Examples.
reasoning. DIRECTIONS: Column II below lists
(e) It is difficult to construct items that electrical symbols. Column I lists the
are completely true or false with- names of some of these symbols. Mark
out making the correct responses in the appropriate space on your an-
obvious. swer sheet the letter of the symbol in
(f) It is difficult to eliminate guessing. column II for each item named in col-
umn I. Use each symbol only once.
(3) Points to be observed in constructing Points for each correct answer: 2. The
the true-false test item. first item would be answered on the
(a) Make approximately one-half of the answer sheet as shown below, because
items true and one-half false. the symbol for a battery is that of
(b) Do not make the true statements letter H in column II.

119
 Answer Sheet

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O

x. / // // // I//
/i /! // // // / / // H/
COLUMN I COLUMN II

Names Symbols

X. Battery A.

1. Inductance B.

2. Resistanee C.

3. Antenna D. --- ^---

4. Fuse E.

5. SP switch F. - X

H.
* * * * * * *

DIRECTIONS: The forms of tests COLUMN I COLUMN II

are listed in column II. Several train- 4. Ability to time a
ing objectives are listed in column I. a gasoline engine.
Match each training objective with 5. Ability to recog-
the form of test that would provide nize US Army in-
the best evaluation. Each item in signia of grade.
column II may be used more than 6. Ability to solve
once. problems using
COLUMN I COLUMN II Ohm's law,
1. Pride in being a A. Oral E =IR.
~~~~~_soldier.
7. Respect for safety
2. Knowledge of B. Writtens.
military map (2) Characteristics of the matching-type
symbols. C. Performance test item.
8. To spot-check (a) This type of test item is especially
class understand- D. Observation valuable for testing student ability
ing of a teaching to recognize relationships and make
point that you associations.
have just (b) The matching exercise may require
explained. students to match-

120
 1. Terms or words with their defi- (b) Include at least three extra items
nitions. from which responses must be
2. Characteristics with the mechan- chosen or allow responses to be used
ical units to which they apply. more than once. This tends to re-
3. Short questions with their an- duce the possibility of guessing or
swers. answering by a process of elimina-
4. Symbols with their proper names. tion.
5. Descriptive phrases with other (c) Include only homogeneous or re-
phrases. lated materials in any one exercise.
6. Causes with effects. (d) Place the column containing the
7. Principles with situations in longer phrases or clauses on the
which the principles apply. left-hand side of the page. Re-
8. Parts or mechanical units with quire students to record their re-
their proper names, or parts with sponses at the left of this column.
the units to which they belong. This makes the process of selection
(c) A large number of responses can be easier.
obtained in a small space and with (e) Include a least three plausible re-
one set of directions. sponses from which each correct re-
(d) It can be made totally objective. sponse must be selected. If, in order
(e) The student can complete it quickly, to do this, it is necessary to include
and it is easy to score. three times as many items in one
(f) It tends to be highly reliable and column as in the other, use some
discriminating. other type of test item.
(g) Since the phrases or clauses must (f) In setting up the test make sure that
necessarily be short, the matching all of a given matching exercise ap-
exercise provides a poor measure of pears on one page.
complete. understanding and inter- (g) List nothing in either column that
pretations. is not a part of the subject in ques-
(h) It is generally inferior to the multi- tion.
pie-choice item in measuring judg- (h) Make the directions specific. State
ments and applications of things in the directions the area of instruc-
taught. tion to which the things listed
(i) It is likely to contain irrelevant apply.
clues to the correct response; the d. Identification Test Items. The identifica-
instructor may have difficulty in tion-type test item is used to measure student
eliminating such clues. ability to recall the proper names of things.
(3) Points to be observed in constructing (1) Example.
matching items. DIRECTIONS: In the numbered
(a) Require students to make at least 5 blanks to the left of the symbols
and not more than 12 responses in shown below, write the name of the
completing each matching exercise. object represented by each symbol.

121
 3.

4.

5.

6.

(2) Characteristics of identification test In the blank spaces provided, list

items. four aids that are helpful in identify-
(a) The identification item can be sub- ing objects or features on an aerial
stituted for the matching when it is photograph.
desired to have students recall out- 1. Color.
right the proper names.
(b) It can be made to measure the appli-
cation of certain knowledges, as in 3. Shadow.
detecting the errors in a drawing. 4 Size.
(3) Points to be observed in constructing
the identification test item. (2) Characteristics of the listing test
(a) Make all sketches clear and of suffi- item.
cient size. (a) The listing or enumeration test item
(b) Make sure parts to be named are can be used to measure degree of re-
clearly indicated. call of highly specific points of in-
formation.
(c) Wherever practical, display the formation.
(b) It allows a degree of freedom of
actual parts of units instead of expression.
using sketches. (c) It minimizes the possibility of
(d) If the actual parts of units are to be guessing the correct response.
displayed, place the identification (d) Its use tends to place too much em-
items at either the beginning or the phasis upon memorizing facts and
end of the test. details.
(e) Have a good sample of the item to (e) It does not readily measure the indi-
be identified. vidual's ability to use or interpret
(f) Make sure that only one definite an- information.
swer is possible. (f) Its scoring tends to become some-
e. Listing or Enumeration Test Items. The what subjective.
listing or enumeration test item requires stu- (3) Points to be observed in constructing
dents to supply a list of terms, rules, or factors listing or enumeration test items.
that have been taught and emphasized in a (a) Design the item so that it will call
given course. Students may or may not be re- for specific facts.
quired to list the items in a particular order. (b) Each thing to be listed should in-
(1) Example. volve only a few words. Students
DIRECTIONS: Read each item care- should not be required to list long,
fully. Follow in every detail the direc- involved statements. Scoring these
tions given with each. becomes subjective.

122
 (c) Rarely should one question call for (2) Characteristicsof the completion test
more than 6 or 8 items to be listed. item.
(d) Do not use this item if students can (a) The simple completion item can be
choose from a great variety of pos- used to test student ability to recall
sible answers to supply responses. specific facts; it demands accurate
That is, do not call for 5 items out information.
of a list of 15 taught in the course; (b) It can be used effectively to sample
to do so would place all students a wide range of subject matter.
who listed 5 items in the same cate- (c) The paragraph form can be used to
gory and indicate that each had test continuous thought within a
achieved equally with regard to the specific area of subject matter.
15 points in question. Such a listing (d) It has high discriminating value.
item would be very low in discrim- (e) It is difficult to achieve objectivity.
inating power. Make every effort to (f) It tends to measure verbal facility
design items that will detect differ- and memorization of facts rather
ences in achievement, than application.
(e) If students are required to list (3) Points to be observed in constructing
things in a given order, determine, simple completion-type test items.
before the test is given, how the (a) Omit no more than three words in
responses are to be scored. The a given sentence. Leaving too many
nature of the subject matter should blanks makes it necessary for stu-
be considered in establishing a dents to memorize entire state-
method of scoring. ments. A short statement with only
one word omitted is preferable.
f. Completion Test Items. The simple com- (b) Place the blanks near the end or at
pletion item requires students to recall and least past the center of the sentence.
supply one or more key words that have been This makes for continuity when
omitted from statements. The words, when reading the statement.
placed in the appropriate blanks, make the (c) Design each statement in such a
statement complete, meaningful, and true. The manner that it will remain incom-
statements may be isolated and more or less plete until the correct response is
unrelated, or they may be combined to form inserted.
short paragraphs that carry a continuous line
~(d)
~~~~~~~of thought. Omit only key words, not insignifi-
cant or trivial ones.
(1) Example. (e) Do not copy statements directly
DIRECTIONS: A blank space is from textbooks to make completion
found in each of the following incom- items.
plete statements; write the word(s) in (f) It is usually poor practice to omit
each blank that will make that par- verbs.
ticular statement complete and true. (g) If possible, construct the item so
The first blank is filled in as an ex- that there can be only one correct
ample. response.
X. The breaker points open and close (h) If synonyms are to be accepted,
the primary circuit. include them in the key.
1. The ammeter is connected in g. Essay Test Items. In the essay test item,
students are required to make a comparison,
2. The cam angle is the number of write a description, or explain certain points.
degrees through which the cam (1) Examples. Following are 2 examples
revolves while the points are of essay questions and comments
about each example.

123
 X. How should paint brushes be cared Also, the instructor need not spend
for? time in analyzing a long answer,
Discussion: This question was easy to and the number of credits to be
write. The instructor undoubtably given any answer can be quickly,
had some important and definite uniformly, and accurately deter-
points in mind when he wrote the mined.
question, yet he has left the student (2) Characteristicsof the essay test item.
to guess at what is wanted.to Does
Does
guessat whatis wanted.
(a) The essay item can be used effec-
this mean caring for the brush in
tively to measure student ability to
use at the end of a day's work-or
when preparing the brush for stor-
age? Suppose age?the
theSuppose
item
item is
is worth
worth 10
10 (b) It can be used to measure complete
points. What answer would the in-
structor accept as being worth 10 (c) Its greatest disadvantage is that its,
points? What answer would be scoring may become subject to thei
worth 8 points? What answer instructor's interest and range of,
worth 4 points? Would 2 or 3 in- knowledge and other similar fac-
structors agree on the number of tors.
points to be given a particular (d) Responding to the essay item re-
answer? quires much student time.
X. You have finished painting the ex- (e) Scoring the item requires much
terior of your barracks and the more time than is required for other
brushes are to be prepared for types.
storage until you are ready to use (f) Only a relatively few points can be
them again. covered by essay items. Poor sam-
(1) What is your first step in re- pling of the subject matter may
moving the paint from the result.
brush? 2 points. (g) It provides students an opportunity
(2) How would you remove to bluff.
hardened paint from upper (h) Men who know subject matter well,
bristles without injuring the but are not skilled in writing, may
brush? 2 points. be penalized on an essay examina-
(3) What cleaning material would tion.
you use to remove the paint (3) Construction of essay test items.
completely from the brush? (a) Call for specific answers. Word the
2 points. item in such a manner that it pro-
(4) What steps would you follow vides the student with an outline
in using this material? 2 that he can follow in formulating his
points. response.
(5) How would you dry the (b) State the item in a simple, direct
brush? 2 points. manner.
Discussion: Putting the item in the (c) Allow one point for each significant
form illustrated requires much idea or fact expected in the re-
more thought on the part of the in- sponse.
structor than writing it in the first (d) Design the essay item to require
form. With the second form, how- students to compare, explain why,
ever, the student knows exactly give a reason, describe, or explain
what is wanted. He must supply how, rather than to name, list, or
definite information, and he cannot enumerate.
cover up lack of information by (4) Scoring essay test items. Essay test
writing a wordy but vague answer. items are difficult to score.

124
 The following points will help in scor- (b) Construct the item in such a man-
ing. ner that it requires the student to
(a) Write the answer expected for each solve a problem.
item. Include every point that is to (c) Methods of indicating the responses
be accepted. will vary. Include specific direc-
(b) Score one essay item on all the test tions for recording the response in
papers before proceeding to the directions for each requirement. Do
next. not attempt to write one set of
(c) Give value to an item by allowing directions to fit all situations.
one unit of credit for each point (d) State the problem or describe the
covered in the answer. situation clearly and concisely. Use
(d) Do not deduct points for gram- sketches wherever possible.
matical errors, handwriting, or (e) Avoid basing the solution of one
other deficiencies unless these are problem on the response to another.
desired outcomes of the instruction.
Score answers on basis of content. 73. Constructing Performance Tests
(e) Use code numbers instead of names a. General. The performance test is con-
on the student's papers. This is par- sidered to be the most valid measure of a stu-
ticularly important in cases where dent's ability to actually perform certain mili-
instructors are personally ac- tary tasks; however the instructor must
quainted with the students. recognize that this type of test is relatively
h. Situation-Type Tests. Test questions are difficult to construct and to administer. Some
often very effectively presented through the use of the problems that must be solved are-
of situations and requirements. This is not, (1) The performance test requires careful
strictly speaking, a form of test item, but rather analysis of lesson objectives in its con-
a manner of presenting various types of ques- struction, thorough planning, and ade-
tions. The situation and requirements may be quate personnel and equipment sup-
followed by essay, listing, or any other type of port.
test item. The test, in most cases, is hand- (2) Administration of the test requires
graded, and it is not necessary to group items considerable time. One instructor
according to the types used. The instructor usually is required to check 1 student
uses the type of test item that will best measure at a time; in some cases, however, he
the material covered by the requirements. may check from 2 to 5.
(1) Characteristics of the situation-type (3) There is the problem of making profit-
test. able use of the time by students who
(a) The situation-type test can be used are waiting their turn or who have
effectively to measure the students' finished. This can be solved in some
ability to make application of cases by use of a county fair arrange-
things learned. It is one of the most ment (fig. 81), where a number of sta-
valuable tests for this purpose. tions are used and students rotate
(b) It can be varied or adapted to vari- through them. Another solution is the
ous kinds of subject matter. use of concurrent training activities
(c) Making this type test objective is for students awaiting their turn.
sometimes difficult. (4) Instructors and assistants must have
(d) Although highly valid, it must be a fairly high level of training, and in
carefully constructed and scored. most tests a relatively large number
(2) Points to be observed in constructing of administrative personnel are re-
the situation item (see para 49). quired.
(a) Make the item as specific as pos- (5) In some cases the formality of the test
sible. tends to penalize the student who ex-

125
 periences difficulty when he works it is best to measure this ability by
under pressure. means of a performance-type test.
b. Construction. The following procedures (b) Select operations that are suffi-
and suggestions should be followed in the ciently difficult to reveal differ-
preparation of performance tests: ences in achievement. Operations
that are too simple and are per-
(1) Select the lesson objectives that formed equally well by all students
should be measured by some form of are not suitable for test purposes.
performance test. (c) Select operations that involve defi-
(a) Select operations that require the nite steps of procedure and require
student to do something that has definite knowledge and abilities.
been taught. If the objective is "Be (d) Select operations that can be per-
able to place the radio in operation," formed in a relatively short time.

COMPANY A
34th ARMOR
Fort Knox, Kentucky

MAIN BATTLE TANK

Performance Test Checklist

NAME CLASS
(Last) (First)

Note. Check yes or no with an X in the proper space.

Did the student: Yes No

1. Check for a broken torsion bar?

2. Check track tension, using the proper procedure?

3. Find an oil plug missing on the roadwheel?

4. Find a roadwheel lug nut loose?

5. Find a track pad missing?

6. Find a sprocket cap screw loose?

7. Find a track pin nut missing?

8. Find a cap screw missing on the idler hub cap?

9. Find the adjusting link lock nut loose?

INSTRUCTOR'S NAME SCORE

Figure 79. Checklist for performance test.

126
 Long and complicated operations (3) Design an appropriate task in which
requiring more than 10 or 15 min- the objectives are specifically applied.
utes often do not make good per- (4) Construct a checklist (fig. 79).
formance test tasks.
(2) Make an analysis of the lesson objec- (5) Prepare a set of directions and in-
tives selected for inclusion in the test. structions (figs. 80 and 81) to be fol-
Determine what the step-by-step pro- lowed by the student, including:
cedures are. This analysis may have (a) Purpose of the test.
already been accomplished when the
instruction was prepared. The test (b) Exactly what the student is to do in
construction requires that these pro- the test.
cedures be reviewed and organized (c) Major factors considered in the
from the standpoint of measurement. grading of performance (7, fig. 81).

COMPANY A
34th ARMOR
Fort Knox, Kentucky

MAIN BATTLE TANK

Performance Test

1. INSTRUCTIONS

a. The instructor at this station will observe your performance and

make notations on a checklist.

b. Do not attempt to correct any deficiencies.

2. SITUATION

A main battle tank has just returned from a field problem. The

vehicle was coasted to a stop without use of brakes or steering.

3. REQUIREMENT

a. Perform an after-operation inspection of the track and suspension

system.

b. Inform the instructor of any deficienices detected during this

inspection.

Figure 80. Instructions to students for a performance test.

127
 (6) Prepare directions for the conduct of only in administering performance
the test (5, fig. 81). These should be tests, but also in evaluating certain
complete, so that a new group of in- outcomes of instruction, such as
structors could administer the test leadership and student attitudes
satisfactorily. Sketches of the setup which cannot be readily evaluated by
and all details should be included (2, means of formal tests.
3, 4, fig. 81). These directions are (2) To be effective, observation must
written in the lesson plan for the test. be based upon thorough preparation.
(7) Dry-run the test. This is a must for a It is a process requiring the directed
performance test. attention of the observer. The more
thorough the preparation, the clearer
74. Observation Techniques the understanding of what is to be
a. Uses and Advantages. observed and the more reliable the
(1) Observation techniques are used not final evaluation.

PRELIMINARY GUNNER'S TEST

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. ORGANIZATION OF TEST
a. Station 1--Disassembly, assembly, and head space adjustment.
25 points.
b. Station 2--Prefiring checks. 10 points.
c. Station 3--Care and cleaning. 25 points.
d. Station 4--Malfunctioning. 10 points.
e. Station 5--Inspection of ammunition. 10 points.
f. Station 6--First phase of immediate action. 10 points.
g. Station 7--Second phase of immediate action. 15 points.
h. Station 8--Break station. 0 points.

2. DIRECTIONS TO STUDENTS
a. This is a graded exercise requiring individual work. Do not
discuss test requirements with anyone until the test is completed.
b. Stay in your assigned group throughout the test.
c. Rotate in a clockwise direction-from your starting station, on
signal of the whistle, until you have completed every station.
d. At each graded station, you will be given a written situation
and requirement that explains what you are to do.
(1) Read and understand the requirement; the assistant instructor
will answer questions on what you are to do, not how to do it.
(2) Execute the requirement. The assistant instructor will grade
you on your performance. If you cannot complete the require-
ment, ask for help. After cutting the required number of
points, the assistant instructor will show you the step that
is troubling you.
(3) After you complete the requirement, the assistant instructor
will critique your performance and record your grade on your
student performance score sheet.
(4) If you have a complaint about your grade, do not argue with
the assistant instructor, but bring your complaint to the
immediate attention of the principal instructor. No reclama
will be accepted after you have left a test station.
e. When you arrive at the break station, you may take a break. If
you have missed a station, you may return to that station after clearing
with the principal instructor.
f. After completing all 7 graded stations, turn in your completed
student performance score sheet to the principal instructor and return
to the stand for review.

Figure81. "County fair" performance test.

128
 PRELIMINARY GUNNER'S TEST

SKETCH OF TEST AREA

ISTATION
AREA
8 AND STATION

7 S

STATION STATION
6 3

STATION STATION
5 1 1 4

Rotation

Note. Maintain at least 20 yards between test stations.

Figure 81-Continued.

(3) Observation of students in their per- through the use of observation tech-
formance of practical work enables niques.
the instructor to check the results of (6) Observation of instructors by super-
his teaching and take corrective meas- visors using a check sheet similar to
ures where needed. figure 83 is a good means of evaluat-
(4) On a more advanced level, the obser- ing instructors.
vation of students operating as mem- b. Limitations. The major limitation of this
bers of teams or as staff officers type of evaluation is the lack of objectivity that
provides a check on important in- often results when the instructor fails to use
structional outcomes. proper techniques in observing student per-
(5) Outcomes such as ability to get along formance. The problem is not one of reducing
with people, consideration for others, the use of the instructor's judgment as a meas-
initiative, willingness to work, and co- urement of student progress, but that of in-
operation can be evaluated only creasing the validity and objectivity of his ob-

129

475-774 0 - 72 - 9
 PRELIMINARY GUNNER'S TEST

STATION NUMBER I

STUDENTS
TESTED

(2 STUDENT CHAIRS)

ASSISTANT 1
INSTRUCTOR

| M
MGMG l G MG

1 vW
2 2
5' v) 3

b6 5 z 4

6 ASSISTANT
c INSTRUCTOR

SCREEN
Equipment: 6 machineguns
6 belts dummy ammunition
6 screwdrivers
6 field tables STUDENTS
3 screen latrines WAITING TEST
4 folding chairs IT
6 sets cleaning material
(2 STUDENT CHAIRS)

Figure 81-Continued.

servations. Some of the common faults that high ratings to students who appear
may enter into this type of evaluation if the in- to be busy, without examining their
structor does not use proper techniques are- work critically. These first four con-
(1) The instructor may fail to keep the tribute to the "error of standards."
objectives of the course clearly in (5) In some cases, high grades made in
mind when he determines what to ob- other phases of the course tend to in-
serve. fluence the instructor's ratings. This
(2) There may be a variation in standards is the "halo" error.
(6) There is also a tendency to rate all
from one instructor to another. elements on the checklist the same or
(3) The instructor may not give sufficient approximately the same. This is
attention to specific aspects of the stu- the "central tendency" error.
dent's performance. (7) At times, there is a tendency to try to
(4) There is sometimes a tendency to give rate too many elements. If the check-

130
 PRELIMINARY GUNNER'S TEST

STATIONS 2 THROUGH 7

STUDENTS
TESTED
| | r ASSISTANT
(4 FOLDING CHAIRS) INSTRUCTOR

MG
i

iU SCREEN U

STUDENTS AWAITING
TEST

(4 FOLDING CHAIRS)
Equipment: 1 machinegun
1 screwdriver
1 belt dummy ammunition
1 screen latrine
8 folding chairs
6 sets cleaning material

Figure 81-Continued.

list is too complicated, the rating will If, for example, the problem is to
suffer. evaluate students on leadership, the
(8) The instructor may tend to overrate observer must see the students in situ-
likeable students. ations that permit them to demon-
(9) At times, there may be a tendency to strate their leadership, such as giving
rely too much upon recent observa- commands, directing activities of a
tions and neglect the complete rec- small unit, and making executing de-
ord of observations. This will con- cisions. Similarly, to judge a stu-
tribute to the so-called "logical error." dent's ability as an instructor, he must
be observed as he handles classes
c. Observation Principles. The instructor be observed as he handles classes
who uses observation techniques (fig. 82) effec- under varying conditions.
tively will apply certain basic principles. The (2) Define the points to be observed. Each
following procedures will provide excellent point must be clearly and accurately
guidance: defined in terms of student behavior,
(1) Select phases of conduct that provide so that there will be no misunder-
evidence of the quality being judged. standings or ambiguities. Everyone

131
 PRELIMINARY GUNNER'S TEST

DIRECTIONS TO ASSISTANT INSTRUCTORS

1. Upon arrival of students at your station, read the instructions as

outlined by your performance test sheet.

2. After students have received the initial orientation, let them move
away from the table far enough so that none of the other students can
hear their answers. Then, have students come up to the table one at a
time.
Note. Station no. I will test 6 students at a time. Assistant instructors
(AI) at that station will ensure that tables are divided by a screen.

3. After a student performs his task, grade his score sheet and return
it to him.

4. While test is being administered, fill out a checklist on each student.

Keep checklist and turn it in after test period to principal instructor.

5. Upon completion of the task give each student a brief critique on his
performance.

6. Each station is allotted 25 minutes to test each'group of students.

The first 2 minutes are for orientation; the next 20 minutes for testing,
and the last 3 minutes for critiquing the students.

7. Ensure that all equipment for your station is obtained from the prin-
cipal instructor and set up properly.

8. The break station assistant instructor will check each student's score
sheet to ensure that he has not missed a station. In the event a student
has missed a station, the AI will send the student to that station to
complete the requirement of that station.

9. Each assistant instructor will run his station as outlined in the per-
formance test for his particular station. Each AI will have a copy of the
performance test and the performance test checklist in his possession at
all times. Under no circumstances will either of these be given to a
student.

10. If a student requests help, show him the step that he cannot perform;
then give him a 0 for that part of the requirement and allow him to con-
tinue. Do not give him help unless it is specifically asked for.

11. In event of a disagreement over grading, do not argue with a student,

but refer him immediately to the principal instructor.

Figure 81-Continued.

concerned in the evaluation must (4) Make the observations comprehensive.

think of the factors in the same way. Avoid evaluating personnel on the
(3) Define the standards of performance basis of a few characteristics. All im-
or conduct. It is not enough simply to portant characteristics must be con-
look over a situation or watch stu- sidered.
dents at work. The observer must (5) Observe accurately and impartially.
know exactly what standards are to An observer must be alert to all that
be expected as the student actually is happening. He must avoid letting
does the job. Work habits must be his opinions or biases influence his
evaluated in terms of their field use. judgments; fatigue or emotional up-
These standards should be reviewed sets should not enter the evaluation.
by several officers with varied back- (6) Make an accurate record immediately.
grounds to insure their validity. Memory is too fleeting to be trusted

1132
 PRELIMINARY GUNNER'S TEST

DISASSEMBLY, ASSEMBLY, AND HEAD SPACE ADJUSTMENT, MACHINEGUN

Performance Test Station 1

1. INSTRUCTIONS
a. The instructor at this station will observe your performance and
make notations on a checklist.
b. After you have completed your task he will grade your score sheet.
c. The grade given by the assistant instructor is final.
d. Ask any question you may have before commencing the exercise.

2. SITUATION
a. Phases I 'and II--a machinegun has just been brought into your
unit. You are inspecting it to make sure it is complete.
b. Phase III--a machinegun has just been cleaned, and you are pre-
paring it for firing.

3. REQUIREMENT
a. Phase I--perform disassembly to the extent required for ordinary
cleaning and minor repairs in the field.
b. Phase II--assemble the weapon.
c. Phase III--demonstrate and explain the correct head space adjust-
ment.

Figure 81-Continued.

in making important judgments. A be used in interviews, a checklist for

complete record of the observation, observation of performance, or a rat-
notes on a checklist, or ratings made ing scale based on the consensus of
at the time or immediately after the competent judges insures that atten-
observation are necessary to make the tion will be paid to the important
judgment valid. phases.
(7) Combine judgments of several compe-
tent observers. Repeated observation d. Rating Scales. (See fig. 83 for a typical
increases the probability that all im- rating scale.) The rating scale is frequently
portant factors will be considered. used to obtain an overall evaluation when
(8) Use standardized forms when avail- observation techniques are used. An instructor
able. A standard list of questions to may find that a rating scale constructed to meet

133
 PRELIMINARY GUNNER'S TEST

DISASSEMBLY, ASSEMBLY, AND HEAD SPACE ADJUSTMENT, MACHINEGUN

Performance Test Checklist, Station 1

CODE NUMBER

Note. Check yes or no with an X in the proper space.

Phases I and II
Did the student: Yes No Points

1. Clear the weapon before disassembly? = = 1

2. Remove the groups to the extent required for
ordinary cleaning and minor repairs in the
field? 4

3. Disassemble and assemble the bolt? 4

4. Disassemble and assemble the lock frame? 4

5. Disassemble and assemble the barrel extension? 4

6. Assemble the machinegun? 4

Phase III

7. Explain what head space is? _ _ 1

8. Explain why head space must be adjusted? 1

9. Demonstrate the correct procedure for adjust-

ing head space? _ 1

10. Check the machinegun for firing? _ 1

Total Points 25

INSTRUCTOR'S NAME SCORE

Figure 81-Continued.

the immediate requirements of his situation ment of a student in performing a

will improve his observation and evaluation. particular task, or to determine the
In such eases, he should construct his own proficiency of a student in applying
rating device, using the following procedure: what he has learned.
(1) Step 1. This first step is the same as (2) Step 2. Select the traits or factors
that for constructing any other meas- that determine success or failure. This
uring instrument-determine the ob- step usually requires careful study of
jectives and carefully define them in the job that the man is, or will be,
terms of observable behavior. An performing. In a scale to determine
objective may be to rate an NCO's the effectiveness of a noncommis-
effectiveness in a particular duty sioned officer, five major performance
assignment, to measure the achieve- factors might be used-(1) job knowl-

134
 OBSERVATION TECHNIQUels
SELECT PHASES OF CONDUCT THAT PROVIDE EVIDENCES OF

DEFINE POINTS TO BE OBSERVED

(a )9a
g ~ DEFINE STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE OR CONDUCT

*i 'I m
4 MAKE OBSERVATIONS COMPREHENSIVE

OBSERVE ACCURATELY AND IMPARTIALLY

MAKE AN ACCURATE RECORD IMMEDIATELY

t J)...B COMBINE JUDGMENTS OF SEVERAL COMPETENT OBSERVERS

USE OBSERVATION CHECK SHEETS

. ...............

Figure82. Techniques of observation.

edge, (2) cooperation, (3) judgment, rated that can be defined in terms
(4) personal responsibility, and (5) that have the same meaning for all
leadership. The following are some observers.
rules to observe in selecting factors (c) Select factors or elements to be
that determine success or failure: rated that are specific rather than
(a) Select only critical factors or ele- general.
ments for rating. If promptness is (d) Use about 7 factors; however, the
not a factor in determining a degree number may vary from 3 to 12 or
of proficiency, do not include it. On more.
the other hand, if promptness is es- (e) After studying the scale, eliminate
sential, the validity of the scale those factors that do not differenti-
would be lowered if it were not in- ate.
cluded. (3) Step 3. Define the factors or items in
(b) Select factors or elements to be clear terms. Definitions should be

135
 phrased in terms of specific observable (5) Step 5. Determine the importance of
behavior. each factor and weight it according-
(4) Step 4. Determine from 5 to 9 degrees ly. It is not likely that all factors are
of attainment for each factor or item. of equal importance. The weight given
The phrases describing degrees of the each factor can be determined by pool-
trait generally are arranged in in- ing the opinions of several observers
creasing or decreasing order. Note thoroughly familiar with the situation.
that 6 degrees of attainment are used These weights should be examined
in figure 83. Sometimes random ar- after the scale has been used. Then
rangement is used to reduce halo and it will be possible to determine if the
central tendency errors of rating. ratings actually differentiate between

SUPERVISORY CHECK SHEET

CLASS OR
INSTRUCTOR DEPT

TITLE OF LESSON _ FILE NR

CRITIC RATING

REPORT SUBMITTED BY RATING

DIRECTIONS: 1. Rate subtopics under Elements To Be Rated

+ Plus for performance above average.
v' Check for performance which is average.
- Minus for performance below average. a

2. Rate each Element To Be Rated on the Rating Scale by circling the number which best
describes the over-all performance for that element. The numbers have the following
meanings:

6. Outstanding 3. Very Satisfactory

5. Superior 2. Satisfactory
4. Excellent 1. Unsatisfactory

3. Write comments to justify your rating of each element of the lesson. List major strengths
and make recommendations for improvement.

MAJOR STRENGTHS

Figure 83. Supervisory check sheet.

136
 ELEMENTS TO BE RATED RATING SCALE
INTRODUCTION
Objective 0 6 I 5 4 3 2 1
Reasons O
Contact [
Interest o
EXPLANATION-DEMONSTRATION
Organization Easy to Follow [ 6 | 5 1 4A 3 | 2 1
Clear Explanation of Points [
Emphasis of Key Points [
Material Vitalized -
Transitions [
Summaries E
Demonstration E
INSTRUCTOR QUALITIES
Appearance & Bearing E 6 1 5 1 3 2 1
Poise & Confidence El
Mannerisms E]
SPEECH TECHNIQUES
Volume-Use of PA 0C 6 | 5 4
A | 3 2 | 1
Rate El
Fluency El
Phraseology & Usage El
Contact with Class El
Force and Enthusiasm [ ]
Enunciation & Pronunciation []
Gestures [
USE OF TRAINING AIDS
Selection of Aids [ 6 1 5 4 3 2 | 1
Use of Aids Cl
Use of Pointer a
Smoothness C
Blackboard Work C]
CLASS PARTICIPATION
Student Participation E 6 1 5 1 4 1 3 2 1 1
Characteristics of Questions E
Techniques E
Answers to Student Questions [I
Application [
Examination E
REVIEW & CRITIQUE
Questions Cleared Up o 6 5; 1 4 3 2 1
Summary a
Closing Statement E
PREPARATION
Command of Subject 0 6 1 5 1 4 3 | 2 1
General Plan for Lesson El
Material on Level of Class E
Signs of Rehearsal E
Timing [l

Assigned Length Min Time Start Time End _ Total Min

Figure 83-Continued.

137
 those who are effective on the job ciency of the assistants. Prepare a
from those who are ineffective. workable schedule for assistants to
Weights need not to be shown on the follow in distributing and, collecting
scale. For example, the weights used test materials, seating and dismiss-
with the scale shown in figure 83 are ing the students, checking student
printed on an overlay so that they can work, supervising the conduct of
be used after the scale has been com- the test, and giving students any
pleted by the observer, thus increas- help that is proper.
ing the objectivity of the rating. (b) Go over the examination carefully
(6) Step 6. Devise format that facilitates with the assistants and indicate to
use of rating scale. them the points at which they may
(7) Step 7. Use the rating scale only in expect students to have difficulty,
situations for which it was intended. the amount and kind of help they
may give students, and their exact
(8) Step 8. After using the scale on from function and location in the class-
50 to 100 people, examine the reli-
ability of the scale. room.
(3) Provide the best possible testing con-
75. Administering Tests ditions. Students cannot do their best
a. Need for Careful Administration. The in a dark, crowded class-
noisy, allor interest-destroy-
room. Eliminate
results of tests that are improperly adminis-
tered, or poorly constructed, give instructors an ing factors (unles such conditions are
as in the
incorrect impression of the degree of student case of a testgivensituation,
part of the test to determine profi-
learning. Students must be given every oppor- ciency under battle conditions and ad-
tunity to do their best on an examination. If a ministered with a noisy and distract-
man gets a low score because he misunderstood Place seats (or
ing background). Place seats (or
instructions or was fatigued or emotionally working layouts) so that each man
upset, his score is not a true indication of his will have ample working space and
ability. Likewise, a high score resulting from will not be in a position to inadert-
cheating or from improper help by the instruc- Men
tor will be a false indication of a student's ently see anyone elseas work. Men
should be mentally and physically
rested before they are given any cru-
b. Procedures for Administering Test (fig. cial examination; no one in a state
84). of fatigue, such as might be brought
(1) Have all testing materials ready. on by a long march or a sleepless
Make sure that test blanks, directions, night, can do justice to an examination
checklists, operation sheets, tools, (unless the test is purposely given at
tools, pencils, scratch paper, or other such a time to test knowledge or re-
materials required will be on hand in actions under adverse conditions).
the classroom or test area before the (4) Give students a good start. A test,
test is scheduled to start. like any other phase of instruction,
(2) Train your assistants. Direct them to should be started in a businesslike
handle mechanical aspects of the test, manner. The instructor should put
such as passing out materials, while the men at ease and encourage them
you control the overall situation. The to do their best.
number of assistants required will de- (a) Make certain that the test instruc-
pend upon the time required for ad- tions and directions are understood.
ministering the test and the number Read these instructions and direc-
of individuals being tested. tions to the men and encourage
(a) The smoothness of the testing pro- questions in order,to clear up any
cedure will be affected by the effi- possible misunderstandings.

1138
 (b) Before starting the test, tell the stu- ate on-the-spot correction of errors should al-
dents the kind of help they can ob- ways be followed by a critique to inform the
tain and the materials that are to be student what was done right and what was
used. Tell them whether there is a done wrong. Good instruction includes intelli-
time limit; if there is, explain gent, tactful, and constructive criticism; this
whether it applies to the overall test criticism can be given most effectively in a
or only to separate items or sections. group discussion held after an exercise or prob-
If there is to be a bonus for speed or lem. The critique can be used to-
accuracy, explain it.
(1) Sum up and clarify a situation devel-
(5) Conduct the test carefully. In order oped in the lesson and point out
for a test to best reflect the ability of correct or incorrect methods of execu-
each man in the class, the conditions
under which it is conducted should
affect each man alike. (2) Provide an overall view of the entire
(a) Maintain order. Do not allow any applicatory operation or maneuver.
student to interrupt another stu- (3) Indicate the strong and the weak
dent or create any disturbance. points of a performance and methods
(b) If the test is timed,a be sure that it or procedures to be used in correcting
is timed accurately. Tell the men in errors or mistakes.
advance what time they must cease
work. (4) Reemphasize the fundamental points
of the lesson.
76. Conducting the Critique of Tests and (5) Develop among personnel a spirit of
Practical Exercises unity and an appreciation of the co-
a. General. An examination or practical operation and teamwork necessary in
exercise that cannot be interrupted for immedi- military activities.

Figure 84. Proceduresfor administeringtests.

139
 b. General Considerations. set aside for criticism of their per-
(1) Human relations are important. In formance.
conducting a critique, the instructor c. Steps in the Conduct of the Critique. The
must not be sarcastic; he must make critique cannot be planned as thoroughly as
criticisms or comments in a straight- other instruction, because the points to be
forward, impersonal manner. Stu- covered are influenced directly by the perform-
dents should leave the critique with a ance of the students. Advance planning can
favorable attitude toward the training include the time and place and the general
activity and with a desire to improve. outline. During the practical exercise the in-
(2) The critique should relate the instruc- structor can take notes to guide his critique, but
tion to
tion the subject
to the or course.
subject or course. It houl
It should detailed planning is not practical. However,
the instructor can insure complete coverage
training
training by calling attention
by calling attention to
to what
what of the essential elements (fig. 85) by following
has been done earlier and to the rela- this general procedure:
tion of the instruction just completed (1) Step 1. Restate the objective. This
to the subject or course of which it is will enable the class to start its con-
a part. sideration of the period of instruction
on a common ground. This step is
(3) Specific points should be covered. Pro- necessary because some students may
cedures used, examples of personal have become concerned with only a
initiative or ingenuity, type of errors particular aspect of the subject and
and ways for correcting them, and may have forgotten the overall objec-
fundamental teaching points should tive.
be covered specifically.
(2) Step 2. Review procedures employed.
(4) Fundamentals should be emphasized. In this step, briefly summarize the
The critique that follows an applica- methods used in the exercise, or the
tory exercise-particularly a tactical teaching points brought out, to attain
problem-should indicate the various the objective. After a practical exer-
acceptable solutions; it must not give cise, description of the activities of
the impression that there is but one various participants and h9w each
correct method of solving the prob- contributed to the common goal will
lem. Such a misconception leads to answer the student questions: "What
the adoption of stereotyped solutions was this all about?" "What did we
and to attempts to guess the approved do?" "What part did I play in the big
solution, resulting in loss of initiative picture?"
and independent thought. The critique (3) Step S. Evaluate performance. This
should emphasize the fundamental
principles of tactics in a situation, ande o p . o t
should
ecritique
criticiz an of a practical exercise. Using
notes taken during the exercise, the
different student solutions on the basis instructor points out and discusses the
of their completeness, effectiveness, strongpoints of the exercise. Then he
and observance of these fundamental brings out the weaker points and
principles. makes specific suggestions for im-
(5) Student participation should be en- provement. He must be careful not
couraged. In almost every class there to "talk down" to the group and must
will be individuals who can relate not expect a standard of performance
experiences that will emphasize and beyond the capabilities of the stu-
illustrate key points. Too, a well-con- dents, considering their state of train-
trolled class discussion makes the stu- ing. All remarks must be specific;
dents feel that the critique is a students will not profit from general-
period for learning rather than a time ities.

140
 (4) Step 4. Conduct group discussion. tor. The lower score may have been caused by
The instructor should encourage the conditions occurring-
class to discuss the points mentioned (1) In the test, such as ambiguities, poor
and to suggest other points for discus- selection of items, poor printing, or
sion. All the techniques of conducting distractions in the test environment.
a directed discussion apply in this (2) In the student, such as poor physical
step to insure that criticism is con- condition, emotional upsets, or read-
structive and that discussion is to the ing too fast.
point. (3) In the instructional situation, such as
(5) Step 5. Summarize. The critique variation in scoring standards or ab-
should be concluded with a brief sences for unavoidable causes.
but comprehensive summation of the b. Steps in Interpreting Test Results.
points brought out. The instructor (1) Analyze student responses to the sepa-
can reemphasize objectives and sug-
gest study and practice to overcome
deficiencies. The critique should be order that-
business-like. (a) Weaknesses or gaps in student mas-
tery of instructional material can
77. Interpreting Test Results be determined and remedied by fur-
ther instruction.
a. General Considerations. Do not assign (b) Instructional inefficiency can be de-
too much importance to a single test grade, no tected.
matter how well-constructed and administered (c) Student learning can be expedited
the test may have been. The reason for this by a detailed discussion of the ex-
caution is that all test responses, observations, amination.
and scores are subject to various small factors (2) Interpret total test scores. The overall
that are called random errors. Because of these results of a test will-
random errors, a student who makes a certain (a) Separate qualified students from
score on one test may make a considerably dif- those not qualified to perform the
ferent score on a comparable test given under task or job.
slightly different conditions, at a different time, (b) Indicate the relative degree of
or under the supervision of a different instruc- learning each student has attained.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A CRIT M

RESTATE THE OBJECTIVES

REV\EW pROCE S

Figure 85. Steps of the critique.

141
 (3) Assign grades. Grades indicate the in- able. A few errors may be due to a
structor's final evaluation of students' student's absence from one or more
performance in a subject or course. class meetings, while other errors
While grades may be assigned to are traceable to slowness in master-
scores from a single test or observa- ing the subject matter. The instruc-
tion, most grades will be based on the tor should attempt to locate the
combined results of several tests and source of a student's errors and ini-
a number of observations. tiate the necessary corrective meas-
c. Evaluating Responses to Test Items. ures, such as special classes, indi-
vidual help, or reviews.
(1) Procedure.
(a) Prepare a summary of the errors (2) Cautions.
made on each item. If you have a (a) Despite his best efforts, the instruc-
card file of test items, record the tor's terminology and phraseology
number of errors for each item on will sometimes be misunderstood,
its card. or will be interpreted in different
(b) Group the items missed in terms ways. This will result in test errors
of- that are not necessarily evidence of
1. Teaching objectives. If nearly all faulty instruction or incorrect
items relating to one or more teach- learning.
ing objectives were missed, it usu- (b) A student's physical or emotional
ally indicates inadequate instruc- condition will influence his behavior
tion. in a test situation. A student who is
2. Similar types of items. If a large sick or worried will frequently
number of errors are made on an make errors on subject matter that
oral test covering the same mate- he has mastered.
rial, either the students have not d. nterpretation of Total Test Scores.
learned to do the job or the test was Scores made on a test must be interpreted in
set up improperly, perhaps with relation to the achievement of other students
faulty directions or ambiguous in the same test situation and on established
items. Directionseand items should performance standards. The instructor first de-
be carefully studied and revised, if termines the critical score, or passing mark, and
necessary, before the test is used then converts the scores to common numerical
again. values.
(c) Analyze the type of error made.
Clues to student misunderstand- (1) Frequency distribution tables. The
ing or to weakness of instruc- first step in interpretation of test
ing can
tion or to
oftenweakness
be found-ofin instruc-
student scores
scores and
and assignment
assignment of
of grades
grades is
is
responses or behavior.response
Fo o a.
For example, the construction of a frequency dis-
the way students respond mayem ,di- tribution table. In figure 86 the steps
te
cate that the terms used were mis- usd
tat
rmatets
ii- involved in the tabulation of scores
understood, or that directions for are given below the table. This table
performing an operation were not gives the instructor an overall picture
clear. An analysis of this type will of performance on the test. Test
be of value in discussing the exami- scores tallied here are called raw
nation with the students as well as scores-scores based entirely on the
in
in improving
improving future
future instruction,
instruction. number of test items answered cor-
(d) Analyze the errors made by individ- rectly. Raw scores have little meaning
ual students. The responses of all in themselves; they must be put in
students should be studied, but the tabular form and the table must be
responses of lowscoring students
will require more careful attention (2) Setting the criticalscore.
than will those of the more cap- (a) From the frequency distribution

142
 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Tally of scores Number of scores

Grouped Scores in each group in each group

75-79 I I
70-74 1 I 2
65--69 11 2
60-64 1Wr
II 7
55-59 JWT 5
50-54 Jlol III 9
45-49 AJf II 7
40-44 *W 5
35--39 pII 6
30-34 I 1
25-29 III 3
20-24 II 2

Steps Involved in setting up a frequency distribution table:

1. Determine the range of scores. Find the difference between the.

highest and lowest scores mode on the test. This difference plus one is
called the RANGE of the distribution. In the case of the scores above,
the range was (75 - 22) + I = 54.

2. Determine the size of the INTiRVAL. Use the range to deter.

mine whether the scores should be grouped by units of 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.
No special rule relative to the numbqr of intervals to be used can be
stated, but 'it Is usually desirable to group scores into approximately
12 to 25 intervals. In the exdmple above, the interval of 5 seemed
mort desirable.

3. Tally the test scores and complete table.

Figure 86. Frequency distribution table.

table, the instructor can set the critical score on a test, and in giv-
critical score by inspection based ing grades, is to assume that cor-
upon judgment and unit policy. This rectly answering 70 percent of the
policy may be influenced by the items should always give a passing
normal distribution curve, but it grade. The percentage score actu-
should not be too rigidly established ally means very little, because tests
or blindly administered. In han- often vary in difficulty. However,
dling achievement test scores, there percentage scores may have value
is no substitute for the best judg- in testing situations where stand-
ment of competent instructors and ards have been carefully set or in
administrators. cases where scores have been ad-
(b) A common error in establishing the justed for difficulty.

143
 (c) In setting a critical score, the in. lation graph. This method can be
structor will frequently consider used by persons who are not ex-
other factors than the test scores. perienced in the computations nec-
1. Instructor's opinion. If the instruc- essary to employ statistical tech-
tor considers that student perform- niques in establishing scores. For
ance is satisfactory, a passing example, an 80-point examination
grade should be given. His judg- produced the test scores shown in
ment should be the principal factor figure 86. In order to translate
in setting the passing mark. these scores into class grades, the
2. Student past performance. Past instructor used the graph shown in
performance records of students figure 87. The practice in the train-
should be considered in arriving at ing unit was to use 70 as a passing
a critical score for a given test. grade. By inspection of the fre-
3. Average scores of several classes. quency distribution table and by
In evaluating the performance of comparison with accepted stand-
one class against the records of ards of performance, the instructor
previous classes, be sure to take into set 33 as the passing score. He then
account any known differences in plotted the point 70-33 on the graph
the instructional situation. and drew his conversion line from
4. Use of the normal distribution that point to the highest possible
score,
curve. This procedure is explained score, which
which he
he considered
considered aa grade
grade
in e above. of 100, and to the minimum score,
which he considered a grade of 0.
(3) Converting the scores to common Test scores were then converted to
numerical values. This is essential if class grades, which had meaning to
the test results are to be used in esti- the students.
mating the relative achievement of (d) Rank order is often used to indicate
each man, in comparing his achieve- performance in a course.
ment on one test with his achievement
on another, in making a fair evalua- (e) Percentiles and standard scores are
tion of his ability, or in computing a the most useful numerical values,
final grade for a phase of subject mat- be undertaken unless qualified per-
ter. The scores may be converted into be undertaken unless qualified per-
common numerical values in several sonnel arethe
interpret available
values. to compute and
ways. interpret the values.
(a) Adjectival ratings or letter grades (4) Evaluation of personal characteristics.
may be assigned on the basis of es- Because personal characteristics can-
tablished standards. Thus, if a stu- not be measured as precisely as skills
dent's performance reaches the and knowledge, their interpretation
highest established standard, he is is more complex and subjective. But,
given a "superior" or an "A." The through the use of carefully prepared
distribution of these grades may or checklists, rating forms, and well-
may not follow the normal distri- planned interviews and observations,
bution curve. personal characteristics can be evalu-
(b) Percentage scores may be used. ated with satisfactory accuracy. Ex-
These scores have little meaning cept for the fact that results must be
unless tests are uniformly difficult. interpreted with more caution, the
For example, 90 percent might be procedures used in converting scores
a high score on one test, a low score to common numerical values are the
on another. same as described in (3) (c) above.
(c) Test scores can be converted into (5) Cautions to be observed.
numerical grades by using a trans- (a) A test score in itself is meaningless.

144
 +H ................ I TEST SCORE, 75, IS EQUIVALEN

f . .,.,, IltlTT,,n,,,,,,,,','' :]'TO A STUDENT GRADE OI

-70 - l
50

0 WA
3 .t01 TO AS IElVelt
T ]LDlEi ] 1 c
20 1 DE4TQ2 EW0 9 0

10fr. .oo difficu~l>l11 111

111
Figur. 87I Translatiion giraph.s-

A zero scores does not mean that a e. Use of the Normal Distribution Curve To
student knows nothing about the Establish Grades (figs. 88, 89.).
subject, nor does a perfect score (1) The statistical measure used in corm-
mean that the student knows every- puting grades by means of the distri-
thing. A zero means that the test bution of scores is the standard devia-
was far too difficult to measure tion. Most comparative grading sys-
what the student had learned, while tems are based on this statistical
the perfect score may mean that the measure (see fig. 89). The standard
test was too easy. Likewise, two deviation is a measure of variability
scores, one of 40 and another of 80, that indicates how closely the scores
cannot be interpreted by themselves tend to cluster about the average score
as meaning that one student has for the class; in effect, it is a measure
achieved twice as much as another. of distance. In a normal distribution,
(b) Scores for different tests are not if one standard deviation is measured
directly comparable unless the tests from the mean, either above or below,
serve the same purpose, have the approximately 34 percent of the scores
same number of items, are equally will be included in the distance meas-
difficult, and are equally valid and ured. The length of a standard devia-
reliable. Since these conditions tion will vary from distribution to
rarely hold, it is unsafe to compare distribution, because it must be de-
raw scores from different tests. rived statistically from the spread of

145
475-774 0 - 72 - 10
 the scores. However, in every in- standard deviations from the mean
stance, the percentage of scores in- are above normal. In other words, 86
cluded will remain about the same. percent of all people are about normal,
One and one-half standard deviations 7 percent are below normal, and 7
on either side of the mean will include percent are superior.
approximately 43 percent of the (3) The simplest method of applying this
scores; therefore, the total of one and principle, and one that can be put into
one-half standard deviations on each effect without any statistical compu-
side of the mean will include approxi- tations whatever, is to classify all
mately 86 percent of all scores. Con- scores into three groups: unsatisfac-
sequently, it is possible to establish tory, satisfactory, and superior. The
constants that will be applicable to unsatisfactory group will include all
every testing situation. students whose scores are more than
(2) The application of these constants to one and one-half standard deviations
specific situations is an arbitrary mat- below the mean. Since the scores be-
ter. It is based on the assumption that, low this point will always equal about
in a normal distribution of scores, 7 percent of the group, all the in-
those that are below one and one-half structor must do is arrange the scores
standard deviations from the mean in descending order, determine the
represent results that are below nor- number of students in the unsatisfac-'
mal and those above one and one-half tory group by taking 7 percent of the

Test Frequency Deviation

score From Mean d
X f fX d d2 _ fd 2
47 2 94 8.1 65.6 131.2 1.76
46 7 322 7.1 50.4 352.8 1.54
45 8 360 6.1 37.2 297.6 1.32
44 8 352 5.1 26.0 208.0 1.10
43 12 516 4.1 16.8 201.6 .89
42 11 462 3.1 9.6 105.6 .67
41 15 615 2.1 4.4 66.0 .45
40 12 480 1.1 1.2 14.4 .23
39 8 312 .1 .0 .0 .02
38 12 456 -. 9 .8 9.6 -. 19
37 12 444 -1.9 3.6 43.2 -. 41
36 10 360 -2.9 8.4 84.0 -.63
35 7 245 -3.9 15.2 106.4 -. 85
.34 1 34 -4.9 24.0 24.0 --1.07
33 7 231 -5.9 34.8 243.6 -1.28
32 6 192 -6.9 47.6 285.6 -1.50
31 4 124 -7.9 62.4 249.6 -1.72
30 2 60 -8.9 79.2 158.4 -1.93
29 4 116 -9.9 98.0 392.0 -2.15
28 1 28 --10.9 118.8 118.8 -2.37
27 1 27 --11.9 1141.6 41.6 --2.59
150 SN) 5,830 (zfXI 13234.0 f(fd2)

Mean zfx 5,830 = 38.9

N 150

Standard deviation = = 3234.0

X = 4.6

Figure88. Computation of mean and standarddeviation.

146
 total number of students, and mark only when there is a normal distribu-
the papers accordingly. The satisfac- tion. In most instances it will be nec-
tory group will then include all those essary to make modifications; other-
whose scores fall within one and one- wise, the lower students may suffer.
half standard deviations above and This is especially true in advanced
below the mean. This includes about classes, where the better background
86 percent of the class. If a distribu- of certain students may put them far
tion of scores into a five-grade classi- ahead of the class average. Such a
fication is desired, the instructor group is not normal.
might proceed as follows: the lowest (5) Computation of standard deviation is
7 percent will be marked F; the next illustrated in figure 88. A more de-
24 percent will receive a grade of D; tailed explanation of how to compute
the next 38 percent will be C; the standard deviation and the other
next 24 percent will be marked B; and grading systems referred to in figure
the top 7 percent will receive an A. 89 can be found in any standard text
(4) It must be reemphasized that the book on educational statistics.
above method will prove satisfactory

Percent of cases under

portions of the normal curve 2.14
0.13 . 13.59 34.13 134.13 13.59 0.13
Standard deviations -4 -3 -2 -I 0 +1 +2 *3 *4

Cumulative percentages 0.1 2.3 15.9 50 84.1 97.7 99.9

(rounded) 2 16 50 84 98

Percentile 'equivalents I I l I I I I I
I 5 102030405060708090 95 99

Typical standard scores -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0 +1.0 .2.0 3.0 4.0

T-scores , a, , , , ,
20 30 40 50 60 70 80

College entrance , . . . . . .
examination board scores 200 300 400 500 600 7oo 600

AGCT scores I s , I
X I
40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Stanines I 2 3 1 4 1 5 16 1 7 8 9
Percent in stanine 4 7 12 17 20 17 12 7 4

Figure 89. A comparisonof grading systems.

147
 CHAPTER 13
INSTRUCTOR TRAINING

78. General -ample, the first period of practical work may

be a short talk in which students use the lecture
Many organizations include in their programs
method. The conference prior to this talk
ofsof
instruction not only military subjects
tinnstruction not only military sujects but
b-ut should cover only subject matter that will assist
also training in instructional methods and tech- them in performing this exercise.
niques. To assist personnel charged with the them in performing this exercise. The instruc-
tion thus becomes more meaningful to the
responsibility of setting up an effective instruc- bec
student because he realizes that he will apply
tor training course, this chapter presents: first, the principles in his lesson. Make the practical
several basic considerations that should govern work serve as the means for emphasizing the
the organization and administration of a course
importance of the subject matter.
in instructional methods; second, training
schedules for two different types of instruc- d. Present the Subject From the Standpoint
tional methods courses, and third, suggestions of How Students Will Use It. Instruction
for improving instruction through on-the-job should be specific and designed for the students
training. Suggested lesson outlines for use in and their particular needs. Instructors must
such training are given in appendix B. use numerous examples and illustrations in
their presentations to make material meaning-
79. Basic Considerations in Setting Up the ful to students, and must take every opportunity
Course to present the subject from the standpoint of
the student's use of the material on his job.
a. Make the Course Fit the Need. The course
must satisfy the requirements of the local situ- e. Make Wide Use of Demonstration Les-
ation; the instruction presented must be sons. The best way to set high standards of
adapted to the needs of the personnel assigned instruction is to show the students, through
to take the course. Although basic principles demonstration lessons, what is expected of
remain the same in all instructional methods, them. If students are to learn how to present
the emphasis on specific techniques will vary, an effective lesson in map reading, show them
depending on what subjects will be taught by a demonstration lesson in that subject. It is
the instructor to be trained. easier for them to imitate demonstrated tech-
b. Plan Practical Work First. The effective- niques than to apply ideas presented by oral
ness of an instructor training course will de- methods.
pend upon the practical experience it provides.
Therefore, the students must be given an op- 80. A Suggested Instructor Training Course
portunity to gain experience in planning, pre- a. General. Several factors-such as time
senting, and evaluating instruction. The entire available, number of students and instructors,
course should emphasize practical work, es- available facilities and equipment-will affect
pecially if most of the students are inexperi- the setup of the course. The course described
enced as instructors. This practical work in this paragraph is designed to handle 48
should closely parallel the type of teaching the students; these students would be together for
students will later do in their units. the conference work and divided into 3 sections
the conference work and divided into 3 sections
c. Select Subject Matter That Will Help the for their student lessons. If more than 48
Students in Their Practice Teaching. For ex- students attend the course, additional instruc-

148
tors must be provided (to handle the practical b. Recommended Training Schedule. The
work) on the basis of 1 instructor to each added following schedule is offered as a guide; it
group of 16 students, or fraction thereof. should be altered to fit the training situation.

Total Hours-78

Hours &
Subject Type Scope References

Welcome-The Army 2-L, C, To provide a general knowledge of the purpose FM 21-6, para 3-7.
Instructor PE and conduct of the course and facilities available.
Explanation of schedule of instruction, with em-
phasis on practical work required of students.
Completion of administrative details, and issue of
course materials. Discussion of the instructor's
role in training, his qualifications, how he can
improve, and how he should think of and deal
with students. Each student will present an auto-
biographical sketch.
Principles of Instruction 1-C, E To provide a general knowledge of the teaching- FM 21-6, para 8-11.
learning process, including the nature of learning,
the instructional process, and the principles of
instruction.
Presenting Oral Instruction 2-C, PE To provide a general knowledge of the elements of FM 21-6, para 12-16.
oral instruction that are common to the presenta-
tion of instruction. Explanation will include how
to present lesson objectives; how to handle prob-
lems of organization, transition, interest, and em-
phasis; and how to summarize.
Speech Techniques 1-C To provide a general knowledge of effective FM 21-6, para 17-25.
speech techniques. How to maintain contact and
good bearing; how to use notes; importance of
avoiding distracting mannerisms; how to control
nervousness and develop enthusiasm; and the
importance of developing vocal variety, force, and
distinctness.
Preparation for Student 2-PE To provide a working knowledge of how to pre- FM 21-6, all previous
Lessons pare an introduction. Students will make indi- references.
vidual preparation under guidance of instructors.
Preparation should include rehearsals.
Introductions 3-PE To provide a working knowledge of how to present FM 21-6, all previous
effective introductions. Each student will plan references.
and present a 3-5 minute introduction included
in the instructional or training program of the
unit to which he is assigned. The techniques
previously presented will be critiqued. The class
will be divided into sections.
Training Aids 2-C, D To provide a general knowledge of the types of FM 21-6, para 33-38.
training aids used in the Army, and the local
procurement and techniques of using them. Ex-
planation and demonstrations will include how to
use the chalkboard, the overhead projector,
charts, and actual items of equipment. Materials
and equipment provided locally for making aids
will also be explained and demonstrated.
Demonstration Method 1-C, D To provide a general knowledge of the types of FM 21-6, para 39-42.
demonstrations and their use in military instruc-
tion. Explanation will include factors to consider
in planning a demonstration and techniques for
the conduct of demonstrations.

149
 Hours &
Subject Type Scope References

Questioning Techniques 1-C, PE To provide a general knowledge of the use of FM 21-6, para 26-32.
questions in instruction, including characteristics
of a good question, techniques of asking questions,
and the handling of student answers.
Preparation for Student 3-PE To provide a working knowledge of how to pre- FM 21-6, all prior
Lessons pare an explanation, using the chalkboard. Stu- references.
dents will make individual preparation under
guidance of instructors. Preparation should in-
clude rehearsal.
Chalkboard Presentations 6-PE To provide a working knowledge of the use of the FM 21-6, all prior
chalkboard during oral presentation. Each stu- references.
dent will plan and present a 10-minute lesson.
Each student lesson will be critiqued. The class
will be divided into sections.
Application 2-C, D To provide a general knowledge of the methods FM 21-6, para 43-49.
and techniques employed in conducting applica-
tory training. Explanation will emphasize the
progressive nature of applicatory methods. A
demonstration lesson employing the group per-
formance method will be presented.
Evaluation 2-C To provide a general knowledge of the role of FM 21-6, para 67-76.
evaluation in the instructional process, including
forms of tests, with emphasis on the performance
test, observation techniques, and procedures for
administering tests.
Planning the Lesson 4-C, PE To provide a working knowledge of how to pre- FM 21-6, para 60-66.
pare a unit of instruction for teaching. Explana-
tion will include use and study of approved lesson
materials, how to develop instructor notes, re-
quirements for and techniques of rehearsing, and
how to write a simple lesson plan. Practical work
will consist of students writing their lesson plans
for short lesson presentations.
Preparation for Student 8-PE To provide a working knowledge of how to plan FM 21-6, all prior
Lessons an oral unit of instruction in which the confer- references.
ence method of instruction and student-made
training aids are used. Students will make indi-
vidual preparation under guidance of the in-
structors. Preparation should include writing a
lesson plan, making aids, and rehearsing.
Short Lesson Presentation 8-PE To provide a working knowledge of the methods FM 21-6, all prior
and techniques for presenting a conference unit references.
of instruction. Each student will plan and present
a 15-minute lesson applicable to the training
program of the unit to which assigned, in which
he will apply techniques so far presented in the
course. A lesson plan will be submitted for
grading. Presentations will be supported by
student-made training aids. Presentations will be
critiqued by members of the class and the in-
structor. The class will be divided into sections.
Preparation for Student 12-PE To provide a working knowledge of how to pre- FM 21-6, all prior
Lessons pare a unit of instruction in which the complete references.
instructional process of presentation-application-
evaluation is used. Students will make individual
preparation under guidance of the instructors.
Preparation will include writing a lesson plan
and rehearsing.

150
 Hours &
Subject Type Scope References

Long Lesson Presentation 16-PE To qualify each student to prepare and present a FM 21-6, all prior
complete unit of instruction. Students will be references.
required to teach unit of instruction from their
training schedule, in the classroom or area nor-
mally scheduled for such training, when possible.
Presentations will be 35 minutes long. A lesson
plan will be presented for grading. Each presen-
tation will be critiqued by students and the
instructor. The class will be divided into sections.
Final Examination and 2-E, CR Each student will take a 50-minute written ex- FM 21-6, all prior
Critique amination that will test his understanding of the references.
material taught in the course. A critique of the
examination will be conducted during the second
hour.

L-Lecture
C-Conference
D-Demonstration
PE-Practical Exercise
-Examination
CR-Critique

81. Refresher Training in Methods of student lessons are rehearsals of scheduled in-
Instruction struction. The chief value of this course is to
motivate the cadre and to let them know the
a. General. It sometimes becomes necessary commander's desires with regard to instruc-
to present orientation or refresher training in
the shortest time possible. The course outlined
in this paragraph consists of 4 hours of con- b. Refresher Course in Methods of Instruc-
ference, primarily on techniques of instruction; tion.

Total hours-4 plus

Hours &
Subject Type Scope References

The Instructional Estimate _ 1-C, PE __ To provide a general knowledge of the in- FM 21-6, para 60-62a
structional duties of the instructor in a
troop unit or training command. The stu-
dent will be led through an instructional
estimate that will require him to use train-
ing programs and schedules to determine
what to teach and to consider status of
training and facilities to determine the
general plan of instruction. The student
will be required to make specific applica-
tion of these considerations to the basic
subjects that he will rehearse for actual
presentation.
Organizing the Lesson --_-- 1-C, PE __ To provide a general knowledge of subject FM 21-6, para 8-11,
analysis to determine specific learning ob- 62b-63.
jectives and methods of instruction. Expla-
nation will include application of the
"three stages of instruction," concept, and
principles of instruction. Students will be
led through an analysis of subjects similar
to those on their unit's training schedule.

151
 Hours &
Subject Type Scope References

Selecting Aids and Writing 1-C, PE __ To provide a general knowledge of how to FM 21-6, para 33-38,
the Lesson Plan. write a lesson plan, including selection of 64-65.
appropriate training aids. A practical ex-
ercise on the lesson plan will be used.
Instructional Techniques ___ 1-C ------ To provide a general knowledge of instruc- FM 21-6, para 17-32,
tional techniques, including how to speak 36, 39-41, 48.
effectively, how to ask questions and
handle student responses, how to use train-
ing aids, and how to supervise practical
work.
Rehearsals of Scheduled Time as re- To provide a working knowledge of how to FM 21-6, all prior ref-
Units of Instruction. quired- plan and conduct effective instruction. erences.
PE. Each student will plan and rehearse a
period of instruction from his unit's train-
ing schedule. Each rehearsal will be moni-
tored and critiqued.

82. The Conduct of Practice Teaching e. Instructor Critique. Following the stu-
The value of training in instructional meth- dent's critique, the instructor should present
ods lies primarily in the students' practice h elpful
constructive
critiism and also to point
teaching and the skill of instructors in admin- helpful constructive criticism and also to point
out wherein instructional principles and tech-
istering and supervising this phase of the niques were applied. In observing students,
niques were applied. In observing students,
course. The following procedures are recom- instructors should use a supervisory check-
mended:
mended: inst;ructors should use a supervisory check-
sheet (fig. 83).
a. Lesson Schedule. Publish a student lesson
schedule as far in advance of the first student 83. Improving Instruction Through
lesson period as possible. List date, time, stu- On-the-Job Training
dent's name, subject, and place. The commander cannot depend solely on an
b. PreparationTime. Make every effort to initial course in methods of instruction to pro-
give each student adequate time for prepara- vide high instructional standards. Such a
tion. At this point give assistance freely. course can lay the groundwork, but if standards
are to be maintained and raised, the commander
c. Facilitiesand Equipment. Make available must exercise expert supervision and follow
to students, whenever possible, all the facilities through with a sound program of on-the-job
and equipment they would be expected to use in training of his instructors. This training will
an actual training situation with troops. involve-
d. Student Critique. At the beginning of a. Conducting Group Conferences. Group
student lessons, explain the procedure to be conferences should cover new procedures and
followed. Appoint a student critic for each techniques, coordination of instruction, and
lesson; have him conduct a critique of the suggestions to instructors. These meetings can
presentation, using the procedure outlined in be informal, and instructors should participate
this manual. Require all students, including the actively.
student critic, to write comments on each pre-
sentation; at the end of the lesson collect these b. Working With Individual Instructors. All
written comments and pass them on to the instructors benefit from supervision followed
student instructor. As a guide to the critic, by individual conferences and guidance. Some
and to the other students in writing their com- will need more help than others.
ments, a student's critique sheet should be (1) All instructors. Supervisors should
furnished (app C). Techniques of conducting confer with instructors as soon as
critiques are presented in paragraph 76. possible after observing their teach-

152
 ing, calling attention to strong and for and to appraise, which are im-
weak points of their lessons and offer- portant and which are irrelevant. Just
ing definite suggestions for improve- going to the classroom and looking
ment. In this conference, the supervi- will not give the observer a comprehen-
sor must be impersonal and straight- sive grasp of what is going on. He
forward. He must be specific and should have available for immediate
must be certain his criticisms are reference the schedule of classes and
understood. He should allow the in- copies of the lesson plan. Before visit-
structor to answer criticisms. ing the class the observer should
(2) New and inexperienced instructors. familiarize himself with the content
Supervisors should hold conferences of the lesson plan so-that he will waste
with these men to assign them to their no time in evaluating the instructor's
teaching duties, to inform them of performance.
any special conditions, and to estimate (2) Use a rating form. The most accepta-
their abilities and aptitudes. The su- ble procedure in observation is to use
pervisor should check a new instruc- a short rating form which consists of a
tor's lesson plan as soon as it is writ- list of points to be observed in the class
ten, and should be present at the and space for ratings and comments,
rehearsal of the lesson to detect mis- see figure 83.
takes and to suggest means of im- (3) Submit reports of observation. The
provement.
He should then observe supervisor should realize that the re-
the class and confer with the instruc- sults
sults of
of his
his observation
observation are
are aa check
check
tor as in (1) above. on his own performance as well as that
(3) Weak instructors. The technique of of the instructor. The supervisor's
improving new instructors also applies rating form and supervisory notes
to improving weak instructors. Pa- should show that he is aware of all
tience and understanding are neces- important problems, obstacles, and
sary, but if an instructor shows no procedures. The reports of the ob-
improvement after several lessons, he servation should be forwarded to the
should be assigned to duties more commanding officer. These reports
suited to his abilities. will increase the effectiveness and
c. Conducting Short Refresher Courses. quality of both instruction and super-
Short refresher courses covering both subject vision.
matter and instructional methods are of value b. Procedures for observing classes-Certain
to the on-the-job instructor training program. courtesies must be observed by the supervisor
in visiting a class. The fact that he is there
d. Requiring Observation of Classes. An-
other effective method of improving instruction to observe the class and not to draw attention
is that of requiring instructors to visit and
to himself should dictate his actions.
observe critically the work of other instructors. (1) Keep scheduled visits unannounced.
This helps them learn additional procedures and The supervisor should inspect a class
techniques. when he is least expected if he is to
observe the instruction as it is rou-
84. Techniques of Supervising Instruction tinely done. There should be no regu-
a. The supervisor should follow certain defi- lar schedule, and no instructor should
nite steps in observing classes just as an in- be informed that he will be visited at
structor employs certain techniques in present- any particular time.
ing a lesson. (2) Enter class inconspicuously. If the
(1) Plan the observation. A supervisor class is meeting indoors, the supervi-
should prepare for visits of classes. sor will enter quietly at the rear of
He must know what factors to look the room whenever possible and de-

153
 mand no recognition from the students in a private conference with the in-
or the instructor. The instructor structor after class. If the instructors
should not call the class to attention are trained and qualified to teach the
nor break his presentation. In the subject, any mistake in procedure or
field, the observer approaches the class in the explanation will be minor and
from the direction least likely to dis- can be corrected during the next class
tract student attention. The supervi- after the supervisor has informed the
sor should do everything he can to instructor of the error. If the instruc-
keep the instructional situation exact- tors are new and not so capable, the
ly as it was when he arrived. supervisor may find it necessary to
(3) Get the feel of the whole situation be- add a comment or to modify an ex-
fore analyzing details. In the words of planation to prevent the students from
the proverb, the supervisor should learning a wrong procedure or an in-
"See the forest before looking at the correct idea. Tact and courtesy must
trees." Estimate the general effect be observed by the supervisor when-
that the class gives. Analyze whether ever he intervenes.
or not the class seems to be moving in
an orderly fashion or if there is a (7) Never reprimand an instructorduring
lack of coordination. Determine the his class. Under no circumstances
clarity of presentation. should the supervisor take over the
(4) Study specific aspects of the class. class in the middle of a discussion, tell
After getting the feel of the classroom the instructor he was wrong, present
situation, the supervisor should ana- a few points, and then turn the class
lyze it for details. In observing a class, back to the instructor. Any of these
avoid attaching too much importance procedures has a disastrous effect on
to any one detail. There is a tendency the morale and assurance of an in-
for some supervisors to insist on elab- structor and causes the students to
orate, detailed procedures which have lose confidence in him. If the work of
little or no relation to effective teach- the instructor is unsatisfactory, he
ing. In supervising, the observer should be given another assignment.
should notice all points listed on the
should notice all points listed on the
rating form. (8) Keep a record of all observation. Be-
cause of the shortness of the observa-
(5) Appraise the total situation. At the tion period and the number of classes
end of the observation the supervisor that must be checked, the supervisor
should evaluate the instruction care- should note, in his brief daily visits,
should note, in his brief daily visits,
fully, noting the major merits and only the more obvious matters that
only the more obvious matters that
weaknesses
and appraising each in demand special attention. In the case
terms of the entire class procedure.
Student reaction is an important clue of the supervision of an entire class
to the effectiveness of the lesson. Class period, the officer in charge should
interest and participation will furnish keep a more complete record of his
evidence of the degree to which the observation. The record will enable
instructor has sold his subject to the the officer in charge to remember the
students. important points to be discussed with
(6) In general, refrain from taking part the instructor during a conference
in class activities. Whatever remarks which should be held as soon as possi-
the supervisor wishes to make, he will ble after the observation. Previous
save them until the end of the class records can be compared with present
period, make them at some point in records of observation to check on the
the discussion which will not embar- improvement made by the instructor
rass the instructor, or take them up on those points that were weak.

154
 CHAPTER 14
MILITARY BRIEFINGS

85. General proach the preparation with the idea

The military briefing is used so extensively of selling, convincing, or entertaining.
that it has become an accepted procedure from (2) Second, consider the audience. The
the highest to the lowest levels of command. size and composition, including names
Military briefings conserve the senior officer's and grades, of the audience are im-
time by eliminating his need to read through portant in initial planning. The briefer
volumes of paper to obtain information. This should attempt to ascertain individual
chapter will explain the primary purposes of and collective interests, desires, and
briefings, outline steps in planning and orga- personal traits of the senior member.
nizing, and discuss presentation techniques. (3) The third point in this analysis is the
consideration of time and schedule
86. Purposes contingencies. The briefer must de-
a. General. The military briefing is a spe- termine, as early as practicable, the
cialized type of oral presentation. It can serve desired length of the presentation and
to impart information or to obtain a decision. the
the flexibility
flexibility of
of the
the schedule
schedule or
or itin-
itin-
erary.
b. Information. A briefing designed for this (4) Fourth, consider the requirement for
purpose presents new material to the audience. facilities and equipment. If the brief-
It does not solicit an approval of recommended ing site is assigned, consider its utility
action. in view of size, comfort, accessibility,
c. Decision. This briefing is designed to pro- acoustics, and freedom from distrac-
vide the facts, conclusions, and recommenda- tions. Available facilities may affect
tions on which the commander can base his selection of visual aids, seating ar-
decision. rangements, or use of assistants.
(5) Finally, check the SOP. Unit proce-
87. Planning the Briefing dures may prescribe the commander's
The preparation for a briefing is essentially desires for conducting briefings, in-
the same as for planning a lesson; however, eluding nature and size of aids, proto-
differences in content and organization will be col, uniforms, manner of greeting, use
emphasized. of manuscripts, and other important
aspects.
a. Analyze the Situation. This estimate be-
gins with the assignment, and accompanying (6) Explicit guidance and intelligent anal-
guidance, to plan and present a briefing. There ysis of the briefing situation will lessen
are five items that must be considered. the possibility of error and wasted
time as the briefer constructs his
(1) First, determine the purpose of the presentation.
briefing. Guidance from the superior
will usually determine the scope. If b. Select and Organize Content. The content
this is not specified, seek clarification. and organization depend on the purpose and
Remember, the purpose of any briefing scope established in the initial guidance. The
is to inform accurately. Do not ap- briefer should study his subject thoroughly and

155
 Figure 90. Preparationfor a briefing.

acquire as complete an understanding as time 3. Purpose. This is stated in the same

and circumstances will permit. manner as the problem is phrased
(1) briefing for a commandA decision is in the staff study. For example:
primarily
primarily an oral presentation
an oral presentation ofof aa "The purpose of this briefing is to
completed staff study; therefore, the obtain approval of a plan for re-
material has been selected and or- locating the Post Engineer facili-
ganized to a great extent. Neverthe- ties."
less, the content of the briefing must 4. Coordination. A statement that co-
be a careful and objective condensa- ordination has been made with in-
tion of all the elements of the staff terested activities should be in-
study. cluded.
(a) The introduction to a decision brief- 5. Procedure. This element is not al-
ing should ordinarily consist of the ways necessary. Include flwhen the
following elements (see fig. 91). briefing consists of multiple presen-
1. Greeting. Following protocol, rec- tations and phases.
ognize by title and surname the (b) As previously recognized, the body
senior members of the audience. of a decision briefing will follow the
Follow with "Gentlemen," in recog- content and organization of the staff
nition of other present.
2. Identification and classification.
Identify the briefing officer, classi- 1. Assumptions. If any were made,
fication of material, and security they -should be stated.
clearance of audience. 2. Facts bearing on the problem. These

156
1. INTRODUCTION eral guidance for organization is to
A. GREETING arrange the material so that the pre-
B. IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION sentation will be in a logical sequence
C. PURPOSE to give a clear and precise picture of
D. COORDINATION the subject. The outline 'shown in
E. PROCEDURE figure 92 will usually apply.
2. BODY (a) The introduction should begin with
A. ASSUMPTIONS a greeting that recognizes all dis-
B. FACTS BEARING ON PROBLEM tinctive elements of the audience,
C. DISCUSSION for example: "General Black, Colo-
D. CONCLUSIONS nel White, Gentlemen." This greet-
E. RECOMMENDATIONS ing should be followed by a clear
3. CLOSE statement of the purpose and scope
A. CONCLUDING STATEMENT of the briefing, such as: "The pur-
B. DISCUSSION AS DESIRED pose of this briefing is to inform
Figure91. Organization of a decision briefing. you of the organization, mission,
and current operations of the 2d
should be stated concisely and ac- Battalion, 33d Armor." If the brief-
curately. ing is to follow any usual sequence,
3. Discussion. This should be a sum- the procedure would be stated.
mary of the discussion paragraph (b) The body of an information briefing
or annex of the study. The initial should follow the organization that
statement should indicate the origin enhances logical presentation, clar-
of the problem and point out any ity, and conciseness. The main ideas
command guidance that was given. are arranged and supported in a
No other phase of the briefing re- manner similar to any oral presen-
veals so critically the quality of the tation of subject matter.
preparation. (c) The close may include a brief sum-
4. Conclusions. Those reached as re- mary statement, a solicitation of
sult of the study are stated. questions, and a statement that the
5. Recommendation. This is usually presentation is concluded. Do not
read to insure accuracy and phrased use the "strong closing statement"
so that the person in authority can concept. An example of a close is
indicate his decision by either yes as follows:
or no. "This presentation has covered
(c) The close normally will consist of the strength, personnel data, opera-
the statement: "Sir, this concludes tional structure, and current proj-
the briefing. Do you have any (fur- ects in the G1 area of responsibility.
ther) questions?" If several are ... Do you have any questions?....
participating in the presentation, Sir, this completes (my portion of)
each briefer will introduce the next, the briefing."
for example: "I will be followed by
the S3, Major Jones." The briefing c. Write the Briefing.
presentation will usually be followed (1) Depending upon the local SOP, the
by a discussion and comments from briefer will prepare an outline or a
the individuals being briefed. Fre- complete manuscript. Submission of
quently, this discussion is led by the briefing content for advance approval
immediate superior of the briefing is usually required. In any event, the
officer. briefer should seek firm approval of
(2) The organization of an information the content and organization prior to
briefing may vary widely, depending rehearsal.
on the subject and audience. The gen- (2) For actual use in the rehearsal and

157
1. INTRODUCTION form of writing. Local requirements
A. GREETING and convenience of use should influ-
B. PURPOSE ence the form of writing.
C. PROCEDURE (3) The briefer should coordinate with the
alternate briefing officer, if one is
2. BODY designated, in his written preparation
A. MAIN IDEA and also in the rehearsal.
B. MAIN IDEA d. Rehearse.
C. MAIN IDEA (1) Guidance from your superior or the
unit SOP may require one or more
3. CLOSE rehearsals. Rehearsal for a briefing
A. SOLICITATION OF QUESTIONS may, under certain circumstance, be
B. CONCLUDING STATEMENT of even more vital importance than
rehearsal for a unit of instruction. The
Figure92. Organizationof an information briefing. general guidance given in chapter 11
is pertinent.
(2) The clarity and organization of the
presentation, the briefer may prepare material, effectiveness of visual aids,
a topical outline, prompter cards, note and manner of delivery should be prin-
cards,
cards, or annotated
or anl and manuscript.
notates m anuscript. Pro-
Pro- cipal points for constructive criticism.
cedural notes and use of visual aids
should be included regardless of the e. Make a Final Check. The items shown in

DO NOT SUMMARIZE
DO NOT ASK QUESTIONS
| /DO NOT EMOTIONALIZE

USE AIDS
.! 1 FACTUAL
;BE

BRIEFING FOR \ I .t: .BE FLEXIBLE

BE BRIEF
GEN BUTLER - l.
COL JONES ____ l_ __1 _

Figure 93. Presentationtechniques.

158
figure 76 provide a suitable checklist for insur- (3) Do not emotionalize. The briefer is
ing that everything is ready for the actual brief- not permitted to argue for his ideas.
ing presentation. In consideration of the nature This approach is usually distasteful to
of the audience and the brevity of the situation, a briefing audience.
special attention must be given to the seating (4) Use aids. Strive for smoothness in the
arrangement and other physical aspects. use of simple aids that supplement the
narrative and provide clarity.
88. Presenting the Briefing (5) Be factual. The briefing must be an
a. General. The guidance given in chapters unbiased presentation of the facts.
4 and 5 should be prudently applied to the (6) Be formal. The presentation should
briefing situation. The briefer should exhibit not be rigidly stuffy and dull; how-
confidence and sincerity and strive for an inter- ever, the briefer cannot assume a
esting and natural presentation; however, he casual, highly informal attitude. His
should avoid colorful language, excessive en- delivery can be natural and relaxed,
thusiasm, humor, and verbosity. yet one that is businesslike and syste-
matic.
b. Briefing Tips. (7) Be flexible. Thorough preparation and
(1) Do not summarize. Brevity of content resulting confidence gives the briefer
implies that only important ideas are the ability to react quickly to changes
included. The restatement of main in time schedule, to searching ques-
points for emphasis is not appropriate tions, and to various attitudes of his
for a briefing audience. audience.
(2) Do not ask questions. The idea of (8) Be brief. Because the audience's time
checking on audience understanding is valuable, the briefer must be con-
or any other use of questions by the cise in his presentation and in his an-
briefer is out of place in this situation. swers to questions.

159
 CHAPTER 15
TELEVISION

89. Policy (c) Directs student's attention to the

What is educational or instructional tele- essential or preselected details,
essential or preselected details,
vision? What can it do? What place does it have eliminating distracting objects or
in instruction? How can instructors use it? material.
What do they have to do in order to use tele- (d) Brings equipment and demonstra-
vision to advantage ? This chapter is designed to tions from remote locations into the
answer these questions and to acquaint you classroom.
with this particular instructor service. (e) Allows use of large, small, scarce,
confined, or fixed equipment regard-
a. Why Television? The Medium of Television less of its location.
Offers Many Advantages: (f) Permits easy integration of perti-
(1) Television saves time and resources nent film sequences, slides, graphics,
and maintains or improves the quality and special training aids into TV
of instruction. It accomplishes this presentations.
by- ~~~~~~~~by-
~(3) It provides enrichment of training:
(a) Utilizing the best instructor in the of training
subject
makingand
him available (a) Increases use of training aids.
subjto
more classes.
to more classes.makinghimava(b) Increases interest and understand-
(b) Video-taping repetitious hours for ing of students.
on-call use as required. (c) Provides a common grounding of all
(c) Allowing the use of actual objects students in fundamental subject
rather than large and costly mock- areas.
ups. (d) Allows the instructor more time to
(d) Saving the time used in moving per- teach detailed or practical applica-
sonnel to remote locations for dem- tions of complex subject matter ini-
onstrations or to a central location tially presented by television.
such as theaters for films or special b. Limitations. The medium of television has
lectures. certain limitations, which should be considered
(2) TV provides technical advantages for in determining its usefulness for training or
illustrating or demonstrating concepts information-
not readily available in regular class- (1) TV generally is a one-way communi-
rooms. cation.
(a) Gives close-up magnification of small (2) TV subjects are not taught "just as
objects, equipment, parts, meters, the classroom instructor would teach
mechanisms, diagrams, and so forth, them." TV can use special techniques
so that each student has a "front- of presentation, and may require re-
row" seat. arrangement of subject sequence.
(b) Allows comparison of two or more (3) TV cannot cover every subject desired.
illustrations, objects, or demonstra- Time and economical use will not
tions, at the same time (split allow the presentation of every com-
screen). plex or specialized subject by TV.

160
 Figure 94. Each student has a front row seat.

Over a period of time, however, a explain, in the most visual manner,

library of useful TV tape presenta- some skill, theory, or problem.
tions can be established requiring no (2) By seeing other television instruction.
additional production for continuing (3) Or as a result of encouragement by
supervisors.
(4) Military educational television (ETV) d. Who is Responsible for Television Instruc-
cannot provide elaborate dramatic or or
dcann provide
ot elaboratens dueramatclim- tion Qualityy? There exists a pattern of respon-
ited facilities and staff. Training pro- sibility as in any other medium of teaching.
grams of this type require a great Generally, it is as follows
amount of time and extensive funds, (1) Content. This is the prime responsi-
and should be planned for production bility of the instructor. He is the ex-
as training films, using motion picture pert in the area. The correctness of
techniques. what is said or done rests with the
instructor as it does in the classroom.
c. Where Does Television Production Start? (a) Total teaching by TV of an entire
Experience shows that most of the hours on skill, piece of equipment, or proce-
television have been generated by instructor dure is potentially TV's most effec-
personnel. The instructor is motivated to tele- tive utilization, especially if the
vision in a number of ways-- learning process culminates in overt
(1) Self-motivation is brought about with acts that can be objectively and
a natural desire to utilize the televi- qualitatively evaluated. The core of
sion cameras and screen to show or the material is presented by TV and

161

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162~
 Figure 96. Equipment and demonstrations brought from remote locations into classrooms.

appropriate time is left for the faculty has the prime responsibility
classroom instructor to deal with for the quality of the academic hour.
matters that cannot be handled by Review of all TV programing for doc-
TV. trinal correctness cannot be delegated.
(b) Supplemental or adjunct teaching of Monitoring television rehearsals, pre-
excerpts of training material on TV sentations, and tapes must be accom-
is used to clarify a teaching point plished for final approval.
or support a segment of the total e. TV Programing.
hour of instruction. This concept
of TV use provides resources not (1) Establish priorities. Priorities should
available in a classroom due to time go to TV programs or series that will
or space limitations. Hard to dupli- solve known existing training prob-
cate demonstrations, limited but lems through the more widespread use
special instruction, clarification of of superior instructor, the standardi-
difficult supporting principles or zation of training, the greater utiliza-
theories, and quick but easy review tion of expensive training equipment
of basic information are some of and aids, instructor savings, the reduc-
the areasto adaptable
supplemental tion of training time, and the reduc-
thor adjunctreas adaptable to supplemental tion of unprofitable student movement.
The recording of expensive demon-
(2) Technical. The television staff has the strations should be assigned high pri-
responsibility to make every presen- ority.
tation technically correct by profes- (2) Establish training objectives. Train-
sional TV engineering standards and ing objectives oriented to desired ter-
TV production techniques. minal behavior of students or trainees
(3) Academic quality. As in all instruc- should be established for each TV pro-
tion the resident department staff and gram prior to the onset of any produc-

163
 tion activity. The validity of these on TV is better accomplished
objectives should be tested, using stu- through intensive studio work, or by
dents, graduated trainees, of faculty. slightly longer OJT periods. "Hands
A systematic evaluation should be on" experience with studio TV
made of the tasks being taught and the equipment will enhance instructor
value established by the TV program training courses.
materially assisting in the achieve- (e) Special TV text. Recorded TV pro-
ment of identified skills. grams on how to teach by TV are
(3) Curriculum coordination and content good orientation vehicles for poten-
approval. Local coordination, and tial TV instructors.
where necessary, coordination between
Army service schools must insure that 90. Production Procedures
that each TV program is usable in the a. The Television Production Staff. The in-
curricula for which it is being devised. structcr must understand the function and
Definite but simple coordination should problems of the following positions.
be established to insure that TV ob-
be iesotablished to insure that TV ob- (1) Producer/director.The individual the
jectives coincide with course training instructor will work most closely with
objectives. TV production must re- is the producer/director has the re-
is the producer/director has the re-
mainresponsive
to training
sponsibility
needs. of adapting the medium
(4) Effectiveness evaluation. In general, of television to classroom instruction.
trial runs of programs ("live or test He will coach the instructor, plan the
tape") to students prior to final re- camera coverage, and suggest sets and
cording creates the best opportunity props to develop the proper atmos-
for evaluation. Questionnaires, tests, phere for maximum return of instruc-
staff and faculty observation, and tor's effort and attendant student
tangible comparison with classroom learning. He must insure that the in-
instruction are some methods for eval- structor is familiar with studio proce-
uation of TV programs. dures, sequences of action, positioning
(5) TV instructor development. Formal and handling of all visual material,
training: and the meaning of visual and hand
(a) All instructor
(a) All instructor training courses
courses training cues. The producer/director must have
should include orientation material an understandig of instructor prob-
on TV teaching techniques, develop- lems, respect for course content, and
ment of television programs, and must be able to identify himself with
classroom utilization of televised the instructor. He conducts the pre-
material. production conferences, studio re-
hearsals, and live presentations or
(b) Special workshops should be con- tape recordings. During live or tape
ducted for selected instructors recordings, he is. in complete charge of
whose duties include teaching by
whose
TV. duties incTVlude teachingbythe television staff assigned to the pro-
gram. He is responsible for the final
(c) Whenever possible, the instructor picture continuity.
training course should use TV to
trecord
record and
and playback
playback portions
portions of
of (2) Floor manager. The director and in-
each trainee's early practice teach- structor's assistant in the studio dur-
ing efforts. The objective of this ing the program is the floor manager.
training is to make the trainee vis- He will handle "off-set" visuals or
ually aware of his strengths, weak- props, give necessary cues, and be
nesses, or mistakes. alert to the requirements of the on-air
(d) Studio OJT. Specific training of program.
individuals or small groups to teach (3) Cameramen. The cameramen are re-

'164
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165
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 sponsible to the director for proper Tapes should be "classroom" tested
lens, focus, adjustments, and physical for pacing prior to final approval.
movement of the camera during re- (d) Student panels. Selected students
hearsals and programs. ask or answer questions.
(e) Expert panels. Persons with specific
b. Pre-production Conference. The first knowledge of a subject area can ask
step in producing a television program is the or answer questions.
pre-production conference. This is a meeting (f) G speakers.
uest An area specialist
between the instructor and a producer/director. with o without
r training aidsde-
At this conference, method, special techniques, pendingon the subject
matter and
props, script, visuals, and other details will be skill of the speaker.
discussed and tentatively agreed upon.
(g) Skits. Role-playing dramatizations.
(1) Techniques. The techniques listed be- This type approach can do more
low are only a few of the ways in with fewer words employed--show
which television can be used. There is it, don't tell it.
no limit to the possibilities. With the (h) Case studies. Develop a subject area
video tape recorder available you can with this interesting classroom
involve more people for repetitious method.
hours of instruction and have them (i) Tests and examinations. Conduct a
when needed without requiring re- functional or recognition test using
peated instructor performance. It is the actual object.
not necessary to use any standard (j) Orientation or summary. An hour
period of time on closed-circuit mili- or subcourse may begin with a lively
tary television. Experience has shown orientation by television. Course
that a 30-minute TV production prop- content summaries may be done by
erly prepared can accomplish the usual television as well as exam or test
50-minute classroom period. Two min- critiques.
utes or 30 minutes, the clock does not
sets.theStarting
and and with the
determine the length of TV usage. dtm No age. (2) Props
blackboard commonplace po-
blackboard and the commonplace po-
ETV program, however, should exceed
ET should
program,exceed
however, dium, any props or aids may be used.
the scheduled academic period. The producer/director can make sug-
(a) One-man presentation. The most gestions in this area. The same ap-
common technique is that of one in- plies to the set or background that you
structor presenting the material. desire. Your director will help in this
Additional instructors may be used area.
in the presentation for assistance or
change
change of pace or voice. opre tac n or v
si(3) Visuals and training aids. Good pic-
tures are essential to good television.
(b) Demonstration. A method or skill This does not mean, of course, that
may be demonstrated. visual aids must always be employed;
(c) Controlled practical exercises or some talks, discussion, or similar pro-
"follow-me." Timing of this type grams can be excellent television with-
exercise need not present difficulty. out further visualization. Most in-
Two methods are used for pacing. structional or informational programs,
The first is based on the classroom however, should be carefully and well
experience of the instructor. An- illustrated, since the TV medium offers
other tested technique is the use of a wide opportunity to use good visual
student demonstrators. These dem- material.
onstrators represent various skill (a) You should use training aids or vis-
levels and can follow the instruction ual materials for one or more of the
either on or off camera giving the following purposes:
instructor a sense of proper pacing. 1. To arrest the attention of the viewer.

167
 2. To capture and reinforce his inter- are usually available as a more effi-
est. cient "chalkboard" without the at-
3. To illustrate functions, methods, tendant problems. Prepared mate-
ideas. rials may be rolled into view or
4. To increase understanding and material may be developed on air
clarity of ideas. conveniently with this device.
5. To convey visual information. (d) You should consider certain prob-
6. To make your presentation more lems in the reproduction of visual
varied and dramatic. aids through the television medium
7. To contribute to the setting of scene before you select or prepare such
or mood. visuals. Among these are the fol-
(b) Use visual illustrations as often as lowing:
the content of a program dictates, 1. All colors in training aids or visual
but you should not use meaningless material will be reproduced in
or insignificant visual materials shades of gray on a black-and-white
simply for the sake of using them. TV receiver. It is important that
Ideas, functions, terms, and words you select visual materials with
that you may not be able to illus- sufficient gray scale contrast in each
trate easily in the classroom can be detail for good TV reproduction.
illustrated on TV to avoid misunder- Ask your director to advise you or
standing. check out any aid "on camera" prior
(c) Almost any type of training aid or to rehearsal. This problem occurs
visual aid can be used on television most frequently in-
although some will require adapta- (a) Slides, films, filmstrips or trans-
tion. Among the visual aids com- parencies without sufficient
monly available that can be used on tonal contrast. Retouching,
TV are: new prints, or substitution of
1. Equipment component parts. other materials is required.
2. Models or mockups of equipment. (b) Close-ups of wiring and com-
3. Opaque charts, graphs, illustrations, ponents of equipment that may
or schematics. not stand out visually. Special
4. Transparencies of all types-2 x 2 lighting, repainting of parts, or
inches, 31/4 x 4 inches, overhead pro- "exploded" views of objects are
jector slides, operable transparen- remedies.
cies or acetate overlay transparen- (c) Equipment with control knobs
cies. of the same gray scale tone. Re-
5. Film strips, 35-mm. painting of controls in contrast-
6. Motion picture films, sound, (com- ing colors, and shooting and
plete or selected sequences). lighting at oblique angles are
7. Graphics, artwork, photographs, necessitated.
animated graphics. (d) Schematics or illustrations in
8. Rear-screen projection materials of pastel colors. These may need
all types. bold line retouching or special
9. Special visual devices such as Tech- lighting to bring out contrasts.
namation or cellomatic. 2. Surface texture of graphics is im-
10. Chalkboards with "off-white" chalk portant. A matte finish is preferred.
may be used in a TV presentation. Glossy pictures of highly reflective
However, the same problem of chalk surfaces will reproduce glare from
dust and erasing as exists in the TV lights. Glare can be prevented
classroom compounds itself in a TV by careful placement, spraying with
studio. Roller devices using large dulling waxes, and repainting or
brown wrapping paper and felt pens reproducing with dull finishes.

168
 1 j [f8
!U i f; (4)
iytk 0 A successful television pro-
Scripts.
V' ~ duction depends in part on the knowl-
edge your producer/director has about
your presentation. It is therefore nec-
essary for you to provide him with
a script or run down sheet. This
should not be complicated or lengthy.
The following describes the type
scripts usually required:
(a) Outline. Qualified instructors can
teach best from outlines, expanded
in key areas to verbatim materials.
Production rates are best and
naturalness is retained in this type
of script.
Figure 99. A more efficient chalkboard. (b) Semiscript. This expanded outline
best supports complicated subjects,
particularly if the production plan
3. Excessive detail in visuals causes involves extreme close-ups and in-
problems. Small lines or great tricate movements and camera
variety of contrasts may tend to changes. Semiscript, like the out-
"wiggle" or run together. Visual line, is useful mainly to a qualified
materials used on TV should have instructor.
simple detail, a few contrasting (c) Full script. Full scripts are useful
colors, firm or bold lines. in programs where precise wording
4. The TV system reproduces a picture is needed to simplify, clarify, or re-
4.3
unitshighby 4unitswide. Graph- late. Full scripts also play a key
ics, visuals, any material to be picked role wher e drama
effects,
tic narra-
up by cameras or projected shouldshould tion over films, accurate description
be prepared in an aspect ratio of of complicated, or carefully timed
3 to 4. For example, all visuals demonstrations are used. Full
should be 3 x 4 inches, 6 x 8 inches, scripts are required when lessons
or 9 x 12 inches, etc. When mate- are presented by persons who are
rials of other proportions are to be not knowledgeable in the subject
used, they should be mounted with
sufficient borders to permit 3 by 4 c. Rehearsals. Two types of rehearsals usual-
framing. ly are accomplished during the preparation of
5. Motion or suggestions of motion in any TV instructional presentation, either live
visuals can reinforce attention and or video taped.
interest. Equipment may be moved (1) Dry run. This is a common term de-
by hand, placed on small turn-tables, noting those rehearsals conducted by
or mounted to show dimensions or the instructor for his own preparation.
parts better. Graphics may be "ani- Another member of the proponent
mated" by using cutout areas with staff or faculty should sit to critique.
shutters, which can be pulled to (2) Camera rehearsals. This is a dress re-
reveal background detail, by using hearsal with all speech, action, and
rubber bands or other spring de- visuals employed. This is the step
vices, by stripping transparencies prior to taping the program. Director,
with special material, and using a cameramen, and engineers will be
revolving disk to show directional scheduled for this rehearsal. This re-
motion and similar effects. hearsal should take place shortly be-

169
 SUBJECT:
TELEVISION SCRIPT WRITING

DAY AND DATE: DEPARTMENT:

10 June 1966 Director of Television
NAME OF INSTRUCTOR:
l/Lt Robert C. Smith
NAME(S) OF ASSISTANT INSTRUCTOR(S):
M/Sgt Carl K. Jones SFC Manuel Small

VIDEO AUDIO TIME

TITLE BOARD

"TV SCRIPT WRITING:

MS - 1st INSTRUCTOR (LT SMITH INTRODUCES HOUR

MS - SGT JONES INTRODUCES SGT JONES

MS - SGT SMALL INTRODUCES SGT SMALL

LS - LT SMITH - MOVES THE FIRST THING WE NEED TO BE

TO DESK, PICKS UP SCRIPT FAMILIAR WI'TH IS THE ACTUAL

FORM FORM -------. THE FORM IS

CU SCRIPT FORM DIVIDED INTO TWO COLUMNS -

VIDEO - WHERE THE PICTURES

ARE INDICATED AND AUDIO -

WHERE THE TEXT IS WRITTEN.

Figure 100. TV script.

fore the scheduled presentation. Nec- terest and attention of your viewers. The partic-
essary changes should occur at this ipants on educational TV programs must be ac-
time. It may also point up the need complished communicators rather than polished
for more visual impact. Visualization actors. An experienced, alert, and effective
may be accomplished even at this late classroom instructor can adapt his teaching
date by such techniques as super-im- methods to the requirements of television in a
posing words, split screen, or adding short time. Your TV producer/director can
a blackboard sketch or listing. Many
of changes
Of these changes
these rest
rest in
in the
the imagina-
imagina- guide you in using the best TV techniques.
tion you and your director can mutual- (1) The following suggestions will be help-
ly bring to bear to overcome potential ful to you:
shortcomings in the instruction. (a) Be prepared. Have your ideas, your
d. Presenting Educational TV Programs. script outline, your training aids,
Educational television depends upon effective props, display devices, and other re-
communication. Skillful presentation of your sources well organized and in a
program is, therefore, another prime requisite workable arrangement. Work out
in making the program effective. Although con- any problems during rehearsals. Do
tent of the program is your first consideration, not assume that something that
the presentation must capture and hold the in- failed to work properly in rehearsal

I170
 TV SCRIPT CONTINUATION SUBJECT:
SHEET TELEVISION SCRIPT WRITING

VIDEO AUDIO TIME

MCU - SGT JONES NOW SGT JONES WILL EXPLAIN

THE ABBREVIATIONS FOR SHOTS.

MS - SGT JONES & BLACKBOARD SHOT ABBREVIATIO1N CORRESPOND

TO THE SIZE OR AREA OF THE

PICTURE DESIRED.

CU OF BLACKBOARD AS SGT JONES CU - DESIGNATES A CLOSE UP

WRITES
MCU - MEDIUM CLOSE UP

MS - MEDIUM SHOT

LS - LONG SHOT

MS - SGT JONES THESE TERMS ARE FAIRLY SELF-

EXPLANATORY. THEY ARE INDICATED

IN THE VIDEO COLUMN ON THE

LEFT.

2 SHOT - LT SMITH & SGT SMALL WILL NOW EXPLAIN HOW

SGT SMALL
TO INDICATE THE USE OF VISUALS

IN THE SCRIPT.

Figure 100-Continued.

will work during your presentation; instruction, so take the time re-
correct or replace it. quired to do a complete job. Your
(b) Relax. Try to be yourself. Remem- viewers cannot ask you to slow
ber that the TV camera projects down, repeat a statement, or clarify
your natural personality best, and some point that is vague. Vary the
the more relaxed and natural you pace of your delivery to keep their
are, the better you will reach your attention, but do not race through
viewers. Don't try to "act," or to your material. Allow time for an
be too formal with your presenta- adequate summary at the end of the
tion. Be friendly, smile occasionally, program.
use natural but not exaggerated ges- (d) Work to the camera. The camera is
tures. the eyes of your viewers. Talk to
(c) Don't hurry. Allow ample time to it; establish eye contact with the
cover each point you want to make, camera lens when it is focused on
and remember to keep your ideas you; show your illustrations clearly
simple and direct. As stated previ- to the camera. Keep the illustra-
ously, there is no prescribed time tion unobstructed and uncluttered.
limitations for closed circuit educa- (e) Move naturally, but move. Sit or
tional TV as applied to military stand naturally and comfortably,

171
 TV SCRIPT CONTINUATION SUBJECT:
SHEET | TELEVISION SCRIPT WRITING

VIDEO AUDIO TIME

MCU - SGT SMALL TELEVISION IS, OF COURSE, A

VISUAL MEDIUM.. THIS FACT DIC-

TATES THAT SIMPLE, CLEAR,

MEANINGFUL VISUALS MUST BE USED

WHENEVER POSSIBLE.

CU - PAPER ROLLER DEVICE IN THE VIDEO COLUMN YOU SHOULD

INDICATE WHAT TYPE OF VISUAL

YOU ARE USING.

CU OF EACH TYPE THAT IS - A FLIP CARD, PICTURE,

FILM CLIP, MAGAZINE, BOOK, ETC.

LS - SGT SMALL & PAPER ROLLER WRITE THE TYPE OF VISUAL AND A
DEVICE
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ITS CON-

TENTS IN THE VIDEO COLUMN. SO

YOU COULD WRITE

CU OF EXAMPLE PICTURE # 1 (TWO SOLDIERS)

S - LT SMITH AT PODIUM NOW A BRIEF REVIEW OF WHAT WE

HAVE LEARNED TODAY.

Figure 100-Continued.

but watch your posture. Move slow- way but quickly. Do not call undue
ly but deliberately in order for the attention to an error.
camera to follow your actions. The (h) Present your material in the way
director will suggest any changes you rehearsed it. Keep close to the
necessary. form and timing of your outline.
(f) Show. Remember that TV is an On-air changes will confuse your
excellent medium for illustrating director and crew and will reflect
your ideas, and almost demands that on your presentation.
you show rather than simply tell. Do (i) Placement of objects. All display
not feel that you must talk inces- devices, pieces of equipment, illus-
santly while you demonstrate some- trations, or training aids must be
thing; pauses can be important. Do positioned so they can be picked up
not talk for long periods without adequately by the TV camera. Flat
some illustration of what you are graphics should be placed at a 90 °
talking about. angle to the camera; equipment and
(g) Correct your errors in a natural three-dimensional objects should be

172
 TV SCRIPT CONTINUATION SUBJECT:
SHEET TELEVISION SCRIPT WRITING

VIDEO AUDIO TIME

CU FLIP # 1 (EXPLANATION OF THERE ARE FOUR GENERAL TYPES OF

SHOT DESIGNATIONS)
SHOTS.

CU - FLIP # 2 VISUALS SHOULD BE INDICATED IN

VIDEO COLUMN WITH BRIEF

EXPLANATION OF ITS CONTENTS.

MS - LT SMITH WE HOPE WE HAVE MADE SCRIPT

WRITING A LITTLE EASIER. IF

THERE ARE ANY QUESTIONS, THE

CLASSROOM INSTRUCTOR WILL

ANSWER THEM FOR YOU.

FADE TO BLACK

Figure 100-Continued.

displayed at a slight angle or turned tor's hand or finger may be useful

in some manner to show size, con- to show the size, shape, or contour
tour, texture, detail. Often it is of an object in close-ups.
necessary to place illustrations "in (1) Writing. All written material con-
limbo" or apart from the TV in- sisting of more than a few words
structor and sometimes, to use du- should be printed by a graphics il-
plicate objects for close-ups, better lustrator before the presentation.
lighting, etc. Your producer/direc- This will be neater and will save
tor and floor manager will guide you valuable time during the presenta-
in the proper way to place, hold, tion.
and move objects or visual mate- (m) Projected materials. All slides,
rials. transparencies, opaque graphics,
(j) Placement of persons. Normally you etc., normally are handled in the
should stand behind a display table studio by the floor manager or pro-
or at one side of the display device jected from equipment in the film
you are using in order not to obstruct room or studio. Your script should
the camera view. For good TV pic- indicate when you want such mate-
ture composition, you must stand rial shown. When necessary, a TV
close to the device when both it and set will be placed so you can see the
you are to be included in the pic- projections.
ture. An established TV axiom is (2) To look your best on TV, you should
"if you're not touching (devices or observe a few simple rules:
persons), you're not in." (a) Military personnel should wear
(k) Pointers. Some form of pointer is proper uniforms. Campaign rib-
useful to designate detailed infor- bons may be worn. Brass should
mation on a chart or parts of equip- not be polished too highly before a
ment. This also gives a degree of TV appearance for it will reflect
motion to the picture. The instruc- lights and distract the viewers.

173
 (b) Civilians should wear neat, well- Watch previews of new programs. Schedule the
pressed business suits of medium showing of a program at a time when it can
brown, gray, or blue tones. Avoid be of the greatest usefulness to you.
and navy
black and blue suits, which c. Determine how you can best integrate the
black navy blue suits, which
may wash out under TV lights. program into your classroom instruction.
Pastel blue, gray, or tan shirts are
preferred to white, which is reflec- d. Get your class ready to see the program.
tive and may wash out facial fea- Make certain they have adequate background
tures. Clothing that is distinctly or have reached the proper place in the instruc-
seasonal and will "date" a program tion to understand the TV presentation. Sug-
should be avoided. gest what they should look for in the TV pro-
(c) Accessories shouldbekeptto a mini- gram. Make certain they have all equipment
mum. Metal cuff links, tie clips, and necessary to understand or follow the TV pre-
similar items should be avoided. sentation.
Neckties should be conservative in e. Watch your class while they view the pro-
contrasting colors with small stripes gram. Make certain they can see and hear well,
or patterns, or in solid shades. Eye- that they view the program effectively, and that
glasses may be worn on TV if you they take notes or follow any instructions given.
must wear them. Look for any expression that shows that the
student does not understand some point of the
on men appearing on TV. Men program. This will necessitate your moving
should be clean shaven and may use around the classroom in order to determine
a little neutral powder to tone down student involvement and attention.
beard shadow, pale complexions, or f. The televising of an educational hour of
facial glare. Fingernails should be instruction means little if the student does not
clean and neatly manicured for learn. In order to make certain that the mate-
close-ups. rial is properly received, the classroom and stu-
(e) Women who appear on TV should be dents must be prepared. Remember the effec-
neatly dressed in medium shades, tiveness of education depends ultimately on how
conservative clothes, with little or well the instruction is presented in the class-
no reflective jewelry, and should room under the best controlled conditions pos-
wear normal street makeup with a sible.
medium shade of lipstick and nail (1) Classroom preparation consists of-
polish. (a) Proper ventilation.
(b) Temperature controlled where possi-
91. Use of TV in Classroom Instruction ble.
The effectiveness of television programs de- (c) Proper lighting. Some lights may be
pends ultimately on how well the programs are turned off to reduce TV set glare,
presented in your classrooms! The final test but there should always be sufficient
of an educational TV program is in the useful- light in the classroom for note tak-
ness and significance of the program to the ing, writing, following of controlled
intended audience. Here are some ways in practical exercise work, and for con-
which educational TV programs can be used trolling class effort.
effectively: (d) Television sets must be adjusted in
advance of class period. The sets
a. Include new instructional TV programs in advance ofclassroom are operated ex-
lesson plans as a standard teaching aid. Make acty ike
your
c ome television set.
these programs do the job they are intended to Check the
Check schedule for
the schedule for the proper
the proper
L°o. channel and select it. After the test
b. Review the background data on new pro- pattern appears, adjust the sound
grams before showing them to your classes. level and the brightness and/or con-

174
 HORIZONTAL VIEWING ANGLE
A line of vision not more than 450 from the axis is the maximum
angle19~:;;~
recommended
3-8inhsfor viewing
2 most02
material. 02(If certain televised
21aninches
material requires absolute minimum 24-29 the angle~ may
31-36of distortion,
31 52-54
be reduced to 400 or even 300.)

FURNITURE AND SPACING BETWEEN

chair tablet armchair desk and chair
3 feet 0 inches 3 feet 0 inches 4 feet 4 inches 5 feet 2 inches

SIZE OF TV TUBE NUMBER OF VIEWERS

17 inches 32-34 21 20-23 16-18
19 inches 36-38 22 20-26 20-21
21 inches 52-54 31 31-36 24-29
23 inches 54-56 31 36-38 24-29
Figure 101. Horizontal viewing angle.

trast. A staff technician should be 2. Check required equipment and tools.

called if normal procedures fail to 3. Position the students.
prepare a TV set for operation. 4. Control student layout of tools, test
(e) Proper seating (figs. 101, 102). equipment, supplies, etc.
(2) Role of classroom instructor- 5. Introduce TV program.
(a) Passive viewing by students.
1. Assemble and control students. (a) Answer questions.
2. Introduce subject of lesson. (b) Observe students and identify
3. Introduce TV program. problem students
4. Summarize TV program. (c) Adjust malfunctioning equip-
5. Initiate and control discussion of ment.
TV program. (d) Insure safety practices.
6. Present non-TV portion of lesson. (e) Assist student having manipu-
7. Summarize lesson.
(b) Active viewing by students. (3) Following the TV presentation, review
1. Prepare work sheets. the main points briefly, if you feel this

175
 VIEWING DISTANCES

k MAXIMUM VIEWING DISTANCE >1

MAXIMUM VIEWING
SIZE OF TV TUBE DISTANCE
17 inches 14 feet 9 inches
19 inches 15 feet 2 inches
21 inches 19 feet 0 inches
23 inches 19 feet 4 inches

II
l_

MINIMUM VIEWING DISTANCE

(300 is maximum vertical
viewing angle)

I- -J

SIZE OF TV TUBE SEAT ROW SPACING

3 feet O inches 4 feet 4 inches 5 feet 2 inches
17 inches 5 feet 6 inches 4 feet 2 inches 3 feet 9 inches
19 inches 5 feet 8 inches 4 feet 4 inches 3 feet 10 inches
21 inches 7 feet 1 inch 5 feet 5 inches 4 feet 10 inches
23 inches 7 feet 2 inches 5 feet 6 inches 4 feet 11 inches
Figure 102. Viewing distances.

necessary, and clarify any questions (4) Be prepared to pick up the lesson and
that the students may have. Do not apply the ideas or methods shown on
try to repeat everything that was TV to your classroom work-and to
shown on TV. carry the students further.

1i'6
92. Glossary of Television Terms MULTIPLEXER-A device that permits the
use of a combination of TV film and slide pro-
e to
ASPECT RATIO-A . j ectors with only one TV camera.
training aids. The aspect ratio is 4 units wide
~to 3 units high.~NARRATOR-An off-camera or background
A UDIO-The sound or audible component of
TV. ON CAMERA-In front of a live camera.
REMOTE PICKUP-Pickupfrom a location
BOOM (MICROPHONE)--A mechanical de- other than the TV studio.
vice used for lowering, raising, extending, or
retracting a microphone or series of micro- SCRIPT-A written guide for a TV program.
phones. (See figure 100.)
CLOSED-CIRCUIT TV (CCTV)--System in SET(S)-The area or areas in which a scene
which only receivers on the coaxial cable re- is enacted.
ceive the TV signal. SHOT-A single picture taken on one camera.
COAXIAL CABLE-Cable that transmits SHOTS-Camera shots are named for the
the TV signals. number of individuals in the scene (ONE-
CONTRAST--Used to express the light value SHOT, TWO-SHOT, etc.), position from which
between the lightest and darkest parts of a the camera views the object (HIGH-SHOT,
picture. LOW-SHOT, OVER-THE-SHOULDER SHOT,
etc.), or portion of the object in the scene
CUE-Direction to begin, terminate, or
change action. Relayed by floor manager or
cameraman from the
the director.
cameraman from
director. MEDIUM-SHOT, HEAD-SHOT, or CLOSE-
DISTRIB UTION-The process of getting the
TV signal from studio to classroom receivers. SLIDE-A picture or title for direct projec-
tion into TV system. Usually refers to a slide
FILM CLIP-A selected segment of film for of the 2 x 2 inches dimension.
insertion in a program. SPLIT SCREEN-The viewing screen is
FLIPCARD-Card containing information split down the center to permit two actions, i.e.,
to be picked up on camera, standard size 11 x cause and effect, side by side. The screen can
14 inches. also be split horizontally (see fig. 95).
FRAME-The outer edges of the TV screen. STANDBY-A vocal direction, indicating
GRAY SCALE-Variations in value from that the program is about to go on the air.
white, through shades of gray, to black on a STUDIO HAND SIGNALS-A sign language
television screen. used to communicate with the personnel on
camera or in the studio (see fig. 97).
KINESCOPE RECORDING-A 16-mm mo-
tion-picture film recording of a television pro- SUPERIMPOSE-The overlapping of 2 pic-
gram. tures from 2 different cameras blended into 1
scene on the television set. (Often used with
LENS-A piece of optical glass with 1 or 2 titles and captions.)
curved surfaces and 1 flat surface, that is used SWITCH--To cut from the picture on one
to converge or diverge light rays passing the picture on
camera to the picture on another. This is ac-
complished by the director.
LIVE TV-Action taking place before the TALK-BACK-Use of an intercommunica-
TV camera at the time of transmission. tion system to provide voice contact between the
MICROWAVE-Highly directional radio control room and the studio or between studio
signal linking remote equipment to the studio. and classroom to permit students to ask ques-
MOBILE UNIT-A truck or trailer contain- tions of the television instructor.
ing television equipment to permit the pickup TALLY LIGHT-Red lights on the television
of programs in the field. Can be recorded on cameras to inform TV instructors and crew
video tape or transmitted live by microwave members when a particular camera is on the
(see fig. 96). air.
177
475-774 0- 72 - 12
 VIDEO-Refers to the picture components of ZOOM LENS-A special lens that allows the
a television system. cameraman to move the field of view closer to
VIDEO-TAPE RECORDER (VTR)-A ma- the subject (zoom in) or away from the subject
chine that records both the audio and video sig- (zoom out). The focus of the lens is constant
nals of a television production on a special
magnetic tape. It also plays back taped pro-
grams.

178
 APPENDIX A
REFERENCES

TM 11-487F Directory of U. S. Army Signal Equipments: Pictorial Equipment.

DA Pam 108-1 Index of Army Motion Pictures, Filmstrips, Slides, Tapes, and Phono-
Recordings.
DA Pam 310-3 Index of Doctrinal, Training, and Organizational Publications.
AR 108-6 Motion Picture Production.
AR 108-30 Operation of Army Audio-Visual Communication Centers.
AR 350-15 Military Training Aids.
AR 350-340 Training Aids Center System.
AR 420-70 Repairs and Utilities--Buildings and Structures.
TA 11-12 United States Army Photographic Facilities and Audio-Visual Communica-
tion Centers.

179
 APPENDIX B
LESSON OUTLINES FOR AN INSTRUCTOR TRAINING COURSE
Note. Transparencies cited in lesson plans in most instances are figures in this manual.

INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Welcome-The Army Instructor.

TYPE: Lecture, conference, and practical exercise.
TIME ALLOTTED: 2 hours.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: Annex A (one per student).
PERSONNEL: CO and one instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and transparencies 1-5.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, para 3-7.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: None.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: As prescribed by training
schedule.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. WELCOME (Lecture-10 minutes)

Note. Should be presented by the unit commanding officer.
2. ORIENTATION ON ADMINISTRATIVE DETAILS OF COURSE
(Lecture--10 minutes)
a. Review of schedule:
(1) Conference instruction.
(2) Practical work.
Note. Issue student lesson requirements and explain.
b. Grading system and performance standards required for graduation.
c. Facilities and equipment available.
d. Issue of texts and materials.
Note. Above outline should be adapted to specific situation.

3. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES BY STUDENTS (Practical exercise-

50 minutes)
a. Directions to Students. When you are called on, come before the class
and present your rank, name, duty assignment, and a short military history
of yourself. Time per student will be 1 minute.
b. Presentationby Students.
4. THE ARMY INSTRUCTOR (Conference-25 minutes)
a. Characteristicsof the Good Instructor.
Note. Show transparency 1. Strip. (Fig. 2.)

180
 (1) Knowledge of subject. Must know:
(a) Doctrine and procedures prescribed in official training liter-
ature.
(b) Extent of prior and subsequent instruction on subject.
(c) Field application.
(2) Knowledge of methods and techniques of instruction.
Note. Explain that this is why they are attending this MOI course.
(3) Acceptable personality.
QUESTION: What personality traits do you like in an instructor?
(4) Leadership.
(a) Control and manage the class.
(b) Set an example.
(5) Professional attitude.
b. How the Instructor Can Improve.
Note. Show transparency 2. Strip. (Fig. 3.)
(1) Know what makes good instruction. Set high standards for
yourself.
(2) Observe other instructors.
(3) Analyze your own characteristics.
(4) Concentrate on specific elements.
(5) Seek help of associates.
(6) Make a constant effort to improve.
c. CharacteristicsCommon to Most Students. Think of your students
as being:
Note. Show transparency 3. Strip. (Fig. 4.)
(1) Mature.
(2) Sincere.
(3) Practical-minded.
(4) Discerning.
(5) Different.
d. Pitfalls to Avoid.
Note. Show transparency 4. Strip. (Fig. 5.)
(1) Never bluff.
QUESTION: What will you do when a student asks you a question to
which you do not know the answer?
(2) Never use profanity or obscenity.
QUESTION: Why is this important?
(3) Never use sarcasm or ridicule.
QUESTION: How will you handle a student you suspect is trying to
"sharpshoot" you?
(4) Never talk down.
(5) Never lose patience.
5. REVIEW (Conference-5 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) Administrative details.
(2) The Army instructor.
(a) Characteristics of a good instructor.
(b) Ways an instructor can improve.

181
 (c) Characteristics common to most students.
(d) Pitfalls to avoid.
Note. Question students on the above 4 points.
c. Closing Statement. Your role as an Army instructor is an important
one. The combat success of the Army depends upon the effectiveness of its
instructors. You are the keystone in the training arch.
Note. Show transparency 5. (Fig. 1.)
Annex A-Student Lesson Requirements.

WELCOME-THE ARMY INSTRUCTOR

Annex A to Lesson Plan
STUDENT LESSON REQUIREMENTS

1. GENERAL
a. The practical work of the course is designed to give you experience in
planning, presenting, and evaluating instruction.
b. To expedite the scheduling of student presentations, the class will be
divided into sections. Schedules designating section, date, time, and place
will be issued before each presentation.
c. You are responsible for obtaining or making all training aids used
in your presentations. After your presentation, erase all chalkboards. If
you need an assistant instructor, select him from your own section.
d. Each presentation will be timed. You should prepare your subject to
allow adequate coverage in the time allotted. Any deviation in excess of
2 minutes from the assigned time will result in a grade reduction.
2. REQUIREMENTS
a. The Introduction.
(1) This exercise requires you to present an introduction to a unit of
instruction that is taught by your department or organization.
You will include in your introduction a statement of the objectives
of the class and reasons for the class to learn the subject. Strive
to gain the attention and interest of the class in your introduction.
(2) Remember, the introduction prepares the class for the material to
be presented. Do not attempt to present the subject matter implied
by your assigned topic; just give a 3- to 5-minute introduction to
that topic.
b. Use of the Chalkboard.
(1) You will plan and present a 10-minute lesson on a unit of instruc-
tion that is taught by your organization. You will use the chalk-
board during your presentation to illustrate teaching points.
(2) The lesson should be a complete unit. That is, it should contain an
introduction, an explanation, and a summary.
(3) The instructor and students will critique.
c. Short Lesson Presentation.
(1) You will plan and present a 15-minute lesson on a unit of instruc-
tion that is taught by your organization. The lesson should be a
complete unit. It should be supported by appropriate student-
made training aids. Use actual equipment or models if appropriate.

182
 (2) The instructor will designate a student critic for each presenta-
tion. Each critique will be graded.
(3) At the conclusion of the student critique, the instructor will
critique the lesson.
(4) You will submit a lesson plan for grading to the instructor at the
conclusion of your lesson.
d. Long Lesson Presentation.
(1) You will plan and present a 35-minute lesson on a unit of instruc-
tion that is taught by your organization.
(2) The instructor will designate student critics who will conduct
critiques as in the short lesson.
(3) The instructor will critique the presentation.
(4) When possible, student lessons will be presented in the classrooms,
shops, or areas where such training is normally taught.
(5) You will submit a lesson plan for grading to the instructor at the
conclusion of your lesson.

183
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Principles of Instruction.
TYPE: Conference and examination.
TIME ALLOTTED: 1 hour.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL:
a. Instructor.
b. Assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and transparencies 1-2, Venetian
blind chart.
REFERENCES: FM 21-5, chap. 3.
STUDY ASSIGNMENT: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Uniform as prescribed, note-
book and pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. PRESENTATION (30 minutes)

a. Introduction (3 minutes).
(1) Objective. Be able to-
(a) Explain the nature of learning.
(b) Explain the instructional process.
(c) Define each of the principles of instruction and give examples
of their use.
(2) Reasons.
(a) How a student learns must be considered in the application of
methods and techniques of instruction. Principles are as basic
to methods and techniques of instruction as they are to tactics.
(b) The fundamental elements are present in every instructional
situation. They are the student, the instructor, and the teaching
process. For you to plan and present effective instruction, it is
necessary that you understand each of these fundamental ele-
ments and its relationship to the other two.
b. Explanation (27 minutes).
(1) The general nature of learning.
(a) Instruction is the sum total of all instructor activities that con-
tribute to student learning.
(b) Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, and
appreciations that enable the individual to do something he
couldn't do before, or to do it better.
(c) The senses are the channels through which we learn. Lessons
that appeal to a variety of senses are most effective.
(d) Outcomes are-

184
 1. Knowledge.
2. Skills.
3. Attitudes.
(2) The instructional process. The instructional process is a three-
stage process of presentation by the instructor, application by the
student, and evaluation by the instructor. It is the foundation on
which a single lesson or an entire course is built.
Note. Show transparency 1. (Fig. 6.) Strip.
(a) Presentation-tell and show.
(b) Application-response and practice.
(c) Evaluation-formal and informal testing.
(3) The principles of instruction. The seven principles of instruction
describe the conditions that promote efficient learning. They
serve as a guide to the instructor in his selection and use of meth-
ods and techniques. They are-
Notes. 1. Following explanation, call on students to define and give
examples.
2. Use Venetian blind chart, Principles of Instruction. (Fig. 7.)
(a) Motivation. Desire of the student to learn is an important factor
in the teaching-learning process. Without motivation, students
learn little. Ways to develop motivation are-
Note. Show transparency 2. (Fig. 9.)
1. Show a need.
2. Develop an intent to learn.
3. Maintain interest.
4. Encourage early success.
5. Give recognition and credit.
6. Avoid emotions that hinder learning.
7. Use competition.
8. Use rewards and punishments.
(b) Objective.
1. Learning is more effective when the student knows exactly
what he is to learn and what is expected of him.
2. Lesson objectives:
(a) Direct student learning efforts.
(b) Show how the lesson fits into the overall course of instruc-
tion.
3. More interest is created when the student knows what to look
for and how the instruction prepares him for his job.
(c) Response.
1. A student learns only what he responds to.
2. His responses take the forms of listening, observing, reading,
recalling, taking notes, reciting, practicing, and solving prob-
lems.
3. In every period of instruction, students must be required to
respond frequently in a form that can be observed and evalu-
ated by the instructor.
(d) Reinforcement.
1. For efficient learning, a student must know whether his re-
sponses are right or wrong.
2. Ideally, a student should know whether he is right or wrong

185
 immediately after each response; the longer the delay, the
weaker the reinforcement becomes.
3. This principle is an important aspect of the evaluation stage of
instruction.
4. The evaluation should be concurrent with the presentation and
application stages of instruction.
5. Formal examinations at the end of an hour or a phase of train-
ing will not adequately accomplish the principle of reinforce-
ment.
(e) Realism. The more realistic the learning situation, the more
effective the learning. Each lesson, or main point of a lesson,
should be subjected to the test of these questions.
1. Is this the way this material will be used by the soldier in actual
practice ?
(a) The material must be realistic from the standpoint of its
field application.
(b) During the introductory phase of instruction, efforts at
realism should not obscure learning fundamentals.
2. Is my presentation realistic as far as the level of the class is
concerned?
(a) Instruction beyond student understanding is unrealistic.
(b) Make instruction realistic by using such personal refer-
ences as "Here's what this means to you," or "You will use
this in this way."
(f) Background. A student learns by building upon what he already
knows.
1. Learning is based upon experience.
2. New subjects should be discussed in light of things familiar
to the student, either through civilian or military training.
3. Consider state of training of student.
4. Review and make references to lessons already learned.
(g) Incidental learning.
Note. Develop from class.
1. Effective instruction produces proper attitudes, appreciations,
interest, ideals, and habits of conduct.
2. The instructor's real task is to train men, not merely to teach
subject matter.
3. Incidental learning is essential to the overall training objective.
Students learn many things from instruction in addition to the
material presented.
Note. Ask for questions. Summarize principles 'of learning.
2. EXAMINATION AND CRITIQUE (15 minutes)
3. REVIEW (5 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) The nature of learning.
(2) The basic instructional process.
(3) The principles of instruction.
c. Closing Statement. Apply the principles of instruction and the stages

186
of instruction as guides to the selection and use of methods and techniques.
Remember that only when your students learn do you succeed as an
instructor.

187
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Presenting Oral Instruction.
TYPE: Conference and practical exercise.
TIME ALLOTTED: 2 hours.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL: Instructor, assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and transparencies 1-6, chalk-
board.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, para 12-16.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Duty uniform, notebook and
pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (3 minutes)
a. Review.
(1) Stages of instruction.
(2) Principles of instruction.
b. Reasons.
(1) Oral instruction is used in all stages of military training.
(2) You must know how to introduce a unit, develop teaching points in
the explanation, and summarize material properly to accomplish
your job effectively as an instructor.
c. Objectives. Be able to-
(1) Introduce a lesson effectively.
(2) Explain techniques of proper organization, transitions, interest,
and emphasis in the explanation.
(3) Explain contents of a final summary.
2. EXPLANATION (80 minutes)
a. The Introduction (45 minutes).
(1) The introduction is needed to:
Note. Show transparency 1. (Fig. 16.)
(a) Establish contact.
(b) Stimulate interest and gain attention.
(c) Disclose and clarify the subject.
Note. Develop from class how the above purposes can be accomplished. List
on chalkboard and give examples.
(2) Every introduction must include:
Note. Show transparency 2. (Fig. 18.)
(a) Objectives. What is to be learned?
1. State in behavioral terms.

188
 EXAMPLES: 1. Be able to write an operations order.
2. Be able to identify a unit's size, type, and
parent organization from a military symbol.
2. When appropriate state conditions and standards.
EXAMPLE: Be able to read accurately color-coded resistors
with the aid of a chart.
(b) Reasons. Why it is important for students to learn the lesson
objectives.
(3) The introduction may include-
(a) Review. Relationship between this unit and previous instruc-
tion.
(b) Procedures. Methods the instructor will use in teaching the
lesson.
QUESTION: What principles of learning are applied by using
elements of the introduction?
Note. Devote 30 minutes to developing the introduction in the class-
room. (See annex A.)
b. The Explanation (25 minutes).
(1) Organization.
(a) Have a logical order.
(b) Limit main points.
(c) Use teaching vehicle, if appropriate.
Note. Show transparency 3. (Fig. 19.)
(2)-Transitions. Each main point should be introduced, explained,
illustrated, and summarized.
Note. Show transparency 4. (Fig. 20.) Give examples.
(a) Use frequent summaries.
(b) Refer to the objective.
(c) Use connective words or phrases.
(d) Use rhetorical questions.
(e) List or enumerate points.
Note. Emphasize the necessity for using a variety of transitional techniques.
(3) Interest. Interest will be enhanced by-
(a) Specific explanation.
(b) Illustrations, stories, and examples.
(c) Rhetorical questions.
(d) Training aids.
(4) Emphasis. Gained by:
Note. Show transparency 5. (Fig. 21.)
(a) Repetition.
(b) Speech techniques.
(c) Vivid phraseology.
(d) Questioning.
(e) Training aids.
c. The Summary (10 minutes).
(1) When to use summaries.
(a) Throughout the lesson.
(b) At the end of the lesson.
(2) How to make a final summary.
Note. Show transparency 6. (Fig. 22.) Give example.
(a) Clarify student questions.

189
 (b) Recap main lesson objectives.
(c) Make a strong closing statement.
3. EXAMINATION AND CRITIQUE (15 minutes)
4. REVIEW (2 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) Introduction.
(2) Explanation.
(3) Summary.
c. Closing Statement. The effectiveness of any instructional method or
teaching procedure depends upon the degree of interest that it arouses and
holds, the thinking that it stimulates, and the activity-mental or phys-
ical-that it encourages. These outcomes are brought about by the in-
structor's intelligent and varied use of the materials that have been
presented in this unit. A good introduction, a clear explanation, and an
effective summary are essential to effective teaching.
Annex A-Instructions for Developing Introduction Techniques in Class.

PRESENTING ORAL INSTRUCTION

Annex A to Lesson Plan

INSTRUCTIONS FOR DEVELOPING INTRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

IN CLASS
1. During this exercise, call upon a student to introduce a designated sub-
ject. At the conclusion of the introduction, have the class critique the
student introduction. Then present a demonstration introduction on the
same subject. This procedure will continue throughout the allotted time
(30 minutes).
2. Subjects to be introduced may include:
a. Track maintenance (care and adjustment).
b. First aid (bandaging).
c. Machinegun (nomenclature).
d. Map reading (grid system).
e. Radio set (nomenclature).
Break-End of first hour.

190
INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Speech Techniques.
TYPE: Conference.
TIME ALLOTTED: 1 hour.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL: Instructor, one assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and 5 transparencies.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, para 17-25.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Duty uniform, notebook, and
pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (3 minutes)
a. Reasons. The effective military leader must be able to apply good
speech techniques in all activities in which he must communicate ideas to
others. The ability to speak effectively is essential not only to personal
military leadership but also to efficient instruction.
b. Objectives. Be able to-
(1) Explain how to keep contact.
(2) Explain ways of controlling nervousness.
(3) Demonstrate proper bearing.
(4) Demonstrate common mannerisms.
(5) Explain what an instructor can do to insure that all students can
hear.
(6) Explain factors that make a speaker easy to understand.
2. EXPLANATION (32 minutes)
a. Essentials of Communication.
(1) Knowledge of subject.
(a) Be thoroughly prepared.
(b) Don't try to bluff your way through a subject.
(c) Develop a background and depth in your subject.
(2) Personality.
(a) Speak with the full resources of your personality.
(b) Be sincere. Develop a genuine interest in your students.
(c) Don't indulge in sham or artificiality.
(3) Effective speech techniques.
(a) Know the techniques of effective speech that will be explained
and demonstrated during this period.
(b) Practice these techniques.
b. Techniques of Delivery.

191
 (1) Get contact with the students and keep it.
Note. Show transparency 1. (Fig. 23.)
(a) Be sure you have the attention of the class before starting. Ask
for their attention. Be physically alert.
(b) Look at and talk to the class. Avoid overuse of notes.
(c) Be conversational in your delivery.
(d) Be alert to the class. Don't talk down to your students.
(2) Control nervousness.
Note. Show transparency 2. (Fig. 24.)
(a)Be thoroughly prepared; have a plan to follow.
(b) Assume the proper mental attitude.
(c)Have initial remarks well in mind.
(d)Review previous instruction.
(e)Tell a story.
(f)Be deliberate; slow down. When nervous, there is a tendency
to speed up.
(3) Maintain bearing.
Note. Show transparency 3. (Fig. 25.)
(a) Check appearance before class.
(b) Maintain good posture; don't slouch.
(c) Make movements decisive and purposeful.
(d) Deliver your instruction with the total physical resources you
have available. Don't restrict your delivery.
(4) Avoid mannerisms that distract. The guiding rule here is-avoid
those things that cause the class to concentrate upon you and what
you are doing rather than on your subject.
Note. Demonstrate typical mannerisms.
(5) Be enthusiastic.
Note. Show transparency 4. (Fig. 27.)
(a) There is no substitute for a physically vital and enthusiastic
delivery. Enthusiasm is contagious.
(b) Believe in what you teach and, through voice and action, show
it.
(6) Be sure you are heard.
(a) Have an assistant in the rear of the class signal .you when
volume is not adequate.
(b) Vary volume. Sustained loudness can anesthetize; prolonged
softness lulls to sleep.
(7) Be sure you are understood.
Note. Show transparency 5. (Fig. 29.)
(a) Develop a sense of communication. Speak ideas, not words.
Phrase ideas in simple sentences and common words.
(b) Vary rate of speech to suit the subject matter and the students'
understanding.
(c) Pause to punctuate, not to mutilate.
(d) Enunciate clearly and pronounce correctly.
3. REVIEW (15 minutes)
a. Clarificationof Questions.
b. Summary.
Note. Call on students to explain or demonstrate each of the lesson objectives.
c. Closing Statement. The application of the techniques considered will

192
 enable the instructor to do a creditable job of speaking. He should develop
a sense of communication when he speaks; he should deliver his ideas with
physical vitality, enthusiasm, genuineness, and earnestness, and he should
speak with the full resources of his personality. Good speech is one im-
portant factor contributing to good instruction.

193
475-774 0 - 72 - 13
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Introductions.
TYPE: Practical exercise.
TIME ALLOTTED: 3 hours. First hour-five student presentations;
second hour-six student presentations; third hour
-five student presentations. Based on 48 students
divided into 3 sections of 16 students each.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL: Instructor, assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Student-made.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, para 12-14, 17-25.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: As prescribed by training
schedule.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (2 minutes)
a. Reasons.
(1) Introduction sets the stage for instructor's presentation.
(2) Introduction serves threefold purpose:
(a) Establishes contact.
(b) Arouses interest and secures attention.
(c) Discloses nature of the subject.
b. Objective. To learn by practice and observation, how to-
(1) Plan an effective introduction.
(2) Present an effective introduction.
2. EXPLANATION (6 minutes)
a. Points To Be Observed.
(1) Contact.
(2) Interest.
(3) Attention.
(4) Elements.
(a) Reasons.
(b) Objective.
(c) Other elements.
b. Administrative Information and Instructions.
(1) Presentation to be graded.
(2) Introduction to be critiqued by instructor and students.
(3) Explanation of subject matter not to be included.
3. APPLICATION (137 minutes)
a. Introduction of Subject by Student (5 minutes).

194
 (1) Class observes and make notes for critique.
(2) Instructor evaluates introduction, using supervisory checksheet.
b. Critique by Instructor (3 minutes).
Note. Repeat a and b above for each student.
4. REVIEW (5 minutes)
a. Clarification of Students' Questions on Introductions.
b. Summary.
(1) Purposes of introduction.
(2) Techniques.
(3) Content of introduction.
c. Closing Statement. By means of an effective introduction, an instruc-
tor sets the stage for his presentation. He does this through making contact
with his class, securing their attention, stimulating interest, and disclosing
the nature of the subject at hand. By following the techniques that have
been demonstrated here today, our oral instruction will be accepted by our
students and achieve the results we desire.

195
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Training Aids.
TYPE: Conference and demonstration.
TIME ALLOTTED: 2 hours.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL: Instructor and assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and 5 transparencies. Locally
available aids and materials.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, para 33-38.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Duty uniform, notebook and
pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (10 minutes)

a. Reasons. Training aids:
(1) Give the instructor valuable assistance in putting his instruction
across to the students.
(2) Make learning easier and more interesting to the students by their
vivid appeal and emphasis.
(3) Enable the instructor to save valuable training time.
(4) Reinforce learning through their multiple sense appeal.
(5) Are only effective if correct techniques in their use are employed.
(6) Cannot always be obtained from support agencies; therefore, the
instructor may have to make them.
b. Objective. Be able to-
(1) Recognize proper techniques in the use of training aids.
(2) List the common-type training aids and their uses.
(3) List materials available for making aids.

2. EXPLANATION AND DEMONSTRATION (70 minutes)

a. Techniques in-the Use of Training Aids.
(1) Plan or select appropriate aid.
(a) Size of class and classroom.
(b) Subject.
(c) Class level.
(d) Variety, and compatibility with other aids.
(2) Prepare for the use of the aid.
Note. Show transparency 1. (Fig. 40.)
(a) Know the aid.
(b) Prepare the aid mechanically.

196
 (3) Explain the aid to the class.
Note. Show transparency 2. (Fig. 41.)
,(a) Orientation of the entire aid.
(b) Detailed explanation of point.
(4) Keep aids covered when not in use.
Note. Show transparency 3. (Fig. 42.)
(5) Show aids so that all can see.
Note. Show transparency 4. (Fig. 43.)
(6) Use a pointer.
Note. Show transparency 5. (Fig. 45.)
(a) Hold in hand closest to the aid.
(b) Will help maintain class contact.
Note. Demonstrate techniques. Call on students to evaluate.
b. Training Aids, Their Purpose and Use.
(1) Overhead projector.
(a) Purposes.
Note. Illustrate with sample slides.
1. Shows list.
2. Portrays ideas graphically.
3. Depicts photographically.
4. Develops ideas through overlays on slide.
5. Shows outline form of small parts.
6. Records student responses.
Note. Demonstrate use of cellophane roll on overhead projector.
(b) Preparationsfor use.
Note. Demonstrate techniques where applicable.
1. Rehearse with assistant.
2. Arrange slides in sequence to aid assistant.
3. Check focus and size.
4. Strip the slide, when appropriate.
5. Turn off no more lights than necessary.
Caution: Avoid keeping classroom in total darkness.
Note. Stress the necessity of titles on slides.
(2) Venetian blind.
(a) Purposes.
1. Shows lists.
2. Use in conjunction with other aids.
(b) Use.
1. Introduce point.
2. Reveal point.
3. Discuss point.
Notes. 1. Particularly important when teaching procedures or steps.
2. Illustrate characteristics with sample Venetian blind strips.
(3) Chalkboard.
(a) Purposes.
1. Portrays development of teaching point.
2. Shows impromptu illustrations.
3. Records student responses in conference.
(b) Use.
1. Plan work.
2. Check for clean board and presence of chalk and erasers.
197
 3. Keep it simple.
4. Print and draw so that all can see.
Caution: Appropriate to class.
5. Use color for emphasis.
6. Label important points.
7. Maintain contact.
Note. Demonstrate improper use of blackboard. Have students critique.
(4) Training films and film clips.
(a) Purposes.
1. Supplement classroom or field demonstrations.
2. Provide a change of pace.
(b) Use.
1. Preview carefully; study instructor's film reference.
2. Introduce.
3. Show.
4. Apply, test, and summarize.
(5) Other types of training aids.
(a) Equipment.
(b) Models.
(c) Displays.
(d) Wall charts.
(e) Blacklight.
(f) Terrain boards.
(g) Flock or blanket boards.
(h) Trainers.
(i) Simulators.
Note. Explain to students the process of local procurement from support
agencies.
c. Construction of Training Aids.
Note. Illustrate the following with appropriate aids. Explain techniques of their
construction.
(1) Slides.
(a) Acetate with grease pencil.
Note. Grease pencil will not show color on acetate.
Cautions: 1. Fasten sheets of acetate together before drawing
overlay.
2. Use gridded acetate or sheet of ruled paper as guide
when straight lines are desired.
(b) Acetate with ink and water color.
(c) Cellophane slide.
Note. Use all capitals.
(d) Transparencies.
(e) Thermo-fax (provides a rapid means of duplicating).
Caution: Illustration to be duplicated must be fairly large and
well-defined.
1. Forms.
2. Diagrams.
3. Pictures.
(f) Overhead projector film (carbon emulsion film).
(2) Venetian blind strips.
Note. Stress use of Venetian blind for listing.

198
 (a) Freehand use of grease pencil, magic marker, and speedball pen.
Note. Illustrate techniques of making Venetian blinds.
(b) Stencils.
(c) Lettering guides.
(3) Cutouts.
(4) Charts.
(a) Methods of construction:
1. Opaque projector.
2. Freehand sketching.
3. Block enlargement.
(b) Headings and listing of key points.
(5) Maps. Must show-
(a) Direction.
(b) Scale.
(6) Models.
3. EXAMINATION AND CRITIQUE (15 minutes)
4. REVIEW (5 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) Techniques in use of slide.
(2) Purposes and uses of common aids.
(3) Construction of aids.
c. Closing Statement. By using good training aids properly you will
insure that your instruction is more effective.

199
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: The Demonstration Method.
TYPE: Conference and demonstration.
TIME ALLOTTED: 1 hour.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL: Instructor, assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and 7 transparencies, chalkboard.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, ch. 8.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Uniform as prescribed, note-
book and pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
a. Reasons. The Army instructor must frequently show as well as tell.
The demonstration is an effective method of instruction if properly planned
and presented. Understanding the uses of the demonstration and how to
plan and conduct it is an essential requirement.
Note. Emphasize the value of showing by asking a student to tell, without showing,
how to smoke a cigarette or put on a coat. Instructor acts out explanation.
b. Objectives. Be able to-
(1) List uses of the demonstration and give examples.
(2) Name forms of the demonstration.
(3) Recognize specific points that should be observed in planning and
giving the demonstration.

2. EXPLANATION (42 minutes)

a. Purpose of the Demonstration. The demonstration may be used to
teach-
(1) How to do something (learning a skill).
(2) Why it works (principles and theories).
(3) How it works (operations and functioning).
(4) How it is executed (tactical movements).
(5) How men work together (procedures).
(6) Appreciations.
Note. Cite examples of each of the above uses. Call on students for other,ex-
amples. List on chalkboard or show transparencies 1-6. (Figs. 53-58.)
b. Forms of the Demonstration.
(1) The procedural demonstration.
(2) Displays.
(3) Field demonstrations.

200
 (4) Motion pictures.
(5) The skit or playlet.
Note. Cite examples of demonstrations employing the above forms. Call on stu-
dents for additional examples. List forms on chalkboard or show transparency 7.
(Fig. 59.)
c. Specific Points to Observe in Planningand Conducting Demonstrations.
Note. List on chalkboard.
(1) Plan details carefully.
(a) Arrange tools and equipment.
(b) Arrange students.
(c) Follow a written lesson plan.
(d) Demonstrate one thing at a time.
(2) Be alert to your class.
(a) Maintain proper position.
(b) Talk to the class.
(c) Check frequently to see that students understand.
(d) Encourage students to ask questions.
(e) Use additional aids.
(f) Summarize.
(3) Coordinate explanation and demonstration.
(a) Keep explanations brief and to the point.
(b) Avoid awkward gaps.
(c) Emphasize the essential points.
(4) Emphasize safety precautions.
Note. Present a demonstration. Have students critique.

3. REVIEW (3 minutes)
a. Clarificationof Student Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) Purpose of the demonstration.
c. Closing Statement. The demonstration is an effective method of in-
struction. We show as well as tell whenever possible. To show how to do
something by means of a well-planned and well-conducted demonstration
is the next best thing to having them do it themselves.

201
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Questioning Techniques.
TYPE: Conference and practical exercise.
TIME ALLOTTED: 1 hour.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL: Instructor and assistant.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and 7 transparencies.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, ch. 6.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Uniform as prescribed, note-
book and pencil, FM 21-6.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (3 minutes)
a. Objective. Be able to-
(1) Explain the value of the question as an instructional technique.
(2) Explain characteristics of a good question and give examples.
(3) Explain correct questioning technique.
b. Reasons.
(1) Properly used, the question is an effective means to obtain and
sustain active student participation in oral instruction.
(2) To be a good instructor, you must be able to use proper conference
techniques.
2. EXPLANATION (32 minutes)
a. When to Use Questions.
(1) Must be used in the conference.
(2) Should be used in the demonstration.
(3) Should be used in the practical exercise.
(4) May be used as a summary device.
(5) May be used in a discussion after a lecture.
b. Advantages Gained by Asking Questions.
(1) Increases student interest.
(2) Stimulates student thinking.
(3) Gears instruction to the class.
(4) Provides opportunity for expression of student attitudes.
(5) Introduces class experience.
(6) Provides drill.
(7) Emphasizes main points of the lesson.
(8) Checks the effectiveness of the instruction.
Note. Develop the above points from the class and list them on the chalkboard
or show transparency 1 (Fig. 31) in summary.

202
c. Questioning Techniques.
(1) Characteristicsof a good question. A good question should:
Note. Show transparencies 2-6. (Figs. 32-36.)
(a) Have a specific purpose.
1. Have a teaching purpose: check, drill, development, problem
solving, etc.
EXAMPLE: As a check on a study assignment for this unit, one
might ask, "What is one advantage of asking ques-
tions ?"
2. Base questions on significant teaching points.
(b) Be understood by students.
1. Alert students that question is being asked.
2. Word in simple language.
(c) Emphasize one point.
1. Divide questions requiring a serial response into individual
questions.
WRONG EXAMPLE: What are the advantages and disadvan-
tages of the combat formations used by
the tank platoon?
Note. The following example could be used during an initial discussion of
combat formations.
EXAMPLE: What is one advantage of the column formation
used by the tank platoon?
Note. The following examples might be used if the purpose of the question
is recall in the summary.
EXAMPLES: 1. What are the advantages of the column forma-
tion used by the tank platoon?
2. What are the disadvantages of the column for-
mation used by the tank platoon?
2. Keep responses related to main points. Use listings and sum-
maries.
(d) Require definite answers.
1. Phrase questions that must be answered specifically.
2. Do not allow students to bluff.
EXAMPLE: What should a good tank commander do whenever
possible ?
DEFINITE EXAMPLE: What are the duties of the tank com-
mander concerning operator/crew
maintenance ?
(e) Discourage guessing.
1. Ask questions the answers to which will indicate student
knowledge.
2. Do not ask "yes" or "no" questions unless the students are
required to explain the answers.
3. Do not ask questions that suggest the answer.
EMPHASIZE: To insure good questions, write them into the
lesson plan.
(2) Technique for asking questions.
Note. Use transparency 7. (Fig. 37.)
(a) State the question.
(b) Pause.
(c) Call on the student by rank and name.

203
 QUESTION: In what order should you call on members of the
class ?
1. Ask questions in no set pattern.
2. Call on as many students as practicable.
QUESTION: What requirement will you place on your students
when they answer a question?
ANSWER: That each student stand, announce his name, and
answer so that he can be heard by all.
QUESTION: What technique do you use for the student who
answers "I don't know" ?
ANSWER: Try to rephrase question and draw out the answer.
QUESTION: How do you handle the student whose answer is
only partially correct?
ANSWER: Rephrase question or use other students to provide
assistance.
QUESTION: What technique do you use for the indifferent
student who answers "I don't know"?
ANSWER: Ask him several questions. Make clear that indif-
ference will not be condoned.
(d) Evaluate the answer.
Notes. 1. Explain difference between recognition and evaluation.
2. Explain need for playing student answers to problem-type ques-
tions.

3. APPLICATION (12 minutes)

a. Directions to Students.
(1) You will be given several questions.
(2) You are to evaluate the questions in terms of characteristics of a
good question and technique for asking a question.
b. Questions.
QUESTION 1: Would good control of the column formation be an
advantage-Sgt L ? (Yes or no type ques-
tion.)
QUESTION 2: The column formation has poor firepower to the
front and rear. Is this a disadvantage of the column
formation-Sgt ? (Answer suggested in
stem.)
QUESTION 3: Do you have any questions? (OK, we have discussed
several areas and desire to clear up difficulties.)
QUESTION 4: Sgt , what is one reason why this is an
important advantage? (Wrong technique for asking
question.)
QUESTION 5: What is the most important advantage of a forma-
tion-Sgt ? (Vague-no definite answer.)
QUESTION 6: What are the three formations we have discussed so
far and what are the advantages and disadvantages
of each formation-Pvt ? (Multibarrel-
this question is too broad.)

204
 QUESTION 7: Cpl , what about these tank formations?
(Wrong technique and question has no definite
answer.)
QUESTION 8: Which of the tank formations gives the platoon the
best all-round security-Sgt ? (OK.)
QUESTION 9: Would you use the line formation or the column
formation when making an approach march-Sgt

Note. Stress column formation.

(Guessing-type question; answer suggested.)
4. REVIEW (3 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) When the question is used.
(2) Advantages of the question.
(3) Characteristics of a good question.
(4) How to ask a question.
c. Closing Statement. Plan your questions carefully; write them in your
lesson plan; ask them properly, and you will keep your students interested.

205
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Chalkboard Presentations.
TYPE: Practical exercise.
TIME ALLOTED: 6 hours. (Based on 48 students divided into 3 sections
of 16 students each; 3 students present per hour.)
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: Student critique sheets, su-
pervisory checksheets.
PERSONNEL: Instructor, assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Chalkboard.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, para 37.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Duty uniform, notebook and
pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (3 minutes)
a. Reasons.
(1) Chalkboard is widely used.
(2) Has variety of uses in classroom and field.
(3) Many times the chalkboard is the only aid available. As an in-
structor, you must be able to use this aid effectively.
b. Objective. Be able to employ proper--
(1) Techniques and skills in use of the chalkboard.
(2) Speech and oral presentation techniques.
2. EXPLANATION (5 minutes)
a. Points To Be Observed.
(1) Legibility, neatness, and uniformity of printing and drawings.
(2) Contact with class.
(3) Originality.
(4) Development of graphic illustrations.
(5) Variety of uses:
(a) Topics.
(b) Sketches.
(c) Diagrams.
(d) Questions.
(e) Recording student responses.
(f) Listings.
b. Administrative Information and Instructions.
(1) Presentation to be graded.
(2) Deviation of 2 minutes in timing allowed.
(3) Must be a complete lesson.

206
 c. Procedure To Be Followed.
(1) Final check of setup by student.
(2) Chalkboard presentation by student.
(3) Setup by next student.
(4) Critique by instructor and students.
(5) Break after three presentations and critiques.
3. APPLICATION (287 minutes)
a. Presentationof Lesson by Student (10 minutes).
(1) Class observes and makes notes for critique comments.
(2) Instructor evaluates presentation, using supervisory checksheet.
b. Critique by Instructor (3 minutes).
Notes. 1. Next student checks setup for his presentation.
2. Repeat above sequence for total of three presentations and critiques be-
fore authorized break.

4. REVIEW (5 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary
(1) Uses of the chalkboard.
(2) Legibility and neatness.
(3) Speech techniques.
(4) Techniques of presenting oral instruction.
c. Closing Statement. The chalkboard presentations you have seen today
have demonstrated several ways in which this aid assists in student learn-
ing. With application of originality, practice, and proper techniques, the
chalkboard becomes a most reliable and flexible training aid.

207
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Application.
TYPE: Conference and demonstration.
TIME ALLOTTED: 2 hours.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL: Instructor, assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and '7 transparencies, chalkboard.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, ch. 9.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Uniform as prescribed, note-
book and pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (3 minutes)
a. Reasons.
(1) Military training emphasizes doing.
(2) The Army instructor must be able to train men to do.
(3) In actual practice, a great deal of the instructor's time is spent in
supervising the development of skill and techniques in students.
Note. Show transparency 1. (Fig. 60.)
b. Objectives and Standards. Be able to explain-
(1) How a student acquires a skill.
(2) The steps of problem solving.
(3) The methods of applicatory training.
(4) How to conduct practical work.
(5) How to plan and conduct a problem exercise.

2. EXPLANATION (77 minutes)

a. How Skills Are Learned.
Note. Show transparency 2. (Fig. 61.)
(1) Gain a concept of the skill.
(2) Practice to develop correct form.
(3) Practice for accuracy and speed.
b. How Problems Are Solved.
Note. List on chalkboard.
(1) Recognize the problem.
(2) Assemble data bearing on the problem.
(3) Suggest solutions.
(4) Evaluate the possible solutions.
(5) Accept the best solution as the course of action.
c. Methods of Application.

208
 (1) Controlled practice.
Note. Show transparency 3. (Fig. 62.)
(a) Generally the first method.
(b) Step-by-step, by-the-numbers process, consisting of-
1. Explanation and demonstration.
2. Imitation by the student.
3. On-the-spot correction of errors.
(c) Careful control and supervision must be exercised.
(2) Independent practice.
Note. Show transparency 4. (Fig. 63.)
(a) More advanced method, affords practice to perfect and make
automatic.
(b) Students work at their own rate to increase speed and accuracy.
(c) Progressive standards and gradual introduction of realism are
important.
(d) Supervision is important.
(3) Coach and pupil.
Note. Show transparency 5. (Fig. 64.)
(a) Students must be able to recognize correct performance.
(b) Students learn to observe critically.
(c) Instructor must supervise closely.
(4) Team practice.
(a) First phase.
Note. Show transparency 6. (Fig. 65.)
1. Serves same purpose for team training as controlled practice
serves for individual training.
2. Provides controlled walk-through.
3. Requires supervision.
(b) Tactical phase.
1. Generally last method used in applicatory training.
2. Realism is essential.
3. Requires careful control and supervision.
4. Must be critiqued.
d. General Considerationsfor PracticalExercises.
Note. Show transparency 7. (Fig. 66.)
(1) Students must be motivated to learn.
(2) Be sure that practice leads to skill improvement.
(3) Keep achievement standards progressive.
(4) Keep conditions realistic.
(5) Procedures and skills should be applied as taught.
(6) Indirect assistance is best.
(7) Each step must be learned before moving to the next.
(8) Constant supervision is imperative.
Note. A short demonstration lesson will be conducted in which selected students
will be guided through a controlled practice applicatory lesson on an item of equip-
ment. The balance of students will observe, take notes, and be prepared to partici-
pate in a critique following the lesson. Violations of correct techniques in conduct
of applicatory teaching may be interjected by the instructor, for teaching purposes.
e. The Problem Exercise.
(1) Preparationof the exercise.
(a) Problem exercise consists of requirements and situations.
1. Requirements should be prepared first. Relate requirements to

209
 lesson objectives and cause students to apply the teaching
points previously presented.
2. Situations should emphasize considerations of factors neces-
sary to solve the requirements. State situations clearly, simply,
and realistically. Provide a challenge to students. Do no in-
clude unnecessary information.
(b) Solution should provide for a discussion for all reasonable
solutions. Explain why the preferred solution was selected.
(2) Conduct of a problem exercise.
Note. List on chalkboard.
(a) Present the situation and the requirement.
(b) Students solve requirements.
(c) Students present solutions.
(d) Discuss student solutions.
(e) Present an approved solution.

3. EXAMINATION (15 minutes)

4. REVIEW (5 minutes)
a. Clarification of Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) How skills are learned.
(2) How problems are solved.
(3) Methods of application.
(4) General considerations for practical exercise.
(5) The problem exercise.
c. Closing Statement. The application of a military skill cannot be left
to chance. We learn by doing only if it is accompanied by intelligent
guidance and progressive learning. It is in the application stage that skills
used in combat are perfected.

2W'
INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Evaluation.
TYPE: Conference.
TIME ALLOTTED: 2 hours.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: One copy of FM 21-6 for
each student.
PERSONNEL: Instructor, assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Overhead projector and 2 transparencies.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, para 67-77.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: FM 21-6, para 67-69, 75-76.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: As prescribed by training
schedules.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (10 minutes)

a. Reasons.
(1) As instructors, you have the responsibility of constructing and
administering tests that adequately cover the material you have
taught.
(2) Good tests, administered properly, accomplish the following:
(a) Aid in improving instruction by-
1. Revealing gaps in student learning.
2. Aiding learning; students tend to remember points covered in
an examination.
3. Affording a means of evaluating instructional techniques.
(b) Provide an incentive.
(c) Provide a basis for assigning grades.
(d) Furnish a basis for selection and guidance.
b. Objective. To be able to-
(1) Describe the various forms of tests and explain the use and
advantages of each.
(2) Explain how to administer tests.
2. EXPLANATION (85 minutes)
(1) Oral.
(a) Uses.
1. Used primarily as a spot check on student understanding fol-
lowing the explanation of major teaching points, during and
after demonstrations, and practical exercises after training
films, and in final summary.
2. Questions should be written into the lesson plan.
3. Proper questioning technique should be used.

211
 (b) Advantages.
1. Flexible. Instructor may rephrase as necessary to find out
how much the student knows.
2. Timely. Enables instructor to pace instruction to needs of
students.
(c) Limitations.
1. Time-consuming.
2. Can only provide a limited sampling.
(2) Written.
(a) Use. Measures students' ability to recall essential information
and to perform mental skills and abilities that can be expressed
in writing.
(b) Advantages.
1. Easy to administer.
2. Provides a wide sampling.
3. Requires only limited time and material.
(c) Limitations.
1. Cannot measure physical skills.
2. Not adequate for students with low verbal ability.
(d) Types.
Note. Show examples of each type. (See FM 21-6, para 72.)
1. Multiple choice (best answer).
2. True-false.
3. Matching.
4. Completion.
5. Listing.
6. Essay.
(3) Performance.
(a) Use. To measure skill in performing a physical task.
(b) Format. Consists of-
1. Administrative instructions.
2. Checklist.
Note. Show examples. Explain that the performance test is a formal, con-
trolled test. Refer students to sample "county fair" performance tests, fig. 81.
(c) Advantages.
1. Most direct means of determining if a man can do a job.
2. It measures specific abilities.
(a) Handling tools efficiently.
(b) Observing safety precautions.
(c) Following correct order of operations.
(d) Disadvantages.
1. Difficult to set up.
2. Hard to administer.
3. Requires much instructor time, equipment, and facilities.
(e) Construction.
1. Decide what should be measured by performance.
2. Determine if necessary tools and equipment are available.
3. Prepare administrative instructions.
4. Prepare a checklist.
5. Train instructors in the use of the checklist.
6. Dry run the test and checklist.

212
 QUESTION: What is the most efficient method of insuring
that men being tested by performance-type tests
are judged by the same standards?
ANSWER: Use a checklist and train the testers in its use.
(4) Observation.
Note. Show example. (See annex A.) Explain that this is used to measure day-
to-day performance in a normal situation. It is not a formal situation. Students do
not know at any given time that they are being tested.
(a) Used to measure intangibles such as leadership, work habits,
and attitudes.
(b) To insure reliable ratings:
Note. Show transparency 1. (Fig. 82.)
1. Know what you are looking for.
2. Observe only situations that indicate the abilities being looked
for.
3. Make comprehensive observation.
4. Know what standards are acceptable.
5. Make observations accurate and impartial.
6. Record the results of your observation while they are still fresh
in your mind.
7. Have more than one observer.
8. Use a checksheet.
b. Administering Tests.
Notes. 1. Conduct a skit demonstrating the wrong way to administer a test. Issue the
wrong test; do not have enough copies for students; have instructor and
his assistant carry on a conversation, thus disturbing the class; time the
test incorrectly; do not give sufficient time to finish; give student a poor
start by explaining how very difficult the test is; do not give student time
to read the directions; give directions for student before issuing tests.
2. Critique test; bring out the following points. List on chalkboard or use
transparency 2.. (Fig. 84.)
(1) Have all testing materials ready.
(2) Train the assistants needed.
(a) Instructors should make a workable schedule for assistants to
follow in-
1. Distributing and collecting test materials.
2. Seating and dismissing the students.
(b) Instructors should carefully go over the test with assistants
and indicate to them:
1. The points at which they may expect students to have difficulty.
2. The amount and kind of help they may give students.
3. Their exact function and location in the testing area.
(3) Provide the best possible testing conditions.
(a) Eliminate all interest-destroying factors.
(b) Place seats so that each man will have ample working space.
(c) If possible, give tests when the men are mentally and physically
rested.
(4) Give students a good start.
(a) Make sure that the test directions are understood.
(b) Tell the students the kind of help they can get and the materials
that are to be used.
(c) Tell the students what the time limit is.

213
 (5) Conduct the test carefully.
(a) Maintain order.
(b) Be sure test is timed accurately.
(6) Conduct a critique of every test.
3. REVIEW (5 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) Forms of test.
(2) Administration of tests.
c. Closing Statement. Tests are essential to good training. A continuous
check on student progress and the effectiveness of instruction is the re-
sponsibility of every instructor.
Annex A-Observation Rating Scale.

214'
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215
 INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Planning the Lesson.
TYPE: Conference and practical exercise.
TIME ALLOTTED: 4 hours.
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: None.
PERSONNEL: Instructor, one assistant instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Chalkboard, overhead projector and transparency.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6, para 60-66.
STUDY ASSIGNMENT: Same as references.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Duty uniform, notebook and
pencil, and references for
"short lesson" subject.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (3 minutes)
a. Reason. The key to good instruction is thorough preparation. Each
hour you spend in the classroom will require of you several hours of study-
ing, writing plans, devising aids, and rehearsing. You will seldom have all
the time you would like for this task. You will learn in this period how to
make the most of the time you do have for planning. You are required to
write lesson plans for both the "Short Lesson" and "Long Lesson" pre-
sentations. You will have the opportunity during this period of instruction
to develop the plan for your short lesson.
b. Objectives. Be able to-
(1) List the lesson objectives for your short presentation.
(2) Explain how you will teach your lesson in regard to subject matter
content, organization, and methods and techniques.
(3) Make a lesson plan to support your short presentation.
2. EXPLANATION AND PRACTICAL EXERCISE (195 minutes)
a. Determine Lesson Objectives. Make sure that they are-
Notes. 1. Define lesson objectives as duty-oriented learning outcomes. Give examples.
2. Stress that lesson objectives must be used by the instructor to guide him in
determining what subject matter to teach.
3. List the characteristics below on chalkboard.
(1) Attainable.
(2) Behavioristic.
(3) Specific.
(a) Conditions stated.
(b) Standards included.
Notes. 1. Have students write their lesson objectives for their short presen-
tations (15 minutes).
2. Call on selected students to state their lesson objectives.

216
 3. Critique lesson objectives in terms of criteria listed above (20
minutes).
b. Determine Subject Matter To Be Taught.
(1) Analyze each lesson objective by dividing it into major instruc-
tional steps.
Note. Caution instructors not to overlook important steps. Such omission often
leads to student difficulty in learning.
(2) Determine what skills or knowledge the student must have to ac-
complish each step.
(a) Facts.
(b) Principles.
(c) Procedures.
(d) Examples.
(e) Comparisons.
(f) Illustrations.
Notes. 1. Stress the need for examples, comparisons, and illustrations in
vitalizing instruction.
2. Have students analyze one of their lesson objectives into its major
instructional steps (15 minutes).
3. Critique selected student solutions (10 minutes).
4. Have students support one of their major instructional steps (15
minutes).
5. Critique selected student solutions (10 minutes).
c. Determine Organization of Lesson.
Note. List on chalkboard.
(1) Chronological-order of time.
EXAMPLE: In teaching a lesson on combat intelligence, you
would teach first the collection of information, then
the processing of information, and finally the dis-
semination and use of intelligence and information.
This sequence is desirable because it follows in
order of time the way the procedure operates.
(2) Spatial---order of relation of one element to another.
EXAMPLE: In teaching a lesson on the nomenclature and func-
tion of the track and suspension system of a tracked
vehicle you would explain the parts in order from
front to rear. For other lessons, the sequence may
be from top to bottom, bottom to top, or rear to
front.
(3) Whole to part.
(a) Give brief, overall explanation of entire function, operation, or
procedure.
(b) Then give a more detailed explanation of the specific portion
of the function, operation, or procedure.
EXAMPLE: In teaching the cooling system of a truck engine,
you would first give a brief overview of all the
systems to show their relation to the cooling
system. Then you would explain, in detail, the
cooling system.
(4) Simple to complex or known to unknown.
(a) Start with material familiar to students.
(b) Explain new material progressively.

217
 EXAMPLE: In teaching a lesson on topographic symbols
(mapreading), you may start by illustrating
symbols that look like the actual objects they
represent (stream, road, or building). Then pro-
ceed to illustrate symbols that the student would
have to memorize the meaning of in order to
identify them (water mill, shrine, bench mark).
Notes. 1. Stress that; the above systems are the most
common; other systems may be used, depending
on the subject matter.
2. Lessons may require the combination of sys-
tems; for example, the use of whole-part with
spatial.
3. Have the students list the sequence of presenta-
tion of their subject matter (15 minutes).
4. Critique student solutions (15 minutes).
d. Determine Methods and Techniques. Apply the following guiding
principles.
Note. Show transparency of principles below.
(1) Present material in small, cohesive segments.
(2) Require maximum student participation in each segment.
(3) Present material in logical sequence.
(4) Design practical work to insure successful response.
(5) Correct errors on the spot.
(6) Select methods that give the instructor maximum control of
student learning.
e. Make a Lesson Plan.
(1) Content.
(a) Heading.
(b) Outline of main points of subject matter supported by:
1. Appropriate subpoints.
2. Illustrative material.
(c) Indication of instructor and student activities.
(2) Use.
(a) As a basis for making notes.
(b) As a guide.
(3) Types.
(a) Topical plan.
(b) Sentence plan.
(c) Paragraph plan.
(4) Format.
(a) The organization of a lesson is reflected in the major divisions
of the lesson plan.
(b) The major divisions are the major instructional activities.
(c) These major instructional activities should be indicated in the
same sequence in which the lesson is to be taught.
Note. Outline examples on chalkboard.
EXAMPLES: If the instructor plans first to introduce the
lesson, then to explain the main ideas, and lastly
to summarize these ideas, he should outline his
lesson plan as follows:
1. INTRODUCTION.

218
 2. EXPLANATION.
3. REVIEW.
When the instructor desires to follow his ex-
planation with a practical exercise, which he
will critique as the exercise progress, he should
outline the major instructional activities (major
divisions of the lesson plan) as follows:
1. INTRODUCTION.
2. EXPLANATION.
3. PRACTICAL EXERCISE.
4. REVIEW.
(d) The determination of the major divisions of a lesson plan is
flexible.
(e) The instructor should plan how he is going to teach each lesson
and then make the major divisions of his lesson plan reflect that
sequence.
(f) After determining the major divisions, the instructor should
develop each major division to reflect in detail.
1. Outline of subject matter. Indicate the main subject points and
subpoints.
2. Methods of instruction and time.
EXAMPLE:
1. INTRODUCTION (Conference-3 minutes).
2. EXPLANATION, DEMONSTRATION, AND
PRACTICAL WORK (Controlled Practice-
47 minutes).
3. APPLICATION (Independent Practice-45
minutes).
4. REVIEW (Conference-5 minutes).
3. Instructionalprocedures. The instructor should indicate where
he intends to use instructional procedures by the use of such
terms as: NOTE, EXAMPLE, SUMMARIZE, CAUTION,
QUESTION, TRANSITION.
(5) Outlining.
(a) What to designate.
1. Major divisions or major instructional activities.
2. Main points of subject matter.
3. Supporting points of subject matter.
(b) How to designate.
1. Use only Arabic numerals and lower case letters.
Note. Develop outline on chalkboard.
2. Avoid designating, by number or letter, instructional proce-
dures.
3. Avoid dividing a topic into less than two headings.
Notes. 1. Have students begin working on their lesson plans (20 minutes).
2. Supervise by circulating through the room and giving individ-
ual advice.
3. REVIEW (2 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary. Prepare for instruction by-

219
 (1) Determining lesson objectives.
(2) Determining subject matter to be taught.
(3) Determining lesson organization.
(4) Determining methods and techniques.
(5) Making a lesson plan.
c. Closing Statement. You have learned a systematic approach to plan-
ning a lesson. To insure effective presentation, you need to rehearse the
plan.

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INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Short Lesson Presentation.
TYPE: Practical exercise.
TIME ALLOTTED: 8 hours. (Based on 48 students divided into 3 sections
of 16 students each; 2 students present each hour.)
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: Student critique sheets, su-
pervisory checksheets.
PERSONNEL: Instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Student-made aids.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6.
STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Same as reference.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Duty uniform, notebook and
pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None.

1. INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
a. Reasons.
(1) As instructors, all of us need to improve.
(2) Student presentations can provide for improvement.
(a) Opportunity to observe other instructors.
(b) Help of associates in identifying weaknesses and strongpoints.
(3) Student presentations are means of preparation for long lesson
presentations that follow.
b. Objective. Be able to-
(1) Plan a lesson.
(2) Present a lesson.
(3) Evaluate instruction.
2. EXPLANATION (10 minutes)
a. Procedure To Be Followed.
(1) Setup by student.
(2) Presentation by student, turn-in of lesson plan.
(3) Critique by student critic.
(4) Resident instructor's critique.
(5) Setup by next student.
b. Administrative Information and Instructions.
(1) Presentation to be graded.
(2) Deviation of 2 minutes in timing allowed.
(3) Must be a complete lesson.
(a) Oral instruction must include introduction, explanation, and
summary.
(b) Supported by student-made training aids.

221
 (4) Student critique to be graded.
(5) Lesson plan to be graded.
c. Conduct of Student Critique.
Note. Explain guide for evaluating instruction and use of critique sheet. Assign
student critics.
(1) Restate objective of lesson.
(2) Review procedure used.
(3) Evaluate the presentation.
(4) Conduct group discussion.
(5) Summarize.
3. APPLICATION (370 minutes)
a. Student presents lesson (15 minutes per student).
(1) Class observes and makes notes on student critique sheets.
(2) Instructor evaluates presentation on supervisory checksheet.
(3) Students turn in lesson plan on completion.
b. Student critic presents critique (5 minutes per student).
(1) Follows format as outlined on critique sheet.
(2) Class discusses presentation and makes suggestions for improve-
ment.
c. Resident instructor evaluates presentation and student critique (5
minutes per student presentation).
4. REVIEW (15 minutes)
a. Clarification of Student Questions.
b. Summary.
(1) Necessity of proper planning.
(2) Practice in oral presentation.
(3) Exercise in evaluating other presentations.
Note. Stress importance of above with reference to long lesson.
c. Closing Statement. Avoid the errors you have seen here today and
adhere to the proven techniques of instruction demonstrated in these pre-
sentations. This will help you in the presentation of your long lesson and
in all of your future instruction.

222
INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT: Long Lesson Presentation.
TYPE: Practical exercise.
TIME ALLOTTED: 16 hours. (Based on 48 students divided into 3 sections
of 16 students each; 1 hour allocated for each student
presentation, including critique.)
CLASSES PRESENTED TO:
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS: Student critique sheets, su-
pervisory checksheets.
PERSONNEL: Instructor.
TRAINING AIDS: Student-made or procured aids.
REFERENCES: FM 21-6.
STUDY ASSIGNMENT: Same as reference.
STUDENT UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT: Duty uniform, notebook and
pencil.
TROOP REQUIREMENTS: None.
TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS: None

1. INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
a. Reasons.
(1) Need for improvement.
(2) Long lesson presentations assist in two ways.
(a) Opportunity to observe other instructors.
(b) Help of associates in identifying weaknesses and strengths.
(3) As supervisors, we must know what makes good instruction.
b. Objective. Be able to-
(1) Plan and teach a complete lesson.
(2) Conduct a formal critique.

2. EXPLANATION (10 minutes)

a. Administrative Instructions.
(1) Presentation to be graded.
(2) Deviation of 2 minutes in timing allowed.
(3) Must be a complete lesson supported by appropriate aids.
(4) Student critique to be graded.
(5) Lesson plan to be graded.
b. Conduct of Student Critique.
Note. Review use of critique sheet and guide. Assign critics.
c. Procedure To Be Followed.
(1) Setup by student.
(2) Presentation by student, turn-in of lesson plan.
(3) Critique by student critic.

223
 (4) Resident instructor's critique.
(5) Preparation of setup by next student during break.
3. APPLICATION (770 minutes)
a. Student presents lesson (35 minutes).
(1) Class observes and makes notes, using student critique sheets.
(2) Instructor evaluates presentation, using supervisory checksheets.
(3) Student turns in lesson plan upon completion of lesson.
b. Student critic presents critique (5 minutes).
c. Resident instructor evaluates presentation and critique :(10 minutes).
Note. Break after above sequence.

4. REVIEW (15 minutes)

a. Clarificationof Student Questions.
b. Summary.
Note. Emphasize major points brought out in critiques.
c. Closing Statement. As supervisors, we must not only know what
makes good .instruction, but we must also be skilled in evaluating and in
suggesting ways of improvement. As instructors, all of us can improve
our instruction by planning, rehearsing, and observing others. Your
accomplishments in these presentations, and your recognition of the errors
made, can assist you in becoming better instructors and supervisors.

224
 APPENDIX C

STUDENT CRITIQUE SHEET

INSTRUCTOR

SUBJECT

ELEMENTS TO BE OBSERVED COMMENTS

INTRODUCTION
Were lesson objectives clearly stated?
Were reasons adequately stated?
Did the instructor establish contact?
PRESENTATION
Was the material well organized?
Were the main points emphasized?
Were demonstrations effective?
Were transitions used effectively?
INSTRUCTOR QUALITIES AND SPEECH TECHNIQUES
Did the instructor possess poise and confidence?
Did he possess military bearing?
Was he forceful qid enthusiastic in his delivery?
Did the instructor maintain contact?
Were any distracting mannerisms present?
Did the instructor express ideas clearly and fluently?
TRAINING AIDS
Were the aids adequate?
Were they used correctly?
Did the assistant instructor perform adequately?
STUDENT PARTICIPATION
Did instructor plan student participation properly?
Were conference techniques employed properly?
Was student attention and interest evident?
PREPARATION
Was there evidence of careful planning?
Did the instructor give evidence of preparation?
Was the best use made of time available?

Critic
475-774 0 - 72 - 14
225
 INDEX

Paragraphs Page Paragraphs Page

Aids (See training aids.) Directions for tests ________________ 71-72 112
Analysis, lesson subject --------------- 62 94 Discrimination in tests --- ____--_____- 70 111
Answer sheet _--_____---- ___--------- 71 112 Displays -________________________. 37, 41 45, 58
Application: Distribution curve ---__---____---- ___- 77 141
Considerations ___--_____------- _ - 67 48
Importance ____
.-----------_--63 43
Educational television:
ImportanceAanage --------------- 89 1663
In teaching process ______----- __-- 63 45
Advantages _____________________ 89 160
Learning through --_____-----__-- 67 48
Glossary of terms 92 177
Lesson outline ------------------ App B 180 G lossary
of termsent___________ 92 16077
Methods .........................
Methods…------------. 64 .… -47 47
Instructor development...
Limitations--89 89 160
160
Opportunities for --_____--------- 63 44
Limitation procedures-
s 90 164
Problem exercise ________---__ __- - 49 70 Production procedures __ ___ 89 .160
Stage of instruction . .............10,43
8,63 Rehearsals . ... . ..........90 164
Techniques ______-______----___-- 64 46
Scripts 90 164
Assistant instructors _______________ 36, 42, 43,9, Scripts _________________________ 90 164
to
138 Use in classroom ________________
t75
75 91 174
Attention, arousing .------------
-----17 13
Emphasizing teaching points __--______ 15 19
Attitude, instructor to students -_____- 4, 6, 7 Enthusasm in instructor -22 27
Enumeration test items _____________- 72 114
Background, use in learning _---____-- 11 9 Enunciation _________________________ 23 28
Bearing, instructor ____-_-___------ -_- 20 26 Essay test items -72____________________ 114
Briefings: Evaluation:
Organization of material _---____-- 87 155 Administration _______________ 75 138
Planning ________________________ 87 155 Characteristics _________________ 70 111
Presentation techniques _._---____-- 88 159 Completion test items ____________ 72 114
Purposes: Comprehensiveness _______________ 70 111
Decision …_______________
86 155 Discrimination _________________… 70 111
Information _____________ 86 155 Enumeration test items ____--- __.- 72 114
Chalkboard: Essay test items ________________- 72 114
Use of __________________________ 37 45 Forms __________________________ 69 109
Lesson outline on ______________ App B 180 Grading _______________________ 68, 70, 108, 111,
Closing statement ___________________- 16 22 77 141
Coach-and-pupil method ---__----___-- 47 64 Identification test items __________- 72 114
Completion test items ________________ 72 114 Lesson outline _____-_____--____ App B 180
Comprehensiveness of tests __________-- 70 111 Listing items ____________________ 72 114
Connective phrases in explanation _____ 15 19
Contact, instructor-student _________- 13, 18 17,24 Multiple-choice test items 72 114
Controlled practice ______-_-_. ...... 47 64Multiple-choice test items 72 114
Critical score _--_____________________ - 77 141 Objectivity ______________________ 70 111
Critique: Observation ___________________ 69, 74 109, 128
Conduct_________________________
-76 139 Outline _________________________ 71 112
Considerations in. conducting ------ 76 139 Performance __________________ 69, 73 109, 125
Sheet, student's ____________ 82, App C 152, 225 Procedure for constructing - 71-72 112
Delivery (See speech techniques.)
Demonstration: Purpose ____-____________________ 68 108
Conducting ______________________ 42 59 Reliability __----___-_______ -_____70 111
Forms of ________________________ 41 58 Results, interpreting -____________ 77 141
Importance --___________________ 39, 79 56, 148 Situation-type tests ______________ 72 114
Lesson outline -______________ App B 180
Part of presentation ______________ 64 99 Stage of instruction ____________ 10 8
Planning _____________.------- -__ 42 59 True-false test items -_____--- ____ 72 114
Purposes ________________________ 40 56 Usability ___-- ___________________ 70 111

226
 Paragraphs Page Paragraphs Page
Evaluation-Continued. Lesson plan _________-_____--___--__- 64 99
Validity __…__--__---------------- 70 111 Listing test items ____________________ 72 114
Written _--_---_----------------- 69 109
Excuses by instructor -- __---_-------- 24 31 Mannerisms, avoiding -_---_---_------ 21 27
Experience, use of in learning -------- 11 9 Matching test items _--_---_---------- 72 114
Experiences, use in explanation ________ 15 19 Methods of instruction course --------- 80 148
Explanation: Motion pictures --------------------- 37, 41 45, 58
Emphasis -__________--__---_---- 15 19 Motivation in learning ------------- 11,48 9, 67
Interest _--_---_----------------- 15 19 Multiple-choice test items ------------- 72 114
Organizing ___-___-___________--- 15 19
Part of presentation _--__--___-- 15 19 Nature of learning - -8,9 8
Subsummaries, use in ------------ 15 19 Nervousness, controlling -------------- 19 25
Transition between points _------ - 15 19 Objective in learning ---------------- 11 9
Fabrication of training aids _---_---_- 38 54 Objectives of lesson --..------------- 14, 48, 17, 67,
Field demonstration __________________ 41 58 61 93
Film strips ______-- ______--______--__ 37 45 Objectivity of tests ..-----------------
. 70 111
Films, training ______________________ 37 45 Observation of test __--_-------------- 74 128
Final check of lesson _--______-- ______ 66 104 On-the-job training _--------------- 83, 89 152, 160
Frequency distribution table __________ 77 141 Opaque projector ------.------------- 37 45
Fundamentals of instruction, lesson Oral instruction, lesson outline ----- App B 180
outline --_--------_------_------. App B 180 Outlines:
Instructor training course ----- App B 180
Gestures -------------.-------------- 20 26 Lesson plan --------------------- 64 99
Grading (See evaluation.) Test _---------._----------------- 71 112
Heading, lesson plan __-__________-__- 64 99 Overhead projector ------------------ 37 45
Identification test items -------------- 72 114 Paragraph lesson plan --------------- 64 99
Illustrations: Pauses in speaking ------------------ 23 28
Explanation, use in ______________ 15 19 Performance tests __----------------. 69, 73 109,125
Training aids, use as --__--__-- _- 2 2 Personality of instructor _--_---------- 4 4
Improvement of instructors -__________ 5 6 Plan, lesson (See lesson plan.)
Incentives for learning -__--__-- __--. 11, 68 9, 108 Planning:
Incidental learning ___________________ 11 9 Briefings _._--_------------------- 87 155
Independent practice _________________ 47 64 Demonstrations --__-------------- 42 59
Instructional process --_----_---_--- _ 8, 10 8 Lesson ------------------------- 60-64 93
Instructor: Outline for lesson ______________-App B 180
Appearance _____________________ 20 26 Programed instruction ___-__---- 53, 54 74
Attitude toward students ____--. 4, 6, 7 4, 6, 7 Questions ---_------------------- 28 34
Encouraging questions -___-_______ 32 38 Pointer, use -_----------------------- 36 43
Enthusiasm --__--__-- __-- __-- __- 22 27 Posture of instructor -__--_---_------- 20 26
-5
Improvement __________________
- 6 Practical work (See application.)
Knowledge of students ___________6, 11 6,9 Practice, speech habits ------_-__--_--- 25 31
Mannerisms _____--_______________ 21 27 Practice teaching, conduct of ____ 82, App B 152, 180
Qualifications ----_____________
-- 4 4 Preparation:
Role in training _______------_____ 3 3 Determining:
Speech habits -__--____________. 23, 25 28, 31 Lesson objectives ------------ 61 93
Training -_____________________ 78-83 148 Methods of instruction _------- 63 97
Interest in students __-__________ 11, 13-16, 9, 17, Subject matter -------------- 62 94
18, 27, 24, 33, Making a final check -_----------- 66 104
33 41 Preparing a lesson plan --_------- 64 99
Interpreting test results ---_---------- 77 141 Questions, for use of _-__--__--__. 27-32 33
Introduction: Rehearsing the lesson _----------- 65 103
Elements -_---_---_-------------- 14 17 Presentation:
Need for -_---------------------- 13 17 Importance of the demonstration -_- 39 56
Part of presentation -------------- 64 99 Organization------------------ 12-16 17
Lesson outline __--_---.-------. App B 180 Stage of instruction -------------- 10 8
Items, test ------------------------- 72-73 114 Presenting oral instruction, lesson
outline -------------------------- App B 180
Knowledge, characteristic of good Principles of instruction -------------- 11 9
instructor ------------------------- 4 4 Principles of instruction, lesson
Leadership by instructor -------------- 4 4 outline -------------------------- App B 180
Learning -------------------------- 8,9, 46 8, 64 Problem exercise --------------------- 49 70

227
 Paragraphs Page Paragraphs Page
Problem-solving ______-------------- 46, 48, 64, 67, Speech technique-Continued.
49 70 Excuses, avoiding ________________ 24 31
Procedural demonstration _-__--------- 41 58 Importance ________-_____-_______ 17 24
Programed instruction: Lesson outline _________________App B 180
Administration of program __--____ 59 77 Mannerisms, avoiding __________-_ 21 27
Application --_____-- ___.--------- 58 76 Nervousness, controlling ________-_ 19 25
Characteristics _________--_------ 51 73 Purpose_________________________ 17 24
Planning and writing _-__--_---- 53-56 74 Voice and speaking ____________ 18, 23 24, 28
Types: Stage fright, controlling ______________ 19 25
Branching __-__--_--_-- _ 52 73 Standard deviation _____-_____________ 77 141
Linear -__--_--_--------- 52 73 Standards of lesson ____-._____________ 61 93
Structure ___________________ 55 75 Stories, use in explanation ____________ 15 19
Trying out program __________ 57 76 Students:
Projectors, slide _____________________ 37 45 Attitude of instructor toward ___ 4, 6, 7 4, 6, 7
Pronunciation in speaking _____________ 23 28 Characteristics _______________-__ 6 6
Critique sheet _____________-82, App C 152,225
Qualifications of instructors __________ 4 4 Encouraging questions
Encouraging questions . 32
.........32 38
38
Quality of voice- _--------------------- 23 28 Instructors' knowledge of _________6, 11 6, 9
Questioning techniques, lesson outline App B 180 Participation 26 33
Questions: Practice teaching __________ 82, App B 152, 180
Advantages… -------------------- 27 33 Summary (See also review.) --___ 12, 15, 16 17, 19,22
Answering .._---------------------
Answering .....................
31
310 37
37 Supervision of instruction __________-_ 84 153
ChAskingrateisic-29-------------- 30 37 Supervisory checksheet _______________ 75 138
Characteristics -____________-__-_
29 35
Need -______________-___________ 26 33 Teaching points, emphasizing _____--- 15 19
Preparation -. .................. 28-30 34 Team practice --_--_----------------- 47 64
Rhetorical _____________________. 13, 15 17, 19 Television (See educational television.)
Student ______.__________________ 32 38 Test (See evaluation.)
Rate of speech _______________________ 23 28 Topical outline lesson plan ___________- 64 99
Rating scales ------------------------ 74 128 Topics in lesson plan ________________- 64 99
Realism -_----_.-- _____________.-- -- 11, 48 9, 67 Trainee (See student.)
References -__-_________.______-__. App A 179 Training aids:
Rehearsing the lesson ________________ 65 103 Chalkboard, use __--_--_---------- 37 45
Reinforcement in learning __________ 11, 27 9, 33 Characteristics ------------------ 35 42
Reliability of tests ________…__________ 70 111 Explanation, use in ______________ 15 19
Response. in learning _________________ 11 9 Fabrication ________-__--_-------- 38 54
Review: Lesson outline on ___…_____.___ App B 180
Elements in introduction _____-___ 14, 16 17, 24 Projectors and slides …37 45
Rewards for learning _________________ 11 941
Rhetorical questions _______________ 13, 15 Techniques in use _________--_--_-
17, 19 36 43
Role of instructor in training _________ 3
Training films _______________-__- 37 45
Types --------------------- 37 45
Safety precautions ___________________ 42 59 Use of illustrations in manual _---- 2 2
Schedule, instructor training course ___ 80, 81 148, 151 Value _____ _-_-------
____--_----- 33 41
Scope of manual _____________________ 2 2 Instructors ______________-__- 78 148
Scoring (See grading.) Schedule, instructor training
Self-tutor texts (See also programed course _-__--_____-- _ ___- 80,81 148, 151
instruction.) -______________________ 52 73 Transition between points of
Senses, learning through'the ________ 9, 33, 8,41, explanation ------------------------ 15 19
39 56 Translation graph ___________________- 77 141
Sentence outline lesson plan __________… 64 99 Transparencies ______________________ 37 45
Situation-type tests _ …--_____________ 72 114 True-false test items _________________ 72 114
Skills, learning ______________________ 46 64 Validity of tests 70 111
Skits- _----------------------------- 41 58 Venetian blind _______________---__--_ 37 45
Slides and projectors _________________ 37 4524,28
Speech habits ------------------------ 25 31 Volume of voice -------------------- 23 28
Speech techniques:
Bearing, maintaining _____________ 20 26 Welcome, lesson outline __________- - App B 180
Contact, getting _________________ 18 24 Words, choice of _____________________ 23 28
Enthusiasm _____________________ 22 27 Written examinations ________________ 69 109

228
 By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

Official: HAROLD K. JOHNSON,

General, United States Army,
Chief of Staff.
KENNETH G. WICKHAM,
Major General, United States Army,
The Adjutant General.

Distribution:
To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-1fl requirements for Technique of Military Instruction.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE :1972 0 - 475-774

229