Joints

Almost all classes of rocks-igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, invariably show joint
structures to a lesser or greater extent. We may find quite a large proportion of outcrop of any
these rocks practically free from joints at some places, but at other places, the same type of
rock may be heavily jointed, showing cracks of a greater variety. Hence it is not only the genesis
of the rocks which is responsible for these structures but also the forces to which these rocks
have been subjected to after their formation.

Joints are of great practical importance for all those dealing with the rocks as sites, materials
of construction, in prospecting for minerals, groundwater and oil and gas, reservoirs. Hence
elementary, knowledge about their geometry, classification and style of occurrence in different
rocks is important.

Terminology of Joints:

Joints are defined as divisional planes or fractures along which there has been no relative
displacement. These fractures divide the rocks into parts or blocks and unlike the faults, the
parts have not suffered any movement along the fracture plane. There may be or may not be an
opening up of blocks perpendicular to the joint planes.

Nature. Joints may be open or closed in nature.

Open joints are those in which the blocks have been separated or opened up for small
distances in a direction at right angles to the fracture surface. (Fig. (a) JT-l1 these may be
gradually enlarged try weathering processes and develop into fissure in the rocks.

In closed joints, there is no such separation. Even then, these joints may be capable of allowing
fluids (gases and water) to pass through the rock (Fig JT_31.

Similarly, the joints may be smooth or rough on the surface and the surface may be straight or
curved in outline (Fig (b) JT-3, JT-4).

The joints may be srnall in their extension, confined to only a part of a layer or mass of rock, or
they may be quite prominent and extending for considerable depth and thickness. The former
are called discontinuous joints whereas the extensive joints are referred as continuous joints.
The more prominent continuous joints are often called the master joints. (Fig. JT-6). Almost all
the joints are discontinuous in the strict sense because these disappear with depth in the crust
of the earth.

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Nature of Joints

JT-1- Open Joints, JT-2 Closed Joints, JT-3 Smooth Joints, JT-4 Rough Joints, Jt-5 Small
Joints, JT-6 Master Joints

In many cases, open joints get filled up by solution of secondary materials which crystallize or
precipitate there forming a thin or thick streaks or bands of infilling material. These are simply
called veins when thin or in strands and fissure veins when their thickness is greater than 20
cm.

Attitude of joints:

Joints are fracture planes or surfaces and their occurrences often takes place in such a way that
their position in space or attitude (dip and strike) may be described conveniently either
independently or with respect to the attitude of the rocks in which they occur. In other words,
joints have dip and strike, the former being their inclination with horizontal and latter being the
direction of intersection of a joint plane with horizontal plane

(a) (b)

(a) A single joint plane striking NS and dipping 80o

(b) a,b and c joint sets a+c Joint system I, b+d+e Joint System II

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Classification of Joints
Joints have been classified on the on the basis of Spatial Relationship, geometry and genesis.

Spatial Relationship:

All the joints are divided into two groups on the basis of the presence or otherwise some of
regularity on their occurrence.

1. Systematic joints (regular joints). These show a distinct regularity in their occurrence which
can be measured and mapped easily. Such joints occur in parallel or sub-parallel join sets that
are repeated in the rocks at regular intervals. The columnar joints and the mural joints described
below are examples of regular or systematic jointing.

2. Non-systematic (or irregular) joints. As the name implies, these joints do not possess
any regularity in their occurrence and distribution. They appear at random in the rocks and
may have incompletely defined surfaces. In many cases these are related to the systematic
joints in that these occur between them. At other times, the non-systematic joints may show
no relationship with the systematic joints and their curved and rough surfaces may even
cut across the former.

B. Geometry
In stratified rocks, joints are generally classified on the basis of relationship of their attitude with
that of the rocks in which they occur. Three types recognized on this basis are (Fig) :
1. Strike joints in which the joint sets strike parallel to the strike of the rocks.
2. Dip joints in which the joint sets strike parallel to the dip direction of the rocks;
3. Oblique joints are those joints where the strike of the joints is at any angle between the dip
and the strike of the layers. These are also called diagonal joints when they occur midway
between the dip and strike of the layers.

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In stratified rocks, some joints may develop Geometrical Classification essentially parallel to the
bedding planes. These are simply referred as bedding joints.
In the folded regions, joint orientation is conveniently described with reference to the hinge of
the fold. A line running parallel to the hinge-line is assumed as b-axis; the a-axis is normal to
it and the c-axis is normal to the plane containing a and b axis.
The joints running parallel to b-axis are called radial joints. These cut the layers almost
perpendicularly. Similarly, joints running parallel to the layers are designated as C-joints. In
these areas, joints can also be distinguished into dip joints, strike joints and diagonal joints.
(Fig).

In igneous and metamorphic rocks, the joints may be classified on the basis of their
geometric relations with planar structures of those rocks such as lineation or cleavage etc. Two
terms are commonly used in such cases:

Cross or Q joints. which are joints traversing the linear structures at right angles.

Longitudinal or S joints, which are the joints traversing parallel to the linear structure. In
these rocks all the joint systems traversing at any other angular inclination with the linear
structures are described as diagonal joints (Fig.).

C. Genesis (Origin)

Joints are very common and at the origin it same time very complex structures in rocks. As
regards there is often very difficult to attribute a particular type or group or system of joints to an
exact cause of origin. Only in a-few cases, the predominant forces (compression, tension or
shear) that have been responsible for the development of joints in the rock can established
easily. In such cases classified into one of the following genetic types of joints-

1. Tension joints, are those, which have developed due to the tensile forces acting on the
rocks. The most common location for such joints in folded sequences is on outer margin of
crest and through. They are also produced in igneous rocks during their cooling. Joints

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produced in many rocks during the weathering of overlying strata and subsequent release of
stress by expansion are also thought to be due to the tensile forces,

2. Shear Joints: These are commonly observed in the vicinity of fault planes and shear zone
where the relationship with shearing forces is clearly established. (Fig.) In folded rocks, these
are located at axial regions.

Compression Joints: Rocks may be compressed to crushing and numerous joints may result
due to compressive forces in this case. In the core region of the folds where compressive forces
are dominant, joints may relate to the compressive forces.

Occurrence of Joints

Joints are perhaps the most common structural features of all types of rocks occurring
everywhere in the world. It is seldom that we find any big rock mass on the surface free from
joints. Rocks of all the three main classes-igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, show joints
of various types-

(a) Igneous rocks

The igneous rocks are formed by cooling and crystallization of hot molten material called
Magma or lava. As such, in most cases they show joint systems related to the tensile stresses
developing during the process of cooling and crystallization.

The three regular or systematic types of joints observed in igneous rocks are:
 Sheet joints
 Columnar joints and
 Mural joints.

1. Sheet jointing. In granites and other related igneous rocks, a horizontal set of joints often
divides the rock mass in such a way as to give it an appearance of a layered sedimentary
structure called in this case as a Sheeting Structure.

Sheet joints are sometimes caused due to weathering and removal of overlying rock masses
which cause expansion of the underlying igneous and other rocks as a consequence of
unloading. (Fig)

2. Mural jointing. In granitic and other rock masses, there may occur three sets of joints in such
a way that one set is horizontal and the other two sets are vertical, all the three sets being

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mutually at right angles to each other. This sort of geometrical distribution of joints dividing
the rock mass into cubical blocks or murals is called mural jointing. (Fig).

3. Columnar jointing. These types of joints are typical of volcanic igneous rocks although
they may also be observed in other rocks.

These are also called prismatic joints. The joints divide the rock mass into polygonal blocks,
each block being bounded by three to eight sides. Five and six sided blocks are common.
Normally, the main joints are vertical or perpendicular to the cooling surface and may extend to
varying depths ranging from a few centimeters to many meters. In surface area also, the blocks
may vary from a few centimeters to a couple of meters. (Fig)

'The polygonal cracks are thought to be directly related to the tensile forces developed during
the cooling (accompanied by contraction) of the hot molten material (lava or magma). Their
formation is explained somewhat as follows-

a. In homogeneous mass undergoing uniform cooling throughout the surface, contraction is

equally developed in all directions.

b.Centers of contraction are developed at eually spaced intervals and the lines joining these
centers are the direction of tensile stress.

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(c) When the strength of the rock is overcome , features appers right angle to these lines of
tensile stress.

The rock mass is thereupon divided into polygonal cracks. When the cooling is not exactly
uniform throughout, the blocks formed may be irregular in outline (Fig). At certain depth the
continuity of fracture is broken by disc shaped called cup and ball joints

(b) Sedimentary Rocks:

Most sedimentary rocks are generally profusely jointed may be of systematically and
nonsystematic classes. These may be closely and regularly spaced sets, parallel or sub parallel
to each other and bearing varying relationship with attitude of rocks. Since sedimentary rocks
are often folded and faulted, the joints in them are genetically related to those forces that have
caused the major structural deformations. In deeply stratified rocks, removal of overlying strata
due to weathering give rise to compression-tension forces that may cause regular and irregular
jointing of various types. In some sedimentary rock system of joints may develop parallel to the
bedding planes- the bedding joints. In many cases these may be confused with stratification

(c) Metamorphic rocks:

These rock types are heavily jointed in many cases, the joints being of irregular or non
systematic type. These joints are often the result of local and regional stress acting on rocks as
a source of metamorphism. In many cases, the metamorphic rocks may show those joints which
were preexisting at the time of the metamorphism of rock with little or no modification.

Origin of Joints:

Joints are caused in different rocks due to different reasons. No single, story can explain origin of all
types of joints. At present it is agreed that there at least three principal processes due to which joints may
be caused in different rocks. These are outlined as follows:

(a) Contraction during Formation

Sedimentary rocks especially those of plastic nature and rich in moisture in the initial stages
(clays, shales, limestones and dolomites etc.) undergoes some contraction on drying up which
might have resulted into irregular jointing.

Similarly, igneous rocks which form by cooling and crystallization from an originally hot and
molten material (magma or lava) also necessarily undergo considerable contraction during the
cooling process giving rise to tensile forces strong enough to break the congealing masses into
jointed blocks. Such contraction or shrinkage is generally accepted to be the cause of the
vertical type of joints in granite and the so well known columnar joints of basalts and other
effusive rocks.

(b) Expansion and Contraction

Rocks like many other solids, expand with rise in temperature and contract on cooling. Such
repeated expansion and contraction is characteristic of regions with dry hot (arid) climates
where day and night temperatures on the one hand and summer and winter temperatures on
the other hand vary within a very wide range - 50" to 60' C. The outer parts of rocks exposed to

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direct sun heat may develop cracks and fissures due to such repeated expansion and
contraction.
Removal of overburden due to weathering or other processes of rock wasting may also cause
expansion of the underlying rocks due to unloading. The previously loaded rocks get relaxed
with the release of the forces. These stresses are compressional - tensional in nature. Joints
may appear parallel to the surface of erosion in such exposed rocks. The sheet joints of
sedimentary and other rocks are attributed by many to the process of erosional unloading
through geological ages.

(c) Crustal Disturbances

Many joint types, especially those associated with folded and faulted rocks are clearly related
to the processes of crustal disturbances that are responsible for building of mountains and
continents. These processes are easily capable of exerting sustained and strong forces on
rocks that virlually cut them into slices along certain directions irrespective of the composition
and strength of the rock components.

Sudden seismic shocks have also been suggested by some as a possible cause for the
development of joints in many rocks.

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
Joints affect the properties of rocks both in a negative as well as positive manner with respect
to the activities of a professional civil and mining engineer. Negatively speaking, joints influence
many engineering operations. The selection of sites for dams and reservoirs and alignments for
highways and tunnels through rocks will require very thorough investigations of joints for arriving
at safe and econornic designs.

Joints are always to be considered as a source of weakness of the rocks and as pathways for
the leakage of water through the rock. Both these properties of joints destroy the inherent
soundness of the rock to a great extent.

If a rock forming the foundation of a dam or reservoir happens to be heavily jointed and the
region is one of low water table, the risk of leakage of water from under the dam or from the
reservoir may be of substantial magnitude demanding very heavy cost for treatment of the
rocks.
Similarly, if the roof or side rocks in the case of the tunnel are much fractured, slippage of rocks
along these fractures and leakage of water may cause many troubles, often insurmountable by
ordinary methods of treatment. Lining of tunnels may remain only solution in such cases and
this will involve huge extra cost.

Joints are a major cause of instability of the rock masses in the hilly regions. Jointed
rocks get easily lubricated in the presence of moisture and start sliding or falling from the
original places of occurrence. Many landslides and slope failures are directly related to the
jointed nature of the rocks.

Treatment of joints. Treating the negative qualities of rocks due to joints will differ in different
projects. The first requirement in all cases is, however, detailed investigations to establish full
Characteristics of the joints in terms of their type, frequency, intensity, pattern of distribution and
the extent to which they have influenced the rock. This may form the single most important work

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of site investigation in some cases. Great care has to be exercised in locating the presence,
distribution patterns and magnitude of micro joints that are typical of many rocks. Such joints, if
left unnoticed and untreated, may widen after the construction of the project and endanger its
stability.

Treatment of joints may involve grouting with a suitable grout material for increasing the
strength of the rocks or for reducing their permeability or for achieving both these objectives.

As regards the positive effects of joints in rocks, these are greatly sought after in the exploration
for groundwater and oil reserves in a given area. Only a well-jointed and porous rock can form
a good aquifer or a good oil and gas reservoir. Similarly, mineralisation with economically
valuable minerals from hydrothermal solutions takes place in jointed rocks and fissures, which
are formed due to widening of joints. Hence joints are a desirable character from the point of a
mining engineer, water resource engineer and oil-prospecting engineer. In quarrying of stones
for whatsoever purpose, widely spaced joints in the rocks rnake a desirable quality for the
workforce.