The Importance of ProcessControl Increase Efficiency

Some processes need to be maintained at specific

Process as used in the terms process control and point to meet maximize efficiency. For example, a
process industry, refers to the methods of changing control point might be that temperature at which a
or refining raw materials to create end products. The chemical reaction takes place. Accurate control of
raw materials, which either pass through or remain in a temperature ensures process efficiency.
liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) Manufacturers save money by minimizing the
state during the process, are transferred, measured, resources required to produce the end product.
mixed, heated or cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in
some other way to produce the end product.
Ensure Safety
Process industries include the chemical industry, the
A run-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear
oil and gas industry, the food and beverage industry, the
or chemical reaction, may result if manufacturers do
pharmaceutical industry, the water treatment industry,
not maintain precise control all of the process
and the power industry.
variables. The consequences of a run-away process
can be catastrophic.
Process control refers to the methods that are used to Precise process control may also be required to ensure
control process variables when manufacturing a safety. For example, maintaining proper boiler pressure
product. by controlling the inflow of air used in combustion and
outflow exhaust gasses is crucial in preventing broiler
Manufacturers control the production process for three implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of
reasons: workers.
□ Reduce variability
□ Increase efficiency
□ Ensure safety ControlTheoryBasics
Reduce Variability Control loop

Process control can reduce variability in the end Imagine you are sitting in a cabin in front of a small fire
product, which ensures a consistently high-quality on a cold winter evening. You feel uncomfortably cold,
product. Manufacturers can also save money by so you throw another log on the fire. This is an example
reducing variability. of a control loop. In the control loop, a variable
(temperature) fell below the setpoint (your comfort
Reducing variability can also save money by reducing level), and you took action to bring the process back into
the need for product padding to meet required product the desired condition by adding fuel to the fire. The
specifications. Padding refers to the process of making control loop will now remain static until the temperature
a product of higher-quality than it needs to be to meet again rises above or falls below your comfort level.
specifications. When there is variability in the end
product (i.e., when process control is poor),
manufacturers are forced to pad the product to ensure THREE TASKS
that specifications are met, which adds to the cost. With
Control loops in the process control industry work in
accurate, dependable process control, the setpoint
the same way, requiring three tasks to occur:
(desired or optimal point) can be moved closer to the
actual product specification and thus save the □ Measurement
manufacturer money. □ Comparison
□ Adjustment
In below figure, a level transmitter (LT) measures the
level in the tank and transmits a signal associated with
the level reading to a controller (LIC). The controller
compares the reading to a predetermined value, in this
case, the maximum tank level established by the plant
operator, and finds that the values are equal. The
controller then sends a signal to the device that can
bring the tank level back to a lower level—a valve at the
bottom of the tank. The valve opens to let some liquid
out of the tank.
Many different instruments and devices may or may not of the burner to close slightly until the process cools
be used in control loops (e.g., transmitters, sensors, to 100 °C. Set points can also be maximum or
controllers, valves, pumps), but the three tasks of minimum values. For example, level in tank cannot
measurement, comparison, and adjustment are always exceed 20 feet.
present.

Process Control Terms

MEASURED VARIABLES, PROCESS VARIABLES,

AND MANIPULATED VARIABLES

In the temperature control loop example, the measured

variable is temperature, which must be held close to
100 °C. In this example and in most instances, the
measured variable is also the process variable. The
measured variable is the condition of the process fluid
that must be kept at the designated setpoint.
Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as
the process variable. For example, a manufacturer may
measure flow into and out of a storage tank to
As in any field, process control has its own set of determine tank level. In this scenario, flow is the
common terms that you should be familiar with and measured variable, and the process fluid level is the
that you will use when talking about control process variable. The factor that is changed to keep the
technology. measured variable at setpoint is called the manipulated
variable.
PROCESS VARIABLE

A process variable is a condition of the process fluid

(a liquid or gas) that can change the manufacturing
process in some way. In the example of you sitting by
the fire, the process variable was temperature. In the
example of the tank in the figure shown, the process
variable is level. Common process variables include:
Variables
□ Pressure
□ Flow
□ Level ERROR
□ Temperature Error is the difference between the measured variable
□ Density and the setpoint and can be either positive or negative.
□ Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or
□ Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different eliminate error. Therefore, it is imperative that error be
liquids that are combined in a vessel) well understood. Any error can be seen as having
□ Mass three major components. These three components
□ Conductivity are shown in the figure on the following page

SETPOINT MAGNITUDE
The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation
The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is between the values of the setpoint and the process
desired to be maintained. For example, if a process variable. The magnitude of error at any point in time
temperature needs to kept within 5 °C of 100 °C, then compared to the previous error provides the basis for
the setpoint is 100 °C. A temperature sensor can be determining the change in error. The change in error is
used to help maintain the temperature at setpoint. also an important value.

The sensor is inserted into the process, and a DURATION

controller compares the temperature reading from Duration refers to the length of time that an error
the sensor to the setpoint. If the temperature reading condition has existed.
is 110 °C, then the controller determines that the
process is above setpoint and signals the fuel valve
RATE OF CHANGE getting too hot, based on a pre-set time interval,
The rate of change is shown by the slope of the error regardless of the actual temperature of the process
plot. fluid.

OFFSET
Components of control loops and ISA
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable
symbology
from the setpoint.
Control loop equipment and
LOAD DISTURBANCE technology
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of
the factors that can affect the process variable. This section describes the instruments,
technologies, and equipment used to
CONTROL ALGORITHM develop and maintain process control
A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a loops. In addition, this section describes
control function. how process control equipment is
represented in technical drawings of
Relationship in a control algorithm can be express as control loops.
V=f(+-e) The previous section described the basic elements of
V- valve position control as measurement, comparison, and adjustment.
F – function In practice, there are instruments and strategies to
E – error accomplish each of these essential tasks. In some
cases, a single process control instrument, such as a
Control algorithms can be used to calculate the modern pressure transmitter, may perform more than
requirements of much more complex control loops than one of the basic control functions. Other technologies
the one described here. In more complex control loops, have been developed so that communication can occur
questions such as “How far should the valve be opened among the components that measure, compare, and
or closed in response to a given change in setpoint?” adjust.
and “How long should the valve be held in the new
position after the process variable moves back toward PRIMARY ELEMENTS/SENSORS
setpoint?” need to be answered.
In all cases, some kind of instrument is measuring
MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL changes in the process and reporting a process
variable measurement. Some of the greatest ingenuity
Before process automation, people, rather than in the process control field is apparent in sensing
machines, performed many of the process control devices. Because sensing devices are the first element
tasks. For example, a human operator might have in the control loop to measure the process variable,
watched a level gauge and closed a valve when the they are also called primary elements. Examples of
level reached the setpoint. Control operations that primary elements include:
involve human □ Pressure sensing diaphragms, strain gauges,
action to make an adjustment are called manual control capacitance cells
systems. Conversely, control operations in which no □ Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
human intervention is required, such as an automatic
□ Thermocouples
valve actuator that responds to a level controller, are
called automatic control systems. □ Orifice plates
□ Pitot tubes
□ Venturi tubes
CLOSED AND OPEN CONTROL LOOPS □ Magnetic flow tubes

A closed control loop exists where a process □ Coriolis flow tubes

variable is measured, compared to a setpoint, and □ Radar emitters and receivers
action is taken to correct any deviation from □ Ultrasonic emitters and receivers
setpoint. An open control loop exists where the □ Annubar flow elements
process variable is not compared, and action is
□ Vortex shedder
taken not in response to feedback on the condition
of the process variable, but is instead taken without
regard to process variable conditions. For example, Primary elements are devices that cause some change
a water valve may be opened to add cooling water
in their property with changes in process fluid
to a process to prevent the process fluid from
conditions that can then be measured. For example,
when a conductive fluid passes through the magnetic industry standard pneumatic signal range is 3–15 psig.
field in a magnetic flow tube, the fluid generates a The 3 corresponds to the lower range value (LRV) and
voltage that is directly proportional to the velocity of the the 15 corresponds to the upper range value (URV).
process fluid. The primary element (magnetic flow Pneumatic signalling is still common. However, since
tube) outputs a voltage that can be measured and used the advent of electronic instruments in the 1960s, the
to calculate the fluid’s flow rate. With an RTD, as the lower costs involved in running electrical signal wire
temperature of a process fluid surrounding the RTD through a plant as opposed to running pressurized air
rises or falls, the electrical resistance of the RTD tubes has made pneumatic signal technology less
increases or decreases a proportional amount. The attractive.
resistance is measured, and from this measurement,
temperature is determined. Analog Signals

TRANSDUCERS AND CONVERTERS The most common standard electrical signal is the 4–
20 mA current signal. With this signal, a transmitter
A transducer is a device that translates a mechanical sends a small current through a set of wires. The
signal into an electrical signal. For example, inside a current signal is a kind of gauge in which 4 mA
capacitance pressure device, a transducer converts represents the lowest possible measurement, or zero,
changes in pressure into a proportional change in and 20 mA represents the highest possible
capacitance. measurement.
A converter is a device that converts one type of signal For example, imagine a process that must be
into another type of signal. For example, a converter may maintained at 100 °C. An RTD temperature sensor and
convert current into voltage or an analog signal into a transmitter are installed in the process vessel, and the
digital signal. In process control, a converter used to transmitter is set to produce a 4 mA signal when the
convert a 4–20 mA current signal into a 3–15 psig process temperature is at 95 °C and a 20 mA signal
pneumatic signal (commonly used by valve actuators) is when the process temperature is at 105 °C. The
called a current-to-pressure converter. transmitter will transmit a 12 mA signal when the
temperature is at the 100 °C setpoint. As the sensor’s
resistance property changes in response to changes in
TRANSMITTERS temperature, the transmitter outputs a 4–20 mA signal
that is proportionate to the temperature changes. This
A transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a
signal can be converted to a temperature reading or an
sensor or transducer into a standard signal and transmits
that signal to a monitor or controller. Transmitter types input to a control device, such as a burner fuel valve.
include:
□ Pressure transmitters Digital Signals
□ Flow transmitters Digital signals are the most recent addition to process
□ Temperature transmitters control signal technology. Digital signals are discrete
□ Level transmitters levels or values that are combined in specific ways to
□ Analytic (O2 [oxygen], CO [carbon monoxide], represent process variables and also carry other
and pH) transmitters information, such as diagnostic information. The
methodology used to combine the digital signals is
referred to as protocol.
SIGNALS Manufacturers may use either an open or a proprietary
There are three kinds of signals that exist for the digital protocol.
process industry to transmit the process variable
INDICATORS
measurement from the instrument to a centralized
control system. While most instruments are connected to a control
system, operators sometimes need to check a
1. Pneumatic signal measurement on the factory floor at the measurement
2. Analog signal point. An indictor makes this reading possible. An
3. Digital signal indicator is a human-readable device that displays
information about the process. Indicators may be as
Pneumatic Signals simple as a pressure or temperature gauge or more
complex, such as a digital read-out device. Some
Pneumatic signals are signals produced by changing
indicators simply display the measured variable, while
the air pressure in a signal pipe in proportion to the
others have control buttons that enable operators to
measured change in a process variable. The common
change settings in the field.
RECORDERS CORRECTING ELEMENTS/FINAL CONTROL
ELEMENTS
A recorder is a device that records the output of a
measurement devices. Many process manufacturers The correcting or final control element is the
are required by law to provide a process history to part of the control system that acts to physically
regulatory agencies, and manufacturers use recorders change the manipulated variable. In most
to help meet these regulatory requirements. In addition, cases, the final control element is a valve used
manufacturers often use recorders to gather data for to restrict or cut off fluid flow, but pump motors,
trend analyses. By recording the readings of critical louvers (typically used to regulate air flow),
measurement points and comparing those readings solenoids, and other devices can also be final
over time with the results of the process, the process control elements.
can be improved.
Final control elements are typically used to increase or
Different recorders display the data they collect decrease fluid flow. For example, a final control element
differently. Some recorders list a set of readings and may regulate the flow of fuel to a burner to control
the times the readings were taken; others create a temperature, the flow of a catalyst into a reactor to control
chart or graph of the readings. Recorders that create a chemical reaction, or the flow of air into a boiler to
charts or graphs are called chart recorders. control boiler combustion.
In any control loop, the speed with which a final control
CONTROLLERS element reacts to correct a variable that is out of setpoint
is very important.
Controller is a device that receives data from
measurement instrument, compares that data
from a programmed setpoint.
ACTUATORS
Local controllers are usually one of the three
types: pneumatic, electronic or programmable. An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes
Controllers also commonly reside in a digital a physical change in the final control device when
control system signalled to do so. The most common example of an
Controllers may perform complex mathematical actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or closes a
functions to compare a set of data to setpoint or they valve in response to control signals from a controller.
may perform simple addition or subtraction functions to Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically,
make comparisons. Controllers always have an ability or electrically. Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears,
to receive input, to perform a mathematical function hydraulic pilot valves, pistons, or electric motors are often
with the input, and to produce an output signal. parts of an actuator system.
Common examples of controllers include:
□ Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)—PLCs are
usually computers connected to a set of ISA Symbology
input/output (I/O) devices. The computers are
programmed to respond to inputs by sending The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society
outputs to maintain all processes at setpoint. (ISA) is one of the leading process control trade and
□ Distributed control systems (DCSs)—DCSs are standards organizations. The ISA has developed a set
controllers that, in addition to performing control of symbols for use in engineering drawings and
functions, provide readings of the status of the designs of control loops (ISA S5.1 instrumentation
process, maintain databases and advanced man- symbol specification). You should be familiar with ISA
machine-interface. symbology so that you can demonstrate possible
process control loop solutions on paper to your
customer. Below figure shows a control loop using ISA
Types of Process controllers
symbology. Drawings of this kind are known as piping
• Pipestand Controller and instrumentation drawings (P&ID).
• Analog Rack Mount Controller
• Single Loop Digital Converter
• Distributed Control System
• Digital Valve Controller
• Smart Transmitter
 A hexagon represents computer functions, such as
those carried outby a controller

Control Types

Control Room Auxiliary Field Not Accessible

Computer Functions (Controllers)

A square with a diamond inside represents PLCs

PLC Types

Control Auxilia Fiel Not accessible

SYMBOLS Room ry d

In a P&ID, a circle represents individual measurement

instruments, such as transmitters, sensors, and Two triangles with their apexes contacting each
detectors. other (a “bow tie” shape) represent a valve in the
piping. An actuator is always drawn above the valve.
LOCATIO
N

Control Room Auxiliary Field Not Accessible

A single horizontal line running across the center of the

shape indicates that the instrument or function is
located in a primary location (e.g., a control room).
A double line indicates that the function is in an auxiliary
location (e.g., an instrument rack).
The absence of a line indicates that the function is field Pumps
mounted, and a dotted line indicates that the function
or instrument is inaccessible (e.g., located behind a Directional arrows showing the flow direction represent
panel board). a pump
A square with a circle inside represents instruments
that both display measurement readings and perform
some control function. Many modern transmitters are
equipped with microprocessors that perform control
calculations and send control output signals to final
control elements.

DISPLAY AND CONTROL

TYPES
Flow/

Root
Control Room Fiel Not Accessible
d
Shared Control/Display Elements
Piping and Connections modifier, readout, or device function. The third letter
usually indicates either a device function or a modifier.
Piping and connections are represented with several
different symbols. For example, “FIC” on an instrument tag represents a
□ A heavy solid line represents piping flow indicating controller. “PT” represents a pressure
□ A thin solid line represents process connections to
transmitter. You can find identification letter symbology
information on the ISA Web site at http://www.isa.org.
instruments (e.g., impulse piping)
□ A dashed line represents electrical signals
TAG NUMBERS
(e.g., 4–20 mA connections)
□ A slashed line represents pneumatic signal tubes Numbers on P&ID symbols represent instrument tag
□ A line with circles on it represents data links numbers. Often these numbers are associated with a
particular control loop (e.g., flow transmitter 123).
Other connection symbols include capillary tubing for
filled systems (e.g., remote diaphragm seals), hydraulic
signal lines, and guided electromagnetic or sonic
signals.

Piping and Connection Symbols

IDENTIFICATION LETTERS

Identification letters on the ISA symbols (e.g., TT for

temperature transmitter) indicate:
□ The variable being measured (e.g., flow, pressure,
temperature)
□ The device’s function (e.g., transmitter, switch, valve,
sensor, indicator)
□ Some modifiers (e.g., high, low, multifunction)
On the next page, a table shows the ISA identification
letter designations. The initial letter indicates the
measured variable. The second letter indicates a
ISA Symbology

Measured Modifier Readout Device Modifier

Variable Function
A Analysis Alarm
B Burner, combustion User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice
C User’s choice Control
D User’s choice Differential
Sensor (primary
E Voltage
element)
F Flow rate Ration (fraction)
User’s choice Glass, viewing
G
device
H Hand High
I Electrical Current Indication
J Power Scan
Time, time Time rate of Control station
K
schedule change
L Level Light Low
User’s choice Momentary Middle,
M
intermediate
N User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice
User’s choice Orifice,
O
restriction
Pressure, vacuum Point, test
P
connection
Quantity Integrate,
Q
totalizer
R Radiation Record
S Speed, frequency Safety Switch
T Temperature Transmit
U Multivariable Multifunction Multifunction Multifunction
Vibration,
Valve, damper,
V mechanical
louver
analysis
W Weight, force Well
X Unclassified X axis Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified
Event, state, or
Relay,
presence Y axis
Y compute,
convert
Z Position, dimension Z axis Driver, actuator