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Superconducting Transmission Systems: Review, Classification and Technology

Readiness Assessment

Article in IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · January 2019

DOI: 10.1109/TASC.2019.2895395

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ASC2018-3LPO1A-01 1

Superconducting Transmission Systems:

Review, Classification and
Technology Readiness Assessment
Dimitrios I. Doukas, Member, IEEE

Abstract—This paper provides an extended review of projects power transfers in the range of GWs, but it is only a few years
and implementations for high-temperature superconducting that real in-grid implementations took place [5].
(HTS) transmission systems worldwide. Projects are categorized
based on a multi-criteria analysis that considers transmission
Although R&D progress and better understanding of the
technology, i.e. AC or DC, laboratory or commercial activity benefits the HTS technology presents when compared to
and classified according to operating characteristics, e.g. length, standard ones helped towards this direction, applications are
voltage/current level, power capacity and cooling means. A still only a few and niche (small-scale demonstration/field
survey about applications that can be supported by HTS links projects) [6].
is also presented, whereas technical challenges that impede the
more massive grid-penetration of HTS systems are highlighted. The main advantages of HTS cables are summarized as:
Finally, the current technology readiness for both AC and DC • Size advantage: minimized visual impact, lower land use
implementations is assessed and a discussion about future HTS-
links adoption is provided.
and smaller environmental footprint.
• Loss elimination to transmit high-carrying power capac-
Index Terms—High-temperature superconducting (HTS) ca- ities.
bles, large-scale applications, literature survey, superconducting
transmission systems, technology readiness assessment. • Low-voltage operation: less complex, lower in volume
and cost equipment.
• Low electromagnetic fields to affect the surrounding area.
I. I NTRODUCTION • Cable-embedded fault current limiting functionalities.

T HE power grid landscape, either on transmission or on

distribution level and from generation to consumption, is
in midst of a transitional period and is expected to transform
As it is evident, a number of public concerns, especially
the ones related to visual intrusion with new installations and
OHLs can be addressed with HTS cables. Such a transmission
radically due to a number of forces and regulations. Main
alternative presents advantages that are generally accepted and
driver is the generation shift, since conventional generation
welcome by communities.
means based on fossil fuels or nuclear power plants give
ground to renewable energy sources (RES). Regardless of the
generation type though, electricity demand is constantly rising
and the need for reliable, cheap, efficient, controllable/flexible B. HTS AC transmission
power transmission solutions comes to the fore, especially to AC transmission technology was for a number of decades
interconnect isolated generation locations with mega-cities [1]. the most mature and cost-efficient - especially for short
To that end, superconducting cables - especially after the lengths - transmission technology. As a consequence the first
discovery of high-temperature superconductors [2] - are ex- superconducting cable projects were based on AC also, making
pected to be a key technology. The possibilities that HTS the HTS AC cables the most widespread grid application,
cables unlock are numerous and inconceivable, whereas ever with numerous demonstration sights globally [7] becoming
increasing R&D efforts in the area guarantee performance a success. High-capacity connections in urban environments
improvements in the upcoming years. However, for the time is the main application for them so far. Construction-wise,
being, superconducting transmission systems fail to be cost- HTS AC cables present similarities with standard underground
competitive and equally reliable to conventional cables and transmission links, i.e. a cable core made by a layer of HTS
overhead lines (OHLs), a fact that prevents their more mean- wire, dielectric and insulation layers and of course a cryostat.
ingful grid penetration [3]. Their diameter varies from 13 to 25 cm and segments of few
hundreds of meters can be achieved before additional joints
A. Status & prospects of HTS transmission are needed.
More than five decades ago, in [4], incorporation of super- In regards to the cooling system, it is mostly based on
conducting transmission links was discussed for high-capacity liquid nitrogen (LN2 )-related cost-efficient systems that can be
located either at one or at both ends. Terminals are components
D. I. Doukas is with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, of particular interest, since there transition from HTS wire
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece (e-mail:
doux@auth.gr). to copper (Cu) leads and from frozen to room-temperature
Manuscript submitted January 23, 2019. conditions takes place.
ASC2018-3LPO1A-01 2

C. HTS DC transmission Application-wise, HTS transmission systems are expected to

DC transmission technology became recently more cost- become a game-changer for bulk power transmission over long
competitive and had major advantages to present that have lengths and unlock possibilities to connect big consumption
inevitably triggered the interest of the HTS cables’ industry. areas with significant renewable generation [1]. Moreover,
Combining DC and HTS cables for high-power capacity the unique possibility for high-power density with cables of
transmission over long distances (to connect isolated RES reduced size makes HTS transmission a promising candidate
units with centrally located load centers) has been proposed for underground metropolitan installations that are particularly
as the “Supergrid” concept a few years back [8]. A loss-less congested [9] as a means of overcoming grid bottlenecks.
transmission infrastructure as the backbone of a modern grid Finally, short-length links that utilize HTS cables can be used
was the vision, whereas dealing with technical challenges, e.g. to interconnect weak systems of great demand (or especially
reliable cooling and insulation systems, as well as the need current-intensive applications), such as aluminum industries
for the HTS cables to become more cost-optimal emerged as with stiff grids or for covering the increased power demand
topics of interest. of data centers [10]. On the latter, zero-voltage variation over
Application-wise, HTS DC cables have been also presented cable lengths and simultaneous utilization of the same cooling
as a high-power link alternative for neighboring asynchronous system for cable and data center purposes is believed to fur-
power systems in the presence of state-of-the-art converter ther reduce installations and utilization costs [11]. Especially
stations. Such a project example was the “Tres Amigas for the energy-intensive data centers case, the only way to
SuperStation” project, which although postponed, had as a considerably improve energy savings is by the introduction of
target to interconnect major grid parts and to balance demand HTS links to power them. The cost savings can be significant
with supply in an efficient way. Transmission in the range of and HTS cables can be a cost-competitive option for this
GWs would be required for that purpose, something easy-to- application, something that explains why industries, such
achieve with the HTS DC option, especially when comparing as the American Superconductor Corporation, have existing
with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6 )-based alternatives that were solutions to offer in place [12].
abandoned due to environmental implications. Transportation-related applications are also of significant
importance in case of superconductors, mainly because of
the power densities that are connected with them. HTS short-
D. Scope, Contribution & Outline
length cable installations are being examined by the the US
The scope of this paper is to present an extended literature Navy and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
survey on all major HTS transmission projects worldwide, (NASA) for next-generation all-electric ships and air-crafts,
emphasizing on the progress achieved so far, on the trends respectively. In parallel, since railway systems utilize low-
for longer links and the shift from AC to DC but also on voltage (in the range of a few kVs) DC systems, the op-
applications that can be benefited. Access to all the relevant portunity to replace conventional copper cables with HTS is
technical information is important for the correct decisions also considered and numerous advantages, e.g. higher energy
to be made in the future. The contribution of this paper is efficiency are expected.
to provide interested stakeholders with a thorough technology To sum up, the main applications can be summarized in:
readiness assessment analysis and to highlight the obstacles
• Power hubs energization.
industry and academia need to overcome for a more massive
• Overcoming grid bottlenecks.
and meaningful grid-penetration of HTS transmission links.
• Industry (Aluminum processes or data centers).
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: Sections
• Transport (railway, all-electric ships or air-crafts).
II and III present a number of applications in which HTS
technology can be useful and a very detailed list of projects
worldwide, respectively. In Section IV, a technology readiness III. P ROJECTS MAPPING
assessment is performed, whereas in Section V benefits of Although HTS DC cables still appear to be a long way
DC are highlighted. Technical challenges are summarized in off, compared to HTS AC, initial development work has
Section VI and Section VII concludes the paper. began with several demonstration projects whereas more, even
longer are already planned [13]. The most important cable
II. A PPLICATIONS & O PPORTUNITIES FOR HTS projects are summarized in Table I, while the trend for longer
T RANSMISSION transmission links as well as the preference to HTS DC is
Although HTS equipment is currently expensive, HTS- indicated in Fig. 1 and in Table I.
based AC or DC transmission can benefit by their advan- As expected, monitoring of project activities around the
tages, whereas capital and operating costs can be significantly world can be really challenging, since some installations are in
reduced mainly because of a) eliminated cable losses and discussion, some others are postponed or even abandoned and
b) low-voltage, high-current characteristics that require less only a few are commissioned as expected. Moreover, although
conversion stages and cheaper apparatus. HTS transmission time-allocation of the cable installations can be impractical, a
systems are several times lighter and more compact (more than conclusion can be drawn about the general trends over time
10 times) than corresponding conventional links to transmit with some confidence, since moving to longer installations that
the same power, a fact that makes them promising for a great even exceed some km-lengths and starting considering DC as
number of applications. well, are evident trends.
ASC2018-3LPO1A-01 3

TABLE I: Technical characteristics of major HTS transmission IV. T ECHNOLOGY READINESS ASSESSMENT
projects
Successful research and development (R&D) endeavors and
Project (Country) Year Type l (m) V (kV) I (kA) Ref. well-documented and evaluated results underpin the devel-
Carollton (US) 2000 AC 30 12.4 1.25 [14] opment of new technologically advanced commercial prod-
Milan (IT) 2000 AC 50 115.0 2.00 [15] ucts and systems [42], which usually happens in a number
Copenhagen (DK) 2001 AC 30 30.0 2.00 [16] of successful development phases. After the initial research
Ichihara (JP) 2002 AC 30 77.0 0.70 [17] comes a technology development phase, where the research
Yokosuka (JP) 2002 AC 100 66.0 1.00 [18] and/or applied research are transferred through a pilot project
Anyangsi (KR) 2004 AC 30 23.0 1.26 [19] in an industrial setting and its benefits and limitations are
Kunming (CN) 2004 AC 33 35.0 2.00 [20] assessed. Then a product development phase follows, where
Baiyin (CN) 2005 AC 75 0.5 1.50 [21] the remaining technology risks are tackled, and the reliability
Albany (US) 2006 AC 350 34.5 0.80 [22] of the new concepts is established. An illustration related to
Columbus (US) 2006 AC 200 13.0 3.00 [23] that can be seen in Fig. 2.
Gochang (KR) 2007 AC 100 23.0 1.25 [24]
Long Island (US) 2008 AC 600 138.0 2.40 [25] Applied Operational
Basic Research
Development Deployment
Hannover (DE) 2010 AC 30 20.0 3.20 [26]
Yokohama (JP) 2010 AC 30 66.0 1.75 [27]
Icheon (KR) 2011 AC 500 23.0 1.25 [28]
Endesa (ES) 2011 AC 30 25.0 3.20 [29]
TRL TRL TRL TRL TRL TRL TRL TRL TRL
CASER (JP) 2011 DC 200 10.0 2.00 [30] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Aliander (NL) 2012 AC 6000 50.0 2.90 [31]
Yokohama (JP) 2012 AC 250 66.0 1.75 [32]
HTS dc HTS ac
IEE CAS (CN) 2012 DC 360 1.3 10.0 [10]
Essen (DE) 2014 AC 1000 10.0 2.30 [33] Fig. 2: Technology readiness level for HTS transmission.
KEPRI (KR) 2014 DC 100 80.0 3.25 [34]
Jeju Island (KR) 2014 DC 500 80.0 3.13 [35] Based on the project mapping presented above and consid-
Ishikari (JP) 2015 DC 500 80.0 3.13 [36] ering also [43], such an analysis is conducted to provide a
Hydra 2, (US) 2016 AC 170 13.8 4.00 [37] Technology Readiness Assessment (TRA) for HTS transmis-
Hydra 3, (US) Future AC 5600 12.5 TBD [37] sion applications. This is a formal methodology to assess the
Moscow (RU) Future AC 200 20.0 2.00 [38] level of maturity and resources and effort required to turn a
New York (US) Future AC 300 10.0 4.00 [39] great idea into a commercially viable product.
Jeju (KR) Future AC 500 154.0 3.75 [40] Currently, high power HTS AC transmission systems or
St. Petersb. (RU) Future DC 2500 20.0 2.50 [41] HTS distribution systems for congested urban areas present
a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of 7, since integrated
pilot systems have been already demonstrated. Although, the
efforts on HTS DC applications have been increased lately, a
2500
St. Peterburg
TRL of 5 can be assumed for HTS DC transmission systems,
2400 HTS AC Cable Project
2300
since testing on integrated systems is still limited. For both
HTS DC Cable Project
2200 HTS AC and DC alternatives, TRL is expected to reach level
2100 Ishikari
2000
9, i.e. market maturity, by 2030, while lengths in the range of
1900 10s km are expected based also on [44]. To reach this stage,
1800
R&D efforts are necessary mainly to reduce costs and improve
Transmission Length (m)

1700
1600
Carollton
system safety and reliability.
1500
1400
Essen
1300
Icheon V. A DDITIONAL B ENEFITS OF HTS DC
1200
1100
Jeju Considering the findings of Section III regarding the tran-
1000
900 Albany
Al
Long Island
sland sition from AC to DC, a discussion about the additional
800 Jeju advantages DC technology can contribute, follows.
700
600
New York Although for many years AC technology outperformed DC,
500
Yokosuka
progress in advanced converter topologies re-stimulated the
400 Moscow
300 Chubu
interest for DC. Voltage-source converters (VSCs) and more
200
Henan
nan
sophisticated modular multilevel converter topologies that en-
100
able functionalities towards more efficient energy conversion
00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Future
Year
and more flexible and controllable grids have a great impact
on this and their contribution is crucial.
Fig. 1: Representation of major HTS transmission projects Blending HTS cables and DC transmission technology
over the last 2 decades. is expected to combine a number of important advantages.
ASC2018-3LPO1A-01 4

Firstly, transmission losses can be further reduced, while the that are difficult-to-damp, the HTS equipment might be put
switching losses at the converter are kept marginal (total losses at risk of quenching [46]. Therefore, instabilities expected on
reduction by 80% according to [45]). Moreover, on top of HTS links and their severity need to be assessed and, contrary
the losses reduction, cost savings can be achieved on the to hardware-based solutions proposed in literature, stability
converter side. The converters that are necessary can be cost- improvements on control level need to be proposed.
efficient and less bulky, since the low-voltage operation, in the
range of a few kVs, can be exploited. That makes HTS DC D. Long-term reliability & risks
links a flexible-to-integrate transmission solution, within AC,
The market is rather immature, unfamiliarity with materials,
DC or mixed AC/DC systems. As also mentioned in [45], a
apparatus and processes that are key parts of HTS transmission
remarkable 85% reduction of the right-of-way (ROW) can be
is an issue and performance data to prove that HTS installa-
achieved with HTS DC cables, making this combination the
tions are reliable for the long term as well do not exist yet.
more compact solution to transmit high power capacities
Moreover, although costs seem to drop fast, there are some
VI. C HALLENGES PREVENTING MASSIVE ADOPTION uncertainties about resources’ availability in the future.
More than 30 years after the initial discovery of HTS in
E. Mathematical models
1986 [2], a number of technical challenges continue to persist.
Although, as listed also above, a great number of active The need for accurate HTS cable model components that are
implementations present great progress, there are obstacles not existing even within the most powerful simulation software
preventing the massive grid-penetration of HTS links. packages is highlighted. Several studies have been conducted,
but not in great depth and only for AC cables. Ideally, a
A. Cost & economics robust cable model should be coupled electro-thermal, able to
study both steady-state as well as transient conditions, consider
That is unquestionably the greatest challenge. The basic
resistivity variations under varying operating conditions and
metric used to assess how cost-effective HTS wires - and
combined with time-efficient solvers, since the computational
consequently HTS cables - are, is the cost-to-performance met-
burden required is significant [47].
ric $/kAm, i.e. cost per kiloampere-meters. The background
behind this metric corresponds to the fact that higher critical
VII. C ONCLUSIONS
currents result in less HTS wire needed for the same power
transfer. R&D activities are driven by the need to achieve In this paper, a thorough literature survey on HTS projects
higher critical current densities, while maintaining, or even is presented. Projects are classified and categorized based on
reducing, the HTS wire cost. For the time being, the above country, year, transmission technology and technical charac-
mentioned costs for HTS cables are in the range of a few teristics, whereas a tendency for longer installations and a
100 $/kAm, making the HTS solution cost non-competitive, slow transition from AC to DC technologies is highlighted.
since the corresponding cost for copper and other conventional Applications and opportunities for HTS transmission links are
materials used for cables is still a fraction of that. discussed, the main technical challenges the academic com-
Cooling is another significant cost component, even with munity needs to overcome are summarized and the technology
LN2 systems, since cooling requirements and the refrigeration readiness of both AC and DC options is assessed.
cost are high. Although cryogenics steadily advance to higher This paper’s main contribution is to provide the reader
efficiency at lower cost, the HTS power industry is still too with a compact overview with all HTS transmission activi-
small to achieve enough manufacturing scale for significant ties worldwide but also with a deeper understanding of the
cost impact. next steps needed in order HTS technology to reach market
maturity.
B. Manufacturing process & standardization
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
HTS technology is still in an early stage with only a few
stakeholders (power utilities and industries) involved yet. On The author would like to thank Prof. Dimitris Labridis from
the other hand, technology progress on all related fields, i.e. the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece and Prof.
wire manufacturing, materials, power equipment, is rather fast Lennart Harnefors and Dr. Giovanni Velotto, scientists at ABB
making it difficult to agree on standardized processes and Corporate Research Center in Västerås, Sweden, for useful
products. More manufacturing experience is needed to reach advice on control as well as on the latest HTS application
consistency in product quality and performance. That will be developments.
of significant importance in the future for more utilities to
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