Independent Learning Module 3

PROFED 4: Technology in Teaching and Learning 1

Semester: 1st, A.Y. 2023~2024

UNIT 2. Integration of Information Communication Technology in Actual Teaching

Topic: Instructional Designs and Theoretical Foundations

Learning Targets:

✓ Define and explain instructional design

✓ Explain the Theories of Learning foundational to the instructional design process
✓ Discuss the different instructional design models
Reference/s:
http://amandaszapkiw.com/elearning/principles-of-design/module-2/Module_2_Instructional_unit(PDF).pdf
https://educationaltechnology.net/the-addie-model-instructional-design/
https://educationaltechnology.net/dick-and-carey-instructional-model/
https://www.lib.purdue.edu/sites/default/files/directory/butler38/ADDIE.pdf
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/WC/WC29400.pdf
https://educationaltechnology.net/assure-instructional-design-model/
https://www.queensu.ca/teachingandlearning/modules/active/documents/Dales_Cone_of_Experience_summary.
pdf

Definitions of Instructional Design

Instructional Design is “a discipline in which practitioners constantly look to the findings of other disciplines
(e.g., cognitive psychology, communication) to study and improve methods of developing, delivering, and
evaluating instruction and instructional practices.” (Brown & Green, 2006)

Instructional design is a technology which incorporates known and verified learning strategies into instructional
experiences which make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and appealing.

Instructional Design is the art and science of creating an instructional environment and materials that will bring
the learner from the state of not being able to accomplish certain tasks to the state of being able to accomplish

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those tasks. Instructional Design is based on theoretical and practical research in the areas of cognition,
educational psychology, and problem solving.

Theories of Learning

An instructional design theory is a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and
develop. The kinds of learning and development may include cognitive, emotional, social, physical and
spiritual. There are two major aspects of any instructional situation: the conditions under which the instruction
will take place and the desired outcomes of the instructions.

Learning theories provide a foundation for instructional design(ISD). An instructional designer’s theoretical
approach to learning affects how the instruction is designed, developed, implemented, and evaluated. Most
instructional designer’s theoretical orientation is based upon one or the integration of three theories:
behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

A. BEHAVIORISM

Do you think that practice, reinforcement, and modeling are important for learning? If you said yes, your
primary theoretical orientation to learning may be behaviorism.

Behaviorism focuses upon observable behaviors, and behaviorists define learning as the acquisition of new
behaviors. Although behaviorists acknowledge that the mind exists, it is relatively ignored in this theoretical
approach because the interworking of the mind cannot be directly observed. Well-known behavioral theorists
include: Skinner, Pavlov, and Bandura.

Behaviorism Applied to Distance Education

Davidson-Shiver and Rasmussen (2006) claim that there are several key concepts of behaviorism that have been
applied to the educational environment and that you may find important in designing and implementing a
distance education course or program.

Practice – Research demonstrates that repetition via practice can strengthen learning. Providing learners with
opportunities practice after the presentation of material or reading may allow learners to strengthen a specific
skill. In the e-learning environment, an instructor may use Second life, a virtual world, to deliver a lecture and
engage his or her students in a role-play.

Modeling – Modeling is defined as a demonstration of the desired behavior or response. For example, a course
designer may encourage an instructor to provide instructions for an assignment and then post commendable
work of previous students as examples. Another example is an instructor modeling the writing of desired
discussion board responses when interacting on discussion forum.

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Reinforcement - Theorists claim that learners learn or exhibit desired behaviors when provided with positive or
negative reinforcement. For example, in the e-learning environment, an e-mail from the instructor providing
results and explanation of those results on an assignment may serve as a positive reinforcement. In the mobile
environment a reinforcing text could be sent.
Active Learning - Behaviorist purport that learners should be active in that they should respond to stimulus in
order for learning to occur. In the e-learning or mobile environment, instructors may require students to require
students to answer questions in a discussion forum or via text messaging. The instructor may require learners to
share documents in a collaborative workspace such as a wiki or other collaborative workspace. The purpose of
this is so that instructors may observe students understanding of the material.

B. COGNITIVISM

Do you think that the brain functions like a computer and reflection and processing are important for learning?
If your answer is yes, your primary theoretical orientation to learning may be cognitivism.

Cognitivism emphasizes information processing, the mental processes that a learner uses as they apply skills
and knowledge. In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or
experiencing and then processing and remembering the information.

Cognitive learning might seem to be passive learning because there is no motor movement. However, the
learner is quite active in processing and remembering newly incoming information. Cognitive theorists liken the
human mind unto a computer in their explanation of learning: information comes in, is processed, and leads to
certain outcomes.

Behaviorism vs. Cognitivism

Behaviorists are concerned with what learners do to answers questions; whereas, cognitivists are interested in
how learners explain how they arrive at an answer to a question.

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Mayer, is well known for his cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Mayer, (2003) says the following about
learner centeredness, “it is not what is done to the learner, but how the learner interprets what happens, that is,
on the learner’s personal experience” (p.5). His theory is based upon several primary assumptions:

• There are two separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing information

• Each channel has a finite capacity, and the learner can only process a finite amount of information in one
channel at a time

• The brain does not interpret a multimedia presentation of words, pictures, and auditory information in a
mutually exclusive fashion; rather, these elements are selected and organized dynamically to produce logical
mental constructs.

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• Learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information based upon prior
knowledge, and the learner make sense of incoming information by actively creating mental representations.

Cognitivism Applied to Distance Education

There are multiple key principles of cognitivism that have been applied to the educational environment and that
you may find important in designing and implementing an e-learning course. Many of these, as stated earlier,
are discussed in detail in your text book (Clark& Mayer, 2008); a few are identified here:

• Reflection upon content is important. In the online environment, an instructor can ask students to reflect upon
the content to bring prior knowledge and experience to the forefronts of their minds.

• In order for learning to be meaningful, it should be relevant. In the online environment, an instructor or
instructional designer may identify primary learner audience prior knowledge and background and relate
instruction and assignments to learners’ backgrounds.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Do you think that actively interacting with materials and peers is important to learning? If your answer is yes,
your primary theoretical orientation to learning may be constructivism.

Constructivism affirms that learning is an active process, and the learner is a constructor of knowledge.
Learners construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and
reflecting on those experiences. More specifically, "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it
based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior
experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events" (Good & Brophy, 1990).

Constructivism Applied to Distance Education

In contrast to the traditional methods of teaching in which the teacher disseminates knowledge to be memorized
by the students, who in turn recite the information back to the teacher, constructivism promotes strategies based
on active learning. Thus, the role of the teacher shifts from the “sage on the stage” to a collaborator and
facilitator; scaffolding, reciprocal teaching, and guided instruction are considered primary effective teaching
strategies for both the traditional and e-learning environment. This learning theory and the associated strategies
are associated with effective e-learning, especially higher education e-leaning.

NOTE: A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell students
anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually

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confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all
knowledge is constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught. Thus, even
listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge.

Taken from: http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html

• Scaffolding is a temporary supportive structure that the instructor uses to assist a learner to accomplish a task
that they could not complete alone.

• Reciprocal teaching refers to a dialogue between teachers and students. The dialogue is structured through
the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and students
take turns leading the dialogue (Palincsar,1986).

• Guided instruction involves the teacher and learners exploring problems and via dialogue sharing their
different problem solving strategies (Hausfather, 1996).

The constructivist instructor provides tools plans problem-based learning activities so that learners can construct
ideas, make inferences, draw conclusions and inferences, and discuss their knowledge in a collaborative
learning environment. For example, the instructor may pose a case study based question in the discussion or
provide students with a multimedia flash-based case study to discuss during a online video conferencing session.
The instructor then focuses on assisting the learners. He or she may prompt each learner to reflect on and
examine his or her current knowledge related to the problem and indicates to the group of learners fruitful
avenues they may want to explore based on their ideas. Another well known online constructivist instructional
strategies is a WebQuest.

Summary of Learning Theories

Learning Theory Traditional Traditional Constructivism

(Behaviorism) (Cognitivism)

Theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Dewey, Vygotsky

Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Rort,Piaget, Bruner
Tolman, Skinner Gagne
Theories and Instructional Pavlov's Classical Dual Coding Theory Situated Cognition
Models Conditioning
Elaboration Theory Social-Cultural Learning
Skinner's Operant
Conditioning Schema Theory Case-Based Learning

Thorndike's Laws and Collins & Stevens Inquiry Discovery Learning

Connectionism
Teaching Model Distributed Learning

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Contract Learning Keller's ARCS Model of Problem-Based Learning

(PBL)
Individualized Instruction Motivation

Information Processing Merrill’s Component

Model Display Model
Assumptions about Knowledge is an Knowledge is an Knowledge is constructed
Knowledge and Learning objective reality to be objective reality to be through environmental
obtained obtained interactions and it is
embedded in the context
Learning is a change in Learning is concerned in which it is used
behavior and the goal of with internal mental
teaching is to produce process (including Knowledge is
behavioral change in insight, information collaboratively
desired direction processing, memory, constructed and meaning
perception) and results in is individually imposed
Emphasis is on the information in an
relationship between organized manner in the
observable, measurable stored in memory
behaviors and
environmental variables

Locus of Learning Stimuli in external Internal cognitive Learning is in relationship

environment structuring between people and
environment.

Learner Passive, consumer of Active processor of Active, constructors of

knowledge information knowledge

According to
behaviorism, the learner
is a responder to
environmental stimuli, a
tabula rasa shaped by
reinforcements
Instruction and Instruction and Instruction and Instruction and
Assessment assessment is teacher- assessment is assessment is student –
centered and independent, contextual, centered, collaborative,
criterion based; and reflective and customized to
learners’ prior
The purpose of Instructions aims to assist knowledge.
instruction is to elicit the learners in using
desired response based on strategies that result in Authentic assessments,
a stimulus (e.g., changes in thinking portfolios, contextual,

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automatically performing case based projects,

a specified procedure) The goal of instruction is authentic tasks and
for learners to develop dialogue are primarily
Knowledge obtainment, capacity and skills to instructional strategies.
retention, and learn better
reproduction (recalling Instruction is a process of
facts) is key. supporting knowledge
construction rather than
communicating
knowledge for the
purpose of a product.

Instructional Design (ISD) Models

After we have explored the different learning theories that are foundational to instructional design, it is time to
consider instructional design models. These processes assist us in applying learning theories in a systematic, yet
often iterative manner as we design instruction.

Among these design models covered by this module are the following:

A. ADDIE Design Model

Stages:
1. Analysis - The process for identifying and defining what is to be learned
2. Design - The process of determining how it is to be learned—based on audience need, timetable, and budget
3. Development - The process of authoring and producing the learning materials
4. Implementation - The process of installing the learning solution within the real-world business environment
5. Evaluation - The process of measuring the effectiveness and efficiency of the learning, based on the stated
objectives; occurring in each phase of the ADDIE model and at the project end

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B. Dick & Carey Design Model

The systems approach by Dick and Carey helps instructional designers develop curricula through a series of
nine steps which work together toward a defined instructional goal (Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2005). The Dick and
Carey systems approach considers components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities,
delivery system, and the learning and performance environment.

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Stage 1. Identifying Instructional Goals. A critical part of the instructional design process is the identification
of the instructional goal(s) (Dick et al., 2005). When developing instructional goals, it is best to consult with a
subject matter expert. A subject matter expert is the expert in the field for which the curriculum is being
designed. A subject matter expert and creator(s) of the curriculum should use a needs assessment to determine
the needs of the learners.

Stage 2. Conducting Instructional Analysis. Once instructional goals are established, an instructional analysis
can be developed. An instructional analysis is a set of procedures that help identify the skills and knowledge
that should be included in instruction. It is important to identify which domain each instructional goal is linked
to. Bloom defines the following learning domains of learning outcomes (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, &
Krathwohl, 1956):
• Psychomotor Domain
• Affective (Attitude) Domain
• Cognitive Domain
• Knowledge
• Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Evaluation

Stage 3. Analyzing Learners and Context. When determining the learners and the context in which the
learning will take place, it is important to refer to the target population. The target population is the group of
learners that you are trying to reach in instruction (Dick et al., 2005). When considering the target population, it
is important to go beyond the context of the learner. When designing curriculum, the designer should consider
the following about the target population:
• Skills prior to instruction
• Prior knowledge of the topic area
• Attitudes toward content and potential delivery
• Academic motivation
• Education and ability levels
• Learning preferences
• Group characteristics

Stage 4. Writing Performance Objectives. A performance objective is a description of what the learners will
be able to do by the end of the unit of instruction (Dick et al., 2005). A performance objective should be written
into three parts: (a) conditions, (b) behavior, and (c) criteria.
• Conditions(CN): a description of the skill identified with the tools and resources needed to achieve the skill
(Dick et al., 2005).
• Behavior (B): a description of the skill including actions, content, or concepts.
• Criteria (CR): a description of acceptable performance of the skill.

Stage 5. Developing Assessment Instruments. Once performance objectives have been determined and
written, it is important to consider the question, “What type of assessment(s) should be used to assess the
learners’ performance?”Figure 2 indicates the various ways behaviors can be assessed, and indicates which

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types of assessments are appropriate for individual behavioral objectives. It is important to consider the
environment in which the assessments will take place, the response time needed by the learners, and the
probability of guessing the correct answer.

Stage 6. Developing an Instructional Strategy. An instructional strategy is a variety of teaching and learning
strategies, which may include group discussions, independent reading, lectures, computer simulations,
worksheets, lab work, and much more (Dick et al., 2005). This is generally known as instruction. When
considering the instructional strategies for a unit of instructions, there are a few things to consider, such as the
goal, the learner motivation and characteristics, the learning objectives, assessment requirements, and the
performance context.

Stage 7. Developing and Selecting Instructional Materials. The instructional materials contain the content.
This can be either written information or facilitated by an instructor that the student will use to achieve the
objectives (Dick et al., 2005). This may include any materials that are being incorporated into a lesson.
Examples of this may include student workbooks, activity guides, problem scenarios, resource lists, textbooks,
or computer simulations. When selecting and developing instructional materials, it is imperative to align the
materials to both the objectives in Stage 4 and the assessment instruments in Stage 5.

Stage 8. Designing and Conducting Formative Evaluation. Formative evaluation is the collection of data and
information during instruction that can be used to look at the effectiveness of instruction (Dick et al., 2005).
Formative evaluation should be conducted within the instruction, and happening as instruction is taking place.
However, formative evaluations may not always take place in non-formal Figure 2. The type of behavior and
related item types. Credits: Dick et al., 2005 Instructional Design Using the Dick and Carey Systems Approach
4 instruction. Formative evaluations can be completed in many ways. Examples may include:
• Questioning content
• Observations of learners
• Record analysis
• Interviews
•Self-assessments
• Short quizzes
• Discussion

Stage 9. Designing and Conducting Summative Evaluation. Summative evaluation is a collection of data that
looks at the effectiveness of instruction as a whole (Dick et. al., 2005). Summative evaluation measures an
entire unit of instruction and multiple performance objectives. When developing the summative evaluation, it is
important that the objectives match the summative evaluation. Summative evaluations differ from formative
evaluations. The main difference is the purpose for conducting an evaluation. Formative evaluations identify
improvements needed during instruction, whereas summative evaluations identify strengths and improvements
after instruction.

C. ASSURE Design Model

ASSURE is an instructional design model that has the goal of producing more effective teaching and
learning. “ASSURE” is an acronym that stands for the various steps in the model. The following is a breakdown
of each step.

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A – Analyze Learners

The first step in the process is that the teacher should analyze the attributes of her learners. There should be a
focus on those learner characteristics which are associated with the learning outcomes desired. When you
determine the character of the learners, it will guide you in choosing specific strategies and resources to aid the
learning process.

The analysis of your learners should include:

▪ The general attributes of your learners, such as age, academic abilities, gender, interests, etc.
▪ Prior competencies
▪ Learning styles, such as auditory, visual, and tactile

S – State Standards and Objectives

After the analysis of the learner attributes, the teacher must state standards and objectives for the learning
module. This statement consists of a specification of what the learners will be able to do as a result of the
instruction.

To be more concrete about things, this statement will focus on what the learner will know or be able to do as a
result of the instruction. The objectives can be used in assessing the success of the students, perhaps for the
grading process. Also, you can use them to let the learners know what they will accomplish through the class.

The mark of a good set of learning objectives is conformity to the ABCDs of well-stated learning objectives.
They are as follows:

▪ Audience – For whom is the objective intended?

▪ Behavior – What is the behavior or performance to be demonstrated?
▪ Conditions – What are the conditions under which the behavior or performance will be observed?
▪ Degree – To what degree will the knowledge or skill be mastered?

The objectives statement should be formulated with verbs that pinpoint the learning objective. A useful guide to
the appropriate verbs to use is contained in Bloom’s Taxonomy. Remember that assessment can only be based
on your learners’ behavior. A learner may know some material backwards and forwards but may not be able to
perform well on a test.

S – Select Strategies, Technology, Media, and Materials

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The second “s” in the acronym stands for select strategies, technology, media, and materials. Given what your
learning objectives are, it’s necessary to pick instructional strategies, technology, and media that will bring
about the results that you want.

First, you should figure out what and which delivery method will be best for your instruction. For instance,
what proportion of your instruction will be instructor-centered and what proportion of will be student-centered?
The first of these are strategies such as lecture, demonstration or showing a video. The second are strategies
such as group discussion or cooperative group work.

Common sense weighs in on the side of learner-centered strategies. Learning becomes more exciting when there
is more class participation. Ultimately, it’s the learner who must gain mastery over the material, not the teacher.
However, there will be a certain amount of crucial information and technique that the teacher must give over
and demonstrate.

Learning is at its best when the teacher merely leads the student into discovering the correct answer to a
problem themselves. An effective teacher is merely a facilitator to the process of learning.

Once you select your teaching strategy, then it’s time to figure out which technology, media, and materials best
support the method of teaching that you are using. This ranges from simple tools such as chalk and blackboard
to more sophisticated ones such as power-point presentations.

U – Utilize Technology, Media, and Materials

This step in the ASSURE process concerns making a plan as to how you will utilize the technology, media, and
materials that you have selected. As with all of the instructional steps, you must make sure that your plans
contribute towards producing the objectives that you have laid down.

It’s important to follow the “five P’s” process to achieve this:

Preview the Technology, Media, and Materials
This means that it’s important to plan ahead of time just how you’re going to use them. It’s good to do a dry run
of your lesson before you actually teach it. Make sure that the whole lesson will go smoothly and seamlessly.
Prepare the Technology, Media, and Materials
You need to gather together all of the things that you will need to teach your lesson. They must be working
properly. For example, if you are making a power-point presentation, then you’ll need to create the text and
graphics for each screen.
Prepare the Environment
There is some minimal preparation required to set up the learning environment. Simple things like making sure
that you have enough desks are important. Also, if you have control over the situation, you should make sure
that there are no sources of noise that will disturb the students.

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Prepare the Learners

First, you need to clearly inform the learners as to what the learning objectives are. This will help the learners
create a mental map of what they need to absorb. Next, it’s important to tell the students how they will be
assessed. You need to tell them what their assignments will be, how they will be graded, if there are tests, etc.
Also, you should explain to the students what the benefits of learning the material are.
Provide the Learning Experience
You then actually carry out the lesson. This is where all of your planning takes effect. You should be prepared
to carry out the lesson with every prior step of the process in mind. This will insure your success as a teacher.

R – Require Learner Participation

This step actually belongs within earlier steps. It requires that you make plans to how you are going to actively
engage your students in the material that you are teaching. This needs to be figured out both at the class level
and the individual level.

The most basic step that you can take is requiring participation of the students in class discussions. A more
sophisticated approach would require that students prepare questions and comments at home to bring into the
class. You might try even allowing individual students to lead classes or discussions in the style of a seminar.

Beyond this, you need to plan exactly how the students will participate in the learning process generally
speaking. How will they learn the information and techniques included in a lesson? This plan needs to be more
specific than just saying that they will listen and absorb the material. Maybe you will encourage a specific kind
of note-taking or other learning strategies.

E – Evaluate and Revise

The final step in the ASSURE process is just as crucial as all of the others. In this step, you evaluate the impact
of your teaching on student learning. This includes an evaluation of your teaching strategies and the technology,
media, and materials that you used. The following questions are useful to ask during this evaluation:

▪ Did your lesson meet the learning objectives that you planned? How will you determine whether the
students reach the objectives? Is your way of assessing the students in line with your learning objectives?
▪ Can this lesson be improved? How? How are you going to assess the weaknesses in your presentation?
▪ Was your choice of media and materials a good one? How will you assess the effectiveness of these
tools?
▪ Is it possible that other technologies, media, and materials would have done a better job?

The final step in your evaluation should focus on feedback from your students. Was their experience positive
overall? Do they feel that they have reached your objectives and their own personal objectives? How will you
determine whether or not your performance was effective?

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D. DALE’s Cone of Experience

How Can Instructors Use the Cone of Experience?

According to Dale’s research, the least effective method at the top, involves learning from information
presented through verbal symbols, i.e., listening to spoken words. The most effective methods at the bottom,
involves direct, purposeful learning experiences, such as hands-on or field experience. Direct purposeful
experiences represents reality or the closet things to real, everyday life. The cone charts the average retention
rate for various methods of teaching. The further you progress down the cone, the greater the learning and the
more information is likely to be retained. It also suggests that when choosing an instructional method it is
important to remember that involving students in the process strengthens knowledge retention. It reveals that
“action-learning” techniques result in up to 90% retention. People learn best when they use perceptual learning
styles. Perceptual learning styles are sensory based. The more sensory channels possible in interacting with a
resource, the better chance that many students can learn from it. According to Dale, instructors should design
instructional activities that build upon more real-life experiences. Dales’ cone of experience is a tool to help
instructors make decisions about resources and activities. The instructor can ask the following:

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• Where will the student’s experience with this instructional resource fit on the cone? How far is it removed
from real-life?
• What kind of learning experience do you want to provide in the classroom?
• How does this instructional resource augment the information supplied by the textbook?
• What and how many senses can students use to learn this instructional material?
• Does the instructional material enhance learning?

Instructional Design is “a discipline in which practitioners constantly look to

the findings of other disciplines (e.g., cognitive psychology, communication)

to study and improve methods of developing, delivering, and evaluating

instruction and instructional practices.” (Brown & Green, 2006)

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