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Research Methods for Business

Essential Reading

Lecture 9 - Methods for collecting data in

qualitative research

With the literature review underway, and the overall design of the project planned
out, the time comes when the empirical data must be collected. Methods for data
collection are designed to be compatible with the philosophic position of
qualitative research, that reality is socially constructed; and with the overall
purpose of this type of research, which is to understand the experience of the
participants in their terms. In qualitative research the forms of data collection
methods tend to be classified into the following categories: observation, in-depth
interviews and documents. In this lecture we will look at the varying forms of
these methods and their relative advantages and disadvantages.

Participant observation has it roots in ethnography. There are varying positions

for the researcher in participant observation. The complete participant immerses
her/himself into the social worlds of the study to experience that reality as the
participants do themselves. In this extreme participant role, the researcher is
likely to be working incognito. At the other end of the spectrum, the researcher
adopts the role of complete observer (overt or covert) and seeks to record
behaviour systematically. In most cases observation is overt since systematic
recording of actions tends to be intrusive and raise suspicions.

Participant observation methods raise a number of issues for the researcher.

Firstly, entry to the field of study must be negotiated. This raises issues of ethics
for the overt versus covert debate. However, there are a number of additional
issues. There may be barriers for the researcher that are dependent upon the
researcher’s own position: class; age; race; ethnicity; as well as competence
skills for the site of interest. In addition, the researcher will often need to secure
adequate sponsorship to allow full access to the phenomenon or respondents,
and notwithstanding success in this area, he/she may still encounter and have to
overcome obstruction from a number of formal as well as informal gatekeepers.

Perhaps most problematic of all is defining and maintaining the researcher’s role:
adopting and remembering a convincing assumed alias and personal history;
building rapport, trust and reciprocity with the respondents; finding time and
space for recording and reflecting on research practice whilst at the same time
working in a convincing manner; and so on.

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Another compatible or alternative data collection method is that of in-depth

interviewing. This is more usefully called ‘a conversation with a purpose’ to help
us to move away from the idea of questionnaire type approaches. The purpose of
in-depth interviews is to create a framework within which the respondents are
allowed to offer the researcher insights into their personal experiences. The
interview is therefore not rigidly structured and there are no fixed questions.
Instead, rough outlines of the areas thought to be useful are established in a
topic frame, and the researcher’s role is to assist the respondent in exploring
her/his own beliefs. The advantage of the interview is that it allows the
respondent to lead the direction of the inquiry; it facilitates the exploration of
complex and ill defined ideas and feelings; and it allows the researcher to follow
up immediately in areas that require further clarification or explication. However,
to achieve all this undoubtedly requires high levels of sophistication both
intellectually and socially on the part of the researcher.

There are some general issues for interviewing that must be considered. One is
the degree of structure appropriate, semi or completely unstructured, Another is
the compatibility of researcher and respondent in terms of class, age, race
gender and general life experience for good, trusting social interaction. As with all
methods, issues of bias and ethics must always be thoughtfully examined.

An alternative form of in depth interviewing with single respondents is that of

focus groups. The focus group format allows individuals to express their own
view and to provide an opportunity to respond to others in a debate. In this
instance the researcher must act as moderator and facilitator. As moderator, the
role involves initiating the meeting, and fostering a rapport between the
participants who may not have met before. As facilitator, the task is to provide the
topic frame to be explored and steer the conversation when it loses direction; to
ensure that everyone gets a chance to participate; and of course, to record the
data. The focus group is the most difficult of data collections to manage for
undergraduate projects. It is vital to be aware of the influence of dominant
personalities within the group and the effects that may have on constructing a
group view that is unrepresentative. However, these sorts of dynamics are
interesting and relevant to the project in their own right and should not be
ignored. Where used for customer research by large organisations, sophisticated
equipment can be used to capture both precise visual and aural material. For the
student researcher, however, the task normally requires the assistance of at least
one other person to take notes of what is happening, and will normally require
the use of more than one microphone.

A third common source of data for qualitative research projects is that of texts or
documents. These texts are products of our social life, and as such, they are
primary data that illustrate sets of group and institutional norms: for example,
committee minutes; company documentation; historical records; media articles,
diaries, books, film, television programmes. These texts offer the researcher

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insights into sets of meanings, as well as insights into the ways by which these
sets of meanings are constructed and circulated for maximum consumption.
Texts such as these offer rich data in their own right: for example, research that
has analysed television food programmes. Moreover, they offer comparative and
complementary evidence alongside other methods, for example, organisational
documentation on instruction or training.

To summarise, then, data collection can be seen to be a crucial stage in the

research process. In qualitative projects, in contrast to quantitative, the data
collection stage should be seen as an ongoing and iterative part of the total
research process. The important issues for data collection are that the methods
must be sensitive to the problem identified, to the culture in which the
phenomena occurs, and to the respondents’ personal experiences. All methods
require careful planning and focus, and the execution must occur with thoughtful
reflexivity. This places issues of validity and reliability firmly in the hands of the
researcher’s practices, and is, thus, a key underpinning aspect of the research
process. As a result, these methods are by definition time consuming and
intensive, and impose demands that must be taken on board at the planning
stages.

Further Readings, Resources and Useful Links

A website including further links as well as journal articles on
ethnomethodology and its role in qualitative research methods
http://www.sociosite.net/topics/theory.php#ETHNOMETH

A website called the ‘Qual Page’ contains links to methods of research

including action research, narrative; phenomenology; ethnography; event
structure analysis; grounded theory etc
http://www.qualitativeresearch.uga.edu/QualPage/methods.htm

A website offering tools for analysing text as well as a series of papers

explaining the use of text analysis and qualitative research . Look under
resources in left hand menu: http://www.textanalysis.info/

A website called International Institute for Qualitative Methods at the

University of Alberta, Canada. It gathers together a range of links to other
useful websites and web pages as well as linking to a number of electronic
journals on qualitative research methodologies.
http://www.uofaweb.ualberta.ca/iiqm/Links.cfm

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Articles on sampling issues in qualitative research :

http://kerlins.net/bobbi/research/qualresearch/bibliography/sampling.html

Electronic Journal Articles

Bero,L.A. & Jadad, A.R. 1996. How consumers and policymakers can use
systematic reviews for decision making In: Annals of Internal Medicine 127 (1)
July 1. pp 37 – 42. http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/127/1/37 Using systematic
reviews to help inform consumers and policy makers

Burns-McCoy, Nancie. (nd). Water is to chocolate like story is to qualitative

research. http://www.paulofreireinstitute.org/Documents/qualitativ_
%20research_by_McCoy.html?66421280 A web article critiquing and defending the
use of story in qualitative research – also refers to notion of validity & its impact on
qualitative research. Lists a number of references but no traditional publication details.
From references it has to be written after 1998.

Cassell, Catherine.ed. 2006 Qualitative Methods in Management Research. In:

Management Decision. 44 (2) Bradford, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10120706&ppg=1 A themed issue
examining the nature of and the role of qualitative research in business. It notes the
assumptions made about qualitative research and uses a range of articles to illustrate the
issues.

Countryman, C.C. & Jang, S. 2006. The effects of atmospheric elements on

customer impression: the case of hotel lobbies. International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management. 18 (7) pp.534-545.
www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/09596110610702968 An article using innovative
methods in data collection

Dolan, P; Cookson, R and Ferguson, B. 1999. Effect of discussion and

deliberation on the public's views of priority setting in health care: focus group
study. In: British Medical Journal, 318. April 3. pp. 916 -919.
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/318/7188/916 Example of the use of focus groups.

Elliott, Richard. Ed. New Paths to Thick Descriptions: Innovativeness in Data

Collection and Interpretation. In: Qualitative Market Research An International
Journal 8 (2) pp.123–189. Bradford, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10085709&ppg=1 Special journal issue
covering: video data collection in observational studies; diary research; “child centric
qualitative consumer research”; shopping with consumers; internet for data collection;
Ethnography for global cultures; Fiction & consumer research.

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Harris, L.C. & Ogbonna, E. 2007. Ownership and Control in Closely-held Family-
owned Firms: An Exploration of Strategic and Operational Control.
British Journal of Management. 18 (1) March. Pp. 5-26.
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/action/showPdf?submitPDF=Full+Text+PDF+
%28225+KB%29&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1467-8551.2005.00471.x Uses case research
to examine organisational control in family firms.

Kumar, Satinder & Gantley, Madeleine 1999 Tensions between policy makers
and general practitioners in implementing new genetics: grounded theory
interview study. British Medical Journal. 319. November 27th. pp.1410-1413.
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/319/7222/1410 A BMJ article using grounded theory
for tensions between GPs and policy makers

Lee, N. and Broderick, A.J. eds. 2007. Developments in human observation

methodologies. In: Qualitative Research. An International Journal 10 (2)
Bradford, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10172219&ppg=1 Special issue of
marketing journal devoted to Observation in market research

Lomax, H. and Casey, N. 1998. Recording Social Life. In: Reflexivity and Video
Methodology. Sociological Research Online, 3 (2)
http://www.socresonline.org.uk/3/2/1.html

The Qualitative Report. An online journal: offering lists of links for articles and
resources on qualitative research including ethnography
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/text.html

Riach, K. and Wilson, F. 2007. Don't Screw the Crew: Exploring the Rules of
Engagement in Organizational Romance.
British Journal of Management. 18 (1) March. pp. 79-92.
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/action/showPdf?submitPDF=Full+Text+PDF+
%28150+KB%29&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1467-8551.2006.00503.x An interesting
piece of qualitative research on the attitudes of workers employed in the British pub
sector. Uses snowballing technique in taped interviews to discover attitudes towards
romantic relationships in the workplace. Employs narrative analysis and pulls out a series of
common themes from the interviews which are identified in mini narratives.

Electronic books from ebrary

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Ebrary is a database containing a range of electronic resources consisting

mainly of books. Access is restricted to QMUC staff and students only. You will
need an Athens username and password for BOTH on-campus and off-
campus access

Andrews, David L. (Editor) 2005. Qualitative Methods in Sports Studies.

Oxford, Berg Publishers.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10193728&ppg=1 Discusses and analyses the
use of qualitative research and its roots. Useful overview using sports studies as subject
matter

Carliner, S. ed. 2006. Information and Document Design: Varieties on

Recent Research. Philadelphia, PA, USA: John Benjamins Publishing
Company.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10126070&ppg=9 Interesting book of
actual research studies using mixed methodologies and different research traditions but all
of them dealing with contemporary issues of communication in a range of different sectors
including business; marketing; computers and customers; retail industry. Each chapter
covers the same format explaining their methodologies; lit reviews; results etc., It also
includes an introductory chapter placing the research into a broader context so that people
can understand the context for the research “This book explores recent research in
information and document design, the first to do so in nearly two decades and the first to
do so explicitly under the names of the disciplines, information design and document design.
It specifically reports on ten studies in the areas of marketing communication, functional
communication, and online communication”

Dawson, S; Manderson, L and Tallo, V.L. 1993. A manual for the use of focus
groups. Boston, International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries.
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food2/UIN03E/UIN03E00.HTM

Galavotti, M.C. ed. 2003. Observation and experiment in the natural and
social sciences. Dordrecht; Boston, Kluwer Academic.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10067532&ppg=8 Contents: Observation and
experimentation have become an important field of inquiry. The present volume is meant as
a contribution to the ongoing debate on this topic.

Gauthier, J.P & Kupka, I. 2001. Deterministic observation theory and

applications. : Cambridge ; New York, Cambridge University Press.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10006822&ppg=7 Coverage also looks at
‘missing observations’.

Goulding, Christina. 2002. Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide for

Management, Business and Market Researchers. London, Sage Publications
Ltd.,

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http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10076701&ppg=1 Grounded theory

explained and rationalised in the context of the more traditional 'outcome driven' agenda of
business management

Hatch, J. Amos & Wisniewski, Richard. (Editors) 1995. Life History and
Narrative. London, RoutledgeFalmer.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10058261&ppg=4 Use and application of
story and narrative to learn about human behaviour through qualitative research

Jaworski, A. & Pritchard, A. eds. 2005. Discourse, Communication and

Tourism. Clevedon; Buffalo; Toronto, Channel View Publications,
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10110161&ppg=3 Abstract taken from the
editorial: “asks how discourse, understood here as a semiotic system, be it textual-
linguistic, visual pictorial, or, in a broader sense, any other system of signification shapes
tourism and the tourist experience. Secondly, it asks how tourism shapes and has shaped
our discourses about peoples and places over time. More specifically, the book examines how
discourse and communication shape the identities of hosts, tourists, destinations and
tourist attractions, modes of transport, and so on. At the same time, it is also concerned to
explore how tourism and travel create their own systems of signification, providing keys for
the construction of self and others. Finally, it addresses the notion that tourism is a literal
embodiment of travelling theory; being both an agent and channel of globalisation, and the
site and subject of various competing discourses effecting change and transition, whilst also
echoing the imperialist discourses of the colonial age.”

Kozak, M. 2004. Destination Benchmarking : Concepts, Practices and

Operations. Cambridge, MA, USA: CABI Publishing.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10070230&ppg=3 Covers the application of
qualitative methods in the measurement and assessment of destination benchmarking of
tourism industry. Chapter 4 looks at the usefulness of qualitative measures applied to
destination benchmarking in tourism. Chapter 8 covers both quantitative and qualitative
methods of data collection and analysis. P.140 lists elements of good practice in data
collection. P.144 -145 maps out examples of various constructs using Likert type scales
attempting to gather more qualitative information on customer satisfaction.

Laine, Marlene de. 2000. Fieldwork, participation and practice: ethics and
dilemmas in qualitative research. London; Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage
Publications. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10076718&ppg=7 Contents
include ethics and the qualitative fieldworker; Scripts and staging the self; roles and role
performance; ethical dilemmas: the demands and expectations of various audiences; field
notes: ethics and emotions and ‘impression management’.

Linkogle, S. 2000. Danger in the Field : Ethics and Risk in Social Research.
USA, Routledge. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10017799&ppg=2
Content analyses different forms of danger in various qualitative research settings.
Includes researchers’ accounts of their own encounters with danger while carrying out

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research. Includes physical, emotional, ethical and professional danger and the authors pay
special attention to the gendered forms of danger implicit in the research process.

Meethan, K. ed. 2006. Tourism, Consumption and Representation :

Narratives of Place and Self. Oxfordshire, CABI Publishing.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10157929&ppg=3 “This volume addresses
some new developments in approaches towards tourism analysis that focus on the interface
between the production and consumption of tourist space, the narratives that are created
around specific sites and specific forms of tourist activity, and the ways in which
these are created, picked up, modified and incorporated into the narratives of self-hood
that we all weave around our lives and the identities of the places in which we live.”

Moeran, B. 2005. The business of ethnography: strategic exchanges,

people, and organizations. Oxford; New York, Berg.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10193724&ppg=11 The author argues that
anthropological fieldwork is a useful way to help us understand how and why people behave
in the ways they do especially in business. His argument is illustrated by talking about his
research in Japan and how people interact in Japanese society.

Ramazanoglu, C. & Holland, J. 2002. Feminist methodology: challenges and

choices. London; Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10080862&ppg=4 Includes feminist
methodology and the politics of difference; interpretative content analysis; stories for
research; ethnography; taking experience as knowledge and writing up. Feminist objections
to scientific method in social research

Ritchie, B. W. 2005. Tourism Research Methods: Integrating Theory with

Practice. Cambridge, MA, USA: CABI Publishing.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10091317&ppg=1 Tourism Research -
collection of chapters covering a range of qualitative methods including: case study;
participant observation; longitudinal studies; use of narrative; focus groups; content
analysis; & cluster analysis for example. Articles cover a wide variety of tourism from
wildlife and cannibal tours to eco tourists.

Schostak, J. F. 2005. Interviewing and Representation in Qualitative

Research Projects. Berkshire, McGrawHill Education.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10175203&ppg=4 Interviewing; narrative
case studies; ethics and politics in qualitative research

Shkedi, A. 2005. Multiple case narrative: a qualitative approach to studying

multiple populations. Amsterdam; Philadelphia, John Benjamins Pub
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10098697&ppg=5 Covers the connection
between research assumptions and research methods. Classifying types of qualitative
research; Looking at qualitative research methodology; population research methodology;
case survey; narrative discourse analysis.

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Ten Have, P. 2004. Understanding Qualitative Research and

Ethnomethodology. London, Sage Publications, Incorporated.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10080971&ppg=2 Great coverage of
qualitative approaches to data collection including Interview studies; Document use;
Ethnography. Examines ethnomethodology and its methods including: common sense;
recordings and transcripts vs. description; observation; illustration; note taking etc.,
Includes full chapter on interview formats. P.110 offers comments on 'Street Corner
Society' Looks at issues for researchers to consider and studies documents as data
including examples of documents as exemplary studies.

Wodak, R & Meyer, M. eds. 2002. Methods of critical discourse analysis.

London, Sage Publications. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?
id=10080947&ppg=5 Contents include a summary of the history of critical discourse
analysis; important concepts and developments.

Books (in print) in QMU Library Catalogue

Atkinson, P. et al. 2001. Handbook of ethnography. London, Sage. QMU
Library: 305.8 HAN

Bloor, M. et al. 2001. Focus groups in social research. London, Sage. QMU
Library: 300.72 FOC. Study skills collection.

Bulmer, M. ed.1982. Social research ethics: an examination of the merits of

covert participant observation. London, Macmillan.
QMU Library: 301.072 BUL.

Calder, A & Sheridan, D. 1984.Speak for yourself: a mass-observation

anthology. London, Cape. QMU Library 942.084 CAL

Charmaz, K. 2006. Constructing grounded theory: a practical guide through

qualitative analysis. London, Sage. QMU Library: 300.72 CHA.
Study skills collection.

Ereaut, G; Imms, M and Callingham, M. eds. 2002. Qualitative market

research: principle and practice. London, Sage Publications. QMU Library:
658.83 QUA: Volumes 1 & 2.. Contributions include interviewing groups and individuals
in market research; analysis and interpretation in qualitative market research; developing
brands and advertising with qualitative market research; delivering results in qualitative
market research.

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Focus group kit – 6 volumes:

Vol.1. The focus group guidebook. D. L. Morgan
Vol. 2. Planning focus groups. D. L. Morgan
Vol. 3. Developing questions for focus groups. R.A. Krueger
Vol. 4. Moderating focus groups.
Vol. 5. Involving community members in focus group. R.A. Krueger, J.A. King
Vol. 6. Analyzing & reporting focus group results. R. A. Krueger.
London, Sage. 1997. QMU Library: 300.723 FOC. Study skills collection

Friedrichs, J. 1975. Participant observation: theory and practice.

Farnborough, Hants, Saxon House. QMU Library: 300.723 FRI. Study skills
collection.

Hammersley, M. 2007. Ethnography: principles in practice. 3rd ed. London,

Routledge. QMU Library: 305.8001 HAM.

Have, Paul ten. 1998. Doing conversation analysis: a practical guide.

London, Sage Publications. QMU Library: 302.346 HAV

Krueger, R. A. & Casey, M.A. 2000. Focus groups: a practical guide for
applied research. 3rd ed. London, Sage

Lieblich, A. et al. 1998. Narrative research: reading, analysis and

interpretation. London, Sage. QMU Library: 415 LIE
Contents include discourse analysis, narrative research methodology

Litosseliti, L. 2003. Using focus groups in research. London, Continuum. QMU

Library: 001.433 LIT. Study skills collection

Lofland, J. & Lofland, L.1995. Analyzing social settings: a guide to qualitative

observation and analysis. 3rd ed. Belmont, Calif. London, Wadsworth. QMU
Library: 300.72 LOF. Study skills collection.

Mauthner, M. 2002. Ethics in qualitative research. London: Sage. QMU

Library: 174.93 MAU. Study skills collection.

Morgan, D.L. 1997. Focus groups as qualitative research. 2nd ed. London,
Sage. QMU Library: 301.072 MOR

Morgan, D. 1993. Successful focus groups: advancing the state of the Art.
London, Sage. QMU Library: 300.723 SUC. Study skills collection.

Phillips, N. & Hardy, C. 2002. Discourse analysis: investigating processes of

social construction. London, Sage Publications.
QMU Library: 401.41 PHI

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Riessman, C. K. 1993. Narrative analysis. London, Sage Publications. QMU

Library: 415 RIE

Sanger, J. 1996. The complete observer: a field research guide to

Observation. London, Falmer Press. QMU Library: 300.72 SAN Study Skills
collection

Simpson, M. 2003.Rev ed. Using observations in small-scale research: a

beginner's guide. Glasgow, Scottish Council for Research in Education.
QMU Library: 370.7 SIM. Study skills collection. Coverage includes the educational
method of observation; Interaction analyses.

Stewart, D.W. et al. 2007.Focus groups: theory and practice. 2nd ed. London,
Sage. QMU Library: 300.723 STE. Study Skills collection

Original Sources ‘Qualitative Data Collection

Methods’ Lecture Material:
Laffin, T. 2007. MBA Research methods for Business Lecture Notes.
Edinburgh, Queen Margaret University.

Randall, S. 2000. Research Module Lecture Notes and workbooks.

Edinburgh, Queen Margaret University.

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