Career Counselling

Due to the increasing demand for career guidance in recent years, career counsel-
lors have been challenged to modernise their practice. As a response to the rap-
idly changing world of work, with diverse client groups and complex and
challenging issues facing career counsellors, the field has moved strongly towards
the greater adoption of constructivist approaches. The second edition of this
ground-breaking book is a forward-looking guide, giving further insight into the
constructivist approach for the twenty-first century by:

• providing a theoretical background to constructivism;

• alerting readers to a range of cultural considerations related to constructivist
career counselling;
• outlining a range of constructivist approaches to career counselling;
• providing examples of practical applications of the constructivist approaches
presented in the book; and
• assisting career counsellor educators, practitioners and students to under-
stand and implement constructivist approaches in their work.

With contributions from an internationally recognised panel of authors from ten

different countries, Career Counselling: Constructivist approaches treats career as
a holistic concept in which work and personal life are inseparably intertwined,
and treats individuals as experts in their own lives and in actively constructing
their careers. Structured in four logical sections, this second edition attests to the
ongoing influence of constructivism internationally and the continued develop-
ment and refinement of constructivist approaches to career counselling.
Career Counselling: Constructivist approaches is essential reading for career
counsellor educators, practitioners, researchers and students who want a refresh-
ing insight into constructivist career counselling.

Mary McMahon is Senior Lecturer at the School of Education, The University

of Queensland, Australia, where she teaches career development theory and
narrative career counselling.
This page intentionally left blank
Career Counselling

Constructivist approaches
Second edition

Edited by Mary McMahon

Second edition published 2017
by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business.
© 2017 selection and editorial matter, M. McMahon; individual chapters, the
contributors
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and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2006.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Names: McMahon, Mary, 1955- editor.Title: Career counselling :
constructivist approaches / edited by Mary McMahon.
Description: 2nd edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016003133 (print) | LCCN 2016010918 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781138910089 (hbk : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781138910096
(pbk : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315693590 (ebk)Subjects: LCSH: Vocational
guidance. | Constructivism (Psychology)Classification: LCC HF5381 .C265222
2017 (print) | LCC HF5381 (ebook) | DDC 331.702–dc23LC record available
at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016003133

ISBN: 978-1-138-91008-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-91009-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-69359-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Galliard
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Contents

List of figures viii

List of tables ix
Introducing the authors xi
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii

PART 1
Constructivism – an overview 1

1 Constructivism: what does it mean for career counselling? 3

WENDY PATTON AND MARY MCMAHON

2 Working with storytellers: a metaphor for career

counselling 17
MARY MCMAHON

3 Usefulness and truthfulness: reviewing the limitations

and promoting the benefits of constructivist approaches
for career counselling 29
HAZEL REID

PART 2
Constructivism, culture and career counselling 41

4 Career constructivism and culture: deconstructing

and reconstructing career counselling 43
MARK WATSON

5 Constructivist approaches to career counselling:

a culture-infused perspective 54
NANCY ARTHUR
vi Contents

6 Implementing a qualitative (narrative) approach in

cross-cultural career counselling 65
KOBUS MAREE AND JACOB MAISHA MOLEPO

7 Contexts and circumstances: the cultural preparation

process approach to career development 79
GIDEON ARULMANI

PART 3
Constructivist approaches to career counselling 91

8 The storied approach 93

PAMELIA E. BROTT

9 Active engagement and the influence of constructivism 104

NORMAN AMUNDSON

10 The Systems Theory Framework: a conceptual and

practical map for story telling in career counselling 113
MARY MCMAHON AND WENDY PATTON

11 Solution-focused career counselling 127

JUDI MILLER

12 SocioDynamic career counselling: constructivist practice of

wisdom 139
TIMO SPANGAR

13 Dialogical self: co-investigator in career self-research 153

PETER MCILVEEN

14 Exploring life and working experiences for

self-construction 164
JACQUES POUYAUD AND DAVID J. BOURNE

15 The theory and practice of career construction 174

PAUL J. HARTUNG AND SARA SANTILLI

16 Career counselling as and about goal-directed human

action 185
RICHARD A. YOUNG

17 Chaos and constructivism: counselling for career

development in a complex and changing world 196
ROBERT PRYOR AND JIM BRIGHT
 Contents vii

18 Constructivism in online career counselling 210

JENNY BIMROSE

19 Creativity and constructivist career counselling 222

MARY MCMAHON

PART 4
Constructivist career assessment 233

20 Qualitative career assessment 235

MARY MCMAHON AND WENDY PATTON

21 Card sorts: a constructivist approach to career exploration 250

POLLY PARKER

22 Bridging quantitative and qualitative career assessment:

the Integrative Structured Interview Process 260
MARK WATSON

23 The rise of constructivist career counselling: a reflection 270

MARY MCMAHON AND WENDY PATTON

Index 274
List of figures

1.1 Career counselling observation sheet 12

9.1 The wheel 107
10.1 The Systems Theory Framework of career development 114
10.2 The therapeutic system 116
17.1 Traditional linear career counselling 205
17.2 Chaos-informed non-linear counselling 206
20.1 A new location for career assessment 241
List of tables

1.1 Influence of the logical-positivist and constructivist

worldviews on career counselling 10
2.1 Rita 19
2.2 Kathleen 20
2.3 Cameron 20
2.4 Working with the storytellers 24
6.1 Career Categories Questionnaire 74
7.1 ‘Do you want him to go against his religion and culture?’ 80
7.2 ‘Not even good enough to warrant an interview call’ 88
15.1 A career construction life-career portrait 182
16.1 Domains and issues of the life-enhancing career 190
17.1 Convergent and emergent career counselling perspectives 198
17.2 Clients’ perspectives and counselling strategies: Convergent
LOW/Emergent LOW 199
17.3 Clients’ perspectives and counselling strategies: Convergent
LOW/Emergent HIGH 200
17.4 Clients’ perspectives and counselling strategies: Convergent
HIGH/Emergent LOW 200
17.5 Clients’ perspectives and counselling strategies: Convergent
HIGH/Emergent HIGH 201
17.6 Product and process in traditional and chaos-informed
counselling 207
18.1 Digital skills development 217
20.1 Incorporating career assessment into career counselling 242
20.2 Incorporating career assessment into career counselling:
worksheet 244
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Introducing the authors

Norman Amundson is a Professor at the University of British Columbia,

Canada. He has published widely and been a keynote speaker at many national
and international conferences. In his writings, he emphasises the importance
of creativity, imagination, cultural awareness, positive affirmation, hope, and
active engagement.
Nancy Arthur is Professor, Educational Studies in Counselling Psychology, and
Associate Dean Research, Werklund School of Education, University of
Calgary, Canada. Nancy co-developed the model of Culture-Infused
Counselling. Nancy’s research focuses on professional education for cultural
diversity and social justice and international transitions related to learning and
employment.
Gideon Arulmani, PhD, Director, The Promise Foundation, India, is a clinical
psychologist interested in culture and counselling. His Cultural Preparation
Process Model has informed career intervention designing in many developing
countries. He is President of the Indian Association for Career and Livelihood
Planning, Vice President of the IAEVG, a visiting professor and international
consultant.
Jenny Bimrose, based at the Institute for Employment Research, University of
Warwick, England, has over 30 years of experience teaching, researching and
managing in higher education. Ongoing research interests include developing
labour market information for use in careers and the integration of ICT into
practice.
David J. Bourne is an occupational psychologist and a career counselling prac-
titioner. He applies personal construct psychology combined with Jungian
typology in career counselling practice and research. As the author of different
methods used in the field of career counselling, he has been designing and
delivering seminars throughout Europe for years.
Jim Bright is a Professorial Fellow in Career Education and Development at the
Australian Catholic University and Visiting Professor of Career Development
xii Introducing the authors

at the International Centre for Education and Guidance Studies at the

University of Derby. He has a PhD in Psychology and is a Fellow of the
Australian Psychological Society.
Pamelia E. Brott is an associate professor and Program Coordinator for School
Counseling in the Educational Psychology and Counseling Department of the
University of Tennessee. Her publications and presentations span the fields of
career counselling and school counselling. In previous life chapters, Dr Brott
coordinated career education and special needs services in Michigan, USA,
and was a school counsellor in the Bahamas.
Paul J. Hartung, PhD is Professor, Department of Family and Community
Medicine, Northeast Ohio Medical University, USA. He is current editor for
The Career Development Quarterly and a fellow of the American Psychological
Association, the International Association of Applied Psychology, and the
National Career Development Association.
Kobus Maree is an educational psychologist and a Professor in the Department
of Educational Psychology at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. He
holds doctoral degrees in Education (Career Counselling), Mathematics
Didactics and Psychology. A regular keynote speaker at national and interna-
tional conferences, he has received multiple awards for his work.
Peter McIlveen is an Associate Professor at the University of Southern
Queensland, Australia, where he teaches and researches career development
and vocational psychology. He is a psychologist and a member of the
Australian Psychological Society’s College of Counselling Psychologists and
the Career Development Association of Australia.
Mary McMahon is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education at the
University of Queensland, Australia, where she teaches career development
theory and narrative career counselling. She researches and publishes on how
people construct careers across the lifespan and the use of storytelling and
qualitative assessment in career counselling.
Judi Miller is an Associate Professor who manages the Master of Counselling
programme at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. Prior to this she
was a vocational guidance counsellor. She has been teaching and researching
solution-focused counselling since 1995 and enjoys encouraging students to
be ever curious and engage in practice-based research.
Jacob Maisha Molepo is Executive Dean of the Faculty of Educational Sciences
at Walter Sisulu University (WSU), Umtata, South Africa. He has published
refereed articles, scholarly books and chapters in scholarly books. Professor
Molepo occupied the position of Vice-Rector of two large teacher training
colleges in South Africa prior to joining WSU.
 Introducing the authors xiii

Polly Parker is a Professor in Leadership at the University of Queensland,

Australia. She applies her life-long interest in learning and teaching in
academic and corporate settings, particularly in the fields of leadership and
careers, where she is known as originator and co-developer of the internation-
ally used Intelligent Career Card Sort™.
Wendy Patton is Executive Dean, Faculty of Education at Queensland
University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. She has taught and researched
in the areas of career development and counselling for more than 20 years. She
has co-authored and co-edited a number of books and is currently Series
Editor of the Career Development Series with Sense Publishers. She has pub-
lished widely, with more than 150 refereed journal articles and book chapters.
She serves on a number of national and international journal editorial boards.
Jacques Pouyaud is a Senior Lecturer in Vocational Psychology at the University
of Bordeaux (Laboratory of Psychology, EA 4139). He also participates on the
board of directors of the UNESCO Chair ‘Lifelong Guidance and Counseling’.
He researches counselling and the processes of self-construction throughout
the life course, and during psychosocial transitions.
Robert Pryor has worked in the field of vocational counselling and psychologi-
cal assessment since 1974, both for government and private consultancies. He
has also held a range of academic positions and currently is the Adjunct
Professor, School of Education, Australian Catholic University. He has pub-
lished widely in assessment, counselling and career development theory.
Hazel Reid is Professor of Education and Career Development and the Director
of Research in the Faculty of Education at Canterbury Christ Church
University, UK. She researches in the area of career and guidance theory and
practice and offers workshops on narrative career counselling. She also super-
vises students undertaking doctoral research and specialises in auto/biography
and narrative research.
Sara Santilli is a psychologist and PhD student at the Doctoral School of
Psychological Sciences, University of Padova, Italy. She collaborates with the
Laboratory of Research and Intervention in Vocational Guidance (LaRIOS),
University of Padova, in the organisation of vocational guidance projects and
research concerning disability, career guidance, career counselling and job
placement.
Timo Spangar has 30 years’ experience in developing career counselling.
Recently he coordinated a project developing a new counselling follow-up and
monitoring method in Finnish Employment Services, the Employment Radar,
and he also developed a group counselling concept, Stop and GO, based on
dialogical peer encounters. He has evaluated employment services and labour
market policies both nationally and internationally.
xiv Introducing the authors

Mark Watson is a Distinguished Professor at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

University, South Africa. He teaches, researches and practises in the field of
career development, counselling and assessment. He has co-authored and co-
edited a number of books and published 85 refereed journal articles and 67
book chapters. He serves on several international journal editorial boards.
Richard A. Young is Professor of Counselling Psychology at the University of
British Columbia, Canada, where he holds the Myrne B. Nevison Professorship
in Counselling Psychology. His current interests include the application of
action theory to a variety of topics, including the transition to adulthood,
families, career development, counselling, health, and suicide.
Preface

The first edition of this book represented a landmark publication as the first
compilation of a range of constructivist approaches to career counselling. In the
first edition, the work of 14 authors from seven countries was featured. Since the
publication of the first edition, career counselling has witnessed growing accept-
ance of constructivist approaches which are widely regarded as modernising
practice in order that it remains relevant in the twenty-first century. This second
edition attests to the ongoing influence of constructivism internationally and the
continued development and refinement of constructivist approaches to career
counselling. The work of 22 authors from ten countries is featured in this edition.
One of the criticisms of constructivism is that, in keeping with its underpin-
ning philosophy, there is little instructional material to inform and guide its
practice. In essence, the implications for career counsellor educators and practi-
tioners are that while espousing and supporting constructivist thinking, they
struggle to know how to teach it and how to implement it in their day-to-day
work.
Addressing the ‘But how do we do it?’ challenge posed by their struggles was
a primary motivator for conceptualising this book. The purpose of the first, and
also this second, edition was to provide readers with easy-to-read theory and
practical ideas. It meets this purpose by structuring each chapter with a theo-
retical overview of a topic and a practical application. In essence the book:

• provides a theoretical background to constructivism;

• alerts readers to a range of cultural considerations related to constructivist
career counselling;
• outlines a range of constructivist approaches to career counselling;
• provides examples of practical applications of the constructivist approaches
presented in the book; and
• assists career counsellor educators, practitioners and students to understand
and implement constructivist approaches into their work.

The book is structured in four parts. Part 1, consisting of three chapters, focuses
on theoretical understandings of constructivism, including a critique of
xvi Preface

constructivist approaches. It suggests that a new metaphor is needed for career

counselling in the twenty-first century. Part 2, consisting of four chapters,
considers constructivism in relation to culture and includes descriptions of two
constructivist approaches in which culture provides a foundation. Part 3, consist-
ing of 12 chapters, presents a range of constructivist approaches to career coun-
selling. The growth of this part of the book, in terms of the number of
approaches presented, attests to the growing interest in constructivist approaches
in many countries of the world. This part of the book also recognises the emer-
gence and growth of online career counselling and considers it in relation to
constructivist approaches. Part 4, consisting of four chapters, considers construc-
tivist approaches to career assessment. In acknowledgement of the growing
rapprochement between career assessment and constructivist approaches, one
chapter focuses on the integration of quantitative career assessment into
constructivist career counselling. The book concludes with a reflection on the
rise of constructivism as an influence in career counselling.
I am excited by the richness of this second edition of the book in terms of its
variety and its capacity to provide answers to readers’ questions about construc-
tivist approaches in general and specifically about how to apply them.
Acknowledgements

Similar to the first edition, this book has truly been an international collabora-
tion, with 22 authors from ten countries contributing chapters. I would like to
thank the chapter authors for their willingness to contribute and for their gener-
osity in sharing their ideas and approaches. I have appreciated their genuine
interest in the book and their prompt responses to my questions and comments.
I feel privileged to have worked with authors of such calibre.
I would like to thank Routledge for their faith in the book by publishing this
second edition. I appreciate the support I have received along the way from
Routledge staff.
I would like to acknowledge my colleague, Professor Wendy Patton, with
whom I edited the first edition and who was unable to join me in editing this
second edition. Our initial belief in the need for a book of this type has been
confirmed by the publication of this second edition.
Thank you all for working with me to produce a book that is a much valued
resource. I hope this second edition of Career Counselling: Constructivist
approaches will find a very firm place in the professional lives of many academics
and practitioners in the field of career counselling.

Mary
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Part 1

Constructivism –
an overview
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1

Constructivism
What does it mean for career counselling?
Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

It is 30 years since the seminal work of Collin and Young (1986), and their very
early articulation of the need for vocational psychology to embrace a contextual-
ist worldview. In 2012, following a search of abstracts listed in the PsychInfo
database from 1986 until 2011 with narrative or story and career development
as search terms, McIlveen reported a doubling of articles for each five-year
period within all classification codes, and a continuing strong rise in the codes
within a career development classification. It is timely, then, that this book is
updated to this second edition. This first chapter will discuss the complex world-
view underpinning of constructivism, and describe the theoretical fields from
which its core components have been derived. The constructs which guide
constructivism in career counselling will be outlined.

Underpinning worldview
A worldview has been described by Lyddon (1989) as serving the role of organis-
ing day-to-day experiential data. Pepper (1942) identified four competing world-
view root metaphors: mechanism, formism, organicism and contextualism.
Mechanism is a perspective which attempts to explain phenomena in mechanical
terms that suggest we reason in direct linear routes from the general to the
particular and vice versa, and that we focus on cause and effect. Formism is the
process of forming phenomena into explainable structures. The organismic world-
view sees human development as an orderly maturational unfolding process and
is the basis of stage-based models in developmental psychology, notably the work
of Super (1990) and Gottfredson (2002) in vocational psychology. Problems in
the developmental process are believed to be related to the individual. Collin and
Young (1986) noted that ‘Career theories have so far been largely informed by
the root metaphor of either organicism and/or mechanism’ (p. 843).
Contextualism is increasingly being embedded in a number of fields in the
social sciences – for example, career psychology (e.g. Collin and Young, 1986;
Savickas, 2013; Valach and Young, 2009; Vondracek et al., 1986) and counsel-
ling psychology (e.g. Steenbarger, 1991). A contextual worldview focuses on the
world simply as ‘events’ in a unique historical context. These events occur ‘out
4 Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

there’; however, how they are viewed is linked to the perspective of each indi-
vidual. Moreover, the contextualist worldview does not conceive development as
maturational and unfolding in stages; rather, development is viewed as an ongo-
ing process of interaction between the person and the environment. Within this
process, random or chance events contribute to an open-ended unpredictable
state of being. An outcome of these elements of the contextualist worldview is
an acknowledgement of the active nature of the individual as a self-building and
self-renewing ‘self-organising system’ (Ford and Ford, 1987), as opposed to a
passive organism at the whim of maturational and developmental stages and/or
environmental forces.
Within the contextualist worldview, career practice focuses on individuals
interacting with and within their social and environmental contexts. Career
development is not viewed as an intra-individual developmental process. The
contextualist worldview is reflected in constructivist epistemology as opposed to
the traditional objectivist or positivist epistemology. To explain these two posi-
tions, positivists emphasise rationality based on an objective value-free knowl-
edge: objectivity over subjectivity, facts over feelings. Constructivists argue
against the possibility of absolute truth; however, to say that the constructivist
approach is the opposite would be to oversimplify. Constructivism is directly
derived from the contextualist worldview in that the ‘reality’ of world events
is seen as constructed from the inside out by the individual (that is, through
the individual’s own thinking and processing). These constructions are based
on individual cognitions in relation with perspectives formed from person–
environment interactions.
As such, the constructivist perspective views the person as an open system,
constantly interacting with the environment, seeking stability through ongoing
change. The emphasis is on the process, not on a specific outcome; there is no
completion of a stage and arrival at the next stage as in stage-based views of
human development. Mahoney and Lyddon (1988) emphasised the change and
stability notion as follows: ‘Embedded with self-change is self-stability – we are
all changing all the time and simultaneously remaining the same’ (p. 209).
While there are significant commonalities between constructivism and social
constructionism (Young and Collin, 2004), the increasing focus on this episte-
mology in career theories and in career practice, as evidenced by a monograph
devoted to social constructionism in vocational psychology (McIlveen and
Schultheiss, 2012), warrants a focused discussion. Indeed, the second edition of
the current text is evidence of the growing relevance of constructivism in voca-
tional psychology and, in particular, career counselling. Young and Collin (2004)
distinguished the two epistemologies as follows: constructivism assumes the
individual mind as the basis for the construction of knowledge, while the
construction of knowledge is viewed as being on the basis of social processes for
social constructionism. Similarly, Guichard (2009) distinguished these perspec-
tives by referring to them as psychological constructivism and social construc-
tionism. Young and Popadiuk (2012) commented that ‘At one level it appears to
 Constructivism 5

be a matter of emphasis because for both the constructivists and the social
constructionists individual and social processes are important’ (p. 10) and identi-
fied five approaches to career development derived from constructivist/social
constructionist epistemologies, specifically: narrative, relational, systems theory,
cultural and contextual action theory, most of which are considered in this book.
A number of career theory formulations have been derived from constructiv-
ism, including the Systems Theory Framework (Patton and McMahon, 2014)
and the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT, Lent, 2013). In addition,
Savickas (2013) has outlined his career construction theory which addressed
‘how the career world is made through personal constructivism and social
constructionism’ (Savickas, 2005, p. 43). More recently these influences have
been reflected in new paradigms such as life designing (Savickas et al., 2009),
self-constructing (Guichard, 2009) and other approaches described later in this
book.

Constructivism in career counselling

Constructivist approaches are more established in psychology and in personal
counselling, and have been influential in career counselling comparatively
recently. Nevertheless, they have changed the view that career counselling is a
simplistic process. Two decades ago, Granvold (1996) claimed that constructiv-
ism represents ‘a formidable challenge to the assumptions about reality, knowl-
edge, and causality’ (p. 345) held by adherents of traditional positivist approaches
to career counselling. Evident in career counselling as an either/or tension, this
challenge was described by Sampson (2009) as an ‘unnecessary divorce’ (p. 91)
between what Hartung (2007, p. 103) referred to as ‘two seemingly irreconcil-
able viewpoints’. Sampson advocated a both/and perspective that appreciates the
contributions and potential of the two viewpoints. Career construction theory is
an example of rapprochement between the two viewpoints because of its founda-
tion in both (ibid.) as is the Integrative Structured Interview process that inte-
grates quantitative career assessment into a storied approach to career counselling
(McMahon and Watson, 2012b).
This chapter will now discuss the influence of constructivism in relation to the
counselling relationship, the counselling process, including the importance of
language and emotion and the role of narrative, and career assessment.

The counselling relationship

For over two decades, constructivist approaches to career counselling have
emphasised that a quality client–counsellor relationship is essential, and that
characteristics such as acceptance, understanding, trust and caring are critical
(Granvold, 1996). Rogers’ (1951) three necessary conditions for counselling –
genuineness, unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding –
remain important (Amundson, 2009), as does a ‘mattering’ (Schlossberg et al.,
6 Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

1989) climate where clients feel listened to and the career counsellor genuinely
cares about them.
Operationalising such a relationship warrants consideration, especially when,
traditionally, career counsellors have been seen as experts in the counsellor–client
relationship. Fundamental to constructivist approaches is that human knowing is
proactive and that individuals actively participate in the creation of their own
reality; the career counselling relationship should involve engagement, interac-
tion and encouragement (Savickas, 2011). Clients are encouraged to take active
roles more indicative of a ‘working partnership’ in which both ‘helper and help-
seeker’ (Peavy, 2004, p. 20) collaborate: ‘The counselling relationship is not that
of one-who-knows and one-who-does-not-know but rather a relationship of
negotiation and co-participation’ (ibid.). In such relationships, clients are
expected and encouraged to tell career stories and the role of career counsellor
is different from that of expert and less directive. Constructivist career counsel-
lors are more likely to facilitate a process of exploration of career stories and
restructuring, rather than ‘fix’ a presenting issue; they collaborate with clients to
construct and reconstruct meaning in the client’s life through processes such as
the telling of stories, information sharing, interpretation, supportiveness, encour-
agement, structuring and challenge (Granvold, 1996; McMahon and Watson,
2012a, b, 2013; Savickas, 2011).

The career counselling process: the nature and role of

language and emotion
The telling of stories is facilitated through language and its power in construct-
ing meaning is fundamental to constructivism. Words enable individuals to think
and make meaning of their experience. Through language, individuals construct
self (Savickas, 2011). Because language constructs our reality and the meaning
we make of the world (Berg and De Shazer, 1993) it forms the basis of career
counselling interactions: ‘Meaning is arrived at through negotiation within a
specific context, for example the therapeutic context’ (p. 7). Clients may under-
stand their behaviour in one way, but, through the career counselling discourse,
a new meaning or multiple meanings may be constructed which enables them to
understand themselves differently, and in turn act differently. Constructivist
career counselling becomes a therapeutic conversation in which the stories told
by clients are emphasised and the counsellor and the client join as co-constructors
of a new reality.
Constructivist career counselling emphasises factors that are not as evident in
trait and factor approaches such as the three main tasks for counsellors proposed
by Peavy (1998), specifically:

1. to enter into sensible and trustworthy communication with the other;

2. to develop a mutual understanding of the particular difficulty which the
other faces; and
 Constructivism 7

3. to plan and construct activity projects which are designed to:

i. increase self-responsibility and personal control;
ii. increase the other’s meaningful participation in social life; and
iii. help the other choose and move toward preferred futures. (p. 50)

Reflected in Peavy’s tasks and also in the goals of career counselling offered by
other authors (e.g. Campbell and Ungar, 2004a, b; Peavy, 1998, 2004; Savickas,
2011) is greater emphasis on the role of clients as active agents in planning and
implementing their future stories. The client role has been summed up by
Campbell and Ungar (2004a, b) as knowing what they want, knowing what they
have, knowing what they hear, knowing what constrains them, mapping their
preferred story, growing into their story and growing out of their story.
Consistent with all constructivist approaches to career counselling, the dimen-
sions of relationship, agency and meaning-making are central. Peavy (1992)
added a fourth dimension of negotiation, and framed all four dimensions as
questions to guide career counsellors:

1. How can I form a cooperative alliance with this client? (Relationship factor)
2. How can I encourage the self-helpfulness of this client? (Agency factor)
3. How can I help this client to elaborate and evaluate his or her construc-
tions and meanings germane to their decisions? (Meaning-making factor)
4. How can I help this client to reconstruct and negotiate personally mean-
ingful and socially supportable realities? (Negotiation factor). (p. 221,
emphasis original)

Concomitant with the enhanced client role in constructivist approaches has been
greater awareness of the need to incorporate emotion and subjective experience
into career counselling. Traditional career counselling’s emphasis on the objec-
tive career (i.e. observable and visible events, positions, behaviours and activities)
has been criticised (e.g. Kidd, 2004) and represents a clear point of difference
from personal counselling. By contrast, constructivist career counselling takes
greater account of individuals’ experiences of their careers (i.e. the subjective
career that is less visible and less tangible). Thus constructivist career counselling,
through its incorporation of emotion and subjective experience is responding to
a longstanding criticism of career counselling (Kidd, 2004, 2011; Savickas,
2013) and moves career counselling closer to personal counselling.

The narrative approach

The ‘narrative turn’ (Hartung, 2013, p. 33) in career theory and career counsel-
ling, central to constructivist approaches, reflects the fundamental assumption
that individuals live narrative lives (Hartung, 2013; Savickas, 2011). In essence,
from childhood (Grant and Johnston, 2006) individuals make sense of their life
experiences by telling their stories which are socially and contextually constructed
8 Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

and reflect their history, culture, society, relationships and language (McAdams,
1996). Narratives are the means by which individuals construct their identities
(Savickas, 2011) and are intrinsic to constructivist career counselling, sometimes
referred to as narrative career counselling which may be described as follows:

Narrative career counselling emphasises subjectivity and meaning. It aims to

facilitate self-reflection and elaboration of self-concepts toward an enhanced
self-understanding which is subjectively and contextually truthful. It entails a
collaborative process in which the client is supported in creating an open-
ended personal story that holistically accounts for his or her life and career,
and enables the person to make meaningfully informed career decisions and
actions. (McIlveen and Patton, 2007, p. 228)

The metaphor of ‘working with storytellers’ (McMahon, 2006, p. 16) has been
used to describe constructivist career counselling. Stories become ‘tools’ (Savickas,
2011, p. 38) for career counsellors through which themes are identified that
become the foundation of the future stories being co-constructed with clients.
Moving from present stories to future stories through a process of open commu-
nication has been described as dialogical (McIlveen, 2012; Peavy, 1998) or as a
‘conversational partnership’ (White, 2007, p. 263). Savickas (1993) suggested that:

acting as co-authors and editors… counsellors can help clients

1. authorize their careers by narrating a coherent, continuous, and credible

story,
2. invest career with meaning by identifying themes and tensions in the
story line, and
3. learn the skills needed to perform the next episode in the story.
(pp. 210–13)

Assessment in constructivist career counselling

Assessment has been a defining feature of career counselling throughout its
history and distinguishes it from personal counselling. Quantitative instruments
have dominated career assessment and have, in essence, defined the career coun-
selling relationship. A career counsellor, with information based on the objective
data gathered through quantitative assessment instruments, could be seen as an
expert to whom the client deferred. More recently however, qualitative career
assessment, which is more philosophically consistent with constructivism and the
shifts from objectivity to subjectivity and from scores to stories (Savickas, 1993),
has received more attention in the literature. For example, the first book focusing
on qualitative career assessment was published in 2015 (McMahon and Watson).
As a result of the constructivist influence and career counsellors making
increasing use of qualitative assessment, a challenge for career counsellors is to
 Constructivism 9

consider the role and purpose of assessment as well as its type and place in their
counselling (McMahon and Patton, 2002a, b; McMahon and Watson, 2012b).
In short, qualitative assessment encourages individuals to tell their own career
stories and uncover their subjective careers.
It is important to state here in this first chapter that there is no suggestion that
one form of assessment is better than another. Indeed, the integration of both
forms of assessment in career counselling has been advocated (McMahon and
Patton, 2002a, b) and quantitative assessment may be incorporated into qualita-
tive, constructivist career counselling processes (McMahon and Watson, 2012b).
This discussion is expanded in Chapter 22 of this book.
Assessment of all types may aid clients in their decision-making and serve as a
‘stimulus for exploration as opposed to providing the answer’ (Sampson, 2009,
p. 93). In constructivist career counselling, assessment may assist clients to
elaborate patterns of meaning; even though assessment data is gathered, it
should not be presented objectively as a statement of fact by career counsellors
and should not be uncritically accepted by clients (ibid.). Rather its meaning has
to be interpreted through dialogue between client and counsellor; the bounda-
ries between assessment and counselling become less distinct and the counselling
relationship rather than service delivery is emphasised (Savickas, 1992). The role
of career counsellors is changed from that of expert to one of interested enquirer,
respectful listener and tentative co-constructor; constructivist career counsellors
who listen for life themes and stories act more as ‘biographers who interpret lives
in progress rather than as actuaries who count interests and abilities’ (ibid.,
p. 338). Qualitative assessment processes and guidelines on the development of
qualitative career assessment instruments and their incorporation into career
counselling are discussed in more detail later in this book.

Applying constructivism in career counselling

One of the most common criticisms levelled at constructivist approaches to
career counselling is their failure to adequately address the ‘but how do we do
it?’ question that is frequently asked (Reid, 2006). Reid queried whether
constructivism is too abstract, esoteric and unconnected to day-to-day realities,
too focused on understanding with not enough attention paid to action and too
dependent on therapeutic counselling. She suggested that constructivist
approaches are a ‘way forward for a more holistic, ethically motivated and
politically aware form of practice’ (p. 38) and that ‘placing meaning at the fore-
front of career counselling is a good foundation upon which academics, research-
ers, trainers and practitioners can build’.
Constructivism presents as a way of thinking or a set of values that is illustrated
throughout this book as a range of possible career counselling approaches that
are consistent with the constructivist worldview. A prescriptive approach such as
a set of techniques or an interview sequence is not consistent with the construc-
tivist worldview. Practitioners are encouraged to internalise the values of the
10 Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

constructivist approach and to apply them as appropriate in their work. Such

values have previously been articulated in this chapter and have far-ranging impli-
cations for the way career counsellors work, as illustrated by McMahon et al.
(2002) (see Table 1.1). As mentioned earlier in this chapter, to assume that the

Table 1.1 Influence of the logical-positivist and constructivist worldviews on career

counselling
Elements of career Logical-positivist worldview Constructivist worldview
counselling

The role of the client • Passive responder • Active participant

The role of the counsellor • Expert • Interested, curious and
tentative enquirer
• Respectful listener
• Tentative observer
The nature of the • Counsellor-dominated • Collaborative
counselling relationship • Counsellor knows best • Interactive
• Test and tell • Mutual involvement
• Problem-solving approach
The place of career • Used as a starting point • Story and meaning
assessment • Objective • Meaning is co-constructed
• Assessment scored and • Subjectivity is valued
reported by ‘expert’ • Feelings as well as facts are
• Facts valued over feelings valuable
The use of career • Emphasis on facts • Emphasis on information-
information • Provided by ‘expert’ seeking process
counsellor • Client becomes
information gatherer
The nature of change • Sequential or linear • Recursive
• Emphasis on outcome or • Emphasis on process
end point • Discontinuous
The nature of knowledge • Knowledge is imparted by • Knowledge is created
and learning experts within individuals
• Language is critical to
understanding and the
creation of knowledge
Wholes and parts • Focus on traits such as • Holistic approach –
personality, ability or subjective experiences and
interests feelings valued
• Little attention payed to • Context is important
context of client’s life • Work and life viewed as a
• Work and life viewed as whole
separate
The counselling process • Counsellor-dominated • Counsellors enter the
• Sequential client’s life-space through
• Expectation of an objective dialogue
outcome such as an • Expectation of client-
occupational title driven change
Source: McMahon, Adams and Lim, 2002, p. 23.
 Constructivism 11

logical positivist and constructivist approaches are oppositional would be an

oversimplification. Rather, career counsellors are likely to operate on a contin-
uum of practice between these positions (McMahon and Patton, 2002a).
In response to the largely unanswered ‘but how do we do it?’ question,
McMahon and Patton (2006) and subsequently Maree (2007, 2010) provided
examples of constructivist approaches and activities that could be used in career
counselling. Cochran (1997) also answered this question in his seminal text on
a narrative approach to career counselling. Brott (2001) presented a storied
approach to career counselling that incorporates three interwoven phases of
co-construction, deconstruction and construction. Co-construction is the
process through which client and counsellor collaborate in the telling of the past
and present chapters of the client’s career story. Deconstruction is the process of
elaborating meaning by uncovering patterns and themes, and construction is the
building or creation of future chapters of the client’s career story. These phases
underpin all constructivist approaches to career counselling (e.g. Campbell and
Ungar’s [2004a, b] postmodern approach). Also in response to the ‘but how
do we do it?’ question, McMahon, Watson, Chetty and Hoelson (2012a, b)
investigated the process of career counselling and how key constructs such as
meaning-making and agency are facilitated. More recently, the edited book by
McMahon and Watson (2015) provides multiple examples of qualitative career
assessment processes developed by practitioners.
As evidenced by a proliferation of literature since the first edition of this book
(McMahon and Patton, 2006), the field is beginning to offer greater guidance
for practitioners wanting to use constructivist approaches to career counselling.
A common theme throughout this literature is that career counselling from a
constructivist perspective is more customised to individual clients, more creative,
less directive, less routinised and therefore less likely to operate according to the
linear processes that have long been associated with career counselling.
In teaching constructivist approaches in career counselling, facilitating learn-
ing processes whereby beginning counsellors may internalise the way of think-
ing or values of constructivism represents an important goal. An application of
Table 1.1 may serve as a useful learning tool (see Figure 1.1). Learners may be
encouraged to watch experienced counsellors at work either in work observation
or using recorded examples and, as they do so, record examples of the construc-
tivist and logical positivist worldviews on the continua presented in Figure 1.1.
Subsequently, they could engage in a discussion with the counsellor about their
observations. Alternatively, if a whole class has watched a recorded career
counselling session, they could engage in discussion about their observations.
Discussion questions could include:

• How do each of the examples identified illustrate the values of the construc-
tivist worldview?
• What may be the advantages of the logical positivist and of the constructivist
worldviews?
12 Wendy Patton and Mary McMahon

Logical-positivist worldview Constructivist worldview

Role of client
Passive responder Active participant

Role of counsellor Interested, curious and

Expert tentative enquirer,
respectful listener, tentative

Top-down, counsellor Nature of relationship

Collaborative, interactive
knows best, test and tell

Counsellor-dominated, Career assessment Collaborative interactive

used to diagnose, used to
meaning-making
‘fit’–test

The use of career information Client as information

Facts provided by expert
gatherer

The nature of change Recursive, emphasis on

Linear endpoint
process

The nature of knowledge

and learning Individual creates learning,
Expert imparts information
language is important

Focus on traits, little Wholes and parts

Holistic, contextual
emphasis on context

The counselling process Dialogue, client-driven

Counsellor dominated
change

Figure 1.1 Career counselling observation sheet

• What may be the disadvantages of the logical positivist and of the construc-
tivist worldviews?
• When may it be appropriate to operate more from one worldview than
another?
• In what circumstances may it be important for career counsellors to have a
degree of flexibility in their approach?
• Consider cultural appropriateness from the position of the two worldviews.

A similar activity may be facilitated whereby learners watch a recording of their

own work and analyse it according to Figure 1.1. Peer group discussion about
the similarities and differences of the observations could then be facilitated.
 Constructivism 13

Learners could be encouraged to identify their strengths and also goals that they
would like to achieve.

Conclusion
The constructivist perspective continues to influence career theory and practice
(McIlveen, 2012; McMahon and Watson, 2015; Patton, 2008). In emphasising
the active nature of the individual as a self-building and self-renewing
‘self-organising system’ as opposed to a passive organism at the whim of matura-
tional and developmental stages and/or environmental forces, it is viewed as an
important underpinning for a practice which is responding to ever changing
times. Career counselling work within this constructivist perspective focuses on
individuals interacting with their social and environmental contexts and engaging
in a shared narrative process of life-career meaning-making with the counsellor.

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References

1 Constructivism: what does it mean for

career counselling?

Amundson, N.E. (2009). Active Engagement: Enhancing the

Career Counselling Process (3rd edn). Richmond, Canada:
Ergon Communications.

Berg, I.K. and de Shazer, S. (1993). Making numbers talk:

language in therapy. In S. Friedman (Ed.), The New
Language of Change. New York: Guildford Press, pp. 5–24.

Brott, P.E. (2001). The storied approach: a postmodern

perspective for career counseling. The Career Development
Quarterly, 49, 304–13.

Campbell, C. and Ungar, M. (2004a). Constructing a life

that works: part 1, blending postmodern family therapy and
career counseling. The Career Development Quarterly, 53,
16–27.

Campbell, C. and Ungar, M. (2004b). Constructing a life

that works: part 2, an approach to practice. The Career
Development Quarterly, 53, 28–40.

Cochran, L. (1997). Career Counseling: A Narrative

Approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Collin, A. and Young, R.A. (1986). New directions for

theories of career. Human Relations, 39, 837–53.

Ford, M. and Ford, D. (1987). (Eds). Humans as

Self-constructing Living Systems: Putting the Framework to
Work. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Gottfredson, L.S. (2002). Gottfredson’s theory of

circumscription, compromise and selfcreation. In D. Brown
(Ed.) and Associates, Career Choice and Development (4th
edn). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 85–148.

Grant, E.M. and Johnston, J.A. (2006). Career narratives.

In M. McMahon and W. Patton, (Eds), Career Counselling:
Constructivist Approaches. London: Routledge, pp. 110–22.

Granvold, D.K. (1996). Constructivist psychotherapy.

Families in Society, 77 (6), 345–59.

Guichard, J. (2009). Self-constructing. Journal of

Vocational Behavior, 75, 251–8.
Hartung, P.J. (2007). Career construction: principles and
practice. In K. Maree (Ed.), Shaping the Story: A Guide to
Facilitating Narrative Counselling. Pretoria, South Africa:
Van Schaik, pp. 103–20.

Hartung, P.J. (2013). Career as story: making the narrative

turn. In P.J. Hartung, W.B. Walsh and M.L. Savickas (Eds),
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for theory and research. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
64, 441–55.

Kidd, J.M. (2011). Career sense-making: an emotional,

cognitive and social process. In M. McMahon and M. Watson
(Eds), Constructivist Career Counselling: Constructs
Examined. New York: Nova Science, pp. 117–30.

Lent, R.W. (2013). Social cognitive career theory. In. S.D.

Brown and R.W. Lent (Eds), Career Development and
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New York: Wiley, pp. 115–46.

Lyddon, W.J. (1989). Root metaphor theory: a philosophical

framework for counselling and psychotherapy. Journal of
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Mahoney, M.J. and Lyddon, W.J. (1988). Recent developments

in cognitive approaches to counseling and psychotherapy.
The Counseling Psychologist, 16, 190–234.

Maree, K. (Ed.). (2007). Shaping the Story: A Guide to

Facilitating Narrative Career Counselling. Pretoria, South
Africa: Van Schaik.

Maree, K. (Ed.). (2010). Career Counselling: Methods that

Work. Cape Town, South Africa: Juta.

McAdams, D.P. (1996). Personality, modernity, and the

storied self: a contemporary framework for studying
persons. Psychological Inquiry, 7 (4), 295–321.

McIlveen, P. (2012). Extending the metaphor of narrative to

dialogical narrator. In P. McIlveen and D.E. Schultheiss,
D.E. (Eds), Social Constructionism in Vocational
Psychology and Career Development. Rotterdam: Sense, pp.
59–76.
McIlveen, P. and Patton, W. (2007). Narrative career
counselling: Theory and exemplars of practice. Australian
Psychologist, 42 (3), 226–235.

McIlveen, P. and Schultheiss, D.E. (2012). (Eds). Social

Constructionism in Vocational Psychology and Career
Development. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.

McMahon, M. (2006). Working with storytellers: a metaphor

for career counselling. In M. McMahon and W. Patton (Eds),
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McMahon, M. and Patton, W. (2002a). Assessment: a continuum

of practice and a new location in career counselling.
International Careers Journal, 3 (4), The Global
Careers-Work Café.

McMahon, M. and Patton, W. (2002b). Using qualitative

assessment in career counselling. International Journal
for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 2, 51–66.

McMahon, M. and Patton, W. (2006). (Eds). Career

Counselling: Constructivist Approaches. London: Routledge.

McMahon, M. and Watson, M. (2012a). Story crafting:

strategies for facilitating narrative career counselling.
International Journal for Educational and Vocational
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