ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYANAND NAGAR BANGALORE 24

(Prepared by T.G.Murali M.Sc.,M.Phil B.Ed (Phd) Retd.General

Manager reputed pharma limited and Assistant professor chemistry
ATRIA)

Module-3:
Macromolecules for engineering applications (8 hr)
Polymers: Introduction, methods of polymerization, molecular weight, number
average, weight average, numerical problems, synthesis, properties and
industrial applications of Chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC) and polystyrene.
Fibers: Introduction, synthesis, properties and industrial applications of Kevlar
and Polyester. Plastics: Introduction, synthesis, properties and industrial
applications of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and Teflon. Composites:
Introduction, properties and industrial applications of carbon based reinforced
materials and metal matrix polymer composites. Lubricants: Introduction,
classification, properties and application of lubricants.

Module -3
Polymer introduction:
The word polymer is derived from Greek words, Poly (many) and
meros (Parts or unit). A polymer is a large molecule formed by
combining small molecules. The individual small molecules from
which the polymer is formed are known as “Monomers “and the
process by which the monomer molecule are linked to form big
polymer molecule is called “polymerization”
Polymerization

nCH2=CH2 → -(CH2-CH2-)n
Ethylene Polyethylene

The length of the polymer chain is specified by the number of repeat

unit in the chain, the average number of repeat units in the chain is
called “degree of polymerization” (n).
The polymers are generally called as “Plastics”
Polymerization is a process which allow monomer to combine and
form polymer. The number of reactive site (bonding) available in a
molecule for a particular reaction is called “functionality”. Ethylene
has functionality of two, acetylene has functionality of four.

Polymers: Introduction, Molecular weight -

Number average, weight average and
numerical problems
Polymer introduction:
The word polymer is derived from Greek words, Poly (many) and meros (Parts
or unit). A polymer is a large molecule formed by combining small molecules.
The individual small molecules from which the polymer is formed are known as
“Monomers “and the process by which the monomer molecule are linked to
form big polymer molecule is called “polymerization”
Polymerization
nCH2=CH2 → -(CH2-CH2-)n
Ethylene Polyethylene

The length of the polymer chain is specified by the number of repeat unit in the
chain, the average number of repeat units in the chain is called “degree of
polymerization” (n).
The polymers are generally called as “Plastics”
Polymerization is a process which allow monomer to combine and form
polymer. The number of reactive site (bonding) available in a molecule for a
particular reaction is called “functionality”. Ethylene has functionality of two,
acetylene has functionality of four.
Types of Polymers

There are many types of polymers including synthetic and natural polymers.

Natural biopolymers
 Polypeptides in proteins - silk, collagen, keratin.
 Polysaccharides (Carbohydrate chains) - cellulose, starch, glycogen

 Nucleic acids - DNA and RNA

Synthetic polymers
 Plastics
 Elastomers - solids with rubber-like qualities

o Rubber (carbon backbone often from hydrocarbon monomers)

o silicones (backbone of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms).

 Fibers

 Solid materials of intermediate characteristics

 Gels or viscous liquids

Classification of Polymers

 Homopolymers: These consist of chains with identical bonding linkages to

each monomer unit. This usually implies that the polymer is made from all
identical monomer molecules. These may be represented as : -[A-A-A-A-A-
A]- Homopolymers are commonly named by placing the prefix poly in front
of the constituent monomer name. For example, polystyrene is the name
for the polymer made from the monomer styrene (vinylbenzene).
 Copolymers: These consist of chains with two or more linkages usually
implying two or more different types of monomer units. These may be
represented as : -[A-B-A-B-A-B]-

Polymers classified by mode of polymerization

 Addition Polymers: The monomer molecules bond to each other without
the loss of any other atoms. Addition polymers from alkene monomers or
substituted alkene monomers are the biggest groups of polymers in this
class. Ring opening polymerization can occur without the loss of any small
molecules.
  Condensation Polymers: Usually two different monomer combine with the
loss of a small molecule, usually water. Most polyesters and polyamides
(nylon) are in this class of polymers. Polyurethane Foam in graphic above.

Molecular weight - Number average, weight average and numerical problems

of polymer and numerical problem.

Molecular weight of polymer

(a) In contract to the low molecular weight compound, polymer is usually a

complex mixture of molecules of different molecular weights. The
polymer are thus polydisperse and heterogeneous in composition.
Therefore the molecular weight of a polymer is actually an average of
the molecular weights of constituent molecules.
(b) Different averages are obtained depending on the method of
measurement of the molecular weight.
(c) The number average molecular weight Mn is obtained by the
measurement of the colligative properties of a polymer by Osometry or
end group analysis and is defined as

Mn= ∑Ni.Mi/∑Ni

Where Ni is the number of molecules of molecular weight Mi

The weight average (MW) molecular weight is obtained from light scattering
measurement and is defined as
Mw= ∑Ni.Mi2/∑Ni.Mi
To explain these molecular weight averages
Example Suppose there are 50 polymer molecules of molecular weight 102, 200
polymer molecules of molecular weight 103, and 100 molecules of molecular
weight 104. Then

Mn= 50X102+200X 103+ 100X104/ 50+200+100

= 3443 approx.
Mn= 50X104+200X106+100X108/ 50X104+200X103+100X104
=8470 approx.

Numerical problem 1
1. A polymer has the following composition 100 molecular mass
1000g/mol, 200 molecules of molecular mass 2000g/mol and
500molecular mass 5000g/mol.Calculate the number and weight
average molecular weight.
Solution :
Given M1=1000g/mol, N1=100: M2= 2000g/mol : N2= 200, M3= 5000g/mol, N3=
500
The number average molecular weight in given by
Mn= ∑Ni.Mi/∑Ni
= 100X1000+200X2000+500X5000/ 100+200+500
=1X105+4X105+25X105/800
=3.75X103 g/mol
The weight average molecular weight is
Mw= ∑Ni.Mi2/∑Ni.Mi
=100X10002+200X20002+500X5002/30X105
= 1X108+8X108+125X108/30X105
=4.46X103g/mol
synthesis, properties and industrial applications of
Chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC) and polystyrene.
What is Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is the third most widely used thermoplastic
polymer after polyethylene and polypropylene.
 It is prepared by radical polymerization of vinyl chloride to produce
material composed of an average of 10,000 to 24,000 monomer units.

 It is atactic and therefore amorphous, but it has a relatively high glass

transition temperature (Tg) because of the large size of its molecules and
its polar carbon-chlorine bond.

Synthesis of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

 The monomer vinyl chloride is treated with peracid under pressure to
obtain Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Properties of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
1. It is a linear polymer and thermoplastic in nature.
2. It is a white brittle solid, hard, rigid material which tends to stick to the
metallic surface.
3. It is insoluble in all hydrocarbon solvents.
4. It has a melting point of 212℃ and glass transition temperature (Tg) is 80℃.

Applications of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

1. When PVC is plasticized with high boiling esters such as di-n-butyl phthalate,
it is used for making raincoats, handbags, shower curtains, vinyl flooring, water
pipes, etc.

2. Around the world, over 50 % of PVC manufactured is used in construction. As

a building material, it is cheap, durable, and very easy to assemble. It is a rigid
material and is used to make pipes, panels, and molded objects.

3. PVC is commonly used as insulation on electric wires.

4. PVC is used in the healthcare sector for the manufacturing of blood

collection, ostomy, and urine collection products.
Polystyrene: Definition, Preparation, Properties and
Applications

What is Polystyrene?

 Polystyrene, also known as Polyvinyl benzene is hard, brilliantly

transparent, stiff resin which is produced by the free radical addition
polymerization of styrene in the presence of benzoyl peroxide.
 Polystyrene is non-biodegradable and widely used in the food-service
industry as rigid trays, containers, disposable eating plates, bowls, etc.

Synthesis of Polystyrene

Polystyrene is prepared by free radical addition polymerization of styrene in the

presence of benzoyl peroxide as a catalyst.

Properties of Polystyrene

1. Polystyrene exists in an amorphous state due to the presence of bulky phenyl

groups which makes packing of Polystyrene inefficient.

2. Polystyrene is non-polar having a melting point of 240 ℃.

3. Polystyrene is a transparent polymer having a good optical property that
allows high transmission of all wavelengths.

4. Polystyrene is hard but brittle due to the chain-shifting effect of the benzene
ring.

5. Polystyrene has good insulation properties. That's why it is used in making

Polystyrene insulation products.

Applications of Polystyrene

1. Polystyrene is used in making 'throw away' drinking cups, soft drinks, and
baby feeding bottles.

2. By adding color and filler, it can be used for making toys and household
items.

3. When gas is blown into Polystyrene liquid, it foams and hardens to

form styrofoam which is used for making ice chests and disposable coffee cups.

4. Polystyrene is also used as packing material for shipping instruments and

appliances, and it is widely used for home insulation.

5. Medically it is used for sterilizing test tubes, diagnostic components, and

other medical devices.

Fibers: Introduction, synthesis, properties and industrial

applications of Kevlar and Polyester.
Nano-fibre introduction:
 Nanofibers have excellent mechanical properties. They have satisfactory
biodegradability along with nontoxic biodegradability.
 Nanofibers provide higher surface area, when used as nanofillers reduce
the chain mobility. These can carry load, increase toughness,
and abrasion resistance.
  Carbon nanofibers, polymer nanofibers, graphite nanofibers, collagen
nanofibers, cellulose nanofibers, nanosilicates.

Polymer composites
Polymer composite can be defined as a physical mixture of two of more
structurally different homopolymers or copolymers.
The widely used polymer matrices are epoxy, polyester, phenolic resin, etc.
The commonly used reinforcements are glass, carbon and aramid (Kevlar-
trade name of Du Pont Company) fibres. The glass epoxy composite is
popularly known as GFRP- Glass fibre reinforced plastic, and the carbon-
epoxy composite is called CFRP – Carbon fibre reinforced plastics.
Modern composites are usually made of two components, a fibre and matrix.
The fibre is most often glass, carbon fibre, or polyethylene. The matrix is
usually a thermoset like an epoxy resin, polydicyclopentadiene or a polyimide.
Properties of polymer composites.
1) They are light in weight.
2) They have high strength to weight ratio.
3) They are much stronger and durable than conventional metals like steel and
aluminium.
4) They are most suitable for aerospace application due to their light weight.
5) They have good corrosion resistance.
6) They have high fatigue strength.

Applications of polymer composites

1) Composites of phenolic resins and nylon are used in heat shields for space
crafts.
2) They are used in aircraft and space industry
3) They are suitable for automotive and railway applications.
4) They are used for civil construction works also.
Kevlar Fibre
 Kevlar is invented by Stephanic Kwolek, the DuPont chemist. Kevlar is an
aromatic polyamide (aramide) (IUPAC name is poly-
paraphenyleneterepthalamide).
 It is formed the reaction of para-Phenylene diamine and terephaloyl
chloride. The individual chloride of Kevlar are held together by hydrogen
bonding with amide groups. When woven Kevlar forms a strong and
flexible material.
 Kevlar is a synthetic fiber stronger than steel.

P- phenylene diamine Terephthaloyl chloride Kevlar

Properties of Kevlar
1. Kevlar is crystalline, light weight and non-flammable.
2. Resistant to heat, impact and scratch.
3 .It withstands harsh environmental condition.
4. It has excellent force and tensile stress resistance.
Uses of Kevlar
1. Used as a reinforcement material for some car tyres and bicycle tyres. It
dramatically reduce puncture rate.
2. Used in the manufacture of body armour for light weight military vehicles.
3. Used for the boat hulls and aerospace industry.
4. Used in manufacture of formula one racing car petrol tanks.
5. Used in the manufacture of bullet-proof vests and combat helmets.
Disadvantages
1. Kevlar textiles tend to absorb moisture.
2. It reacts badly under a compressive force.

Introduction, synthesis, properties and industrial applications of Polyester.

Polyester Fiber introduction:
 Polyester fiber is a “manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming
substance is any long chain synthetic polymer composed at least 85% by
weight of an ester of a dihydric alcohol (HOROH) and terephthalic acid

(p-HOOC-C6H4COOH)”.
 The most widely used polyester fiber is made from the linear polymer
poly (ethylene terephtalate), and this polyester class is generally referred
to simply as PET.
 High strength, high modulus, low shrinkage, heat set stability, light
fastness and chemical resistance account for the great versatility of PET.
 Synthesis Polymer Formation:
Polyethylene Teraphthalate (PET) is a condensation polymer and is
industrially produced by either terephthalic acid or dimethyl
terephthalate with ethylene glycol. Other polyester fibers of interest to
the nonwovens field include:
 a. Terephthalic Acid (PTA), produced directly from p-xylene with bromide-
controlled oxidation.
b. Dimethyl Terephthalate (DMT), made in the early stages by esterification of
terephthalic acid. However, a different process involving two oxidation and
esterification stages now accounts for most DMT.
c. Ethylene Glycol (EG) initially generated as an intermediate product by
oxidation of ethylene. Further ethylene glycol is obtained by reaction of
ethylene oxide with water.

Synthesis of Polymer:

 Linear Polyesters: A representative linear polyester, PET is polymerized by

one of the following two ways: Ester Interchange: Monomers are diethyl
terephtalate and ethylene glycol.
 Direct Etherification: Monomers are terephthalic acid and ethylene
glycol. Both ester interchange and direct esterification processes are
combined with polycondensation steps either batch-wise or continuously.
 Batch-wise systems need two-reaction vessels- one for esterification or
ester interchange, the other for polymerization. Continuous systems
need at least three vessels – one for esterification or shear interchange,
another for reducing excess glycols, the other for polymerization.
 Another way to produce PET is solid-phase polycondensation. In the
process, a melt polycondensation is continued until the pre-polymer has
an Intrinsic Viscosity of 1.0-1.4, at which point the polymer is cast into a
solid firm. The pre-crystallization is carried out by heating (above 200oC)
until the desirable molecular weight is obtained.
 Later the particulate polymer is melted for spinning. This process is not
popular for textile PET fibers but is used for some industrial fibers.
Branched and Crosslinked Polyesters:

 If glycerol is allowed to react with a diacid or its anhydride each glycerol

will generate one branch point. Such molecules can grow to very high
molecular weight.
 If internal coupling occurs (reaction of a hydroxyl group and an acid
function from branches of the same or different molecule), the polymer
will become crosslinked. Rigidly crosslinked polymers are totally
unaffected by solvents.

Fiber Formation:

 The sequences for production of PET fibers and yarns depend on the
different ways of polymerization (continuous, batch-wise, and solid-
phase) and spinning (low or high wind up speed) processes.

The Manufacturing Process:

 Polyester is manufactured by one of several methods. The one used

depends on the form the finished polyester will take.
 The four basic forms are filament, staple, tow, and fiberfill. In the filament
form, each individual strand of polyester fiber is continuous in length,
producing smooth-surfaced fabrics.
 In staple form, filaments are cut to short, predetermined lengths. In this
form polyester is easier to blend with other fibers.
 Tow is a form in which continuous filaments are drawn loosely together.
 Fiberfill is the voluminous form used in the manufacture of quilts, pillows,
and outerwear. The two forms used most frequently are filament and
staple.

Properties Polyester Fibre

1. Resistant to stretching and shrinking

2. Resistant to most chemicals
3. Quick drying
4. Crisp and resilient
5. Wrinkle resistant
6. Mildew resistant
7. Abrasion resistant
8. Retains heat-set pleats and crease
 9. Easily washed

Applications of Polyester Fibre:

 Apparel: Every form of clothing

 Home Furnishings: Carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillowcases,
wall coverings, and upholstery
 Other Uses: Hoses, power belting, ropes and nets, thread, tire cord, auto
upholstery, sails, floppy disk liners, and fiberfill for various products
including pillows and furniture

Plastics: Introduction, synthesis, properties and industrial applications of

poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and Teflon.
Introduction:
What is Polymethyl Methacrylate?
 Polymethyl methacrylate, or PMMA, is a transparent organic polymer that
is used as an alternative to glass.
 It is a rigid plastic that can find its application in a variety of industries.
 This synthetic resin is formed by the polymerization of methyl
methacrylate
 Also referred to as plexiglass or acrylic glass, PMMA is used because it is
easy to shape, tough and cost-effective.
 It has the ability to keep a light beam reflected within the surface and is
also resistant to UV radiation.
 Acrylic glass can be used in a variety of products, including car windows,
aquariums, screens of digital devices etc.

Polymethyl Methacrylate synthesis

 PMMA is formed by the free radical polymerization of monomer methyl

methacrylate. The polymethyl methacrylate structure is a vinyl polymer
which is an ester of methacrylic acid (CH2=C[CH3]CO2H).
  The pendant CH3 groups hinder the crystalline packing of the polymer
chains. Since they are not allowed to rotate freely around the C-C bond,
the resulting structure is quite rigid.

Production of PMMA
It is produced from propylene which is derived from the refining of crude oil. The
process of formation of methyl methacrylate polymer involves the following
steps:
 Propylene reacts with benzene to form isopropyl benzene or cumene.
 Cumene gets oxidized to form cumene hydroperoxide.
 This reacts with an acid to form acetone.
 Acetone forms methyl methacrylate (CH2=C[CH3]CO2CH3) in liquid form.
 The polymerization of this compound in the presence of free-radical
initiators forms PMMA in solid form.

Polymethyl Methacrylate Application

 Acrylic plastic or PMMA finds its application in a variety of industries due
to its properties, easy processing and cost-effectiveness.
 PMMA is processed by injection molding, compression molding, extrusion
or casting.
 The extensive polymethyl methacrylate uses are a result of its
advantageous properties and adaptability. This transparent plastic is used
in a lot of markets.
 1.Glass Substitute
 Acrylic glass is used as a shatterproof alternative for windows and skylights.
It is also commonly used in aquariums and aircraft canopies.
 A lot of hockey rinks also use PMMA.
 Illuminated sign boards that display advertisements or directions are also
usually made up of PMMA.
2. Construction and Design

 Windows, doors, panels, canopies etc., all use polymethyl methacrylate

due to its excellent properties such as heat insulation and light
transmission.
 The polymer may also be used in the construction of sinks, baths, knobs or
tap tops.
3. Automobile Industry

 One of the most important industries that require PMMA is the

transportation and automobile industries.
 From car windows to windshields, acrylic sheets can be found in a lot of
spaces. It is used in the manufacturing of various automotive parts.
 The aviation and marine industry also require this polymer. Car indicator
covers and panels are also made using plexiglass.
Healthcare Industry

 PMMA polymer is also known as bone cement in the healthcare industry.

It is used by orthopaedic surgeons for procedures like joint replacement or
treating bone damages.
 It can also be used to fill in the gaps between bones.
 Optical fibres used for endoscopy also consist of PMMA.

Cosmetic Usage
 PMMA has also found its usage in various beauty products and injectables.
It is used in cosmetic procedures that treat ace, facial lines, wrinkles etc.
Lamps and Lighting

 The light-emitting potential, transparency and other such properties allow

PMMA to be used in LED lights and lamps.
 You can find PMMA being used in street and traffic lights.
 It is manufactured in various colour options, which adds to its usability in
lamps and other lighting devices.
Electronic Devices

 Acrylic glass can be used in the display of various electronic equipment,

including tv screens, laptops and smartphones.
 This is due to its properties, such as transmittance and high optical clarity.
Solar Devices

 The application of polymethyl methacrylate PMMA in solar panels is a

result of its UV stability and light transmission ability.
 It can also be used in the construction of greenhouses, aquariums and
marine centres.
 Other products where this polymer finds its application include paint,
furniture and optical fibres used for telecommunication.
Advantages of PMMA
 Economical
 Resistance to weathering
 Various colouring options
 Tensile strength
 Easy to process and handle
 Versatility
 Biocompatibility
 UV Stability
 Durability
 Transmittance and better optical clarity
 Recyclable
 Polishability
 BPA-free, non-toxic

Introduction, synthesis, properties and industrial

applications and Teflon.
Introduction:
Teflon coating is a non-stick industrial coating with wear resistance, heat
resistance, corrosion resistance and many other characteristics. At present, it is
widely used as a coating for pipeline products. Teflon industrial coatings are
available in powder and liquid form and can be used flexibly according to the
shape and size of the pipeline production.

Synthesis of Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)

 Teflon is manufactured by free-radical polymerization of
tetrafluoroethylene. The catalyst used is per sulphate at high pressure.
The reaction is given as:
n F2C=CF2 → −(F2C−CF2)n−
 Teflon is hydrophobic and is inert in nature. It is used in making a non-
stick coating for cookware and also as a lubricant in machinery to reduce
friction.
Properties of Teflon.
 High softening point (3500C)
 High density
 High chemical resistance
 Good electrical insulator
 Mechanical properties do not change over prolonged even at high
temperature.

Application of Teflon
1. Used in electrical insulation of wires and cables
2. Used in making of non-stick frying pan, stopcock for
burettes.
3. Used as solid lubricant.

Composites: Introduction, properties and industrial

Applications of carbon based reinforced materials and metal
matrix polymer composites.
Introduction of Composite Materials
 Composite material is defined as the material formed by combining two or
more different materials/ constituents macroscopically that are distinct in
the properties and they do not dissolve into each other.

 The combination of different constituents in the composites provides the

composite material with unique properties which are different from the
individual constituent.

 An example of composites is the mud building bricks used since ancient

times, which is formed by combining mud bricks and straws. This allowed
the composite to have the strength and resistance of mud bricks and the
tensile strength of straw.

 In general, the composite material comprises three main components

(a) The matrix, the continuous phase;

(b) The reinforcements, the continuous or discontinues phase used to

strengthen the composite, and

(c) The fine interface region.

Composites can indeed be found in the majority of common products, including

building and engineering projects, medical applications, energy and
transportation, sports, aircraft, automotive, and other fields.

Types of composites
Matrix material

The primary function of the matrix material in polymer composite is to act as a

binder and transfer the load between constituents of the composites, provide
the component its net shape, and determines its surface quality.

Polymer composites uses generally two types of matrix material viz.

thermoplastic and thermosetting. Since the dawn of the composite era, both
materials have been used for the development of composites.
Carbon Fibers
 Carbon fibre is composed of carbon atoms bonded together to form a long
chain. Carbon fibres are extremely stiff, strong and light compared to glass
fiber.

 The fibres are extremely stiff, strong, low weight to strength ratio, low
coefficient of thermal expansion, and have good resistance to chemical
and high temperatures.

 Carbon fibre was first invented near Cleveland, Ohio, in 1958.

Aramid fibers
 Kevlar is made from aromatic polyamide (aramid) fibers, which DuPont
made publically available in the early 1970s.
 The Kevlar fiber possesses high strength, good resistance to abrasion,
chemical resistance, non-conductive, low flammability, and good fabric
integrity at elevated temperatures.
 The aramid fiber generally available in yellow color and widely used in the
application where high strength and low weight is required.
 Due to its good impact resistance, property Kevlar fiber is used in the
ballistic application

Based upon the location of chemical bond in the structure of Kevlar fiber is
classified into two types:
 Meta-aramid:
 The chemical bond of meta-aramid is in a zigzag pattern and the tensile
strength of the meta-aramid fiber is lower than the para-aramid.
 These fibers have good thermal, chemical, and radiation resistance.
 Para-aramid:
 In para-aramid fiber, the chemical bond structures are aligned in the long
direction of the fiber.
 This type of fiber possesses hood tensile strength. Such fiber is widely
used in the civil engineering structural applications

Natural fibre
 Natural fibre-reinforced composites have become extremely popular for
many uses in recent years, due to their good characteristics.

 Due to government policies and environmental consciousness the use of

natural fibre in polymer composite increases.

 Natural fibres have low density, high specific strength and provide good
thermal and acoustical insulation. The natural fibre is derived either from
plants or animals.

 These fibres have an edge over synthetic fibres in various sectors such as
automobile, construction, and sports industries because of their
comparable mechanical properties with glass fibre.

Applications of Composite Materials

1. Space: antenna, radar, satellite structures, solar reflectors, etc.

2. Aircraft: aerofoil surfaces, compressor blades, engine bay doors, fan blades,

rotor shafts in helicopters, turbine blades, turbine shafts, wing box

structures, etc.
3. Automobiles: automobile body, bumper, mudguards, door panels,

dashboard, driveshaft, fuel tank, CNG cylinder, chassis, fender, etc.

4. Wind turbine blades: rotor blades, nose cone, nacelle cover, accessories for

wind electric generators.

5. Sports: Skis, surfboards, windsurfing, table tennis boards, slats, and gliding

wing spar, Tennis, badminton, fishing rods, golf clubs, baseball bats, hockey

sticks, pole shaft, Sword, etc.

metal matrix polymer composites.

Definition:
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) are materials produced by adding
reinforcement in the form of particles (ceramic or metal), fibers, whiskers or
even a sheet metal to a metal or alloy matrix.

Properties metal matrix composities

1. The matrix phase of an MMC is either a pure or alloy metal as opposed to a

polymer or ceramic.
2. MMCs evidence higher ductility and toughness than ceramics or CMCs,
although they have lower ductility and toughness than their respective
unreinforced metal matrix alloys.
3. The role of the reinforcement in MMCs is to increase strength and modulus
as is the case with PMCs. Reinforcement in CMCs is generally to provide
improved damage tolerance.
4. MMCs have a temperature capability generally higher than polymers and
PMCs but less than ceramics and CMCs.
5. Low to moderately reinforced MMCs are formable by processes normally
associated with unreinforced metals.
Industrial application metal matrix polymer composites.

The following industry and application highlights provide a sampling of the vast
range of applications of polymer matrix composites
 Transportation vehicles: Polymer matrix composites find many uses in
automotive, aerospace, and marine applications.
 Automotive vehicles: Examples of polymer matrix composite use include
tires and various belts and hoses as well as polymer matrix composite
components in automotive bodies.
 Aerospace vehicles: Polymer matrix composites are also used in aircraft
tires and interiors. Of even greater value, however, is the ability of
polymer matrix composites to help satisfy the relentless drive in the
aerospace industry to enhance performance while reducing weight
 Marine vehicles: Polymer matrix composites find many uses in marine
vehicles. Fiberglass boats are among the most familiar examples since
fiberglass is a composite where a matrix polymer is reinforced by glass
fibers which may be arranged randomly, or as a chopped strand mat, or
as a woven fabric
 Medical devices: Polymers and composites are essential components of
many medical devices and applications. Some examples of these uses are
provided below. Polymer matrix composites are used as components in a
wide range of medical devices; such as MRI scanners, C scanners, X-ray
couches, mammography plates, tables, surgical target tools, wheelchairs,
and prosthetics.
 Personal protective equipment: Polymer matrix composites are used in
protective equipment for use in harsh environments (as in extreme heat
or cold), when exposed to fire (as firefighters often are), when facing
deadly weapons (as soldiers and law enforcement personnel often face),
and in many other hazardous situations.
 Footwear: The performance and comfort of footwear, as well as the
durability of shoe interiors and exteriors, can be improved with the help
of polymer matrix composites.
 Sporting goods: Polymer matrix composites find many uses in sporting
goods. Polymer matrix composites are used in performance footwear.
 Industrial equipment: Polymer matrix composites are used in a vast
range of industrial equipment. They are used as the main material of
construction, or as components of equipment, or in some instances both
as the main material of construction and as components.
 Packaging: Polymer matrix composites are used in many packaging
applications.
Lubricants: Introduction, classification, properties and
application of lubricants.

Introduction:
The word ‘Lubricate” came from the Latin lubricus which means slippery.
Lubricants is defines as a substance that will when interposed between moving
parts of machinery make the surface slippery and reduce friction, eliminate
asperities and prevent cohesion. Lubrication result in the reduction of friction
and wear.
Classifications of lubricants
Lubricants may be broadly classified as follows
1. Solid Lubricants e.g Soap stone, graphite, talc, chalk, mica Teflon,
molybdenum disulfide
2. Semi-solid lubricants: e.g., Greases, vaselines etc.

3. Liquid lubricants
1. Vegetable oil eg. Olive oil, palm oil, castor oil
2. Animal oils e.g., whale oil, lard oil, Tallow oil etc.
3. Mineral oils e.g., Petroleum
4. Blended oils or compound oil e.g., Mineral oils various additives to induce
desired properties.
5. Synthetic oils : e.g., Silicones, Fluolubes, etc.

4. Emulsions:
1. Oil-in-water type: e.g., cutting emulsion
2. Water- in – oil type e.g cooling liquid.
Solid lubricants
Solid lubricants are used in situation such as
1. Heavy machinery working on crude job at very high loads and slow speeds.
2. Where a liquid or semi-solid lubricant film cannot be maintained or presence
is undesirable as in the case of commutator blades of electric motors and
generators.
3. Where parts to be lubricated are not easily accessible, and
4. Where the operating temperatures and pressures are too high to use the
easily combustible liquid lubricants

Classification of solid lubricants

A solid lubricant is a material that separates two moving surfaces under
boundary conditions and decrease the amount of wear.
The various types of solid lubricants may be conveniently divided into various
classes as under
1. Structural lubricants.
These include materials like graphite, molybdenum disulfide, talc, mica,
vermiculite etc. whose lubricating properties are due to their layer lattice
structure. These function by cleaving within themselves and fixing themselves
on into the bearing surface.
2. Mechanical lubricants
These include metals and plastics and are characterized by their sacrificial
waer.They form a continuous adherent film on the rubbing surfaces and reduce
the wear.
3. Soaps
They function both as solid lubricants in their own right and also by formation of
compounds ‘in situ’ in the metal surface by the interaction of fatty acids and the
metal.
4. Chemically active lubricants
These include extreme pressure additives and other chemicals which interact
with the metal surface to produce a lubricating layer. Examples are phosphates,
chlorides and oxidizing agents.
5. Refractories, ceramics and glass
These are used in defence programmes and rocketry. Combinations of
refractory materials work satisfactorily as lubricants for short periods at high
temperatures. Glass functions by softening at the operating temperature and
assists in hydrodynamic lubrication.
Semi-Solid lubricants
The most important semi-solid lubricants are greases and Vaseline.
Lubricating greases are employed in the following situations:
1. When a machine is worked at slow speeds and high pressures
2. In situations where spilling or spurting oil from the bearings is detrimental to
the product being manufactured as in the case of textile mills, paper and food
product manufacture, etc. Greases are ideal in such cases because they do not
spill or splash as they are designed to “stay put”
3. In situation where oil cannot be maintained in position due to bad seal or
intermittent operation.
4. In situations where the bearing has to be sealed against entry of dirt, water,
dust and grit.
5. A lubricating grease is generally defined as semisolid or solid combination of
petroleum product and a soap or a mixture of soaps, with or without fillers,
suitable for certain types of lubrication.
Important functions of soap in a grease are
(a) it acts as a thickener.
(b) it enables the grease to stick to the metal surface firmly,
( c) the nature of soap determines the temperature up to which the grease can
be used, its consistency, water resistance, oxidation resistance to break down
on continued use and it’s to stay in place.
Some important aspects about the use of greases are as follows:
1. Greases show higher coefficients of friction than oils because of the greater
amount of work that must be done in shearing the lubricating film. There where
possible it is better to use an oil instead of grease, barring the special situations
listed above.
2. Greases cannot effectively dissipate heat from the bearing as a result of
which the grease- lubricated bearing works at relatively higher temperature as
compared to the oil-lubricated bearing.
3. Greases on storage tend to separate into oil and soap.
4. On constant use, oil in the grease volatilizes off.
5. Greases do not require as much attention as oils and are thus more
convenient in use.
Lime or calcium-soap-base greases known as “CUPGREASES” are cheapest and
widely used. They have good resistance to displacements by water and suitable
for lubricating water pumps, tractors, caterpillar tread, etc. They can be
prepared in wide range consistency.
Sodium- soap greases have good high temperature properties as they can hold
water more firmly due to their high melting point and fibrous structure and
hence can used up to 1750C.
Aluminium soap greases have excellent stringiness, attractive appearance and
good clarity and are used in situations where adhesiveness is of prime
importance. These greases cannot used beyond 900C as they become hard and
coarse.
Lithium –soap greases have combined advantages of both calcium-base and
soda-base greases namely, good high temperature properties and good water
resistance. They have a high melting point (about 1500C).
Barium-base greases are characterized by extreme resistance to removal from
bearings by water, good cohesiveness and adhesiveness, high melting point and
maintenance of consistency during service.
Rosin soap grease is prepared from rosin oil which contains several saponifiable
acids such as abietic acid. The rosin oil is dissolved in the lubrication oil and
allowed to react at 580C with a slurry of slaked lime, emulsified oil and water
called “sett”. The resulting grease is known as “Cold set grease”
Liquid lubricants.
Vegetable oil Oils of vegetable and animal origin contain glycerides of higher
fatty acids. As they decompose on heating but do not distil, they are called
“fixed oils”.
Purpose Oils recommended as lubricants
Ordinary machinery Rape oil, lard oil, tallow-oil, medium
mineral oil
Steam cylinder Heavy mineral oils, tallow, lard rape
oil etc.
Watches, clocks etc. Mineral oils, clarified sperm,
neastfoot olive, purpose

For great pressure with low speed Tallow, Lardoil, palm oil, grease etc.
For great pressure with high speeds Sperm oil, rapeoil, castor oil, medium
mineral oils
For loight pressure with high speeds Sperm, refined petroleum,
cottonseed rape olive and mineral
oils.

Lubricating Emulsion
Definition. An emulsion is a mixture of at least one immiscible liquid dispersed in
another liquid in the form of droplets whose diameters exceed 0.1 μm.
Emulsions are commonly used as lubricants and coolants in metal working and
cutting applications.
In order to prevent overheating in such cases and the consequent injury to the
tool, efficient cooling and lubrication have to be provided
The important criteria of a cutting emulsion include
(a) to get itself drawn between the chip and the face of the tool and to provide
efficient lubrication
(b) To conduct off heat so as to prevent wear and damage of the metal
(c) To wash away the fragments of the metal
(d) To give a stable emulsion with water
(e) It should not cause rusting of metal
(f) It should be antiseptic so that in case the worker gets injured, wound should
be rendered asceptic.
Two types of emulsions are used for lubricating
1. Oil-in- water type emulsions or cutting emulsions
1. They are prepared by mixing together an oil containing about 3 to 20% of a
water soluble emulsifying agent.(e.g., water soluble soap, alkyl or aryl sulfonate,
akyl sulfates etc) and suitable quantity of water.
2. Chemicals like glycols, glycerol and triethanol amine are also added
sometimes.
3. Oil-in-water type emulsions are used as coolant cum lubricant for cutting
tools and in diesel motor pistons and large internal combustion engines.

2. Water-in-oil type emulsions or cooling liqiuids

1. They are prepared by mixing together water and oil containing 1 to 10% of
water insoluble emulsifiers (e.g., alkaline earth metal soaps).
2. Emulsions containing 50% lube oil and water are used for the lubrication of
steam cylinders, giving cooler walls and lesser oil consumption. Such bemulsions
have also been successfully used in lubricating compressors handling fuel gases.

Application of Lubricants
i) Lubricants are primarily used to reduce the friction between
two moving surface.
ii) Rust and corrosion inhibitors
iii) Used in the soap and paint industries.
iv) Liquid lubricants are used in medicines
v) Lubricants are also used as cutting fluid in cutting, grinding,
drilling of metals.
vi) Used as anti-wear, antioxidants, and antifoaming agents.