Waves - Basic

 Waves transfer energy and information

 Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point
o For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down
o Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth
 In all cases, waves transfer energy without transferring matter
o For water waves, this means it is the wave and not the water (the matter)
itself that travels
o For sound waves, this means it is the wave and not the air molecules (the
matter) itself that travels
 Objects floating on water provide evidence that waves only transfer energy
and not matter

Worked Example
The diagram below shows a toy duck bobbing up and down on top of the surface of
some water, as waves pass it underneath.

Explain how the toy duck demonstrates that waves do not transfer matter.

Step 1: Identify the type of wave

o The type of wave on the surface of a body of water is a transverse wave

o This is because the duck is moving perpendicular to the direction of the
wave

Step 2: Describe the motion of the toy duck

o The plastic duck moves up and down but does not travel with the wave

Step 3: Explain how this motion demonstrates that waves do not transfer matter

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 o Both transverse and longitudinal waves transfer energy, but not the
particles of the medium
o This means when a wave travels between two points, no matter actually
travels with it, the points on the wave just vibrate back and forth
about fixed positions
o Objects floating on the water simply bob up and down when waves pass
under them, demonstrating that there is no movement of matter in the
direction of the wave, only energy

Wave Motion

 Wave vibrations can be shown on ropes (transverse) and springs (longitudinal)

Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

Demonstrating Wave Motion

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  Properties of waves, such as frequency, wavelength and wave speed, can be
observed using water waves in a ripple tank

Wave motion of water waves may be demonstrated using a ripple tank

 The wavelength of the waves can be determined by:

o Using a ruler to measure the length of the screen
o Dividing this distance by the number of wavefronts

 The frequency can be determined by:

o Timing how long it takes for a given number of waves to pass a particular
point
o Dividing the number of wavefronts by the time taken

 The wave speed can then be determined by:

o Using the equation wave speed = frequency × wavelength

Features of a Wave

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  When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to
know, including:

o Crest (Peak)
o Trough
o Amplitude
o Wavelength
o Frequency
o Wave speed
o Wavefront

Crests & Troughs

 A crest, or a peak, is defined as:

The highest point on a wave above the equilibrium, or rest, position

 A trough is defined as

The lowest point on a wave below the equilibrium, or rest, position

Diagram showing a crest and a trough on a transverse wave

Amplitude

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  Amplitude is defined as:

The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave

 It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m)

 Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed
position

Wavelength

 Wavelength is defined as:

The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave

 In a transverse wave:
o The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
 In a longitudinal wave
o The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to
the centre of the next
 The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
 The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

Frequency

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  Frequency is defined as:

The number of waves passing a point in a second

 Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Wave Speed

 Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium

 Wave speed is defined as:

The distance travelled by a wave each second

 Wave speed is given the symbol, ν, and is measured in metres per second
(m/s), it can be calculated using:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength

Wavefront

 Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is
used to represent a single wave
 The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
o The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes called
a ray
o The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength
o When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with
a short wavelength
o When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with
a long wavelength

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 Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts

Worked Example
Small water waves are created in a ripple tank by a wooden bar. The wooden bar
vibrates up and down hitting the surface of the water. The diagram below shows a
cross-section of the ripple tank and water.

Identify the letter which shows:

a)
The amplitude of a water wave.

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b)
The wavelength of the water wave.
Part (a)

Step 1: Recall the definition of amplitude


o Amplitude = The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or
trough of a wave

Step 2: Mark the undisturbed position on the wave


o This is the centre of the wave

Step 3: Identify the arrow between the undisturbed position and a peak


o The amplitude is shown by arrow D

Part (b)

Step 1: Recall the definition of wavelength


o Wavelength = The distance from one point on the wave to the same point
on the next wave

Step 2: Draw lines on each horizontal arrow


o This helps to identify the points on the wave the arrows are referring to

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Step 3: Identify the arrow between two of the same points on the wave


o The wavelength is shown by arrow C

The Wave Equation

 Wave speed is defined as:

The distance travelled by a wave each second

 Wave speed is given the symbol ν and is measured in metres per second (m/s)
 Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium
 Transverse and longitudinal waves both obey the wave equation:

 Where:
o v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
o f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
o λ = wavelength in metres (m)

 The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done using
this formula triangle:

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 Worked Example
A wave in a pond has a speed of 0.15 m/s and a time period of 2 seconds. Calculate:

a) The frequency of the wave

b) The wavelength of the wave

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Time period, T = 2 s

Step 2: Write out the equation relating time period and frequency

Step 3: Rearrange for frequency, f, and calculate the answer

f=1÷T=1÷2

Frequency, f = 0.5 Hz

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities

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 o Wave speed, v = 0.15 m/s
o Frequency, f = 0.5 Hz

Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation

v=f×λ

Step 3: Rearrange the equation to calculate the wavelength

λ=v÷f

Step 4: Use the frequency you calculated in part (a) and put the values into the
equation

λ = 0.15 ÷ 0.5

Wavelength, λ = 0.30 m

Transverse Waves

 Waves are repeated vibrations that transfer energy

 Energy is transferred by parts of the wave knocking nearby parts
o This is similar to the effect of people knocking into one another in a crowd,
or a "Mexican Wave" at football matches
 Waves can exist as one of two types:
o Transverse
o Longitudinal

Transverse Waves

 Transverse waves are defined as:

Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction of
energy transfer

 For a transverse wave:

o The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
o They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
o Transverse waves can move in a liquid or solid, but not a gas
o Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in a vacuum

 The point on the wave that is:

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 o The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest
o The lowest below the rest position is called the trough

Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down

 Examples of transverse waves are:

o Ripples on the surface of water
o Vibrations in a guitar string
o S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
o Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)

Representing Transverse Waves

 Transverse waves are drawn as a single continuous line, usually with a central line
showing the undisturbed position
 The curves are drawn so that they are perpendicular to the direction of energy
transfer
o These represent the peaks and troughs

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 Transverse waves are represented as a continuous solid line

Longitudinal Waves

 Longitudinal waves are defined as:

Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of energy
transfer

 For a longitudinal wave:

o The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
o They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
o They can move in solids, liquids and gases
o They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)

 The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:
o Close together, called compressions
o Spaced apart, called rarefactions

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 Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly
backwards and forwards

 Examples of longitudinal waves are:

o Sound waves
o P-waves (a type of seismic wave)
o Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas

Representing Longitudinal Waves

 Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is
moving parallel to the direction of energy transfer
o Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions
o Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions

Longitudinal waves are represented as sets of lines with rarefactions and

compressions

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Comparing Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

 The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the
table:

Transverse Waves v Longitudinal Waves Table

Reflection, Refraction & Diffraction

 All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can

be reflected, refracted and diffracted

Reflection

 Reflection occurs when:

A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but
instead stays in the original medium

 The law of reflection states:

The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection

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  When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected:

When waves reflect off a barrier, the angle of reflection, r, is equal to the angle of
incidence, i

Refraction

 Refraction occurs when:

A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and

undergoes a change in direction

 When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change

 This effect is called refraction, and it can have two other effects:
o The wavelength of the waves can increase or decrease
o The waves can change direction

Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different
densities

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  If the waves slow down, the waves will bunch together, causing the wavelength
to decrease
o The waves will also start to turn slightly towards the normal
 If the waves speed up then they will spread out, causing the wavelength to
increase
o The waves will also turn slightly away from the normal

Diffraction

 When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
 This effect is called diffraction

Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it spreads out

Factors Affecting Diffraction

 Diffraction, as shown above, only generally happens when the gap is smaller than
the wavelength of the wave
 As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the
case that the gap is very much larger than the wavelength, the waves no longer
spread out at all

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 The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves
spread out

 Diffraction can also occur when waves pass an edge

When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around the edge

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Investigating Waves with a Ripple Tank

 Ripple tanks are commonly used in experiments to demonstrate the following

properties of water waves:
o Reflection at a plane surface
o Refraction due to a change in speed caused by a change in depth
o Diffraction due to a gap
o Diffraction due to an edge

Reflection, refraction and diffraction can be demonstrated using a ripple tank

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Investigating Reflection

 Reflection can be shown by the waves hitting a plane (straight) surface, such as a
wall or mirror

Investigating Refraction

 Refraction can be shown by placing a glass block in the tank

o The glass block should sit below the surface of the water and cover only
some of the tank floor
 The depth of water becomes shallower here the glass block is placed
o Since speed depends on depth, the ripples slow down when travelling over
the block
 This is a good model of refraction showing how waves slow down when passing
from deep water into shallow water

When water waves travel from deep areas to shallow areas they slow down

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Investigating Diffraction

 Diffraction can be shown in a ripple tank by placing small barriers and obstacles
in the tank
 As the water waves encounter two obstacles with a gap between them, the waves
can be seen to spread out as follows:

Diffraction of water waves through a gap

 As the water waves encounter the edge of an obstacle, the waves can be seen to
spread out as follows:

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 Diffraction of water waves after passing an edge

 The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the gap compared to

the wavelength of the water wave
 The diagram below shows how the wavelengths differ with frequency in a ripple
tank
o The higher the frequency of the motor, the shorter the wavelength
o The lower the frequency of the motor, the longer the wavelength

Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency vibration

Ray Diagrams

 Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the
boundary
o The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence
(i)
o The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)

 The line at right angles (90°) to the boundary is known as the normal

 When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling
o An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary

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 o A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
 The angles of incidence and reflection are usually labelled i and r respectively

A ray diagram for light reflecting at a boundary, showing the normal, angle of incidence and
angle of reflection

The Law of Reflection

 The law of reflection states that these angles are the same:

Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)

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 Reflection of a wave at a boundary, i = r

Reflection in a Plane Mirror

 When an object is placed in front of a mirror, an image of that object can be seen
in the mirror
 The image will be:
o The same size as the object
o The same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
o Directly in line with the object

 The formation of this image can be understood by drawing a ray diagram

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 Diagram showing the formation of an image in a mirror by the reflection of light

 Light from the object hits the mirror, reflecting from it (i=r)
 To an observer, the reflected ray appears to have come from the right-hand side
of the mirror
 The reflected ray can be traced back in this directions, forming a virtual ray

 This can be repeated for another ray travelling in a slightly different direction
 An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays cross
 The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image
 A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from the image, and cannot
be projected onto a piece of paper (because the rays don’t actually go through
the image)

Investigating Reflection
Aims of the Experiment

 To investigate reflection by a plane mirror

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Variables

 Independent variable = angle of incidence, i

 Dependent variable = angle of reflection, r
 Control variables:
o Distance of ray box from mirror
o Width of the light beam
o Same frequency / wavelength of the light

Method

Apparatus to investigate reflection

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram

2. In the middle of the paper use a ruler to mark a straight line of about 10 cm long
3. Use a protractor to draw a 90° line that bisects (cuts in half) the 10 cm line
4. Place the mirror on the first line as shown in the diagram above
5. Switch on the ray box and aim a beam of light at the point where the two drawn lines
cross at an angle
6. Use the pencil to mark two positions of the light beam:
o A point just after leaving the ray box
o The point on the reflected beam about 10 cm away from the mirror
7. Remove the ray box and mirror
8. Use a ruler to join the two marked positions to the point where the originally drawn lines
crossed

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 9. Use the protractor to measure the two angles from the 90° line. The angle for the ray
towards the mirror is the angle of incidence, and the other is the angle of reflection
10. Repeat the experiment three times with the beam of light aimed at different angles

 An example of the data collection table is shown below:

Analysis of Results

 The law of reflection states:

i=r

 Where:
o i = angle of incidence in degrees (°)
o r = angle of reflection in degrees (°)

 If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should be the same, as shown
below:

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 Law of reflection

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

 An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly

o Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
 If the mirror is distorted, this could affect the reflection angle, so make sure there are
little to no blemishes on it

Random Errors:

 The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
o Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
 The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
o Use a protractor with a higher resolution

Safety Considerations

 The ray box light could cause burns if touched

o Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
 Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
o Avoid looking directly at the light
o Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
 Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
 Take care using the mirror

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 o Damages on the mirror can affect the outcome of the reflection experiment

Ray Diagrams for Refraction

 When drawing refraction ray diagrams, angles are measured between the wave
direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the boundary
o The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of
incidence (i)
o The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of
refraction (r)

 The line at right angles (90°) to the boundary is known as the normal

 When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is
travelling
o An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
o A refracted ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
 The angles of incidence and refraction are usually labelled i and r respectively

A ray diagram for light refracting at a boundary, showing the normal, angle of
incidence and angle of refraction

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Refraction of Light

 Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different

transparent media
 At the boundary, the rays of light undergo a change in direction
 The direction is taken as the angle from a hypothetical line called the normal
o This line is perpendicular to the surface of the boundaries and is usually
represented by a straight dashed or dotted line
 The change in direction depends on which media the light rays pass between:
o From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the
normal
o From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from
the normal
o When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not
bend at all

How to construct a ray diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through
a rectangular block

 The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in
different substances
o When light passes into a denser substance the rays will slow down, hence
they bend towards the normal
 The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength –
the frequency of waves does not change

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 o Different frequencies account for different colours of light (red has a low
frequency, whilst blue has a high frequency)
o When light refracts, it does not change colour (think of a pencil in a glass
of water), therefore, the frequency does not change

Worked Example
The diagram below shows two parallel rays of light entering and passing through
prism A and prism C.

Draw a third parallel ray entering and passing through prism B.

Step 1: Draw a parallel ray on the left

Step 2: Draw the refracted ray at the first surface

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 
o As the ray enters the block it bends towards the normal since it is going
into a denser material
o In this case, the angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence

Step 3: Draw the refracted ray at the second surface


o As the ray leaves the block it bends away from the normal
o In this case, the angle of refraction is larger than the angle of incidence

Investigating Refraction
Aim of the Experiment

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  To investigate the refraction of light using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks
and triangular prisms

Variables

 Independent variable = shape of the block

 Dependent variable = direction of refraction
 Control variables:
o Width of the light beam
o Same frequency / wavelength of the light

Equipment List

 Resolution of measuring equipment:

o Protractor = 1°
o Ruler = 1 mm

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 Diagram showing a ray box alongside three different shaped glass blocks

Method

Apparatus to investigate refraction

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 1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the
rectangular perspex block using a pencil
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block
3. Mark on the paper:
o A point on the ray close to the ray box
o The point where the ray enters the block
o The point where the ray exits the block
o A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from
the block
4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the
points are
5. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray
striking the block at a different angle
7. Repeat the procedure for each shape of perspex block (prism and semi-circular)

Analysis of Results

 Compare the different refraction patterns for each block

Summary of the refraction patterns seen in different shaped blocks

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  Angles i and r are always measured from the normal
 For light rays entering perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central
line:

i>r

 For light rays exiting the perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the
central line:

i<r

 When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray
does not refract, it passes straight through the block:

i=r

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

 An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly

o Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines

Random Errors:

 The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
o Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
 The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
o Use a protractor with a higher resolution

Safety Considerations

 The ray box light could cause burns if touched

o Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
 Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
o Avoid looking directly at the light
o Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
 Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper

Refractive Index

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  The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the
material (which is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum):

 The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for
different materials
o Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index,
eg. n is about 2.4 for diamond
o Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is
about 1.5 for glass

 Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units

Snell's Law

 When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down

and bends towards the normal
o How much the light bends depends on the density of the material

Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block

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 If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass), r <
i (bends towards the normal)
 If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air), r >
i (bends away from the normal)

 The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell's
Law:

 Where:
o n = the refractive index of the material
o i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
o r = angle of refraction of the light (°)

 'Sin' is the trigonometric function 'sine' which is on a scientific calculator

 This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:

Snell's law formula triangle

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Worked Example
A ray of light enters a glass block of refractive index 1.53 making an angle of 15° with
the normal before entering the block.

Calculate the angle it makes with the normal after it enters the glass block.

Step 1: List the known quantities


o Refractive index of glass, n = 1.53
o Angle of incidence, i = 15°

Step 2: Write the equation for Snell's Law

Step 3: Rearrange the equation and calculate sin (r)

Step 4: Find the angle of refraction (r) by using the inverse sin function

r = sin–1 (0.1692) = 9.7 = 10°

Total Internal Reflection

 Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense
one, instead of being refracted, all of the light is reflected
o This phenomenon is called total internal reflection

 Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:

The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident material is
denser than the second material

 Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:

o The angle of incidence > the critical angle

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 o The incident material is denser than the second material

Critical angle and total internal reflection

 Total internal reflection is utilised in:

o Optical fibres e.g. endoscopes
o Prisms e.g. periscopes

Prisms

 Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:

o Periscopes
o Binoculars
o Telescopes
o Cameras
 A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects
o It consists of two right-angled prisms

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 Reflection of light through a periscope

 The light totally internally reflects in both prisms

Single and double reflection through right-angled prisms

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Critical Angle

 As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until
it gets closer to 90°
 When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the
boundary
o At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c

As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually surplus the critical angle and
lead to total internal reflection of the light

 When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is
now reflected
o This is total internal reflection

Worked Example
A glass cube is held in contact with a liquid and a light ray is directed at a vertical face of
the cube.The angle of incidence at the vertical face is 39° and the angle of refraction is
25° as shown in the diagram.The light ray is totally internally reflected for the first time
at X.

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Complete the diagram to show the path of the ray beyond X to the air and calculate the
critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary.

Step 1: Draw the reflected angle at the glass-liquid boundary


o When a light ray is reflected, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection
o Therefore, the angle of incidence (or reflection) is 90° – 25° = 65°

Step 2: Draw the refracted angle at the glass-air boundary

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 o At the glass-air boundary, the light ray refracts away from the normal
o Due to the reflection, the light rays are symmetrical to the other side

Step 3: Calculate the critical angle


o The question states the ray is “totally internally reflected for the first time”
meaning that this is the lowest angle at which TIR occurs
o Therefore, 65° is the critical angle

Refractive Index & Critical Angle Equation

EXTENDED

 The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n

 The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:

 This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:

 This equation shows that:

o The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle
o Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to
be totally internally reflected

Worked Example
Opals and diamonds are transparent stones used in jewellery. Jewellers shape the stones
so that light is reflected inside.Compare the critical angles of opal and diamond and
explain which stone would appear to sparkle more.

The refractive index of opal is about 1.5

The refractive index of diamond is about 2.4

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Step 1: List the known quantities


o Refractive index of opal, no = 1.5
o Refractive index of diamond, nd = 2.4

Step 2: Write out the equation relating critical angle and refractive index

Step 3: Calculate the critical angle of opal (co)

sin(co) = 1 ÷ 1.5 = 0.6667

co = sin–1 (0.6667) = 41.8 = 42°

Step 4: Calculate the critical angle of diamond (cd)

sin(cd) = 1 ÷ 2.4 = 0.4167

cd = sin–1 (0.4167) = 24.6 = 25°

Step 5: Compare the two values and write a conclusion


o Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence of light
is larger than the critical angle (i>c)
o In opal, total internal reflection will occur for angles of incidence between
42° and 90°
o The critical angle of diamond is lower than the critical angle of opal (co>cd)
o This means light rays will be totally internally reflected in diamond over
a larger range of angles (25° to 90°)
o Therefore, more total internal reflection will occur in diamond hence it will
appear to sparkle more than the opal

Optical Fibres
EXTENDED

 Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they
can be used for

45
 o Communications
o Endoscopes
o Decorative lamps
o Safety reflectors on bicycles, cars and roads

 Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits
the edge of the fibre

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

 Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body

46
Endoscopes utilise total internal reflection to see inside a patient's body

47
Features of Lens Diagrams

 Lens diagrams can be described using the following terms:

o Principal axis
o Principal focus, or focal point
o Focal length

 The principal axis is defined as:

A line which passes through the centre of a lens

 The principle focus, or focal point, is defined as:

The point at which rays of light travelling parallel to the principal axis intersect the
principal axis and converge

 Focal length is defined as:

The distance between the centre of the lens and the principle focus

Converging & Diverging Lenses

 A lens is a piece of equipment that forms an image by refracting light

 There are two types of lens:
o Converging
o Diverging

Converging Lenses

 In a converging lens, parallel rays of light are brought to a focus

o This point is called the principal focus
 This lens is sometimes referred to as a convex lens
 The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length
o This depends on how curved the lens is
o The more curved the lens, the shorter the focal length

48
 The focal length is the distance from the lens to the principal focus

Diverging Lenses

 In a diverging lens, parallel rays of light are made to diverge (spread out) from a
point
o This lens is sometimes referred to as a concave lens
 The principal focus is now the point from which the rays appear to diverge from

Parallel rays from a diverging lens appear to come from the principal focus

49
Representing Lenses

 In diagrams, the following symbols are often used to represent each type of lens:

Concave and convex symbols

Real & Virtual Images

 Images produced by lenses can be one of two types:

o A real image
o A virtual image

Real Images

 A real image is defined as:

An image that is formed when the light rays from an object converge and meet
each other and can be projected onto a screen

 A real image is one produced by the convergence of light towards a focus

 Real images are always inverted
 Real images can be projected onto pieces of paper or screens
o An example of a real image is the image formed on a cinema screen

50
 A real image can be projected onto a screen

 Real images are where two solid lines cross in ray diagrams

Virtual Images

 A virtual image is defined as:

An image that is formed when the light rays from an object do not meet but
appear to meet behind the lens and cannot be projected onto a screen

 A virtual image is formed by the divergence of light away from a point

 Virtual images are always upright
 Virtual images cannot be projected onto a piece of paper or a screen
o An example of a virtual image is a person's reflection in a mirror

51
 A reflection in a mirror is an example of a virtual image

 Virtual images are where two dashed lines, or one dashed and one solid
line crosses in ray diagrams

Converging Lens - Real Image

 Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them

 The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:

Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens

52
1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the
lens. This ray will continue to travel in a straight line
2. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to
the lens. When this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the
principal focus
3. The image is found at the point where the above two rays meet

 The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed at
a distance between one focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens
 In this case, the image is:
o Real
o Enlarged
o Inverted

 The following diagram shows what happens when the object is more distanced –
further than twice the focal length (2f) from the lens:

Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens with the object at
distance

 In this case the image is:

o Real
o Diminished (smaller)
o Inverted

 If the object is placed at exactly twice the focal length (2f) from the lens:

53
 Diagram showing the formation of a real image with the object at 2f

 In this case the image is:

o Real
o Same size as the object
o Inverted

Converging Lens - Virtual Image

EXTENDED

 A converging lens will produce a real image of an object which is placed at a

distance greater than the focal length from the lens
 If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length f then
a virtual image will be formed and the converging lens ray diagram will be drawn
in the following way:

54
 A virtual image formed when the object is placed closer than the focal length

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the
lens. This ray will continue to travel in a straight line
2. Draw a dashed line continuing this ray upwards
3. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to
the lens. When this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly through
the principal focus f
4. Also, draw a dashed line continuing this ray upwards
5. The image is the line drawn from the axis to the point where the two dashed
lines meet

 In this case, the image is:

o Virtual: the light rays appear to meet when produced backwards
o Magnified: the image is larger than the object
o Upright: the image is formed on the same side of the principal axis

Diverging Lens - Virtual Image

 Diverging lenses can also be used to form images, although the images are
always virtual in this case
 If an object is placed further from the lens than the focal length f then a
diverging lens ray diagram will be drawn in the following way:

55
 Diverging lenses only produce virtual images

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the
lens. This ray will continue to travel in a straight line
2. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to
the lens. When this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly upwards away
from the axis
3. Draw a dashed line continuing this ray downwards to the focal point, f
4. The image is the line drawn from the axis to the point where the above two
rays meet

 In this case, the image is:

o Virtual: the light rays appear to meet when produced backwards
o Diminished: the image is smaller than the object
o Upright: the image is formed on the same side of the principal axis

Comparing Converging & Diverging Lenses

 The image produced by a converging lens can be either real or virtual

o This means the image can be inverted (real) or upright (virtual)
 The image produced by a diverging lens is always virtual
o This means the image will always be upright

Worked Example
An object is placed outside the focal point of a diverging lens.

56
Complete the ray diagram by drawing where the image of this object will be seen.

Step 1: Draw a line from the top of the object through the middle of the lens

57
 
o The top of the image lies somewhere along this line

Step 2: Draw a line from the focal point through the top of the lens


o The dashed line shows the continuation of the upwards arrow
o The top of the image is where the two lines cross

Magnifying Glasses
EXTENDED

 If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the emerging rays
diverge and a real image is no longer formed
 When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays appear to
come from a point on the left
o This point can be found by extending the rays backwards (creating virtual
rays)
 A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross

A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from a point

58
  In this case the image is:
o Virtual
o Enlarged
o Upright

 Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass

 When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the
object

Correcting Sight
EXTENDED

 Converging and diverging lenses are commonly used in glasses to correct defects
of sight
o Converging lenses can be used to correct long-sighted vision
o Diverging lenses can be used to correct short-sighted vision

Correcting Short-Sightedness

 People who are short-sighted have eyes that are 'too large'
o This means they cannot see things that are far away, and only see things
that are close to them

 This is because the eye refracts the light and brings it to a focus before it reaches
the retina
o In other words, the focus point is in front of the retina at the back of the
eye

 This can be corrected by using a concave or a diverging lens

Correcting Long-Sightedness

 People who are long-sighted have eyes that are 'too small'
o This means they cannot clearly see things that are close, and can only
clearly see things that are far away

 This is because the eye refracts the light rays and they are brought to a
focus beyond the retina
o In other words, the focus point is behind the retina at the back of the eye

 This can be corrected by using a convex or converging lens

59
Dispersion of Light

 White light is a mixture of all the colours of the spectrum

 Each colour has a different wavelength (and frequency), making up a very narrow
part of the electromagnetic spectrum
 White light may be separated into all its colours by passing it through a prism
o This is done by refraction
o Violet light is refracted the most, whilst red light is refracted the least
o This splits up the colours to form a spectrum
 This process is similar to how a rainbow is created

White light may be separated into all its colours by passing it through a prism

The Visible Spectrum of Light

 Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths which are visible to humans
 Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye
o However, it only takes up 0.0035% of the whole electromagnetic spectrum
 In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are able
to perceive beyond visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths of
light
 The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:
o Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency and energy)
o Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency and
energy)

60
The colours of the visible spectrum: red has the longest wavelength; violet has the
shortest

EXTENDED

 Light is a transverse wave

 The different colours of light all have different wavelengths (and frequencies)
o Red has the longest wavelength
o Violet has the shortest wavelength
 Light of a single wavelength (a single colour), or single frequency, is known
as monochromatic

61
The colours of the visible spectrum: red has the longest wavelength; violet has the
shortest

Electromagnetic Waves

 The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on the

wavelengths or frequencies
 The main groupings of the continuous electromagnetic (EM) spectrum are:
o Radio waves
o Microwaves
o Infrared
o Visible (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)
o Ultraviolet
o X-rays
o Gamma rays

 This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest
frequency) to shortest wavelength (highest frequency)

62
Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic
spectrum

 The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation
 Radiation with higher energy is:
o Highly ionising
o Harmful to cells and tissues causing cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays)
 Radiation with lower energy is:
o Useful for communications
o Less harmful to humans

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves are defined as:

Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber

63
  All electromagnetic waves share the following properties:
o They are all transverse
o They can all travel through a vacuum
o They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum

 The 7 types of electromagnetic waves together form a continuous spectrum

The Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

EXTENDED

 The speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is

3.0 × 108 m/s

 This is approximately the same speed as electromagnetic waves in air

Uses of Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves have a variety of uses and applications

 The main ones are summarised in the table below:

64
 Applications of EM Waves Table

 A summary of the uses and dangers of different EM waves are summarised in the
diagram below:

65
Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum

66
Radio Waves & Microwaves

 These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and applications
o Their main uses concern wireless communication – in fact, many things
that people often assume use radio waves actually use microwaves (e.g.
WiFi, radar, mobile phones, satellite communications)
 At very high intensities microwaves can also be used to heat things
o This is what happens in a microwave oven

Infrared

 Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras
(thermal imaging cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in
medicine
 Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the
spectrum and this can be used to allow them to see in the dark
o Infrared lights are used to illuminate an area without being seen, which is
then detected using the camera
 Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to
an infrared receiver on a device such as a TV
 Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so
most fibre optic communication systems use infrared

Visible

 Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye
can see
 The human eye can detect wavelengths from 750 nanometres (red light) up to
380 nanometres (violet light)

Ultraviolet

 Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a sun tan, which is your body’s way of
protecting itself against the ultraviolet
 When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it
as visible light (making them glow)
o This process is known as fluorescence
o Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark things using special ink – in
fact, most bank notes have invisible fluorescent markings on them
 Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light

67
X-rays

 The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine

 X-rays are able to pass through most body tissues but are absorbed by the
denser parts of the body, such as bones
o When exposed to x-rays, the bones absorb the x-rays, leaving a shadow
which can be seen using a special x-ray detector or photographic film

Gamma Rays

 Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
 This property can be utilised in both cancer detection and treatment
o If these gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue, they can be
very effective at destroying the cancerous cells
 Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise food and medical equipment by killing
off the bacteria

Dangers of Electromagnetic Waves

 As the frequency of electromagnetic (EM) waves increases, so does the energy

 Beyond the visible part of the spectrum, the energy becomes large enough
to ionise atoms
 As a result of this, the danger associated with EM waves increases along with the
frequency
o The shorter the wavelength, the more ionising the radiation
o Although the intensity of a wave also plays a very important role

Ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays can all ionise atoms

68
 Because of ionisation, ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can
have hazardous effects on human body tissue
o The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of the dose
 They can damage cells and cause mutations, making them cancerous

 In general, electromagnetic waves become more dangerous the shorter their

wavelength
o For example, radio waves have no known harmful effects whilst gamma
rays can cause cancer and are regarded as extremely dangerous
 The main risks associated with electromagnetic waves are summarised in the
table below:

Dangers of EM Waves Table

69
 A summary of the uses and dangers of different EM waves are summarised in the
diagram below:

Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum

70
Microwaves

 Certain frequencies of microwaves are absorbed by water molecules

 Since humans contain a lot of water, there is a risk of internal heating from
microwaves
 This might worry some people, but microwaves used in everyday circumstances
are proven to be safe
o Microwaves used for communications (including mobile phones) emit
very small amounts of energy which are not known to cause any harm
o Microwave ovens, on the other hand, emit very large amounts of energy,
however, that energy is prevented from escaping the oven by the metal
walls and metal grid in the glass door

Ultraviolet

 Ultraviolet is similar to visible light, except it is invisible to the human eye and
carries a much higher energy
 If eyes are exposed to high levels of UV it can cause severe eye damage
o Good quality sunglasses will absorb ultraviolet, preventing it from entering
the eyes
 Ultraviolet is ionising meaning it can kill cells or cause them to malfunction,
resulting in premature ageing, and diseases such as skin cancer
o Sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light, preventing it from damaging the skin

X-rays & Gamma Rays

 X-rays and gamma rays are the most ionising types of EM waves
o They are able to penetrate the body and cause internal damage
o They can cause the mutation of genes and cause cancer

 Fortunately, the level of X-rays used in medicine is kept to minimum levels at

which the risk is very low
o Doctors, however, will leave the room when taking X-rays in order to avoid
unnecessary exposure to them
 People working with gamma rays have to take several precautions to minimise
their exposure and are routinely tested to check their radiation dose levels
 For example, radiation badges are worn by medical professionals such as
radiographers to measure the amount of radiation exposure in their body

71
 Radiation badges are used by people working closely with radiation to monitor
exposure

Communications with Satellites

 Geostationary and polar orbiting (low orbit) satellites are both used for
communicating information

Geostationary and polar orbits around the Earth

Geostationary Satellites

 Geostationary satellites orbit above the Earth’s equator

o The orbit of the satellite is 24 hours
o Has an orbit of 36 000 km above the Earth’s surface, much higher than
polar satellites

72
 o Used for radio and telecommunication broadcasting around the world due
to its high orbit

Some satellite phones and direct broadcast satellite television use geostationary
satellites

Polar Satellites

 Polar, or low orbit, satellites orbit around the Earth’s north and south poles
 These orbit much lower than geostationary satellites, at around 200 km above sea
level
o Used for monitoring the weather, military applications, and taking images
of the Earth’s surface
o There is a much shorter time delay for signals compared to geostationary
orbit signals
o The signals and images are much clearer due to the lower orbit
o However, there is limited use in any one orbit because more than one
satellites are required for continuous operation

73
Some satellite phones use low-orbit artificial satellites if a more detailed signal is
required

Systems of Communications
EXTENDED

 Many important systems of communications rely on long wave electromagnetic

radiation, including:
o Mobile phones, wireless internet & satellite television (using microwaves)
o Bluetooth, terrestrial television signals & local radio stations
(using radio waves)
o Optical fibres (using visible or infrared waves)

Radio Waves

 Radio waves can be used to transmit signals over short distances

o Terrestrial (local) television signals, radio station transmissions and
Bluetooth all work using radio waves

74
  Radio station signals are transmitted at a longer wavelength than terrestrial
television signals
 In hilly areas it may be possible to receive radio signals but not receive terrestrial
television signals
o This is because radio signals are more prone to diffraction around the
hills

 Radio signals tend to have wavelengths of around a kilometre, so the radio

signals are more likely to have wavelength similar to the size of the hill
o This leads to diffraction, so radio signals can reach locations not in the
line-of-sight of the trasmitter, whereas TV signals are not diffracted

 Bluetooth uses radio waves instead of wires or cables to transmit information

between electronic devices, such as phones and speakers, over short distances
o Bluetooth signals tend to have shorter wavelengths than radio station or
television signals
o This enables high rates of data transmission, but can only be used over a
short distance (for example, within a household)
o This means they can pass through walls but the signal is
significantly weakened on doing so

Radio signals diffract around hills because they are a similar wavelength to the
hill

75
Microwaves

 Microwaves can be used to transmit signals over large distances

o Microwaves are used to send signals to and from satellites
o Mobile phones, wireless internet, satellite (global) television and
monitoring Earth systems (for example, weather forecasting) all utilise
microwave communication
 As with radio waves, microwaves signals will be clearer if there are no obstacles in
the way which may cause diffraction of the beam
 On the ground, mobile phone signals use a network of microwave transmitter
masts to relay the signals on to the nearest mast to the receiving phone
o They cannot be spaced so far apart that, for example, hills or the curvature
of the Earth diffract the beam

 When microwaves are transmitted from a dish, the wavelength must be small
compared to the dish diameter to reduce diffraction
o Also, the dish must be made of metal because metal reflects microwaves
well

 Mobile phones and wireless internet use microwaves because microwaves are not
refracted, reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere or ionosphere
o This means satellites can relay signals around the Earth enabling 24-hour-
a-day communication all around the world
o Also, they can penetrate most walls and only require a short aerial for
transmission and reception

Optical Fibres

 Optical fibres (visible light or infrared) are used for cable television and high-
speed broadband
o This is because glass is transparent to visible light and some infrared
o Also, visible light and short wavelength infrared can carry high rates of
data due to their high frequency

76
 Optical fibres use visible light or infrared for transmitting cable television and
high-speed broadband signals

Digital & Analogue Signals

EXTENDED

 There are two types of signals:

o Analogue
o Digital
 Analogue signals vary continuously - they can take any value

An analogue signal is continuously varying, taking any value

 A digital signal can only take one of two (discrete) states

o These are usually referred to as;
 1s and 0s
 Highs and lows, or
 Ons and offs

A digital signal can only take one of two values – 0 or 1

77
Transmission of Sound
EXTENDED

 Sound waves that can be transmitted as a digital or analogue signal

 Signals for speech or music are made up of varying frequencies

o In order to make out the information clearly, the signal needs to be
transmitted with as little interference as possible

 The signal goes is converted both before transmission and after being
received
o Before transmission: the signal is converted from analogue to digital
o After being received: the signal is converted from digital to analogue

Benefits of Digital Signalling

EXTENDED

 An analogue signal consists of varying frequency or amplitude

o Examples of analogue technology include telephone transmission and
some broadcasting
 A digital signal is generated and processed in two states:
o 1 or 0 (high or low states respectively)

Analogue v digital signal

 The key advantages of transmission of data in digital form compared to

analogue are:
o The signal can be regenerated so there is minimal noise

78
 o Due to accurate signal regeneration, the range of digital signals
is larger than the range of analogue signals (they can cover larger
distances)
o Digital signals enable an increased rate of transmission of
data compared to analogue
o Extra data can be added so that the signal can be checked for errors

Describing Sound

 Sound waves are produced by vibrating sources

 When a sound wave comes into contact with a solid, those vibrations can
be transferred to the solid
o For example, sound waves can cause a drinking glass to vibrate
o If the glass vibrates too much the movement causes the glass to shatter

Sound waves are longitudinal: the molecules vibrate in the same direction as the
energy transfer

 Sound waves require a medium to travel through

o This means that if there are no molecules, such as in a vacuum, then the
sound can’t travel through it

79
Compression & Rarefaction
EXTENDED

 Longitudinal waves consist of compression and rarefactions:

o A compression is a region of higher density i.e. a place where the
molecules are bunched together
o A rarefaction is a region of lower density i.e. a place where the molecules
are spread out

Sound is a longitudinal wave consisting of compressions and rarefactions - these

are areas where the pressure of the air varies with the wave

 These compressions and rarefactions cause changes in pressure, which vary in

time with the wave
o Therefore, sound is a type of pressure wave
 When the waves hit a solid, the variations in pressure cause the surface of the
solid to vibrate in sync with the sound wave

When sound waves hit a solid, the fluctuating pressure causes the solid to vibrate

80
Speed of Sound in Air

 Sound waves travel at a speed of about 340 m/s in air at room temperature

o The higher the air temperature, the greater the speed of sound

 The speed of sound in air varies from 330 – 350 m/s

Speed of Sound in Materials

EXTENDED

 Sound travels at different speeds in different mediums:

o Sound travels fastest in solids
o Sound travels slowest in gases
 The table below shows some typical speeds of sound in solids, liquids and gases:

Measuring the Speed of Sound

 There are several experiments that can be carried out to determine the speed of
sound
 Three methods are described below
o The apparatus for each experiment is given in bold

Method 1: Measuring Sound Between Two Points

81
 Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points

1. Two people stand a distance of around 100 m apart

2. The distance between them is measured using a trundle wheel
3. One person has two wooden blocks, which they bang together above their head
4. The second person has a stopwatch which they start when they see the first
person banging the blocks together and stops when they hear the sound
5. This is then repeated several times and an average value is taken for the time
6. The speed of sound can then be calculated using the equation:

Method 2: Using Echoes

Measuring the speed of sound using echoes

82
 1. A person stands about 50 m away from a wall (or cliff) using a trundle wheel to
measure this distance
2. The person claps two wooden blocks together and listens for the echo
3. A second person has a stopwatch and starts timing when they hear one of the
claps and stops timing when they hear the echo
4. The process is then repeated 20 times and an average time calculated
5. The distance travelled by the sound between each clap and echo will be (2 × 50)
m
6. The speed of sound can be calculated from this distance and the time using the
equation:

Method 3: Using an Oscilloscope

Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

1. Two microphones are connected to an oscilloscope and placed about 5 m apart

using a tape measure to measure the distance
2. The oscilloscope is set up so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a
sound, and the time base is adjusted so that the sound arriving at both
microphones can be seen on the screen
3. Two wooden blocks are used to make a large clap next to the first microphone

83
 4. The oscilloscope is then used to determine the time at which the clap reaches
each microphone and the time difference between them
5. This is repeated several times and an average time difference calculated
6. The speed can then be calculated using the equation:

Measuring Wave Speed in Water

 Ripples on water surfaces are used to model transverse waves

o The speed of these water waves can be measured

Creating ripples in water

1. Choose a calm flat water surface such as a lake or a swimming pool

2. Two people stand a few metres apart using a tape measure to measure this
distance
3. One person counts down from three and then disturbs the water surface (using
their hand, for example) to create a ripple

84
 4. The second person then starts a stopwatch to time how long it takes for the first
ripple to get to them
5. The experiment is then repeated 10 times and an average value for the time is
calculated
6. The average time and distance can then be used to calculate the wave speed
using the equation:

Pitch & Loudness

 The frequency of a sound wave is related to its pitch

o Sounds with a high pitch have a high frequency (or short wavelength)
o Sounds with a low pitch have a low frequency (or long wavelength)
 The amplitude of a sound wave is related to its volume
o Sounds with a large amplitude have a high volume
o Sounds with a small amplitude have a low volume

Pitch and amplitude of sound

85
Echoes

 Sound waves reflect off hard surfaces

o The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo

 Echo sounding can be used to measure depth or to detect objects underwater

o A sound wave can be transmitted from the surface of the water
o The sound wave is reflected off the bottom of the ocean

 The time it takes for the sound wave to return is used to calculate the depth of
the water
 The distance the wave travels is twice the depth of the ocean
o This is the distance to the ocean floor plus the distance for the wave to
return

Echo sounding is used to determine water depth

Ultrasound

 Humans can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz in frequency

(although this range decreases with age)

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 Humans can hear sounds between 20 and 20 000 Hz

 Ultrasound is the name given to sound waves with a frequency greater than 20
000 Hz

Uses of Ultrasound

 When ultrasound reaches a boundary between two media, some of the waves are
partially reflected
 The remainder of the waves continue through the material and are transmitted
 Ultrasound transducers are able to:
o Emit ultrasound
o Receive ultrasound
 The time taken for the reflections to reach a detector can be used to determine
how far away a boundary is
o This is because ultrasound travels at different speeds through different
media
 This is by using the speed, distance, time equation

 Where:
o v = speed in metres per second (m/s)
o s = distance in metres (m)
o t = time in seconds (s)

 This allows ultrasound waves to be used for both medical and industrial imaging

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Ultrasound in Medicine

 In medicine, ultrasound can be used:

o To construct images of a foetus in the womb
o To generate 2D images of organs and other internal structures (as long as
they are not surrounded by bone)
o As a medical treatment such as removing kidney stones

 An ultrasound detector is made up of a transducer that produces and detects a

beam of ultrasound waves into the body
 The ultrasound waves are reflected back to the transducer
by boundaries between tissues in the path of the beam
o For example, the boundary between fluid and soft tissue or tissue and
bone
 When these echoes hit the transducer, they generate electrical signals that are
sent to the ultrasound scanner
 Using the speed of sound and the time of each echo’s return, the detector
calculates the distance from the transducer to the tissue boundary
 By taking a series of ultrasound measurements, sweeping across an area, the time
measurements may be used to build up an image
 Unlike many other medical imaging techniques, ultrasound is non-invasive and
is believed to be harmless

Ultrasound can be used to construct an image of a foetus in the womb

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Ultrasound in Industry

 In industry, ultrasound can be used to:

o Check for cracks inside metal objects
o Generate images beneath surfaces
 A crack in a metal block will cause some waves to reflect earlier than the rest, so
will show up as pulses on an oscilloscope trace
o Each pulse represents each time the wave crosses a boundary
 The speed of the waves is constant, so measuring the time between emission and
detection can allow the distance from the source to be calculated

Ultrasound is partially reflected at boundaries, so in a bolt with no internal cracks,

there should only be two pulses (at the start and end of the bolt)

Worked Example

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In the diagram above, a very high-frequency sound wave is used to check for internal
cracks in a large steel bolt. The oscilloscope trace shows that the bolt does have an
internal crack. Each division on the oscilloscope represents a time of 0.000002 s. The
speed of sound through steel is 6000 m/s.

Calculate the distance, in cm, from the head of the bolt to the internal crack.

Step 1: List the known quantities

o Speed of ultrasound, v = 6000 m/s

o Time taken, t = 5 × 0.000002 = 0.00001 s

Step 2: Write down the equation relating speed, distance and time

distance, d = v × t

Step 3: Calculate the distance

d = 6000 × 0.00001 = 0.06 m

Step 4: Convert the distance to cm

d = 6 cm

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