ARAS

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

CONCRETE & REINFORCED CONCRETE

Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in
a rocklike mass with a paste of cement and water. Sometimes one or more admixtures are
added to change certain characteristics of the concrete such as its workability, durability, and
time of hardening.
Reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel
reinforcement provides the tensile strength lacking in the concrete.

ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

1. It has considerable compressive strength per unit cost compared with most other
materials.
2. Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It is a low-maintenance material.
5. As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life.
6. It is usually the only economical material available for footings, floor slabs,
basement, walls, piers, and similar applications.
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be cast into an extraordinary variety of
shapes from simple slabs, beams, and columns to great arches and shells.
8. In most areas, concrete takes advantage of inexpensive local materials (sand, gravel,
and water) and requires relatively small amounts of cement and reinforcing steel,
which may have to be shipped from other parts of the country.
9. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared with other
materials such as structural steel.

DISADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

1. Concrete has a very low tensile strength, requiring the use of tensile reinforcing.
2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently. In
addition, falsework or shoring may be necessary to keep the forms in place for
roofs, walls, floors, and similar structures until the concrete members gain
sufficient strength to support themselves.
3. The low strength per unit of weight of concrete leads to heavy members.
4. Similarly, the low strength per unit of volume of concrete means members will be
relatively large, an important consideration for tall buildings and long-span
structures.
 5. The properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning
and mixing. Furthermore, the placing and curing of concrete is not as carefully
controlled as is the production of other materials, such as structural steel and
laminated wood.

TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Concretes made with normal portland cement require about 2 weeks to achieve a
sufficient strength to permit the removal of forms and the application of moderate loads. Such
concretes reach their design strengths after about 28 days and continue to gain strength at a
slower rate thereafter.

Type I—The common, all-purpose cement used for general construction work.
Type II—A modified cement that has a lower heat of hydration than does Type I cement
and that can withstand some exposure to sulfate attack.
Type III—A high-early-strength cement that will produce in the first 24 hours a concrete
with a strength about twice that of Type I cement. This cement does have a
much higher heat of hydration.
Type IV—A low-heat cement that produces a concrete which generates heat very slowly.
It is used for very large concrete structures.
Type V—A cement used for concretes that are to be exposed to high concentrations of
sulfate.

ADMIXTURES

Materials added to concrete during or before mixing are referred to as admixtures. They
are used to improve the performance of concrete in certain situations as well as to lower its
cost. Several of the most common types of admixtures are listed below.

1. Air-entraining admixtures
2. Accelerating admixtures
3. Retarding admixtures
4. Superplasticizers admixtures
5. Waterproofing materials

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of concrete, fc’ , is determined by testing to failure 28-day-old

6-in. diameter by 12-in. concrete cylinders at a specified rate of loading (4-in. diameter by 8-in.
cylinders were first permitted in the 2008 code in lieu of the larger cylinders). For the 28-day
period, the cylinders are usually kept under water or in a room with constant temperature and
100% humidity. Although concretes are available with 28-day ultimate strengths from 2500 psi
up to as high as 10,000 psi to 20,000 psi, most of the concretes used fall into the 3000-psi to
7000-psi range.

The stress–strain curves below represent the results obtained from compression tests of
sets of 28-day-old standard cylinders of varying strengths.

Static Modulus of Elasticity

Concrete has no clear-cut modulus of elasticity. Its value varies with different concrete
strengths, concrete age, type of loading, and the characteristics and proportions of the cement
and aggregates.

Section 8.5.1 of the ACI Code states that the following expression can be used for
calculating the modulus of elasticity of concretes weighing from 90 lb/ft3 to 155 lb/ft3:

where Ec = the concrete modulus of elasticity in psi

wc = weight of concrete in lbs/ft3
fc’ = concrete 28-day compressive strength in psi

For normal-weght concrete weighing approximately 145 lb/ft3, the ACI code states that
the following simplified version is used to determine the static modulus of elasticity.
 In SI units,
𝑬𝒄 = 𝒘𝟏.𝟓 ′
𝒄 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑)√𝒇𝒄

where Ec = the concrete modulus of elasticity in MPa

wc = the mass density of concrete which varies from 1500 to 2500 kg/m 3
fc’ = concrete 28-day compressive strength in N/mm2 or MPa

For normal weight concrete where wc = 2320 kg/m3,

𝑬𝒄 = 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟎√𝒇′𝒄

The table below lists the values of E for various normal-weight concrete grades:

Poisson’s Ratio

As a concrete cylinder is subjected to compressive loads, it not only shortens in length

but also expands laterally. The ratio of this lateral expansion to the longitudinal shortening is
referred to as Poisson’s ratio. Its value varies from about 0.11 for the higher-strength concretes
to as high as 0.21 for the weaker-grade concretes, with average values of about 0.16. There
does not seem to be any direct relationship between the value of the ratio and the values of
items such as the water–cement ratio, amount of curing, aggregate size, and so on.
For most reinforced concrete designs, no consideration is given to the so-called Poisson
effect. It may very well have to be considered, however, in the analysis and design of arch
dams, tunnels, and some other statically indeterminate structures.

Shrinkage

When the materials for concrete are mixed, the paste consisting of cement and water
fills the voids between the aggregate and bonds the aggregate together. This mixture needs to
be sufficiently workable or fluid so that it can be made to flow in between the reinforcing bars
and all through the forms. To achieve this desired workability, considerably more water
(perhaps twice as much) is used than is necessary for the cement and water to react (called
hydration).
After the concrete has been cured and begins to dry, the extra mixing water that was
used begins to work its way out of the concrete to the surface, where it evaporates. As a result,
the concrete shrinks and cracks. The resulting cracks may reduce the shear strength of the
members and be detrimental to the appearance of the structure.

To minimize shrinkage it is desirable to: (1) keep the amount of mixing water to a
minimum; (2) cure the concrete well; (3) place the concrete for walls, floors, and other large
items in small sections (thus allowing some of the shrinkage to take place before the next
section is placed); (4) use construction joints to control the position of cracks; (5) use shrinkage
reinforcement; and (6) use appropriate dense and nonporous aggregates.

Creep

Under sustained compressive loads, concrete will continue to deform for long periods of
time. After the initial deformation occurs, the additional deformation is called creep, or plastic
flow. If a compressive load is applied to a concrete member, an immediate or instantaneous
elastic shortening occurs. If the load is left in place for a long time, the member will continue to
shorten over a period of several years, and the final deformation will usually be two to three
times the initial deformation.

The amount of creep is largely dependent on the amount of stress. It is almost directly
proportional to stress as long as the sustained stress is not greater than about one-half of fc’.
Beyond this level, creep will increase rapidly.

Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of concrete varies from about 8% to 15% of its compressive
strength. A major reason for this small strength is the fact that concrete is filled with fine
cracks. The cracks have little effect when concrete is subjected to compression loads because
the loads cause the cracks to close and permit compression transfer. Obviously, this is not the
case for tensile loads.
 Although tensile strength is normally neglected in design calculations, it is nevertheless
an important property that affects the sizes and extent of the cracks that occur. Furthermore,
the tensile strength of concrete members has a definite reduction effect on their deflections.

Shear Strength

It is extremely difficult in laboratory testing to obtain pure shear failures unaffected by

other stresses. As a result, the tests of concrete shearing strengths through the years have
yielded values all the way from one-third to four-fifths of the ultimate compressive strengths.

AGGREGATES

The aggregates used in concrete occupy about three-fourths of the concrete volume.
Since they are less expensive than the cement, it is desirable to use as much of them as
possible. Both fine aggregates (usually sand) and coarse aggregates (usually gravel or crushed
stone) are used. Any aggregate that passes a No. 4 sieve (which has wires spaced 14 in. on
centers in each direction) is said to be fine aggregate. Material of a larger size is coarse
aggregate.

Aggregates must be strong, durable, and clean. Should dust or other particles be
present, they may interfere with the bond between the cement paste and the aggregate. The
strength of the aggregate has an important effect on the strength of the concrete, and the
aggregate properties greatly affect the concrete’s durability.

HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETES

Concretes with compression strengths exceeding 6000 psi are referred to as high-
strength concretes. Another name sometimes given to them is high-performance concretes
because they have other excellent characteristics besides just high strengths. For instance, the
low permeability of such concretes causes them to be quite durable as regards the various
physical and chemical agents acting on them that may cause the material to deteriorate.

To produce concretes with strengths above 6000 psi, it is first necessary to use more
stringent quality control of the work and to exercise special care in the selection of the
materials to be used. Strength increases can be made by using lower water–cement ratios,
adding admixtures, and selecting good clean and solid aggregates. The actual concrete
strengths used by the designer for a particular job will depend on the size of the loads and the
quality of the aggregate available.

FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETES

In recent years, a great deal of interest has been shown in fiber-reinforced concrete, and
today there is much ongoing research on the subject. The fibers used are made from steel,
plastics, glass, and other materials. Various experiments have shown that the addition of such
fibers in convenient quantities (normally up to about 1% or 2% by volume) to conventional
concretes can appreciably improve their characteristics.

The compressive strengths of fiber-reinforced concretes are not significantly greater

than they would be if the same mixes were used without the fibers. The resulting concretes,
however, are substantially tougher and have greater resistance to cracking and higher impact
resistance. The use of fibers has increased the versatility of concrete by reducing its brittleness.
You should note that a reinforcing bar provides reinforcing only in the direction of the bar,
while randomly distributed fibers provide additional strength in all directions .

CONCRETE DURABILITY

The compressive strength of concrete may be dictated by exposure to freeze-thaw

conditions or chemicals such as deicers or sulfates. These conditions may require a greater
compressive strength or lower water–cement ratio than those required to carry the calculated
loads. The 2008 code imposes limits on water–cement ratio, f c’, and entrained air for elements
exposed to freeze-thaw cycles. For concrete exposed to deicing chemicals, the amount of fly
ash or other pozzolans is limited in this chapter. Finally, the water–cement ratio is limited by
exposure to sulfates as well. The designer is required to determine whether structural load
carrying requirements or durability requirements are more stringent and to specify the more
restrictive requirements for fc’, water–cement ratio, and air content.

REINFORCING STEEL

The reinforcing used for concrete structures may be in the form of bars or welded wire
fabric. Reinforcing bars are referred to as plain or deformed. The deformed bars, which have
ribbed projections rolled onto their surfaces to provide better bonding between the concrete
and the steel, are used for almost all applications. Instead of rolled-on deformations, deformed
wire has indentations pressed into it. Plain bars are not used very often except for wrapping
around longitudinal bars, primarily in columns.

Plain round bars are indicated by their diameters in fractions of an inch as 3/8 in., ½ in.,
and 5/8 in. Deformed bars are round and vary in sizes from #3 to #11, with two very large sizes,
#14 and #18, also available. For bars up to and including #8, the number of the bar coincides
with the bar diameter in eighths of an inch. For example, a #7 bar has a diameter of 7/8 in. and
a cross-sectional area of 0.60 in.2 (which is the area of a circle with a 7/8-in. diameter). Bars
were formerly manufactured in both round and square cross sections, but today all bars are
round.

GRADES OF REINFORCING STEEL

Reinforcing bars may be rolled from billet steel, axle steel, or rail steel. Only
occasionally, however, are they rolled from old train rails or locomotive axles. These latter
steels have been cold-worked for many years and are not as ductile as the billet steels. There
are several types of reinforcing bars, designated by the ASTM, which are listed after this
paragraph. These steels are available in different grades as Grade 40, Grade 50, Grade 60, and
so on, where Grade 40 means the steel has a specified yield point of 40,000 psi, Grade 50
means 50,000 psi, and so on.

SI BAR SIZES AND MATERIAL STRENGTHS

The metric version of the ACI Code 318M-11 makes use of the same reinforcing bars
used for designs using U.S. customary units. The metric bar dimensions are merely soft
conversions of the customary sizes. The SI concrete strengths (fc’ ) and the minimum steel yield
strengths (fy) are converted from the customary values into metric units and rounded off a bit.
A brief summary of metric bar sizes and material strengths is presented in the following
paragraphs.
Table of Steel Rebar Grade

Yield Strength fy Yield Strength fy

Steel Reinforcement
(psi) (MPa)
Grade 40 40,000 275
Grade 50 50,000 345

Grade 60 60,000 415

Reinforcement Bar Sizes & Areas

SI Bars (Philippine Custom, not intended as

Standard US Custom Bars
soft SI conversion of the US Custom bars)
Bar No. Diameter (in) Area (in2) Bar No. Diameter (mm) Area (mm2)
3 0.375 0.11 10 10 78
4 0.500 0.20 12 12 113
5 0.625 0.31 16 16 201
6 0.750 0.44 19 19 284
7 0.875 0.60 22 22 380
8 1.000 0.79 25 25 491
9 1.128 1.00 28 28 616
10 1.270 1.27 32 32 804
11 1.410 1.56 36 36 1018
14 1.693 2.25 40 40 1257
18 2.257 4.00 50 50 1963
INTRODUCTION TO LOADS

Perhaps the most important and most difficult task faced by the structural designer is
the accurate estimation of the loads that may be applied to a structure during its life. No loads
that may reasonably be expected to occur may be overlooked. After loads are estimated, the
next problem is to decide the worst possible combinations of these loads that might occur at
one time.

Dead Loads
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. They include
the weight of the structure under consideration as well as any fixtures that are permanently
attached to it. For a reinforced concrete building, some dead loads are the frames, walls, floors,
ceilings, stairways, roofs, and plumbing.

Live Loads

Live loads are loads that can change in magnitude and position. They include occupancy
loads, warehouse materials, construction loads, overhead service cranes, equipment operating
loads, and many others. In general, they are induced by gravity.
Environmental Loads

Environmental loads are loads caused by the environment in which the structure is
located. For buildings, they are caused by rain, snow, wind, temperature change, and
earthquake. Strictly speaking, these are also live loads, but they are the result of the
environment in which the structure is located. Although they do vary with time, they are not all
caused by gravity or operating conditions, as is typical with other live loads. Examples are
1. Snow and Ice Load
2. Rain Load
3. Wind Load
4. Seismic or Earthquake Load

Selection of Design Loads

To assist the designer in estimating the magnitudes of live loads with which he or she
should proportion structures, various records have been assembled through the years in the
form of building codes and specifications. These publications provide conservative estimates of
liveload magnitudes for various situations. One of the most widely used design-load
specifications for buildings is the Structural Code of the Philippines.

IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

The availability of personal computers has drastically changed the way in which
reinforced concrete structures are analyzed and designed. In nearly every engineering school
and office, computers are routinely used to handle structural design problems.

Many calculations are involved in reinforced concrete design, and many of these
calculations are quite time consuming. With a computer, the designer can reduce the time
required for these calculations tremendously and, thus, supposedly have time to consider
alternative designs.

Although computers do increase design productivity, they do undoubtedly tend at the

same time to reduce the designer’s “feel” for structures. This can be a special problem for
young engineers with little previous design experience. Unless designers have this “feel,”
computer usage, though expediting the work and reducing many errors, may occasionally result
in large mistakes.

It is interesting to note that up to the present time, the feeling at most engineering
schools has been that the best way to teach reinforced concrete design is with chalk and
blackboard, supplemented with some computer examples.