DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL, VASANT KUNJ

PHYSICS, CLASS 12
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
1. Metals They possess very low resistivity or high conductivity.
ρ ~ 10-2.10-8 Ωm, σ ~102. 108 Sm-1
2. Semiconductors They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and
insulators.
ρ ~ 10-5. 106 Ωm, σ ~ 10+5 .10-6 Sm-1
Types of Semiconductors Types of semiconductors are given below:
(i) Elements Semiconductors These semiconductors are available in natural form, e.g.
silicon and germanium.
(ii) Compound Semiconductors These semiconductors are made by compounding the
metals, e.g. CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, anthracene, polyaniline, etc.
3. Insulators They have high resistivity or low conductivity.
ρ ~ 1011 . 1019 Ωm, σ ~ 10-11. 10-19 Sm-1
4. Energy Band In a crystal due to interatomic interaction, valence electrons of one atom are
shared by more than one atom in the crystal. Now, splitting of energy level takes place. The
collection of these closely spaced energy levels are called an energy band.

5. Valence Band Valence band are the energy band which includes the energy levels of the
valence electrons.
6. Conduction Band Conduction band is the energy band above the valence band.
7. Energy Band Gap The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band
to conduction band is called energy band gap (Eg ).
8. Differences between conductor, insulator and semiconductor on the basis of energy bands
are given below:
9. Fermi Energy It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a material
at absolute zero temperature (i.e. 0K)
10. On the basis of purity , semiconductors are of two types:
(i) Intrinsic Semiconductors It is a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant
species present
ne = nh =ni
where , ne and nh are number densities of electrons and holes respectively and ni is called
intrinsic carrier concentration.
An intrinsic semiconductor is also called an undoped semiconductor or i-type
semiconductor

(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductors Pure semiconductor when doped with the impurity, it is
known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types: (a) n-type semiconductors
(b) p-type semiconductors
NOTE: Both the type of semiconductors are electrically neutral.
11. In n-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are electrons and minority charge
carriers are holes, i.e. ne> nh .
Here, we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent element, then four of its electrons bond with the
four silicon neighbours, while fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent atom.
Formation of n-type semiconductor is shown below:

12. In p-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge carriers
are eletron i.e. nh > ne .
In a p-type semiconductor, doping is done with trivalent impurity atoms, i.e. those atoms
which have three valence electrons in their valence shell.

13. At equilibrium condition, ne nh = ni2

14. Minimum energy required to create a hole-electron pair, hv > Eg where, Eg is energy
band gap.
15. Electric current, I = eA(neve + nhvh) where, A is area of cross-section.
 18. p-n Junction A p-n junction is an arrangement made by a close contact of n-type
semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.
19. Formation of Depletion Region in p-n Junction During formation of p-n junction, due to
the concentration gradient across p and n sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p —> n)
and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n —> p).
This space charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion
region.
Depletion region is free from mobile charge carriers. Width of depletion region is of the
order of 10-6 m. The potential difference developed across the depletion region is called the
potential barrier.

After the PN junction diode is formed –

i)Holes from P region diffuse into N region due to difference in concentration.
ii)Free electrons from N region diffuse into P region due to the same reason.
iii)Holes and free electrons combine near the junction.
iv)Each recombination eliminates an electron and a hole.
v)The uncompensated negative immobile ions in the P region do not allow any more free
electrons to diffuse from N region.
vi)The uncompensated positive immobile ions in the N region do not allow any more holes to
diffuse from P region.
 The positive donor ions in the N region and the negative acceptor ions in the P region are
left uncompensated.
vii)The region containing the uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is called ‘depletion
region’ because this region is devoid of mobile charges.
viii)Since the region is having only immobile charges, therefore, this region is also called ‘space
charge region’.
ix)The N region is having higher potential than P region.
x)So, an electric field is set up as shown in the figure.
xi)The difference in potential between P and N regions across the junction makes it difficult
for the holes and electrons to move across the junction. This acts as a barrier and hence
called ‘potential barrier’ or ‘height of the barrier’.
xii)The physical distance between one side and the other side of the barrier is called ‘width of
the barrier’.
xiii) Potential barrier for Si is nearly 0.7 V and for Ge is 0.3 V.
xiv) The potential barrier opposes the motion of the majority carriers.
xv) However, a few majority carriers with high kinetic energy manage to overcome the
barrier and cross the junction.
ix) Potential barrier helps the movement of minority carriers.
x)Terms Related to p-n Junction
(i) Depletion Layer At p-n. junction a region is created, where there is no charge carriers.
This region is called depletion layer. The width of this region is of the order of 106 m.
(ii) Potential Barrier The potential difference across the depletion layer is called potential
barrier. Barrier potential for Ge is 0.3 V and for Si is 0.7 V.
(iii) Forward Biasing In this biasing, the p -side is connected to positive terminal and n-
side to negative terminal of a battery. In this biasing, forward current flows due to majority
charge carriers. The width of depletion layer decreases.
(iv) Reverse Biasing In this biasing, the p-side is connected to negative terminal and n-
side to positive terminal of a battery.

pn junction
Forward biased
A P-N junction diode is said to be forward biased when the positive terminal of a cell or
battery is connected to the p-side of the junction and the negative terminal to the n side.
When diode is forward-biased the depletion region narrows and consequently, the potential
barrier is lowered. This causes the majority charge carriers of each region to cross into the
other region. The electrons travel from the n-side to the p-side and go to the positive
terminal of the battery. The holes that travel from the p-side to the n-side combine with the
electrons injected into the n-region from the negative terminal of the battery. This way the
diode conducts when forward-biased.

Reverse-biased pn junction diode

A pn-junction diode is said to be reverse biased when the positive terminal of a cell or
battery is connected to the n-side of the junction and the negative terminal to the p-side.
When reverse biased, the depletion region widens and the potential barrier is increased. The
polarity of the battery extracts the majority charge carriers of each region. The holes in the
p-region from the electrons injected into the p-region from the negative terminal of the
battery. The electrons in the n-region go to the positive terminal of the battery. This way,
the majority charge carrier concentration in each region decreases against the equilibrium
values and the reverse biased junction diode has a high resistance.
Breakdown
Zener Break Down Diode
When the reverse voltage is increased across the PN junction diode, then the electric field
across the diode junction increases. This will result in a force of attraction on a negatively
charged electron across the junction. The force from this junction will frees electron from its
covalent bond and moves those free electrons to conduct the band. When the electric field
increases, i.e., with the applied voltage then more and more electrons are freed from its
covalent bonds.
This will result in drifting the electrons across the junction and electron hole recombination
occurs. Finally, net current will be developed and it will increase with an increase in the
electric field. Zener diode occurs in a PN junction diode with thin junction and heavy
doping.
Avalanche Break Down Diode
Avalanche breakdown occurs in a PN junction. It is moderately doped and has thick
junction. Normally Avalanche breakdown occurs when we apply a high reverse voltage
across the diode. When there is an increase in applied reverse voltage then there will be an
increase in the electric field across the junction. Suppose the applied reverse voltage is Va
and the depletion layer width is d.
The generated electric field Ea = Va/d
The generated electric field applies force on the electronics at the junction and it frees them
from covalent bonds. These free electrons will gain acceleration and will start moving
across the junction with a high velocity. This will result in collision with neighbouring
atoms. Because of this collision very high velocity, which will further generate free
electrons. Finally, these electrons will start drifting and electron hole pair recombination
across the junction. The net current will increase.
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one diode for the
construction of a halfwave rectifier circuit.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into DC.

1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The
obtained secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and
reverse biased during the negative half cycle.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:
Full wave Rectifier

A simple full way rectifier consists of two transformers mutually inducted and two diodes
which filter the negative cycle of alternating current. At any instant the voltage at A(input
voltage of diode 1) and end B (input voltage of diode 2) of the secondary with respect to the
centre tap will be out of phase. Suppose during a positive half cycle of Ac input, the end A
is positive and end B is negative with respect to the centre tap. Then diode 1 gets forward
biased(allows the flow of current) and diode 2 gets reversed biased(does not allow the flow
of current). Hence the current flows through the diode 1 towards the centre tap along the
path AXY as shown in the above diagram. Similarly, during the negative half cycle of Ac
input the end B becomes positive and end A becomes negative.
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• The rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is double that of half wave
rectifiers. The efficiency of half wave rectifiers is 40.6% while the rectification
efficiency of full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
• The ripple factor in full wave rectifiers is low hence a simple filter is required. The
value of ripple factor in full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in half wave rectifier it is
about 1.21.
• The output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers are higher
than that obtained using half wave rectifiers.
The only disadvantage of the full wave rectifier is that they need more circuit elements than
the half wave rectifier which makes, making it costlier.

Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand in the reverse-biased
direction before breakdown. The peak inverse voltage of the full-wave rectifier is double that
of a half-wave rectifier. The PIV across D1 and D2 is 2Vmax.
Filter Circuit
A filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c. component of rectifier output and allows
only d.c. component to reach the load. A filter circuit is installed between the rectifier and
the load.

Ripple factor
The ripple factor is defined as The ratio of the RMS value of an alternating current
component in the rectified output to the average value of rectified output.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. How does the width of the depletion layer of the p-n-junction diode
change with a decrease in reverse bias?
ANS. The width of the depletion layer of p-n junction diodes decreases with a
decrease in reverse bias.

2. What does a photodiode do?

ANS. A photodiode is a special-purpose p-n junction diode fabricated with a
transparent window to allow light to fall on the diode. It is operated under reverse
bias.

3. Define valence band and conductor band.

ANS. Valence band: The valence band is the energy band consisting of valence
(tightly bound) electrons.

Conduction band: The conduction band is the energy band consisting of

conduction (loosely bound) electrons.

4. What do you mean by depletion region and potential barrier in

junction diode?
Ans: Depletion region: A layer around the intersection between p and n sections
of a junction diode where charge carriers, electrons, and holes are less in number
is called the depletion region.

Potential barrier: The potential difference created due to the diffusion of charge
carriers across the junction is called the potential barrier.

5. What is a semiconductor diode? How can we symbolize this?

ANS. A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts
provided at the ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a two-terminal
device.

A p-n junction diode is symbolically represented as shown in fig. a and fig b.

 6. What is reverse saturation current?
ANS. For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~µA) and almost
remains constant with change in bias. It is called reverse saturation current.

7. What is Fermi level in semiconductors?

Ans. Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the valence and conduction
bands. It is the highest occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero. The charge
carriers in this state have their own quantum states and generally do not interact
with each other. When the temperature rises above absolute zero, these charge
carriers will begin to occupy states above the Fermi level.

In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfilled states.

Thus, accommodating more electrons at the lower energy levels. However, in an
n-type semiconductor, the density of states increases, therefore, accommodating
more electrons at higher energy levels.

8. Why does the resistivity of semiconductors go down with

temperature?
Ans. The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due
to their difference in charge carrier density.

The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the

number of charge carriers increases rapidly with an increase in temperature,
making the fractional change i.e., the temperature, it works as a conductor.

9. What are some important properties of semiconductors?

Ans. The important properties of the semiconductors are as follows –

1. Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the

temperature, it works as a conductor.
2. Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be
modified by doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy
conversion, switches, and amplifiers.
3. Lesser power losses.
4. Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
5. Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
6. The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in
temperature and vice-versa.
 10. Pure silicon semiconductor at 500K has equal electrons and holes (1.5 ×
1016 m-3). Doping by indium increases nh to 4.5 × 1022 m-3. Calculate the type
and electron concentration of the doped semiconductor.

Since, n2i = ne nh
(1.5 × 1016)2 = ne (4.5 × 1022)
Therefore, ne = 5 × 109
Given nh = 4.5×1023
⇒ nh >> ne
Therefore, the semiconductor is p-type and ne = 5 × 109 m-3.

11. Why is the valence band in semiconductors partially empty, and the
conduction band is partially filled at room temperature?
In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty, and the valence band is
completely filled at zero Kelvin. No electron from the valence band can cross over to
the conduction band at this temperature. But at room temperature, some electrons
in the valence band jump over to the conduction band due to a small forbidden gap,
i.e., 1 eV.

12. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 ×

1019 m3. Find the total number of current carriers in the same semiconductor
of size 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 mm.
In an intrinsic semiconductor ne = nh
Given, ne = 7 × 1019 per m3
Therefore, nh = ne = 7 × 1019 m3
So, the total current carrier density = ne + nh = 7×1019 + 7×1019 = 14×1019 per m3
Now, the total number of current carriers = Number density × Volume
= (14 × 1019 per m3 ) × (10-2m × 10-2m × 10-3m) = 14×1012.
The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 eV. What is the maximum wavelength at which
silicon will begin absorbing energy?
Since hc/λ = Energy (E)
Therefore, λ = hc/E
= [(6.628 × 10-34) × (3×108)]/1.14×1.6×10-19J
= 10.901 × 10-7 m = 10901 Å.
13. (i) With the help of circuit diagrams, distinguish between forward biasing and
reverse biasing of a p-n junction diode.
 (ii) Draw V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode in
(a) forward bias,
(b) reverse bias. (All India 2009)
Answer:

14. Draw a labelled diagram of a full wave rectifier circuit. State its working
principle. Show the input-output waveforms. (All India 2009)
Answer:
p-n junction diode as full wave rectifier
A full wave rectifier consists of two diodes and special type of transformer
known as centre tap transformer as shown in the circuit. The secondary of
transformer gives the desired a.c. voltage across A and B.
During the positive half cycle of a.c. input, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
conducts current while D2 is in reverse biased and does not conduct current.
 So we get an output voltage across the load resistor RL.

During the negative half cycle of a.c. input, the diode D1 is in reverse biased
and does not conduct current while diode D2 in forward biased and conducts
current. So we get an output voltage across the load resistor RL.
NOTE: This is a more efficient circuit for getting rectified voltage or current.
15. Draw V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode.
Answer the following questions, giving reasons:
(i) Why is the current under reverse bias almost independent of the applied
potential upto a critical voltage?
(ii) Why does the reverse current show a sudden increase at the critical
voltage.
Name any semiconductor device which operates under the reverse bias in the
breakdown region.
(All India 2012)
Answer:
(i) In reverse bias of p-n junction diode the small current is due to minority
carrier and hence resistance is also very high. Increase in voltage leads to a
 very-very small increase in reverse bias currents so we conclude that in
reverse bias reverse current is almost independent of applied potential upto a
critical voltage because after this critical voltage, current increases suddenly.

(ii) In reverse bias, reverse current through junction diode is due to minority
charge carriers. As reverse bias voltage is increased, electric field at junction
becomes significant. When reverse bias voltage becomes equal to zener
voltage, electric field strength across junction becomes high. Electric field
across junction is sufficient to pull valence electrons from the atom on p- side
and accelerate them towards n-side. The movement of these electrons across
the function account for high current which is observed at breakdown reverse
voltage. Zener diode and photo diode operate under reverse bias.
16. Write any two distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors
and insulators on the basis of energy band diagrams. (All India 2012)
Answer:
Distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators :
(i) Insulator. In insulator, the valence band is completely filled. The conduction
band is empty and forbidden energy gap is quite large. So no electron is able
to go from valence band to conduction band even if electric field is applied.
Hence electrical conduction is impossible. The solid/ substance is an
insulator.
(ii) Conductors (Metals). In metals, either the conduction band is partially
filled or the conduction and valence band partly overlap each other. If small
electric field is applied across the metal, the free electrons start moving in a
direction opposite to the direction of electric field. Hence, metal behaves as a
conductor.
(iii) Semiconductors. At absolute zero kelvin, the conduction band is empty
and the valence band is filled. The material is insulator at low temperature.
However the energy gap between valence band and conduction band is small.
 At room temperature, some valence electrons acquire thermal energy and
jump to conduction band where they can conduct electricity. The holes left
behind in valence band act as a positive charge carrier.

17. Distinguish between N-type and p-type semi-conductors on the basis of

energy band diagrams. Compare their conductivities at absolute zero
temperature and at room temperature. (Comptt. Delhi 2014)
Answer:
Distinction between n-type and p-type semiconductors on the basis of energy
level diagram :

(i) In n-type semi conductors an extra energy level (called donor energy level)
is produced just below the bottom of the conduction band, while in the p-type
semiconductor, this extra energy band (called acceptor energy level) is just
above the top of the balanced band.
 (ii) In n-type semiconductors, most of the electrons come from the donor
impurity while in p-type semiconductor, the density of holes in the valence
band is predominantly due to the impurity in the extrinsic semiconductors.
(iii) At absolute zero temperature conductivities of both types of semi-
conductors will be zero.
(iv) For equal doping, an n-type semiconductor will have more conductivity
than a p-type semiconductor, at room temperature.
18. Explain the two processes involved in the formulation of a p-n junction diode.
Hence define the term ‘barrier potential’. (Comptt. Delhi 2017)
Answer:
(a) Two important processes that occur during the formation of a p-n junction
are
(i) diffusion and
(ii) drift.
(i) Diffusion: In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons is much
greater as compared to concentration of holes; while in p-type semiconductor,
the concentration of holes is much greater than the concentration of
electrons. When a p-n junction is formed, then due to concentration gradient,
the holes diffuse from p side to n side (p ➝ n) and electrons diffuse from n
side to p-side (n ➝ p). This motion of charge carriers gives rise to diffusion
current across the junction.

(II) Drift: The drift of charge carriers occurs due to electric field. Due to built in
potential barrier an electric field directed from n-region to p-region is
developed across the junction. This field causes motion of electrons on p-side
of the junction to n-side and motion of holes on n-side of junction to p-side.
Thus a drift current starts. This current is opposite to the direction of diffusion
 current.

19. (a) Explain the formation of depletion region for p-n junction diode. How does
the width of this region change when the junction is
(i) forward biased,
(ii) reverse biased?
Answer:
(a)
As soon as a p-n junction is formed, the majority charge carriers begin to
diffuse from the regions of higher concentration to the regions of lower
concentrations. Thus the electrons from the n-region diffuse into the p-region
and where they combine with the holes and get neutralised. Similarly, the
holes from the p-region diffuse into the n-region where they combine with the
electrons and get neutralised. This process is called electron-hole
recombination.

The p-region near the junction is left with immobile -ve ions and n-region near
the junction is left with +ve ions as shown in the figure. The small region in
the vicinity of the junction which is depleted of free charge carriers and has
only immobile ions is called the depletion layer. In the depletion region, a
 potential difference VB is created, called potential barrier as it creates an
electric field which opposes the further diffusion of electrons and holes.
(i) In forward biased, the width of depletion region is decreased.
(ii) In reverse biased, the width of depletion region is increased.
20. (a) Define the terms ‘depletion layer’ and ‘barrier potential’ for a p-n junction.
How does
(i) an increase in the doping concentration and
(ii) biasing across the junction, affect the width of the depletion layer?
Answer:
(a) (i) Depletion layer. The layer containing unneutralized acceptor and donor
ion across a p-n junction is called depletion layer. It is called depletion layer
because it is depleted of mobile charge carriers.
(ii) Barrier potential. The electric field between the acceptor and donor ions is
called the barrier. The difference of potential from one side of the barrier to
the other side is called barrier potential.
(i) The increase of doping concentration will reduce width of depletion layer in
semi conductor.
(ii) depletion layer widens under reverse bias and vice versa.

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

ELECTRONIC DEVICES

1. SEMICONDUCTOR :
A pure semiconductor germanium or silicon, free of every impurity is called intrinsic
semiconductor. At room temperature, a pure semiconductor has very small number of
current carriers (electrons and holes) .Hence its conductivity is low. When the impurity
atoms of valance five or three are doped in a pure semiconductor, we get respectively n-
type or p- type extrinsic semiconductor. In case of doped semiconductor ne nh=ni2. Where
ne and nh are the number density of electron and hole charge carriers in a pure
semiconductor. The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is much higher than that of
intrinsic semiconductor

Answer the following questions:

Q (1). Which of the following statements is not true?

a. The resistance of intrinsic semiconductor decreases with increase of temperature.

b. Doping pures Si with trivalent impurities gives p- type semiconductors.

c. The majority charges in n- type semiconductors are holes.

d. A p-n junction can act as semiconductor diode.

Q (2). The impurity atoms with which pure Si should be doped to make a p- type
semiconductor is
a. Phosphorus

b. Boron

c. Arsenic

d. Antimony

Q (3). Holes are majority charge carriers in

a. Intrinsic semiconductors.

b. Ionic Solids

c. p- type semiconductors

d. Metals

Q (4). At absolute zero, Si acts as

a. Non- metal

b. Metal

c. Insulator

d. None of these

Answers 1. (c) The majority Charge carriers in n-type semicond as holes 2. (b) BORON 3. (c)
p-type semiconductors 4. (c) Insulators

21. p-n junction diode :

p-n junction is a semiconductor diode. It is obtained by bringing p-type
semiconductor in close contact with n- type semiconductor. A thin layer is developed
at the p- n junction which is devoid of any charge carrier but has immobile ions. It is
called depletion layer. At the junction a potential barrier appears, which does not
allow the movement of majority charge carriers across the junction in the absence of
any biasing of the junction. p-n junction offers low resistance when forward biased
and high resistance when reverse biased.
Q (1). In the middle of depletion layer of reverse biased p- n junction, the a. Electric
field is zero
b. Potential is zero
c. Potential is maximum
d. Electric field is maximum
Q (2). The energy band gap is maximum in
a. Metals
b. Superconductors
c. Insulators
d. Semiconductors
Q (3). The number of majority carriers crossing the junction of diode depends
primarily on the
a. Concentration of doping impurities
b. Magnitude of potential barriers
c. Magnitude of the forward bias voltage
d. Rate of thermal generation of electron –hole pairs
Q (4). Hole is
a. Antiparticle of electron
b. A vacancy created when an electron leaves covalent bond
c. Absence of free electrons
d. An artificially created particle.
Answers: 1. (c) potential is maximum 2. (c) Insulators 3. (d) Rate of thermal
Generation of eleeton-hole pair

Two statements are given – One labeled assertion (A) and other labeled reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as
given below:
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c) A is true but R is false.
d) A is false but R is true.

a. Assertion (A): A Pure semiconductor has negative temperature coefficient of

resistance.
Reason (R): On raising the temperature, more charge carriers are released,
conductance increases and resistance decreases.
b. Assertion (A): The colour of light emitted by LED depends on its forward
biasing.
Reason (R): The reverse biasing of p-n junction will lower the width of
depletion layer.
c. Assertion (A): Semiconductor do not obey’s Om’s Law.
Reason (R): Current is determined by the rate of flow of charge carrier
d. Assertion (A): Silicon is preferred over germanium for making semiconductors
device.
Reason (R): The energy gap for germanium is more than the energy gap of
silicon.
e. Assertion (A): At a fix temperature, silicon will have a minimum conductivity
when it has a smaller accepter doping.
Reason (R): The conductivity of and intrinsic semiconductor is slightly higher
than of a lightly doped p-type.