Turbo-Compressor

The turbo or dynamic compressors are of two types: Centrifugal compressor and
Axial Flow compressor.
Centrifugal Compressor
The principle of operation of centrifugal compressor is same as that of centrifugal
pump. It is sometimes referred as blower. A turbo-compressor is similar to turbine pump
(i.e, multi-stage centrifugal pump).
The basic components of a centrifugal compressor includes an impeller, diffuser
and casing as shown in Figure. The impeller is a radial disc with a series of radial blades
(vanes). The impeller rotates inside the casing. The impeller is usually forged or die-casting
of aluminum alloy. The center of the impeller is called the eye. The eye of the impeller is
connected with the drive shaft. The casing of the compressor has a volute shape. A diffuser
ring is housed in the radial position of the impeller. The casing of centrifugal compressor
is made of cast iron or steel, cast or welded depends on the maximum delivery pressure.
The single or multi-stage compressors are adopted to flows ranging from 0.25 m3/s to 20
m3/s. It is rugged machine requires little maintenance, having negligible oil consumption,
small foundation needed, creating smooth flow in the pipe line. They are suitable for
relatively large flow, poor isothermal efficiency because higher uncooled compression
ratio.

The ratio of compression in each stage usually does not exceed 1.2. For a gas
pressure of 5 to 8 bar about 10 to 15 stages are needed. As the air is compressed during its
stages, the radius of the impellers gradually decreases towards its outlet end of the
compressor. Water jacketing of the outlet casing is one of the method of cooling. Since the
compression so rapid, there is little time for heat exchange between gas and the
surroundings; therefore compression process is usually adiabatic or polytropic (n > 1.40.
The velocity of air is so high that air encounters considerable friction both internally and
with the compressor wall. The changes in the direction of air flow results in turbulence and
shock. All these generate internal energy with the air and produces temperature higher than
the theoretical adiabatic temperature. Such compressor is not used as portable equipment.
It is suitable for large quantity of air about 150 m 3/min.; pressure attainable upto 11 bar;
operating at 10,000 to 30,000 rpm.

Working
With the rotation of the impeller, air enters radially into the impeller eye with low
velocity v1 at atmospheric pressure p1. Due to centrifugal action of the impeller, the air
comes radially out and during its movement, it is guided by the blades within the impeller.
As the air passes through the impeller, there is a rise in static pressure, temperature and
kinetic energy of the air. The pressure, temperature and velocity of the air leaving the
impeller are p2, T2, and v2, respectively. The air leaving the impeller enters into the diffuser
casing where the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy. Thus the static pressure
is further increased. The air is then collected in the casing and discharged from the
compressor. The change in pressure and velocity of air passing the impeller and diffuser
passage are shown in Figure.

Velocity Diagram
In a centrifugal air compressor, the air enters the impeller radially and leaves
axially. Hence the blades are designed in such a way that the air enters and leaves the blades
without shock.
Using the usual notations, let
 u1 - Blade velocity at inlet
 vr1 - Relative blade velocity at outlet
 v1 - Absolute velocity of inlet air
 vf1 - Inlet flow velocity
 α1 - Air inlet angle
 β1 - Blade angle at inlet

u2, vr2, v2, vf2, α2 and β2 are the corresponding values at outlet.
 Work input per kg of air
w = u1 vw1 + u2 vw2, (1)
where, vw1 and vw2 are the whirl components at inlet and outlet.
Since the working fluid enters radially, α1 = 900 and therefore, vw1 = 0.
Hence work input by blade per kg of air
w = u2 vw2 J/kg (2)
If the mass flow rate of air in kg/s, then power input to compressor
𝑃 = 𝑚̇ 𝑢2 𝑣𝑤2 Joules (3)
Work input to compressor per kg of air can also be expressed as
𝛾−1
𝑝02 𝛾
𝑤 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇01 [(𝑝 ) − 1] (4)
01

Where, T01, p01 and p02 are the stagnation air temperature at inlet, stagnation
pressure at inlet and outlet, respectively.
If v1 = v2, then stagnation pressure, p01 = p1 (static pressure) and p02 = p2, T01= T1.
𝛾−1
𝑝2 𝛾
𝑤 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇1 [(𝑝 ) − 1] (5)
1

Degree of Reaction
The degree of reaction (Rd) is defined as the ratio of static pressure rise in the
impeller to the total pressure rise in the compressor.

(𝑢22 − 𝑣𝑟2
2 )+ (𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 )
𝑟1 1
𝑅𝑑 = (6)
2 𝑢2 𝑣𝑤2
As vf1 = vf2
𝑣𝑤2
𝑅𝑑 = 1 − (7)
2 𝑢2

Axial Flow Compressor

The axial flow compressor is made up of an impeller with several rows of rotating
blades and a casing that includes rows of stationary blades. The air is drawn into an intake
nozzle and passed in an axial direction through, and compressed in, each successive row
of compressor blades to be then discharged into a pipe line. The blades are usually of aero
foil section to reduce shocks, turbulence and boundary separation. The annular area for air
flow gradually decreases from the inlet to the outlet of the compressor. The fixed guide
blades also guide the air to flow at an angle for smooth entry of next row of rotating blades.
Several rows of blades are used to achieve high pressure rise in the compressor. The
moving blades act as a series of fans and the fixed blades act as guide vanes and diffuser.
Such compressor is usually multi-stage machine; each stage can give a pressure ratio of 1.2
to 1.3. They are suitable for high pressure ratio and more efficient than radial compressor.
The axial flow compressor is made of several pressure stages. Each stage comprises
of a set of rotating impeller blades and a set of stationary blades. The rotating blades are
attached with the rotor disk or a drum and the stationary blades are rigidly fixed in the
compressor casing.

Velocity Diagram
In an axial flow air compressor, the air enters the impeller axially and leaves also
axially. The blades are designed in such a way that the air enters and leaves the blades
without shock.
Using the usual notations, let
 u1 - Blade velocity at inlet
 vr1 - Relative blade velocity at outlet
 v1 - Absolute velocity of inlet air
 vf1 - Inlet flow velocity
 α1 - Air inlet angle
 β1 - Blade angle at inlet

u2, vr2, v2, vf2, α2 and β2 are the corresponding values at outlet.
Following assumptions are taken while drawing velocity triangle diagram:
 The blade velocity remains same at inlet and outlet; i.e., u1 = u2 = u.
 The flow velocity also remains same at inlet and outlet, because of mass flow rate
is constant; vf1 = vf2.
 Relative velocity at outlet is less than that of inlet; vr2 < vr1.
 Both whirl components lie in the same plane.

The work input per stage per kg. of air

W = u (vw2 – vw1) = Cp (T02 – T01) (1)
If the mass flow rate of air in kg/s, then power input to compressor
𝑃 = 𝑚̇ 𝑢 (𝑣𝑤2 − 𝑣𝑤1 ) Joules (2)
For inlet and outlet velocity triangles
 vw1 = vf1 tan α1, vw2 = vf2 tan α2. (3)

Given, vf1 = vf2 = vf

Therefore, the work input per stage per kg. of air
W = u vf (tan α2 - tan α1) (4)
The degree of reaction
2 − 𝑣2 )
(𝑣𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑅𝑑 = (as u1 = u2 = u) (5)
2 𝑢 (𝑣𝑤2 − 𝑣𝑤1 )
From the geometry of the velocity triangle diagrams (inlet and outlet)

𝑣𝑓2 (𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽1 −𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽2 )

𝑅𝑑 = assuming that vf1 = vf2 = vf. (6)
2 𝑢 𝑣𝑓 (tan 𝛼2 −tan 𝛼1 )

From the symmetry of the velocity traingles,

β1 = α2 and β2 = α1.

Usually Rd in an axial flow compressor ≈ 0.50

𝑣𝑓 (tan 𝛽1 +tan 𝛽2 )
From eqn. (6) 𝑅𝑑 = = 0.50 (7)
2𝑢
𝑢
or, = tan β1 + tan β2 (8)
𝑣𝑓
With 50 % Reaction blading (rd = 0.50), the axial flow compressor has symmetrical
blades and losses are also less.

Surging
The surge limit is that point on the characteristics curve corresponding to the
maximum head; beyond this, the operation becomes unstable and the machine experiences
abnormal vibrations, a characteristics noise and rapid variation in power. The following
explanation describes the surging phenomena.
With the increase in load, due to the closing of the delivery valve, the back pressure
in the discharge pipe increases, thus the operating point is shifted from E to C. Afterwards,
with the further increase in load, the high pressure will be existing in the pipe, whereas the
machine develops less head, so the delivery is not possible. The reverse flow of the high
pressure fluid from the lie to the compressor takes place. But after sometime this back
pressure in the delivery line falls and the compressor starts delivering pressurized flow.
This phenomenon repeats in the region D-C. Thus the compressor does not give the steady
flow during this region – called surging. Surging affects overheating of the fluid and
produces stresses on the fluid due to back flow of the fluid. When the machine enters into
the surging, the torque suddenly drops (as pressure falls); which brings the wheel in sudden
acceleration when the machine is connected to an IC engine with low inertia.
Chocking
The chock point is the maximum rate of flow that the compressor can give at a
particular speed of rotation. At this point, the machine can no longer assure a discharge
head and energy of compression is dissipated. It occurs when the discharge velocity reaches
sonic velocity. At chocking, the pressure ratio in the compressor becomes unity, i.e., there
is no compression.
When the flow increases, the gas velocity increases until it reaches a maximum
either at the entrance to the wheel or the entrance to the diffuser. When this maximum
velocity reaches the speed of sound, shocks are produced and that limit the flow. In order
to increase the flow it is necessary to increase the speed of rotation.