Revision Notes

Class 11 Mathematics
Chapter 15 – Statistics

Terminologies:

 Statistics – It is the science of collection, organization, presentation, analysis and

interpretation of the numerical data.
 Limit of the class – The end values of a class is called its limits. The highest value
is the upper limit and the lowest value is the lower limit.
 Class interval – The difference between the upper and lower limit of each class.
 Primary and secondary data – The data when collected by the investigator
himself is termed as primary data and when it is collected by someone other than
the investigator, then it is called as the secondary data.
 Variable or variate – A symbol or characteristics, whose magnitude varies from
observation to observation is called as variable or variate. e.g., weight, height etc.
 Frequency – The umber times a given observation occurs in a given set of data is
called frequency of that observation.
 Discrete frequency distribution – The frequency distribution in which the data is
presented in a way that the exact measurements of the units are clearly visible is
called a discrete frequency distribution.
 Continuous frequency distribution – The frequency distribution in which the
classes groups are not exactly measurable is called continuous frequency
distribution.
 Cumulative frequency distribution – The frequency obtained after adding the
frequency of first class to the second class and then to the third class and so on,
then the final frequency obtained is called the cumulative frequency. The
frequencies given should be in the form of grouped or class frequencies.

Graphical representation of frequency distribution:

 Histogram – A histogram is drawn by marking the given class intervals on x-axis
and corresponding frequencies on y-axis. In the corresponding intervals, an erected
rectangle is drawn having width proportional to the class interval and length
proportional to the frequency of that class interval. When we take the class interval
is taken as unit length on the graph, then the frequency of that class denotes the
area of the rectangle.

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When the class intervals are of unequal widths, then the height of the rectangles are
proportional to the ratio of the frequencies to the width of each class. A sample of
histogram has been shown below;

 Bar diagram – While drawing bar diagrams, only the length of bars or rectangles
are taken into consideration. The data is divided into different classes, then the
classes are marked with equal widths on the x-axis and then corresponding
frequencies are marked on y-axis which in turn is proportional to the length of each
bar. An example has been shown below;

 Pie diagrams – These are used to represent relative frequency distribution, in

which a circle is divided into sectors which are equal to the number of classes and
the area of each sector is proportional to the frequency of that class. The division

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 is done by proportionately dividing the angles as per the frequencies. An example
has been shown below;

To draw the required sectors, we find the central angles for that which can be
calculated using the following relation;
Frequency  360
Central angle 
Total frequency

 Frequency polygon – In order to draw the frequency polygon of an ungrouped

frequency distribution, the variate values are plotted on the x-axis and the
corresponding frequencies are plotted on the y-axis. The mid-points of each bar are
then joined using straight line to show a trend. An example has been shown below;

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 Cumulative frequency curve (Ogive) – We first prepare a cumulative frequency
table from the given data. Then we plot the cumulative frequencies against the
lower or upper limits of the corresponding class intervals. Then, we join the points
and the curve obtained is called a cumulative frequency curve or ogive. Ogives are
generally drawn using two methods;
(i) The ‘less than’ method – On the x-axis, plot the points with the upper limits and
on the ordinates or y-axis, the corresponding less than cumulative frequencies.
Then the points are joined by free hand to het a smooth curve or less than ogive.
It is also called a falling curve.
(ii) The ‘more than’ method – On the x-axis, plot the points with the lower limits and
on the ordinates or y-axis, the corresponding more than cumulative frequencies.
Then the points are joined by free hand to het a smooth curve or less than ogive.
It is also called a falling curve.
An example has been shown in the diagram below;

Measures of central tendency:

Measures of central tendency is the process of describing a complete data set by using
a central value of that data set. The five measures of central tendency are enlisted
below:

 Arithmetic mean – It is the ratio of the sum of the vales of the items in a series to
the total amount of data. These are further of five types;
(i) Arithmetic mean for unclassified data – If we have n numbers x1,x 2 ,x 3 ,....,x n ,
then arithmetic mean is given by;
x  x 2  x 3  ....  x n
AX 1
n
 x
n
 i1 i .
n

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(ii) Arithmetic mean for frequency distribution – If we have n numbers
x1,x 2 ,x 3 ,....,x n , such that their corresponding frequencies are f1,f 2 ,f3 ,....,f n
respectively, then arithmetic mean is given by;
f x  f x  f x  ....  f n x n
A 1 1 2 2 3 3
f1  f 2  f3  ....  f n
in1x i fi
 n .
i1fi

(iii) Arithmetic mean for classified data – Let us have a class interval with lower limit
ab
as a and upper limit as b , then the class mark, x  . Now, for a classified data,
2
let the class marks be x1,x 2 ,x 3 ,....,x n be the variables of the classes, then the
arithmetic mean is given by;
n 1
xf  i 1  a i  bi   f i
A  2 .
f in1fi
Step deviation method;
 in1fi u i 
A  A1   n h
 i1fi 
Where, Ai is the assumed mean
x  A1
ui  i
h
fi  frequency
h  width of interval

(iv) Combined mean – If x1,x 2 ,x3 ,....,x r be r groups of observations, then we can
find the arithmetic mean of the combined group x using the formula,
n A  n 2 A 2  n 3A 3  ....  n r A r
A 1 1 .
n1  n 2  n 3  ....  n r
Where,
Ar  Arithmetic mean of collection x r
n r  total frequency of the collection x r

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(v) Weighted arithmetic mean – The weighted arithmetic mean, if w is the weight of
the variable x is given by;
wx
Aw  .
w

Properties of arithmetic mean –

a) Arithmetic means are always independent of change of origin and the change of
scale.
b) The algebraic sum of deviations of a set of values with their arithmetic mean is
zero.
c) When taken about mean, the sum of the squares of the deviations of a set of values
is minimum.

 Geometric mean - If we have n numbers x1,x 2 ,x 3 ,....,x n , then geometric mean is

given by;
1
 n

G    x i   n x1.x 2 .x 3......x n or
n

 i1 
 log x1  log x 2  ...  log x n 
G  antilog  
 n
For frequency distribution, we can have
1
G   x1f1.x 2f 2 .....x n f n  N
n
Where N   fi
i 1

 f log x1  f 2 log x 2  ...  f n log x n 

Or, G  antilog  1 
 N

 Harmonic mean - If we have n numbers x1,x 2 ,x 3 ,....,x n , then harmonic mean is

given by;
n n
HM   n
1 1 1 1

x1 x 2
 ...  
x n i1 x i
If the corresponding frequencies are f1,f 2 ,f3 ,....,f n , then

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 n

f1  f 2  f3  ....  f n 
fi
HM   in1
f1 f 2 fn fi

x1 x 2
 ... 
xn i 1 x i

 Median – When we arrange a given set of data in ascending or descending order,

then the value lying in the middle is the median of the given data set. It is denoted
by Md and is an average of the position of the numbers.

(i) Median for simple distribution – In this type of distribution, first we arrange the
terms in either in the ascending order or in the descending order and then find the
number of terms n .
 n 1
a) When n is odd, then median is the   th term.
 2 
b) When n is even, there will be two terms in the middle. Then the median will be the
n n 
mean of two middle terms th and   1 th .
2 2 

N
(ii) Median for unclassified frequency distribution – First, find , where N  fi .
2
Then find the cumulative frequency of the data given and then see the value of the
N
variable which is just greater than or equal to . This value of the variable is called
2
as the median.

N
(iii) Median of classified data (median class) - First, find . Then find the
2
cumulative frequency of each class then see the value of the cumulative frequency
N
that is just greater than or equal to . The corresponding class is the median class.
2
For a continuous distribution, median is given by
N 
 2 C
Md  l    h
 f 
 

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Where, l  lower limit of the median class
f  frequency of the median class
N   f =total frequency
C  cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class
h  length of the median class

Quartiles – Like median, a distribution can also be divided into more equal parts
(four, five, six etc.). The quartiles for a continuous distribution are given by
N 
 4 C
Q1  l    h .
 f 
 
Where, l  lower limit of the quartile class
f  frequency of the quartile class
N  f =total frequency
C  cumulative frequency of the class preceding the first quartile class
h  length of the quartile class
Similarly,
 3N 
  C 
Q3  l   4  h .
 f 
 

 Mode – The value at the point about which the data set tend to be most highly
concentrated is called the mode Mo of the distribution.

(i) Mode for a raw data – Suppose we have the following numbers of a variable
70,80,90,96,70,96,96,90 , then the mode will be 96 as it occurs maximum number
of times. Graphically mode can be represented as follows;

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(ii) For classified distribution – In case of datasets divided into classes then the class
with maximum frequency is called the modal class and the middle point of that modal
class is called is called the crude mode. The class preceding and succeeding the modal
class are called the pre-modal and post-modal class respectively.

(iii) Mode for classified data (continuous distribution) – The mode is given by;
 f 0  f1 
MO  l    h
 2f 0  f1  f 2 
Where, l  lower limit of modal class
f0  frequency of the modal class
f1  frequency of the pre-modal class
f 2  frequency of the post-modal class
h  length of class interval

 Relation between mean, Median and Mode –

(i) Mean  Mode  3  Mean  Median 
(ii) Mode  3Median  2Mean

Symmetrical and skew distribution:

A distribution is said to be symmetric if same number of frequencies is distributed on
either side of the mode. In this case the frequency curve is bell-shaped and
A  Md  Mo .

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The variation does not have symmetry in the case of an anti-symmetric or skew
distribution. Considering two cases,
(i) Positive skewness - The frequencies increases sharply in the beginning and
decreases slowly after the modal value and A  Md  Mo .

(ii) Negative skewness - The frequencies increases slowly in the beginning and
decreases slowly after the modal value and A  Md  Mo .

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Measure of dispersion:
Dispersion of the data is the degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an
average value. There are three dispersions, enlisted below:

 Range is used to denote the difference between the highest and the lowest element
of a data. It can be represented as range  x max  x min .

x max  x min
The coefficient of range is expressed as .
x max  x min

It finds its uses in statists, especially in series relating to quality control in production.

(i) Inter-quartile range is Q3  Q1 .

Q3  Q1
(ii) Semi-inter quartile range (quartile deviation) is QD =
2
Q3  Q1
(iii) Coefficient of quartile deviation is
Q3  Q1
2
(iv) QD  SD
3

 Mean Deviation is defined as the arithmetic mean of absolute deviations of the

values of the variable from a measure of their average, which can be either of mean,
median, or mode.  is used to denote it. The formula for various conditions is below,
xz
(i) For simple (discrete) distribution    , where n is the number of terms and
n
z can be either of A or Md or Mo .
 xz
(ii) For unclassified frequency distribution  
f
 xz
(iii) For classified distribution   , x is for class mark of the interval.
f
4
(iv) MD  SD
5
mean deviation from the avergae
(v) Average (mean or Median or Mode) 
average

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(vi) Coefficient of Mean Deviation is the ratio of MD and the mean from which the
 xx
deviation is measured and is given by MD  .
n

 Standard deviation is defined as the square root of the arithmetic mean of the
squares of deviations of the terms from their arithmetic mean. It is denoted by  .
The formulas are as below,

 
2
 xx  d2
(i) For simple distribution    .
n n
 
2
f x  x  fd 2
(ii) For frequency distribution    .
f f

 
2
f x  x  fd 2
(iii)For classified data    x is the class mark.
f f
 fd 2   fd 
2

(iv) Shortcut Method for SD     , where d  x  A' and A' is the

f  f 
assumed mean.
(v) Standard deviation of the Combined Series – If n1 ,n 2 are the sizes, X1 ,X 2 are the
means and 1, 2 are the standard deviation of the series, then the standard
n1  12  d12   n 2  2 2  d 2 2 
deviation of the combined series is given by   ,
n1  n 2
where d1  X1  X and d 2  X 2  X

 Variance is the square of standard deviation and 2 is used to denote it.

Analysis of frequency distributions:

 The measure of variability is called as the coefficient of variation. It is independent


of units. The letters C.V. is used for denoting it. It is defined as C.V   100 ,
x

where the term is called coefficient of standard deviation.
x

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 The distribution for which the coefficient of variation is less is called more
consistent.
 For two series with equal means, the series with greater standard deviation is called
more variable than the other.
 The series with lesser value of standard deviation is said to be more consistent than
the other.

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