AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL

Prof. Bhola Ram Gurjar

Civil Engineering
IIT Roorkee
 INDEX

S.NO TOPICS PAGE.NO

Week 1

1 Lecture 01: Introduction to Air Pollution - I 5

2 Lecture 02: Introduction to Air Pollution - II 38
3 Lecture 03: Impact of Air Pollution on Human Health 63
4 Lecture 04: Impact of Air Pollution on Vegetation and Animals 88
Lecture 05: Impact of Air Pollution on Building Materials and
5 Structures 116
Week 2
Lecture 06: Impact of Air Pollution on Atmosphere, Soil and Water
6 Bodies 145
7 Lecture 07: Sources and Classification of Air Pollutants 179
8 Lecture 08: Atmospheric Formation and Fate of Air Pollutants 218
9 Lecture 09: Meteorological Parameters & Air Pollution 253
10 Lecture 10: Atmospheric Stability and Lapse Rates 288
Week 3
11 Lecture 11: Atmospheric Stability and Plume Behaviour 320
Lecture 12: Boundary Layer, Mixing Height, Stack Height and Plume
12 Rise 349
13 Lecture 13: Status of Air Quality Monitoring in India 383
14 Lecture 14: Air Quality Index (AQI) 421
15 Lecture 15: Introduction to Air Quality Modelling 451
Week 4
16 Lecture 16: Gaussian Dispersion Model for Point Source 494
Lecture 17: Gaussian Dispersion Model for Line Source and Area
17 Source 525
18 Lecture 18: Determination of Concentration of Pollutants using 557

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 Gaussian Dispersion Model
19 Lecture 19: Assimilative Capacity of an Airshed 586
20 Lecture 20: Emission Inventory 612

Week 5
21 Lecture 21: Transport Emission Inventory 644
22 Lecture 22: Emission Inventory for Industrial Sector 679
23 Lecture 23 : Emission Inventory for Agriculture Sector 712
Lecture 24: Emission Inventory for Residential and Commercial
24 Sectors 739
Lecture 25: Application of Remote Sensing/Satellite-Based Data in Air
25 Quality Management 764
Week 6
26 Lecture 26: Emission Inventory: Case Study 788
27 Lecture 27: Methods of Source Apportionment 822
28 Lecture 28: Source apportionment using Receptor Modeling 847
29 Lecture 29: Indoor Air Quality: An Introduction 885
30 Lecture 30: Specific Sources and Types of Indoor Air Pollutants 913
Week 7
31 Lecture 31: Health Impacts Due to Indoor Air Pollution 935
32 Lecture 32: Assessment of Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution 964
33 Lecture 33: Indoor Air Quality Modelling 992
34 Lecture 34: Technologies to Mitigate Indoor Air Pollution 1015
35 Lecture 35: Personal Exposure to Fine Particles: A Case Study 1040
Week 8
Lecture 36: Indoor Air Quality in Nursery Buildings, UAE – Case
36 Study 1061
Lecture 37: Global and Regional Environmental Issues - Ozone
37 Depletion 1085
Lecture 38: Global and Regional Environmental Issues - Global
38 Warming 1112

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 Lecture 39: Global and Regional Environmental Issues - Climate
39 Change 1137
40 Lecture 40: Global and Regional Environmental Issues - Acid Rain 1163
Week 9
41 Lecture 41: Introduction to Air Pollution Control 1191
42 Lecture 42: Air Pollution Control Devices: Part - 1 1220
43 Lecture 43: Air Pollution Control Devices: Part - 2 1252
44 Lecture 44: Air Pollution Control Devices: Part - 3 1295
45 Lecture 45: Air Pollution Control Devices: Part - 4 1320
Week 10
Lecture 46: Tutorial - II - Practice Examples on Particulate Emission
46 Control Devices 1350
Lecture 47: Tutorial - III - Practice Examples on Gaseous Emission
47 Control Devices 1380
48 Lecture 48: Air Quality Standards 1411
49 Lecture 49: Air Pollution Legislations and Regulations 1435
Lecture 50: National Policies for Managing the Ambient Air Quality
50 (AAQ) 1457
Week 11
Lecture 51: International Environmental Treaties to Reduce Air
51 Pollution and GHG Emissions 1481
52 Lecture 52: Impact of Lockdown on Air Quality 1511
53 Lecture 53: Sector Wise Mitigation Measures to Control Air Pollution 1536
54 Lecture 54: Challenges and the Way Forward 1563
55 Lecture 55: Sampling and Analysis of PM10 in Ambient Air 1603
Week 12
56 Lecture 56: Sampling and Analysis of PM2.5 in Ambient Air 1627
57 Lecture 57: Sampling and Analysis of SO2 and NO2 in Ambient Air 1648
58 Lecture 58: Stack Emission Monitoring using Isokinetic Sampling 1686
59 Lecture 59: Indoor Air Quality Assessment using Multi Gas Monitor 1711

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 Lecture 60: Sampling and Analysis of PM10 & PM2.5 using
60 Spectrometer 1733

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 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 01
Introduction to Air Pollution- 1

Hello friends, welcome to the online course on Air Pollution and Control, which is a course of
NPTEL under the Ministry of Education's initiative for online courses. And I welcome all of you
who have registered for this course. And you might have seen the introductory video, the short
video in which I have given you very brief information about this course.

So, under the series of 60 lectures, each lecture of 30 minutes, we will have the complete basics,
fundamentals and practical aspects of air pollution and control. So, today we have the first
lecture, the introductory lecture, we have two introductory lectures to set the ball rolling for kind
of setting the criteria of this course and the baseline of this course.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:28)

So, today we will discuss about various definitions of air pollution, evolution from ancient times
to the present one, then what were the impacts of the industrialization, industrial revolution, and
pre-industrial era, post-industrial era, what are the impacts, then, there are the legislations or
regulations, which have been developed over the years. Then, we will also see some
environmental protection programs related information and we will also go through certain

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episodes and accidents, there is a basic difference between air pollution episodes and air
pollution accidents. So, those also we will discuss and then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:06)

So, when we go about the definitions of air pollution, there are numerous definitions, but they
basically center on the presence of some foreign elements or undesirable compounds or
pollutants. So, the pollutants are basically like, someone defines that air pollution is nothing, but
the presence in ambient atmosphere of those substances, which are generally resulting from the
activity of man means, manmade sources in sufficient concentrations and presents for a sufficient
time and under circumstances which interfere significantly with the comfort and health or
welfare of the people or the full use or enjoyment of property. So, those kinds of adverse or
negative impacts, because your presence of those substances in the atmosphere.

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(Refer Slide Time: 03:02)

Another definition talks about the presence of contaminants or pollutants. So, there may be a
little bit difference between contaminants and pollutants, that we will also discuss, some people
say that they are, one and the same thing, some people, define them differently, so, that we will
go through. So, one definition is the presence of contaminants or pollutants substances in the
atmosphere that interfere with human health or welfare or produces other harmful environmental
effects.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:34)

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Another definition is like air pollution is the excessive concentration of foreign matter in the air,
which adversely affect the wellbeing of an individual or the public community and causes
damage to the property or the environment like these, there are other different definitions. But,
all definitions are like the presence of some material in the atmosphere, which really impacts in a
negative way to our life, whether directly to our health or through some property or
environmental impacts in a negative way.

So, when we talk about the evolution of air pollution as a problem, then basically, we go to those
ancient times when human beings started to use fire. So, at that moment itself, we started to
contribute to the atmosphere, some sort of pollutants, but the quantity was so less that it was
insignificant. Until the industrial era, when the pollution emissions were in huge quantity, and
then they change the ambient air quality, only then this was figured out as a problem. Otherwise,
initially, the fire was the sign of safety, power, many things like because it protected from
animals, and it started to give us many other benefits.

But, when the industry started, then the stakes emissions, those kinds of chimneys and the
plumes. Those were the Science of growth, economic growth and that kind of thing positive
aspects of economic growth. But, nowadays whenever we see the stack emissions or the plumes,
then we see that there is pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:14)

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So, the negativity of these pollutant emissions from extraction emissions was not figured out
until the industrial era came into huge existence. So, air pollution started when this industrial era
came into existence. So, if we talk about like the Roman era before that also some problems were
there in cities or in a localized problem otherwise, like right now, this air pollution problem is a
global problem, which was not at that time. So, when we talk about the Roman era that is 350
BCE to 175 CE.

So, the mining activities, smelting activities of, metals etc, those were the polluting activities and
they were polluting the atmosphere for around 500 years, but only in a localized form. And it
also released large amounts of toxic fumes into, Europe's here because there were a lot of
activities at that time. And within that period, the lead pollution increased to more than 10 times
higher than the background level of the lead concentration in the atmosphere.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:24)

Similarly, when we talk about, industrialization, so, before industrialization, if we see, this
agrarian way of life and the handicraft or cottage industry, then again the pollution was very,
very localized, wherever these activities small activities were, they are like blacksmith related
activities, those kinds of things.

But when you can see like in this industry and machine manufacturing era, then people started to
work in masses in big factories. So, you needed the power to fuel those factories, whether
through coal or through oil, those kinds of energy sources. So, that is why pollution emissions
became part of this particular industrial activity.

So, when we talk about the industrial revolution, basically the term industrial revolution in
between 1760 to 1840, it was first popularized by the English economic historian Arnold. This
process of Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 18th century and from there it is spread
over the different parts of the world first in Europe and then other continents also and
colonization, all those political issues were also associated with this industrial revolution.

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(Refer Slide Time: 07:42)

Well, when we talk about air pollution in the pre-industrialization scenario, then in ancient times,
like the burning of wood was the source of energy or source of light for cooking activities or
eating even in the caves, and smelting some furnaces. So, this wood was used, but when
activities started to concentrate in masses, then the other fuel came into existence like coal etc.
But for centuries this wood was the source of energy, source of heat and light.

And that is why even in caves a lot of the thick layer of black carbon and all those things can still
be found. And most likely, this indoor air pollution was used for keeping away, animals as well

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as even mosquitoes. So, that was the positive aspect, but that was kind of affordable amount of
air pollutant.

But it also contributed in negative aspects of the health, like scientists have found blackening of
the lungs in the samples of mummified lung tissues from Egypt, Peru and Britain that revealed
long term exposure to the smoke of domestic fire. So, those were the reasons why these lungs
were exposed to the high concentration of smoke. So, in pre-industrial scenario, that kind of
source was of air pollutant was there.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:13)

And then the switch of fuel occurred from wood to the coal and the reason was because in 16th
century, the population started to increase. Better quality better living style and then wood
demand increased significantly. So, the wood became scarce. Those kind of struggle was there in
forest ownership of the kings and then people's taking the wood. So, then wood prices started to
increase, the price hike was significant.

Then increased coal consumption started because the coal replaced the usage of the wood and
because of coal lot of smoke was there because of coal’s quality like ash content is there, sulfur
content is there. So, the emissions of the air pollutants also increased along with the coal
consumption.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:12)

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When we talk about air pollution in post-industrial scenario, so from wood burning, we switch to
the coal burning and after that this oil was discovered and the use of oil also started. So, you can
say from solid fuel to the liquid fuel switchover was there and then gas like LPG or CNG, or
natural gas those kind of fuels were also they are in post-industrial scenario. So, at present they
are the sources of pollution basically, whether, in the power plants which are based on the coal or
you are using oil in generators, diesel generators or in transportation sector or in factories, they
are the sources of air pollution.

So, well when we talk about like from the end of the 18th century, this rapid industrial growth
started throughout the world, the factories started to work mass production was started and the
cities came into existence mega cities, like up to 1950s only, Tokyo was the biggest city, but
later on because of this industrialization and this fossil fuel based economy, people started to
gather into big cities and factories around industrial clusters.

Then the consumption of coal increased in Europe and the United States and other parts of the
world. And the world coal output was around 10 million tons annually in 1800, at that time, but
later on it further increased. So, you can see these are the science of coal based power plants and
factories.

In 1900 global coal output has increased by 77 percent annually with respect to the 1800. And
then air pollution rose unprecedented levels as coal demand increased for industrial and home
energy uses. So, the quantity of coal was burned a lot of quantity. So, the pollutant’s quantity

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which was emitted by burning of coal also increased. And the negative impacts on the nature or
human health was also associated with increased coal consumption and associated pollutants.

Well, when we talk about air pollution regulation history, so, it started even from 14th century
like 1307, King Edward first of England, he banned the use of the coal in certain seasons in
certain parts of the cities or the kingdom.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:45)

In 1377 to 1399 Richard II restricted the use of coal. Similarly, like 1413 to 1422 Henry V
regulated or restricted use of the coal. So, you can see means they were aware of the negative
impacts of the coal usage. In 1578 Queen Elizabeth I objected that taste and the smoke of the
coal fumes. In 1661 the royal command of Charles II and John Evelyn of the Royal Society
published this Fumifugium or the inconvenience of the air and the smoke dissipated together
with the smoke remedies, humbly proposed.

So, those kinds of documentation started to get prepared, because they needed something to be
done to reduce the problem. And in 1784, watt’s steam engine started to be used, the coal was
used for making the steam and to pump the water and move machineries and smoke and ash
produced from the burning of coal. So, more and more use of coal started at that time
particularly. So, even regulations were started to take form at that time also, you can see means
that is the part of the history of air pollution regulation history.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:04)

When we talk about legislations so, the recent legislations which have been in different
countries, so, if we give the example of USA, so, in 1955, they had this first Federal Air
Pollution Control Act of the USA. And in 1960, they had Motor Vehicle Exhaust Act, and in
1963, Clean Air Act was formulated, in 1965, then Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act was
enacted. And this emission regulations for cars to begin in 1968 after three years of the 1965.

In 1967 Air Quality Act was again refined you can say and it was criteria documents and control
technique documents all those documentation started to prepare. In 1970 Clean Air Act
amendment was brought and the National Ambient Air Quality Standards were defined and the
new source of performance standards were also taken into account.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:03)

When we talk about in India like in 1981 Air Prevention and Control Pollution Act was enacted
in 1981. In 1982, the Air Prevention and Control Pollution Rules were executed. In 1988 Central
Motor Vehicles Act was there, then after that several additions of these acts and regulations came
into existence.

In 1986 the Comprehensive Environmental Protection Act was enacted and then after that other
improved versions were brought into existence and implemented. So, the mostly all the countries
are having its own environmental pollution acts related to air, water, soil, all those things. But if
you talk about only air pollution, then again all countries have, most of the countries. Otherwise,
World Health Organization, they also give some guidelines so, many countries follow those
guidelines.

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(Refer Slide Time: 16:02)

Environmental Protection Programs, if we talk about this historical aspects. So, in 1972, the first
World Conference to protect the environment at Stockholm was organized in 1972, and after
that, in 1985, this Vienna Convention was organized in Austria. Then in 1987, Montreal protocol
in Canada. And then in 1988, this IPCC, Switzerland came into existence that is Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change, which gives periodically, the reports on climate change
and its relation with the greenhouse gas emissions.

Well, when we talk about 1992 in Brazil Earth summit was organized and in 1995, the first COP
that is the Conference of the Parties, the first COP in Berlin, it was held and the Kyoto Protocol
came into existence in 1997. And then Paris Agreement in 2015. So there is good history of this
environmental protection programs, especially air pollution, you can say.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:24)

Well, when we talk about different programs and their key points to which kind of activity or
negative impacts they are associated with then the first World Conference to protect the
environment in Stockholm in 1972. It was focused basically on international environmental
issues, those were different kinds of issues. But the Vienna Convention it was very much focused
or concentrated on to preserve the human health and to protect the environment from harmful
effects of ozone layer depletion.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:48)

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And later on the Montreal Protocol was signed to reduce the emissions of those CFCs etc, which
damage the ozone layer. And in 1988, this IPCC was formed to provide the scientific
information that use that is used for development of climate policies.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:07)

And then Earth Summit in 1992, it included the concept of sustainable development. So better
concepts of sustainable development which could include many other aspects beyond the
environment with socio-economic poverty, education, accessibility to infrastructure, so many
things, you might be knowing about those SDGs Sustainable Development Goals. So, that
concept came into existence in 1992. Then the first COP Berlin 1995, okay, it was a stabilized to
stabilize the greenhouse gas emissions and to address the threat of the climate change. So, all
country heads participated in this particular conference.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:52)

Then the Kyoto Protocol was signed for stabilization of greenhouse gases, concentrations in the
atmosphere in 1997. And then Paris Agreement in 2015 to limit the global warming to well
below 2 degrees Celsius preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels.
Because otherwise, the scientific evidences are there, that if it goes this global warming goes on,
then the climate change can be very severe and it would be very threatening issue for the whole
humanity you can say.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:23)

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Well, when we talk about air pollution episodes, as I said, there are air pollution episodes and
there are air pollution accidents, basically, episodes are nothing but the combination of emission
sources and metrological conditions. So, at particular season particular day, you will find a lot of
pollution, but other day, even sources are same emissions are same, but air is not so polluted so,
episodes happen sometimes. Accidents happen when because of some human error or because of
machinery failure etc.

Some release of toxic gases or report air pollutants happens and the exposure is instantaneously
very high of very high concentration to the people so it can threaten the health even it can result
in fatalities or mortalities or death. So those are the accidents like Bhopal Gas Tragedy etc., we
will see later on. So the air pollution episodes even started in 1930 this was the first episode this
Meuse Valley in Belgium. Okay, we will see what were the characteristics of those episodes.

And in 1940, the gas attack of Los Angeles that was the nomenclature was the gas attack. This
was kind of confusion in perception, erroneous perception, but it was basically the episode
because of local emission sources and metrological conditions. Then when we talk about this
Pennsylvania Donora 1948 that was another episode. In 1952 Great London Smog, the Winter
Smog which is also known as this was big episode very life threatening. Then Los Angeles smog
in 1954 which is known as summer smog. Okay, then inversion over New York City 1966, acid
rain in 1969. In 1978, again, West Virginia acid rain related episodes were there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:14)

When we talk about this Meuse Valley Belgium episode. So, because this is lot of sources of
pollution were there due to densely populated factories, and like zinc smelters, glass and steel
manufacturers. So, because of certain weather conditions, this started to build up a lot of
pollution levels, and the effect was severe respiratory symptoms to the people and around 63
people died, because of this respiratory problems, and even cattle’s died because of the exposure
of high concentration. Around 6000 residents became ill because of this air pollution exposure
during that particular episode.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:58)

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Gas attack one of the first cities to experience severe air pollution problem. And then this was in
the middle of World War second. So the residents believe that this is a kind of, again attack from
the enemy country, but this was again the episode because of pollution sources and certain
weather conditions. And this was basically auto exhaust emissions, petroleum refineries, those
kinds of emissions were responsible for this particular phenomena.

Later on, like in this Donora this is the town situated near a river. So the poor topography results
in poor dispersion of air pollutants, and that he started to build a lot of emissions of zinc smelting
facilities and the blast furnaces emissions. So that resulted in high levels of hydrofluoric acid
inhaled by many residents, and around 20 people died, and 600 became ill. So, the high levels of
hydrofluoric acid inhaled by many residents, and resulted in 20 deaths of the people and 600
people became ill.

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:10)

Great London Smog in 1952. Again, because of inversion winter season was there, inversion
phenomena means the vertical dispersion became completely nil and because of winter people
started to burn more and more coal to heat up their indoor environment. And this was a kind of
vicious circle, and lots of emissions of these coal related like sulfur dioxide ashes, they were
there in the atmosphere.

And so from fifth to ninth December around four or five days, this was very polluted time in
London, and many people died around 4000 people died in a week's period, because of this

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breathlessness and those were old people and having some respiratory problems, they were the
large number of victims.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:57)

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Then this Summer Smog, Los Angeles smog also known as this was because of emissions from
transportation sector. And again, Valley effect, because dispersion was very poor. So, visibility
reduced, eye irritation, those kinds of things happened. And around 2000 total accidents occurred
because visibility was poor. So, it was the cause of those accidents.

Inversion over New York City in 1966, the high level of air pollution in the history of the eastern
United States and the noxious combination of sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide that resulted
in very negative health impacts. So around 24 deaths occurred because of this, and heart and
respiratory related issues were there. Around 169 people died 24 deaths per day happened
basically, and the total deaths were around 169.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:56)

And then acid related phenomena occurred in America in 1969 you can see because of sulfur
dioxide emissions they react with H2O water moisture in the atmosphere then converted into
H2SO3 and the sulfuric acid and they reduce the pH and acid rain occurs okay. So, they impacted
negatively the plants and even birds etc, because they burnt the lawns and the leaves of the plants
and the feathers of the birds were also burnt because of the acid rain.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:53)

Another episode of acid rain in 1978 occurred in West Virginia. So, 5000 times more acidic than
normal otherwise the rainwater is having some acidic component, but this acid rain becomes
when pH is very low. Well, when we talk about accidental air pollution events, so episodes were
there, those metrological and emissions related issues accidents means that the quick release of
some toxic gases etcetera. So, 1950 Mexico and this Poza Rico this accident happened and in
Italy Seveso in 1976, this Bhopal Gas Tragedy in India occurred in 1984. Attack on this World
Tower Center in 2001. So, that was also accidental air pollution source because lot of fuel of this
aircraft and then building material was burned.

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So, air pollution occurred lot of in dense quantity. Vapor cloud explosion in Jaipur in India
because of this oil, leakage in Vizag gas leakage in 2020. So, these are some important
accidental air pollution events otherwise, there are many we are just giving you a kind of
information.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:48)

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So, in Mexico, Poza Rico this accident happened in 1950 petroleum production regions are there
in this particular location and this was like 22 sudden deaths occurred because this hydrogen
sulfide at an oil field was accidentally vented into air under a very low altitude temperature
inversion. So, the dispersion was not there and very high concentration of ambient air quality in
ambient air this concentration became very high and 320 people were hospitalized of all ages.

When we talk about the Italy’s accident in 1976 Chemical factory explosion occurred and this
was the explosion of dioxin. So, that is very dangerous chemical it is carcinogenic element, 19
children were admitted to hospitals with skin related diseases and the high animal and plant
mortality occurred because of this particular accident scenario you can see this modeling
scenario.

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(Refer Slide Time: 27:53)

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Then when we talk about Bhopal Gas Tragedy in 1984 in winter December month. So, this
Methyl Isocyanate MIC this was released accidentally so because of this very high concentration
of MIC the symptoms were like initially vomiting, eye irritation, etc., blindness, but later on a lot
of people died around 15,000 to 20,000

Well attack on the World Trade Center so terrorist attack was there on September 11. And it
exposed 1000s of people with harmful, debris and environmental contaminants and the jet fuel
was burning after the crash of the two airplanes and other building material also caught the fire.
So a lot of smoke and fumes were there and people were exposed to very high concentration of

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air pollutants, fumes and toxic gases, dust, smoke, debris, etc., and firefighters were at the, very
high risk.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:51)

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Vapor cloud explosion in Jaipur in 2009 it occurred because of large fuel storage area because of
some leakage of the gasoline this occurred and the fire was there, explosion was there and then
because of fire, a lot of pollution occurred, the fuel burned and you can see the impact. Around
11 people died, 150 people injured and 5000 people from nearby surrounding areas were
evacuated because of this.

Then Vizag gas leak in 2020 so that is also like a release of Styrene vapor in the area. This
resulted in respiratory problems and irritation in eyes and the number of deaths were around 12
people died and the death of cattle’s occurred and 585 citizens were hospitalized.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:46)

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So in conclusion, we can say that air pollution has a long history, but complex also the history is
very complex, and it is associated with the its adverse effects on nature and human health
environment and ecosystems. And during the industrial revolution the air quality became
worsened, because the usage of coal and resulting emissions increased globally.

And the 19th and early 20th centuries the effect of coal smokes were recognized on locally and at
the regional level also. And after Second World War, rapid industrialization occurred,
urbanization occurred, this resulted in several negative impacts due to air pollution such as acid
rain, photochemical smog, ozone depletion, and climate change so, and all those issues are
associated with air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:42)

So, for today, this is all and these are the references you can go through to have more
information about this introductory part of air pollution sources, and its history as well as its
general effects. So, it is all for today and I will see you in the next lecture. Thank you for your
kind attention. See you in the second introductory lecture. Thanks.

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 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 02
Introduction to Air Pollution- 2

Hello friends, welcome back. So, today is the second lecture on Introduction to Air Pollution. In
first lecture, we discussed about kind of history of air pollution, how it was evolved and what are
the major sources, then pre-industrial era, postindustrial era and then its negative impacts all
those things we discussed. So, today we will continue and we will see how this Earth's
atmosphere really participate in dispersion of air pollution, what is their significance. Then, what
is basically, unpolluted air in the atmosphere, how do we come in comparing the polluted and
unpolluted air.

Then different scales of the air pollution, local, regional, continental those kind of things we will
discuss today and different types of the pollutants we will see and the role of atmosphere in
source and sink relationship, source and then where it is sinking or absorbed that kind of thing
and then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:28)

So, when we talk about the, this biosphere and the environment so, basically the biosphere is
nothing, but a narrow zone of the Earth, where this lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere

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they interact with each other to support the life. So, you can see the biosphere is combination of
these three lithosphere like this earth crust etc., and the hydrosphere, sea and the water cycle
atmosphere related to air. So, all these three in combine or collectively they support the life. So,
this is known as the biosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:03)

When we talk about different components of the biosphere like atmosphere. So, this is basically
the gaseous layers and it can be divided into different layers like troposphere, the lowest layer
near the earth planet, then the stratosphere, then mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere and those
kinds of things. When we talk about the hydrosphere, then it is the collection of water over and
beneath the earth's surface.

So basically, aquifers etc., are the part of this hydrosphere and the sea, river or lakes etc. When
we talk about lithosphere so, this is nothing but the outer solid part of the Earth, including the
crust and uppermost mantle. So, you can see this particular layer which is known as the
lithosphere. So, they really support the life because of their wonderful integration with each
other.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:58)

When we talk about how this atmosphere came into existence, so, the scientific theory is like the
hot gases surrounding the earth about 4.6 million years ago, this was completely, the sphere of
the gas you can say and the portion of hot gas is cooled and condensed to form the oceans. And
then, the secondary atmosphere evolved. So, gases released during like outgassing or volcanic
eruptions, so the release of like nitrogen, CO2, methane and sulfur dioxide, those kinds of gases
got released in the secondary atmosphere.

Then the modern atmosphere which we know today, like the constituents of the nitrogen, oxygen
etcetera. So, that is basically the accumulation of oxygen and the forms of life as observed today.
Otherwise, initially scientists say that the total environment was anaerobic kind of and anaerobic
means, because oxygen was not present at the initial stage, the anaerobic conditions were there.
But later on the aerobic condition occurred oxygen came into existence, and then this primarily
oxygen and nitrogen is the part of modern atmosphere that is the atmosphere which is supporting
our life, which is the aerobic life you can say, oxygen based life.

40
(Refer Slide Time: 4:25)

So, you can see with these stages, so this is primordial Earth and then volcanic eruptions, CO2
Nitrogen those kind of thing. Then precipitation condensation and then photosynthesis so, this
H2O, CO2, O2 all these things for life started to come into existence. So, CO2 absorption and CO2
was used and then the release of oxygen and CO2 came into balance and this modern atmosphere
was formed in that way.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:55)

41
When we talk about different layers of the atmosphere. So basically, like the upper most layer is
the exosphere and that is it blends the outer space you can say and it reaches to an altitude of
around 3000 kilometers. So, that is like spaceships cross that particular height otherwise, for us
as an environmental engineer or when we talk about life, so, we talk about only the lowest layer
that is the troposphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:29)

When we talk about the second highest layer that is Thermosphere which is located around 80,
90 to 800 Kilometer. And the temperature increases in this particular layer from minus 86.5 to
1200 degrees Celsius that is very huge increase of the temperature is there at that altitude.

42
(Refer Slide Time: 5:53)

Mesophere it is the midway of the layer and this is around 40-50 to 80-90 kilometers around 85
kilometers you can say up to that. And the temperature is around minus 2.5 to minus 86.6
degrees Celsius so, temperature decreases in that way.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:13)

In the stratosphere temperature increases from minus 56.5 to minus 2.5 degree Celsius and the
height is 11 to 50 Kilometer that kind of thing.

43
(Refer Slide Time: 6:28)

And the lowest the layer is the troposphere, where life is the air and where we really interact with
the atmosphere through whether aircrafts or our all activities happen in this troposphere and that
is around 12 to 18 Kilometer height up to from surface and all these activities happen. So, that is
why we environmental engineers mostly relate ourselves to the troposphere and we concentrate
only to this particular layer.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:55)

When we talk about, temperature and the pressure with respect to the altitude. So the temperature
decreases with the height in troposphere, and then for certain height it remains constant and then

44
in stratosphere it increases again and then it decreases in the mesosphere and thermosphere it
increases again. So, that kind of linear decrease or increase of the temperature occurs in different
layers.

And there are reasons you should try to find out what are the reasons, why the temperature is
decreasing in the troposphere with respect to the height. Why it is increasing with respect to
height in the stratosphere, then again decreasing all these there are, interesting reasons, I request
you to go through those reasons, we will discuss those later on also. Well, when we talk about no
pressure, then pressure decreases exponentially, you can see its way of decrease.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:52)

So, when we talk about air pollution, so naturally we also think about what is the unpolluted air.
Because when we are talking about polluted air, that means, there is also air which is unpolluted.
But basically, it is very almost impossible to find the unpolluted air because, when the
atmosphere was not filled with so many gases or pollutants in primitive ages, which was the
atmosphere which was clean atmosphere, even then human beings started to use the fire and
forest fires were also their natural emissions were there from volcanoes.

So, you cannot say that we cannot get unpolluted air, there are some sort of pollutants or
contamination is there in every atmosphere only we can differentiate that those remote places
they are the background atmosphere, which can be seen as baseline data or unpolluted air.
Otherwise, we cannot find in reality absolutely unpolluted air.

45
(Refer Slide Time: 8:59)

So, the poles are mountains, sea desert all these, localities or topographies we imagine that these
are unpolluted air, but as a fact of matter pollution is there also. Because of this global
circulation of air, one pollutant source can contribute to air quality of other parts also, because
pollutants can travel thousands of kilometer. Even at poles people have found some pollutants,
the source of which cannot exist at that location.

So, they are manmade pollutants, because of emissions from the ships or emissions from
industries and then because of this convection pollutants go up to stratosphere. Then that travel at
the upper layers of the troposphere, they go thousands of kilometers in the downwind direction
then they get deposited. So, this is the common phenomena.

46
(Refer Slide Time: 09:56)

When we talk about this composition of unpolluted air so, basically you can see these water
vapors or some particulate matter suspension maybe they are all those kinds of things. So, they
are the part of that composition of so called unpolluted air.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:18)

Otherwise, the gaseous composition as you already know that around 78 percent nitrogen is there
in the atmosphere, 21 percent oxygen and very small quantity of carbon dioxide, argon and other
gases are there. But still the carbon dioxide is very less in quantity, but this is the greenhouse gas

47
and climate change related phenomena associated with this very tiny gas composition of the
atmosphere.

So that is to be kept in mind that if something is very small in quantity even then that can create
big problem. We will study like how CFCs that were imagined like Wonder chemicals, but that
were responsible later on for ozone layer destruction. So, these kinds of things happen and the
science gives us the answers the real answers.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:07)

Well, then what is the polluted air. So polluted air is basically that whatever the natural
atmosphere is polluted by unwanted air pollutants or contaminants in huge quantity which is
unbearable to our system, then that is the polluted air or which is exceeding the permitted
quantity of concentration of those pollutants.

48
(Refer Slide Time: 11:32)

And then, people talk that contamination and versus pollution is different, some people say that it
is one and same thing. Some people say no, no, no, this is different thing like contamination, it is
simply the presence of a substance where it should not be there.

And that concentrations which does not harm you, it is bearable in our system, because there is a
range of tolerance in our system. Then the pollution is contamination that results in or can result
in adverse biological effects to the residents communities, whether aquatic life, whether
planetary life or whosoever, ecosystem etc. So, those negative impacts or harmful impacts if it
can cause then we say that it is pollution otherwise, it is the contamination simply.

49
(Refer Slide Time: 12:19)

So, the pollutants basically they come from atmospheric emissions or they get transported and
they get mixed, and then a chemical transformation also occurs when the pollutants transport
from one place to another. So, basically those substances and compositions compounds
interaction of different constituents of the atmosphere with chemical emissions or those
chemicals or compounds. So, those are the basically the pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

When we classify the air pollutants, then we can classify in different ways like based on the
sources we can say the natural pollutants like due to forest fire or even plants emit many kind of

50
air pollutants like VOCs volatile organic compounds. Whenever you are having some smell that
is basically, some chemical that may be a pollutant many people are allergic to some sort of
smells or those VOCs which are emitted from the plants.

And then anthropogenic or manmade pollutants, maybe they are because of our human made
activities like factories or domestic activities, power plants, transportation sector, all those. Based
on origin we can also call like primary pollutants or secondary pollutants. So, the primary
pollutants are those pollutants which are directly emitted, like CO2, greenhouse gas that is
basically or SO2 or particulate matter PM10 etc. But secondary pollutants, which are formed by
primary pollutants by interacting with themselves or by interacting with the constituents of the
atmosphere like ozone, ozone is not emitted directly by any source, it is not a primary pollutant it
is secondary pollutant.

So, there are many secondary pollutants basically, even phase transformation occurs like SO2 can
get converted into SO4 and then it reacts with the particles calcium magnesium, it can get
converted into magnesium sulphate, calcium sulphate. So, the from the gas it can be converted
into particles. So, phase transformation can also occur. So, those kinds of small particles are
secondary particles, they are not primary particles. Then when we talk about state of the matter,
so the gaseous air pollutants or particulate air pollutants.

So, that way also even this liquid those droplets are also like mixed and in the fog, they are also
pollutants. So, the pollutants can be of nature, like aerosols, or parasols, parasols means particles
plus aerosols. So, the new terminology is there parasols. Similarly, smog is smoke plus fog so,
that is known as the smog and visibility decreases in the smog.

51
(Refer Slide Time: 14:59)

Well when we talk about sources of air pollutants so they can be natural sources as I said, it can
be due to volcanic eruptions, it can be due to forest fires or pollens from plants etc, bacteria may
be there from debris or those kinds of things. And it can be anthropogenic, like industrial fumes
or vehicular emissions. So, mean sources can be natural as well as anthropogenic I would say.
So, that means it is not true that only human beings add to the pollutants even nature adds to the
pollutants.

So, please do not get confused that forests are completely clean even forest add to the pollutants,
many VOCs volatile organic compounds are emitted by forest and in even in forest you can find
some sort of a smog because of those VOCs because VOCs get converted into ozone and these
ozone VOCs etc. The mixture of pollutant particulate matter etc, they become a kind of smog.
So, natural smog may also be there.

52
(Refer Slide Time: 16:24)

So, when we talk about scales of air pollution, scales can be like micro scale, meso scale or
macro scale. In micro scale basically, like indoor environment or in a vicinity of our existence.
Then in meso scale like local, urban, regional, about 5 kilometers in the local urban like up to 50
Kilometer even like Delhi’s pollution can be urban pollution, you can say. Regional it can be up
to 50 To 500 kilometer. When we talk about macro scale, so, the continental or global scale, they
are the part of macro scale.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:45)

53
So, the micro scale as I said indoor air pollution or the dust particles otherwise, they do not
travel. Dust particles these SPM suspended particulate matters, which are higher in diameter,
large size diameters and more mass they settles down quickly. So that they do not travel they
cannot be part of longer scales so they are part of the micro scale.

But in meso scale photochemical smog is there, acid rain related, visibility related phenomena or
exposure to traffic emissions, those kind of there so, that is part of the meso scale. In macro scale
like ozone depletion, greenhouse gas emissions or global warming phenomena, they are the part
of macroscale related pollution problems.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:29)

So, when we talk about the local phenomena, then it is characterized by one or several large
emitters or a large number of relatively small emitters though in a collective way they can
contribute to the local air pollution problem. And the examples are because of like carbon
monoxide emitted from a motor vehicle and carbon monoxide can get converted into CO2.

So, for like in regional related problem, it may not be a big part in that sense. The waste
treatment ponds they also emit those pollutants that become the local phenomena of pollution.
So, they affects the accidental release with confined to the local scale. So, those are the part of
local scale air pollution problem.

54
(Refer Slide Time: 18:12)

When we talk about urban scale air pollution. So, basically these are two types like primary
pollutants and then the formation of secondary pollutant that become part of the urban air
pollution. And that tropospheric ozone is the dominated urban problem, because of those
precursors of ozone are present there, precursors are those pollutants, which participate into
producing of ozone that chemical reaction, photochemical reaction.

And formation of secondary pollutants also occur, examples are photochemical reactions of
oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons they convert into ozone. So, that is the example of urban
scale problem.

55
(Refer Slide Time: 18:56)

Then when we talk about the regional scale problem, then this urban oxidants and then the
release of other primary air pollutants like SO2 they get converted into SO3. And then visibility
get reduced so those are the regional scale air pollution problems.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:11)

When we talk about the continental then the pollution problems are related like acid rain. So, in
Germany Black Forest was very much damaged by acid rain and the scientists researchers found
that the source of those pollutants were from Great Britain. So, then this international treaties are
signed and those power plants were tackled with cleaner fuel or technological solutions were

56
provided and later on this Black Forest was revived. So, those kinds of acid rain is part of
regional scale problem or even continental scale problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:48)

Global scale problem as we know that this global warming or these volcanic eruptions related
they contribute into those kinds of problems like climate change.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:59)

57
So, the role of atmosphere in terms of source and sink relationship when we talk. So, wherever
emissions occur, they are the sources basically. And then, the dispersion occurs or
transformation, chemical transformation may occur then the removal settling that dry deposition
or wet deposition occurs. And the receptor response means, whenever exposure is there to a
human being or the animal or the ecosystem or property whatever that is the receptor where they
get exposed and then this chemical reactions may occur negatively.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:39)

So, the sources and sinks are basically you can see these are the sources and these are the sinks
or the receptors and where pollution get absorbed and they can get converted into some sort of
problem.

58
(Refer Slide Time: 20:53)

So, the receptor is nothing but something which is adversely affected by polluted air. So, it can
be human being, it can be some plants or agriculture farms or forest area or animals it can be also
buildings and these monuments because of this abrasion and those kind of acid rain etc. These
monuments get damaged because of air pollutant.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:16)

When we talk about different processes and fate of the air pollutants. So, this pictorial
representation demonstrate or illustrate in a nice way. So, like emission is there from the stack

59
and the wind is blowing in that direction. So, the diffusion and dispersion is occurring molecular
phenomena diffusion and more physical phenomena of dispersion with the air.

And then it can happen dry deposition or it can happen wet deposition because of precipitation
that can happen. So, the diffusion, transport and dispersion all these three phenomena decides the
fate of the air pollutants, where it will get deposited, where it will go up to what distances in the
downwind direction, it will travel and exposed to the receptors.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:05)

So, in transport phenomena you can see it can the source receptor relationship, this is the smelter
which is the source and this is some whether hotel or some house where it goes in some
concentration. There are ways to calculate how much concentration will be contributed by this
particular source, we will see that later on. So, that is the relationship of and contribution of the
transport in the source receptor relationship.

60
(Refer Slide Time: 22:34)

And the diffusion and dispersion as you know this diffusion is mixing of because of turbulence
and molecular diffusion. And the dispersion is basically it can travel with the air and larger
eddies of the air etc. So, this happens diffusion and dispersion takes together, toll to the air
pollutants, and that is why the size of plume increases because of those eddies of the air etc. And
then they also get deposited or comes down to the surface of the earth. So, high stakes are there
then less amount of pollutants come to the surface, that is why these high stakes help in
dispersion otherwise there are other uses of the stakes we will see later on.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:19)

61
So, in conclusion, we can say that the atmosphere plays very important role in transforming the
fate of the pollutants from its source, when it travels to the sink or the receptor. And the
unpolluted air is a concept and it is merely a benchmark to see the baseline kind of scenario,
otherwise, it is very difficult to find the unpolluted spot at the earth.

And the spheres of air pollution exist at all scales from micro scale to the global scale, it can be a
different kind of problems, as you see indoor air pollution to the global warming or climate
change related issues are there. So, these two introductory lectures sets the kind of way forward
for this air pollution and control course for you. So, a kind of visualization may be there in your
mind that what is the real problem related to air pollution. So, slowly now, we will go in detail
like in next lecture, we will see its impacts, negative impacts on the health or the Eco
environment all those things.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:24)

So, these are the references which you can go through to get more information. Thank you for
your kind attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

62
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 3
Impact of Air Pollution on Human Health

Hello friends, so we have completed a brief introduction about air pollution, so with that
background now we proceed for looking at different important aspects of air pollution,
like impact of air pollution on human health, so that we can appreciate why it is
important to study air pollution and why it is necessary to control the air pollution. So
today, we will discuss about human health impacts of the air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:59)

First of all like in this content list it is shown that we will see why this air is so important
for well-being of human life and then the major concerns, plus short-term and long-term
effects of air pollution, plus we will see that which population groups are susceptible to
the ill effects of the air pollution and then factors which affect the human health and the
human health impacts kind of pyramid like certain diseases are there in large number of
the population and then severity of disease increases but the population number
decreases, then the common pollutants affecting human health we will look at their
properties and the health effects of specific air pollutants like SO2 or particulate matter

63
what are their specific health impacts we will see that and then we will conclude
accordingly.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:14)

So now we see why this air is so important for comfortable survival of human life, to
support the human life, so you see from this particular chart 15 kg of air is needed every
day for an adult person and around 1.5 kg of water is required and 0.75 kg of solid food is
required. So you can see like twice of the solid food, the water is needed but 10 times of
that water quantity or 20 times of the food quantity we breathe air every day.

So, that means the exposure, if there is any pollutant present in the air, so the exposure
chances or chances of that exposure or probability of getting exposed to pollutants will be
very high if the pollutants are present in the air because of the huge quantity of here we
breathe, we inhale and exhale so the contact, the total duration and then the quantity or
concentration that makes the dose as there is a saying that in this world nothing is
poisonous but it is dose which makes the poison fatal.

So, this dose or duration because of huge quantity of air which we breathe makes it very
important and it is also you can see intuitively that without food we can survive even a
week, without water may be 2-3 days but without air within few minutes we will be
unconscious, so air is most important part of human life.

64
(Refer Slide Time: 3:32)

Well the concerns of air pollution related aspects when this at the world level started so
WHO organized one conference and the Director General of WHO World Health
Organization called air pollution as a silent public health emergency and the new tobacco
because over the years because of awareness, health awareness, public awareness people
have started to decline or in number those smokers population.

But at the same time because of this urban air pollution, because of industrial clusters air
pollution in ambient air or even in indoor environment there are several sources of air
pollution, so this passive smoking kind of thing has happened and even if people are not
smoking cigarettes or tobacco but they are inhaling the pollution from the polluted air,
polluted environment, so this is you know as bad as smoking.

65
(Refer Slide Time: 4:37)

Well when we talk about short-term and long-term health effects, so you can see any air
pollutant has some sort of health effects. So maybe exposure to certain air pollutant can
cause headache, it can also irritate our eyes or nose and then we can have dripping nose,
those people have some allergic to certain pollens or air pollutants so they have this kind
of problem.

Then coughing is there like throat infection happens much more when air pollution is
there and pneumonia, bronchitis, skin irritation all these kind of things may happen in
short-term but in long-term even like carcinogenic elements can cause cancer, some heart
diseases may happen or asthma or respiratory related diseases may be there, so those kind
of things are there even reproductive organs are affected by air pollution, there are
literature about this, so these are the short-term and long-term effects of health effects of
air pollution.

66
(Refer Slide Time: 5:37)

And when we talk about the susceptible population because of air pollution, so the
children means that means those who have less immune system, the immunities is not so
strong like children or old people or those who have certain diseases or even like females
who are exposed with the huge quantity of indoor air pollution because of cooking in not
good ventilated environment, so those kind of population are the more susceptible to air
pollution exposure.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:12)

67
Well when we talk about major factors which affect the human health, then in terms of
air pollution. So we have to see the nature of pollutant because the same concentration of
particulate matter or sulfur dioxide or NOX they will have different effects, so the nature
of pollutant is important.

Then the concentration of pollutant, there may be concentration very low so it may be
bearable, our system has been designed like that, that certain pollutants below the
threshold quantity they may not have very severe effect on our health, it is reversible kind
of thing.

Then the duration of exposure as I said the concentration and duration of exposure when
we multiply it, it is a dose, so low concentration duration is very high, again very high
dose total or very high concentration for low duration also very high dose may be there.

So, like acute exposure happens when some accidents happen, like Bhopal gas tragedy
we discussed, so that pollutant very high dose was there for short duration even public
got exposed but they got affected severely, then the state of health of the receptor, healthy
people may survive even if there are high concentrations of pollutants because they have
good health, they have good immunity but those people who are already ill, already
diseased so their immunity may not be so good and they may fall prey to the air pollution
very severely. Then the age groups of the receptor like old people, children they are more
susceptible as we have seen.

68
(Refer Slide Time: 7:47)

Then we see like pyramid of health impacts of the air pollution, so at the bottom you can
see pollution exposure, so most of the people get exposed, the whole, the large population
get exposed by air pollution. Then the physiological changes or sub clinical effects
happen to some people, not the complete as I said some people are allergic to certain
pollens but other people are not allergic so they will not have those symptoms but some
people will have.

Then the symptoms of illness and the use of medication will be done by the group of that
population, so that number will further reduce, then the primary health care attendance
will be done by lesser number, so that way far lesser number will be admitted to hospitals
if the problem is severe and a few people may also die. Again depending upon what is
their health how much they are exposed to air pollution, so this is a kind of pyramid of
health impacts of air pollution which is quite popular.

69
(Refer Slide Time: 8:47)

When we talk about the common air pollutants that generally influence the human health,
so they are like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide or nitrogen oxides, ozone, particulate
matter, then polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAH, we call it PAH and dioxins they are
very toxic pollutants, then VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds they are themselves have
damaging effects plus they also contribute to formation of like ozone and other kind of
things.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:24)

70
So when we see about this air pollution induced health effects, so we can see like
particulate matter, sulfur dioxide they can cause headache or the central nervous system
can be affected by very fine particle matter, very fine very like nano particles can go up
to the blood stream and they can travel up to our brain, that is very important to visualize.

Then ozone particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide those kind of pollutants
they can cause irritation to eyes or to the nose and that throat and the complete breathing
system can be affected. Lungs can be affected by particulate matter depending upon the
size of the particulate matter, ozone, sulphur dioxide or those kind of pollutants.

And these can cause heart effects also, cardiovascular diseases may be because of these
small particulate matter they can change those heart related issues, then lungs can be
affected by again similar pollutants like particulate matters and others then NO2 can even
cause liver effects and in the blood plus the reproduction system can be affected by a
small particulate matter so new research says like that.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:40)

When we talk in detail like carbon monoxide, so it is as you know the colorless, odorless,
tasteless gas and that is why it is known as a silent killer because in our system if we have
foul smell then we feel irritated and we will do something to remove that but carbon
monoxide does not warn anything, you just inhale it and it will dissolve, it will get

71
dissolved into your blood and the carrying capacity of oxygen of the blood will be
reduced and you will be unconscious and you will not know what is happening, so this is
very dangerous thing in that sense and it is emitted by several sources especially by like
transportation sector, vehicular emissions, exhaust emissions are a major source of
carbon monoxide, then fuel combustion, industrial processes may also be there but major
portion of CO comes from on road vehicles.

So if we can you know make the on road vehicles efficient in burning of the fuel then
carbon monoxide can be reduced and it will be completely reduced if we go for electric
vehicles, battery vehicles, so those kind of things you can visualize.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:46)

When we talk about the health effects the particularly dependent on carbon monoxide, so
you can see the dizziness or headache depending upon its concentration, this shows the
concentration and its health effects. So even it can cause death very high concentration,
so it is very important to look from that perspective.

72
(Refer Slide Time: 12:07)

When we talk about sulphur dioxide so it comes from industries or shippings wherever
diesel, fossil fuel like coal etc. are burnt, so sulphur dioxide is emitted in huge quantity
like power plants etc., and that is very important to see that how can we control them.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:28)

Because sulfur dioxide has several ill effects like mucous secretion, it causes eye, nose,
throat irritation and then breathing difficulty those kind of things, in long-term you can
have the respiratory illnesses and then it can aggravate the heart disease also, so those are

73
the things which we have to see. So, if we are living in the environment where sulphur
dioxide is in large quantity then these kind of illnesses one can expect or should be at
risk.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:59)

Well there are issues which we have seen in the earlier lecture also like in London Smog,
London Smog as you have seen in 1952, so 4000 people died and the responsible factors
was sulphur dioxide and particulate matter and 400 deaths occurred in 1963 in New York
City so that was also because of sulphur dioxide high concentration.

74
(Refer Slide Time: 13:27)

When we talk about nitrogen oxide then the sources are like these vehicle, on road
vehicles car, trucks, etc. So exhaust emissions, carbon monoxide and NOX emissions are
in huge quantity comes from on road vehicles, please remember it, but other sources are
also there like coal fired power stations, industries etc..

(Refer Slide Time: 13:51)

And they have their own health effects like irritation to respiratory tract or it can cause
some increased breathing related resistance kind of thing, maybe their suffocation those

75
kind of, chronic toxicity may also be there, it can damage these fibers of the lungs, so
those kind of things. So the exchange of the oxygen to the blood may be affected very
negatively.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:20)

When we talk about ozone, ozone is not a primary pollutant, it is not emitted by any
source, it is produced rather in the environment because of photochemical reactions but
there are certain precursors which produce the ozone in the presence of sunlight like NOX
emissions, VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds or hydrocarbons.

And ozone production is dependent upon certain other factors, so sometimes we call that
it is VOC driven or it is NOX driven, so we have to see which precursor is responsible for
ozone production in a particular location, if you are not dealing with that particular
precursor you are reducing other precursor, may be ozone problem will not be solved, so
those kind of things we will see in detail later on you can also find the literature source
for this.

So, this is also again in troposphere it is very dangerous for us, it is having health effects
as well as it damages the property, but in stratosphere it is very good, it is said that ozone
is our friend in the stratosphere but in troposphere it is our enemy kind of thing, so that is

76
we do not need in troposphere but we very much need it in stratosphere because it
protects us from ultraviolet rays.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:36)

Well when we talk about the health effects of the ozone then short-term effects like
coughing or wheezing kind of things when its difficult to take inhaling or exhaling so
when you are exhaling then kind of sound occurs like whistling kind of things or
irritation to eyes and the nose, headache or dizziness, fatigue you are tired, means
sometimes people feel that I am tired, why I am so much tired even if I have not worked
so hard.

But people do not know that it may be reason because of pollution, if you are living in the
polluted environment continuously and like sick building syndrome that is also there if
you are living inside a building which is polluted, you can have headache, you can have
sickness those kind of things, so we should be careful about air quality also.

So ozone can have these short-term effects, it can also have long-term effects like
respiratory diseases, cardiovascular heart related diseases, it can harm the liver or it can
also harm the blood related things, the nervous system damage can be occurred by ozone,
cancer or birth defects, death all these are because of ozone, it is possible depending upon
how much concentration is we are exposed to.

77
(Refer Slide Time: 16:55)

Then like lead poisonous is there, you might have heard about unleaded petrol, what is
that unleaded gasoline or unleaded petrol, why it came into existence or why government
had this policy, because the lead is very toxic and it has been studied that small kids if
they are exposed to high lead concentration in air their memory will be affected and their
learning ability will be very slow, so those kind of things may be there, so that is why we
have gone for this unleaded petrol etc..

(Refer Slide Time: 17:27)

78
So you can see the toxicity of this lead, you can see the intellectual disability can occur
because of lead concentration or under performing in the schools and you might be
wondering why my child is not performing very well and you do not know that maybe it
is exposed to lead and that is why in paints also nowadays there are several
advertisements of paint companies they say our paint is not having VOCs, our paint is not
having lead those kind of things because of this awareness, because even if in the indoor
environment you are having very good shining paint on the walls but if it is having lead
contamination, then you will be exposed to the lead, your children will be exposed to the
lead, so be very careful about those things.

In adults also it can cause like strokes, heart diseases, in pregnancy it can develop
problems to the fetus, so those are the issues which are related to lead, so we should be
very careful that the environment in the air lead should not be there and we should do
whatever is needed to have the air cleaner in that sense.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:39)

Well when we talk about particulate matter, so basically it is a mixture of solid, liquid
both particles, so liquid droplets may be there, solid particles may be there of all size,
very micro size which cannot be seen by eyes also, very fine particles, very nano particles
may be there, they can go inside our body system and they can go into blood as I
repeatedly say, so we should not take it very lightly, particulate matter is very dangerous

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and suspended particulate matters our nostril can exhale it, it can trap this is a filter
system nature has provided to us but the small particles are very problematic and we
should be careful like tire wear, resuspension of the dust and the brake wear those metals
may be there in the particulate matter also.

And then the sources can be of any kind of activity which is causing emission of
particulate matter through burning of wood or fossil fuels or construction activities,
vehicular exhausts, etc. you name it even natural dust like Andhi or storms, dusty storms
they also are responsible for particulate matter, only the difference is that their size may
be higher and because of gravity they settles down but even then there may be very small
particles also in that also and that can go inside our body.

And one scientist one day in a conference we were discussing he said that in pre-
industrial era our population were exposed to these sandstorms etc. and there were no
very high problem related to health but now because of industries the pollutants like
metal pollutants or toxic pollutants, chemical pollutants they can get coated on surface of
the particulate matter, that may be very dangerous.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:41)

So, the particulate matter and respiratory system of human is very much related to each
other, so you can see like PM10 can go up to this, that may not be so health hazard but

80
PM2.5 can go up to the lungs and PM1 more of more parts of the lungs can be affected,
PM0.1 can go into blood cells also, it can go up to the brain and if those small particles are
carrying some carcinogenic element, some very toxic element that will be part of the
body and when it will trigger the cancer you do not know.

So, that is why nowadays so many patients of cancer etc., its because of pollution we are
exposed from different pathways of course like food is also not so good sometimes, we
are taking vegetables which were grown in dirty places. Similarly, water or milk or many
ways you can get exposed to toxic material, so you can see the size of the particles and
the health effects of in the respiratory system you can see in this table.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:44)

Also this is a good example of different size of the particulate matter and related health
effects you can go like PM1 it can cause lung cancer, it can cause asthma exacerbation
and PM0.1 it can cause even Alzheimer, you know Alzheimer when people start to forget
things and they cannot remember even if they have taken food or not that kind of things
happens in very old age, so Alzheimer’s may be caused by this PM0.1 also, although these
are age related diseases they are known as, cognitive delays means your thinking ability,
analytical ability will be affected, all those health effects are given here.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:27)

Well when we talk about PAHs Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, so they are emitted
from several sources like these long range transport from industries etc., and burning of
different fuel etc., you can have from coal, from tar sediments.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:45)

Well it has also several health effects, short-term may be like vomiting, nausea kind of
thing, you are not feeling well, eye irritation, skin irritation those kind of things, in long-
terms it can cause these cataracts in the eyes and liver damage or kidney damage that may

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be because of PAH also, so polluted environment is not good to live they can cause
several diseases.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:10)

When we talk about Volatile Organic Compounds VOCs or even hydrocarbons they are
known as, so sources may be natural as well as anthropogenic, as I said earlier that any
plant which is giving some smell is basically emitting some VOC Volatile Organic
Compound you name it, it may be you like even the spray which you use for room that is
not good for health it gives you good smell but it is chemical, it is VOC it can damage
our respiratory system and many people have allergy to that.

Anthropogenic there may be industries, solvent evaporation, agriculture etc. and biogenic
emissions are from plants, soil, vegetation all those so VOCs may be emitted from those
sources.

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(Refer Slide Time 23:56)

When we talk about health effects of VOCs again it is you name it even including brain,
heart, lungs, etc. everything is you know affected by VOCs, so VOCs are dangerous, we
should not have VOCs in our air. Benzene, toluene all these are VOCs basically and they
are carcinogenic, they can cause cancer, so that is very toxic and very problematic.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:18)

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When we talk about dioxins they are also very toxic elements and they can be originated
by industrial processes etc., so we can get exposed to them through air and other and it
can damage the nerve system, it can cause skin related diseases.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:34)

Like you can see here it is known that this President of Ukraine by opponents he was
given it is said that poisoned by some dioxin and it was later measured that around 1000
times more this dioxin concentration was found in his body, so you can see the skin was
damaged because of that high concentration of dioxin.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:05)

So, in conclusion we can say that air pollution can have adverse health effects, as several
health effects may be from different kind of air pollutants and it depend upon the
exposure, time, duration and the concentration, so some may have less harmful effect,
some way very high impacts and the population in urban areas may be susceptible
because more pollutants are there and we have to be very careful that the air where we
are breathing should be clean otherwise it can cause several kind of health effects
depending upon the pollutants.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:40)

So, thank you for your kind attention, references are there for having additional
information, you might be very curious about several health effects, you can go through
them, you can know about so thanks for your kind attention, see you again in the next
lecture, we will carry on impacts of the air pollution like on building materials or
environment, ecosystems, etc. so today we completed health effects, now we will go for
other impacts, thanks again.

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 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 4
Impact of Air Pollution on Vegetation and Animals

Hello friends you may recall last time we discussed impacts of air pollution on human
health, so in continuation now we would like to discuss today the impacts of air pollution
on vegetation and animals.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:02)

So, this is the contents list of this lecture like we will go through about impacts of air
pollution on plants, for example, what are the factors that influence the process of
influence of air pollution on the plant growth process or their photosynthesis process,
those kind of things and then pollution deposition on plants that also causes several kinds
of problems.

Injury versus damage, sometimes injury happens to plant leaves but it may also cause
some damages which can result into some economic costs. Entrance of a pollutant in a
plant, so what are the pathways the plant get exposed to air pollutants, so then negative
implications happen.

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Effect of various pollutants, means every pollutant has a different kind of effect as you
have seen like SO2, ozone, particulate matter they have different health impacts on
human beings, similarly on plants also different pollutants have different kind of effects
or impacts.

Then we will see the impacts on animals of the air pollution, so like animal life again
they are also living beings, so similar to human health effects animals also have certain
health effects due to air pollution, but this impact can vary from animal to animal, from
there at the evolutionary stages, pets, birds, fishes different kind of environment is
affected differently by air pollutants. So all those things we will see, what are the total
harmful impacts of the pollutants on different kind of animals like pets or farm animals or
wildlife or insects etc, and thereafter we will conclude it.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:31)

So, as an introduction if you want to see the impact of air pollution, the negative impact
of the air pollution on plant growth. So, you can see, these are shown this picture of the
plants or trees, so the air pollutants can affect basically the metabolic function of the
leaves and they can interfere in the net carbon fixation by the plant canopy.

So, plant canopy means these leaves etc, are there but in total process whether stem or the
roots, so different ways impact can be through different ways and then the air pollution

89
causes some stress and when other stresses are there like water related stresses are there
for the plant or trees, so these combined effect may be little bit severe.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:22)

When we talk about different factors which influence the impact of air pollution on plant
then basically we talk about exposure time and then what is the concentration of the
pollutant with like we have seen in human beings also, a small concentration you can get
exposed to for longer period even then there may be little disturbance about the system
but the high concentrations, the acute exposure can cause more damage.

Similarly, the temperature, like heat stress may be caused by temperature those kind of
things then what is the condition of the soil, that soil condition can be affected by air
pollutants because of dry deposition, because of wet deposition, then the nutritional status
of plants because metabolic system can be affected by air pollutants, so what is the status
if it is healthy plant and good nutrients are being pumped into the system of the plant, so
it can maybe it can be kind of resilient or it can be sturdy, it can face or get exposed to air
pollutants but damage may not be very severe.

Then the age of the plant, as we have seen there are vulnerable population in human
beings also like children or old people or those having some allergy or some other
diseases like diabetes etc, they get exposed to air pollution and effect may be severe or

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more. So, similarly, like a plant is more old or plant is very tender when it is just growing
so at that time maybe the effect can be severe or more damaging.

Then the rates of the growth of the plant that also affect the pollution effect. Exposure to
sunlight as we have seen because the in the presence of sunlight they make the food, so
again if it is lot of particulate pollution is there and good amount of sunlight is not
absorbed by plants, so then again the growth can be affected. Then there are climate
conditions like temperature, humidity they also contribute into negative or positive effect
of the plant growth.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:29)

Well when we talk about injury versus damage, so basically we see like whatever
observable alterations are there in the plant growth or plant leaves, some color changes
etc those kind of things are known as injuries.

So, in continuation to injury the damage is there, damage means loss of aesthetic value of
the plant as well as some economic loss can be there because of those kind of injuries
which could be the degree or extent of the injury which can result into losses, economic
or aesthetic losses then we call that it is damage kind of thing. Well so degree of injury
against the air pollution can depend upon the exposure, the dose, the concentration etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:30)

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So, you can see here the degree of injury and on this is concentration into time that is
basically the dose. You may recall that last time also I said there is a saying that
everything is toxic or non-toxic, everything it depends on basically the dose, so very low
dose even poisonous things your system can digest or it can not react in that negative way
which it will be when dose is very high.

So, very small dose may not affect the health very severely but again it depends upon the
toxicity of the pollutant also, like cyanide, even very small quantity of the cyanide if we
are get exposed to it is dangerous to the life, so the concentration into time, the dose, as
dose increases the degree of injury also increases, so that kind of things are there, small
doses, small exposure it may just bear it or tolerate it so no significant effect may be there
at the small level of the doses, when dose is increased then this possible nutritional value,
means the food taking process may be affected, then biochemical alterations can be there
after certain level of the dose.

Then physiological responses can be there when dose is very high and it can also result
into some visible negative symptoms and after that even it can cause the death of the
plant, where does very high and it is for longer duration then maybe plant do not recover
and it dies, so the exposure of the degree and injury follows the linear relationship, as
dose increases this injury level also increases and the exposure increases injury may
occur and even it can convert it into damage.

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(Refer Slide Time: 8:24)

When we talk about in a pathways of the pollutant entrance to the plants, so it can be
direct or indirect. So, direct means through stomates, stomates are very small pores are
there you can see, these are basically the microscopic openings or pores in this epidermis
of leaves and young stems. So, through that pollutant can enter into the system of the
plant.

Or indirect can be there because the pollutants can deposit in on to the soil or it may be
on to some water body where from water is being fetched and the plant is watered by that
particular water body, so it can come through soil or water also, so that is the indirect
way and it can go through the roots also, so maybe it can come to the leaves like
particulate matter, it can deposited, even gases can get injected into the pores or it can
come through the roots also, so both direct and indirect.

93
(Refer Slide Time: 9:29)

So, a pollutant undergoes many reactions during the presence in the boundary layer, it
can go through the roots, it can go through the stem, it can go through the leaves etc,
gaseous phase transformation is there, several kind of phase transformation may be there.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:43)

Then when we talk about air pollutants affecting plants different kind of air pollutants
because the air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, etc but pollutants enter from different
sources and the presence of pollutant can be in terms of sulphur dioxide or it can be

94
fluoride compounds like hydrogen fluoride, it can be in terms of ozone, as you know
ozone is secondary pollutant, it is produced in the presence of sunlight because of certain
precursors like NOX etc, then chlorine may be there, hydrogen chloride can be there.

Then oxides of nitrogen can also be there, nitric oxide or nitrous oxide or nitrogen
dioxide those kind of oxide, ammonia can also be there, hydrogen sulfide and then
hydrogen cyanide or mercury or heavy metals or herbicides can be there because when
we are doing sprays to kill the weeds, so that those small particles in terms of aerosols
they may be in the air.

There can be like peroxy acetyl nitrate or PAN in short we call, then smoke can also be
there, so different air pollutants can be present in air and they can cause individual effect
on the plants as well as collective impact, so both impact may be there.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:04)

When we see the effect of the ozone on the plants, then basically it enters the tree through
this stomatal openings as we have just discussed, on the leaf and it reacts with the leaf
tissues to inhibit the photosynthesis process. Basically it can remove that greenery
portion, so that food process, this photosynthesis process, food producing process
affected, it can discolor it, so solar absorption, solar light absorption may be completely
disrupted.

95
Then ozone also disrupts the carbohydrate transport to the leaves and which increases the
sugar concentration at certain places in the plant at several places and it makes all these
leaves etc susceptible to insect attack because sugary things they attract the insects etc, so
those kind of disturbances may be there in the plant growth process.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:02)

When we see the symptoms like what kind of symptoms may be there because of
exposure to the ozone, so you can see yellow spots on the needles can be there, here like
you can see, then it can also yellowing of the complete leave and the premature leaf drop
can be there because it is damaged and it cannot survive for longer period.

96
(Refer Slide Time: 12:25)

Then the sulphur dioxide or NOX, oxides of nitrogen their effect can be seen in different
way because they produce as the acid rain, in the presence of moisture so to get converted
into sulphuric acid and nitric acid and when it comes down with the precipitation, with
the rain or acid rain it can be depending upon how much concentration of sulphur dioxide
is present in the air, so that acid rain can affect the plant growth because of disturbances
into nutrient uptake etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:02)

97
So, when we see the effect, it can leach because the rain, this acid rain can leach the
beneficial nutrients and then those nutrients are not available to the plant, so the growth is
affected and the toxic, this aluminum etc, they are taken by the trees because its
concentration increases and other nutrients goes away, so that can be kind of double
effect, negative effect on the plant growth and like SO2 causes this kind of necrosis effect
on these leaves.

So, this is again because of different pollutants but sulphur dioxide pollutant effect can be
seen in that way, it can also fold the leaves, so unhealthy leaves are there because of
sulphur dioxide exposure.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:55)

Similarly, like this fluorine you can see, the PAN related peroxy acetyl nitrate it creates
the glazy bronzing kind of effect on and this potato leaves picture is there, so this is not
the healthy leave and this color becomes the part of the growth, similarly the fluorine
damage can be like again some low level of necrosis, so that way this damage is there to
the leaves.

98
(Refer Slide Time: 14:25)

When we talk about different pollutants and their effects depending upon how much
threshold limit is there, so beyond the threshold limit concentration is there, so that it can
affect very negatively, we have seen the effect of sulphur dioxide, ozone, PAN etc, so
similarly ethylene can also have negative impacts like leaf abnormalities can be there,
flower droppings can be there because the presence of that, if chlorine is there, chlorine
can bleach the leaves so again photosynthesis process will be affected.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:58)

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Similarly, if you see the ammonia, this cooked green appearance becoming brown or
green on drying, so these are the effect of ammonia. Hydrogen chloride can have you
know this necrotic kind of effect and mercury it is like chlorosis and then it can also
result in brown spotting. Hydrogen sulphide can have similarly sulfuric acid because of
this acidic nature it can affect the plants in a very negative way.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:31)

Now, we talk about animals, how animals are affected by the air pollution. So, because
its similar to the process like they also inhale air, so polluted air is inhaled then their
respiratory system as well as other organs can get affected.

100
(Refer Slide Time: 15:47)

For example, if you see like this dog is suffering from nasal infections and that can be
because of polluted air. Accumulation of airborne contaminants, pollutants or in
vegetation or forage that serve their feed, so through that also they consume these
pollutants and these subsequent effects ingested those on animals, so they get affected
negatively, but not every exposure to air pollution is by inhalation, it can go through
injection, through skin, through other pathways also.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:23)

101
Well it can also make unhealthy living like their moods can be affected, they can be
depressed, their behavior can be altered, so the chemicals and heavy metals and they have
direct influence on the social and mating behavior of animals. So if that is kind of
pollution is there their whole cycle can be affected, then there can be several diseases and
that can result into mortality or death and that can come through like NO or SO2 they are
kind of silent killers for these wildlife animals because even small concentration they get
accumulated into their body and their system get affected very negatively.

Biodiversity loss is there because if certain species getting affected by a particular

pollutant in a severe way and if they are reducing in number, so the whole chain get
affected in this ecosystem, then their population and their food chain all those things get
affected.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:27)

When we talk about these examples where animals got exposed to air pollutants and the
negative impacts were observed, so like these examples we have discussed in case of
human health impact also but they were also responsible for negative impacts on animals,
like this Meuse Valley incident in 1948, so it caused illness and mortality among pets and
farm animals. Dogs, cats and poultry were the most susceptible species in that sense and
the larger farm animals were generally unaffected because of their sturdy nature.

102
Then in London Smog the cattle were reported to be severely affected because of that
London Smog that we know about and this Poza Rica 1950 incident or episode you can
see these animals including canaries or chickens, cattle, pigs, all geese or ducks, dogs all
over affected, means across all these population.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:35)

When we see the effects on the pets, household pets suffer an increased risk of tumors
when exposed to polluted air over an extended period of time, so those kind of things
may happen, then they can go coughing and nose and throat disease infections etc in
polluted environment and then particulate matter in the air this has been linked to cardiac
arrest, like heart attack as it happens in human beings also and many veteran doctors they
say that these pet deaths are related to air pollution, high air pollution levels.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:13)

When we talk about these amphibians, so they have again similar effects or changes in
physiology as it does in case of human beings and ozone basically impairs this immune
system in human beings as well as in these like toads etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:33)

Well when we talk about the birds, so birds are affected directly by coal power plant
emissions, those if they are not controlled, if high concentration of sulphur dioxide is

104
coming out or particulate matter is coming out, so they can damage the birds respiratory
systems.

So the whole system get affected and their reproductivity also get affected, their behavior
get affected from morning to evening those kind of things, the deposition of air pollutants
in wetlands, this can increase the acidity, it can reduce the pH and it can cause the death
of the fish and that can result into a reduction of population of those preys which are
dependent on these eating the fish. Then discoloration of birds occur because of black
carbon in the air and other pollutants this can happen.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:31)

When we talk about the fish, so acid rain falling in rivers and streams they can cause the
pH levels to decrease and very low level of pH is not fit for aquatic life, so they can kill
the fish and if they are dependent on the, its general range of the pH so fluctuation of pH
they cannot really bear or tolerate those kind of things, acidic rivers and streams that can
cause respiratory distress in fish, so that is also a problem.

Similarly, the acidic water is generally clear or cleaner, so the sunlight goes deep into that
so it increases the temperature and there are certain fish population which are very
sensitive to the temperature, if temperature increases beyond certain limits, so again they

105
are not happy there and they get into stress and maybe their behavior will change or they
will migrate.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:32)

So, then we can see the insects behavior or impact on the insects as you know like people
say that the best biological indicator to find whether the environment is clean or not, air is
clean or not see the small insects, if you find lot of this bio diversity, small insects and all
those kind of things there, so that means the environment is healthy, air is healthy, so
small fluctuations in air quality that can force certain insects to relocate, they cannot
tolerate the changes in that particular air pollution level and they can affect the plants also
because the life of plants and insects are very much integrated kind of symbiotic life you
can say, so then the plants affected.

Then animals also affected because they are dependent on the plant diet, so insects which
are affected by air pollution they digest organic waste less effectively and then that can
result into build up of organic waste when air pollution rises in the area, so butterfly or
small insects if you do not find somewhere you should be worry, it is a very some
condition because that may be an indicator that air pollution or other pollution may be
high in that particular region.

106
(Refer Slide Time: 22:56)

When we talk about major pollutants which affect the health of animals, so basically like
three major air pollutants are responsible for livestock damage because they are quite big
in size and their interaction with air pollutant is different than the like fish or insects or
those small animals. So the fluoride, arsenic and lead these are the three very toxic
pollutants which can affect this farm life or farm animals.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:26)

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Like fluoride the farm animals they are most susceptible to fluoride because it is very
toxic and particularly cattle and sheep and even horses and this poultry they can affected
by fluoride, and the acute effects of fluoride result in lack of appetite, weight loss because
they do not eat properly and then health declination, diarrhea or muscle weakness or
ultimately they can die.

Similarly, chronic effect means longer duration of exposure that kind of even small
concentration but for longer period, if chronic effect is there that can result into deformity
of the bones and overgrowth of the bones also can be there in certain animals and
malnutrition or retardation in the growth, all those symptoms are there because of these
fluoride.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:24)

Then when we see the average, this fluoride content in bones and this degree of
fluoresces and fluoride level in animals, so this kind of relationship occurs, so this is
based on certain study, so you can see the fluoride ingestion level correlates with the
fluoride content of bones and urine, so it directly affects, it directly affects their complete
body structure.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:55)

When we talk about tolerance limit of fluoride, so different animals have different
tolerance limit and it is also defined as per their status like breeding or this breeding
animals they are allowed only very small 30 ppm for dairy cows and beef cows and
horses they can tolerate up to 60 ppm, means breeding, breeding kind of but when they
are ready to be sold after certain age, so their concentration may be higher like 100 ppm
or so in case of sheep for breeding it is 50 ppm and when it is to be sold it can be 160
ppm, so that depends upon the age of the animal and the state of the animal.

109
(Refer Slide Time: 25:29)

Well when we talk about arsenic this can cause skin diseases, skin infections and it is
present in coal and iron ores, so it can cause poisoning of livestock near industrial region
because it can get exposed to that pollutant. Acute effects of the arsenic may result in
severe thirst and vomiting kind of thing, irregular pulse and respiration those kind of
problems, abnormal temperature and it can cause even death after certain hours or days.

When chronic effect is seen of the arsenic then the depressing effect is there, central
nervous system get affected and you find that animals are not behaving properly, they are
depressed, they are lazy and the thickening of skin, anemia, paralysis and even the
mortality occurs because of chronic effect of arsenic.

110
(Refer Slide Time: 26:28)

When we see the effects of arsenic on animals the visual effects you can see thickening of
this outer layer of the skin can be there, similarly accumulation of pus may be there at
surface of the skin and severe jaundice can also be caused because of arsenic exposure.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:45)

When we talk about the lead, lead is very important in that sense because it is very
harmful, it can cause depression behavior and this nostril infection can also be there
because of lead exposure and the sources of lead can be like smelters, coke ovens and

111
coal combustion processes, so in nearby areas the possibility may be the lead present in
the air.

Acute effects can be there, means it can be present in particulate matter coating or those
heavy metals may be present there, this prostration can be caused because of acute
exposure then staggering or inability to rise, they are not able to rise, loss of appetite,
diarrhea those kind of effect can be because of acute effects of the lead concentration.

Chronic effects of the lead can result into paralysis of muscles, of the throat area, so
difficulty in breathing, difficulty in eating, so again these are life threatening kind of
problems arise from the lead.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:51)

And the effects of the lead you can see like cattle showing head pressing behavior, so if
you are finding some cattle they are going towards the wall and hitting the wall those
kind of things and then you can think that maybe lead position may be there in the body
and advanced stages lead poisoning can result into out of control behavior and it can
crashes into obstacles, means they cannot focus, they cannot control their movements and
they can fall down or they can try to some other things.

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(Refer Slide Time: 28:23)

Other pollutants and their effects on animals can be seen in this particular table, ozone,
nitrogen oxides they can cause direct or irreversible damage to birds and their lungs.
Long term exposure can lead to lung failure or poor immune system and this reproductive
success or population decline, all those negative impact can be there, then exposure to
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the toxic chemicals they can enter through
different pathways and they can reduce the egg production or the growth impairments,
you can see the infection also they can be there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 29:12)

So different kind of effects can be there from different air pollutants, so in conclusion we
can say that the air pollution has very detrimental effects on both vegetation as well as
animals and the airborne particles deposited on the plants they affect the photosynthesis
process and they can affect plant life and then in subsequently animal life can also be get
affected because they are dependent on plants for food, so the food chain get affected.

Air pollution can also disrupt ecosystem in larger scale, they can cause the biodiversity
losses etc. So thank you for your attention, for this lecture on impact of air pollution on
vegetation and animals.

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(Refer Slide Time: 29:54)

So, these are the references you can go through to get additional information, thanks a lot,
see you in next lecture, thanks.

115
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 05
Impact of Air Pollution on Building Materials and Structures

Hello friends. So, as you know, these days we are discussing about impacts of air pollution.
Various impacts of air pollution in the sense like on the human health, or on property, on
environment, ecosystem, etc. So, today in that series we will discuss about impacts of air
pollution on building materials and structures.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:49)

So, in that you can see the content list for today's lecture like of course, introduction, brief
introduction will be there. Then the types of air pollution-related damages which occur to
building materials and building structures; and the meteorological factors, which are responsible
for degradation, which enhances the degradation you can say because of air pollution. And then
the air pollutants which are known for the degrading building material; then chemistry of
corrosion because the corrosion and abrasion these two factors are very important, when we talk
about the relationship of air pollution or the weathering of building material.

Then we will see the effect those materials, which are affected and on different kind of material
like on metals, stones what kind of effects are there. We will also see on the brick and mortar

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effects of air pollution, and then the own concrete, paints, polymers etc. Then we will see how
repair frequency is estimated by that particular range of the cost parameters; and the economic
impact and the estimation of damage cost, and then the remedial measures and we will conclude
accordingly.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:00)

So, when we talk about the air pollution relationship with the buildings; so basically, all kind of
air pollutants have certain effects on the buildings. And it can affect the building's appearance as
well as it can also damage the structural component of the building; so it can reduce the life of
the building. And it is also found out that the air pollutants which are emitted by manmade

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activities; they are more responsible in comparison to the natural pollutants to damage the
buildings. So, we will see accordingly those aspects.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:41)

When we talk about types of air pollution related damages; so, those can be classified like it can
discolor the building, or it can result in losses of the material. Then it can also cause like black
colored crust formation; you might have seen discolored buildings, even if they are painted. So,
after one season like monsoon, you will see blackish or grayish, or sometimes greenish kind of
color is there. Then, a structural failure maybe there because of long term effect of these air
pollutants. And abrasion action because when friction is there and particulate matters etc; the
constant abrasion happens then the building is damaged.

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(Refer Slide Time: 03:25)

So, you can see the effect from pictorial representation like about the Taj Mahal. It is said that
because of pollutants, the appearance of the Taj Mahal stone this marble from why it has been to
yellowish. So, that that has been because of particulate matter as well as this sulphur dioxide
related, or other kind of pollutants which are present in the air.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:51)

When we see these kinds of structures artifacts; so, in 1908, all you could see those features of
this particular statue. But in 1969, over the years of around 60 years or 61 years; the all those
features has gone. And the reason is because this acidic rain, or this acid rain as well as the

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abrasion because of particulate matter all in combined, weathering effects etc; they result into
such kind of damage to very important artifacts of our history.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:28)

Well, it is also known that in the stone materials they have porosity as you know and different
densities at different places. So, accordingly after a long period like frost happens, so, because of
temperature increase, then temperature decrease. So, this weathering effect happens and this
porous material is more susceptible for those kind of things. And then the hydrated salts, which
go inside these pores and they crystallize, and they generate the pressure; and that can lead to
some cracks etc from inside to outside.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:04)

So, you can see this effect of this abrasion action. So, if you know that that kind of feature is
there. So, wind is coming particulate matters are also there, and because of that, this kind of
situation occurs. And according this kind dust deposition happens So, over the period of time,
their surface get abraded and it gets damaged. You can see the old facet and the new facet
because of changes due to the abrasion.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:40)

And then we talk about this black crust formation. You see these kind of deposition occurs,
because of particulate it matters which absorbs the light and black carbon, organic carbon or

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dust, moisture, everything mix; and then they get deposited on certain places. And they disfigure
as well as they also cause chemical and physical damage to the property.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:06)

Then there are meteorological factors which enhances these air pollution related damages to the
building material and buildings. So, these are like relative humidity, temperature, wind
movement. And we will see how they affect like when we talk about relative humidity, they
basically contribute into acid rain; because they react with sulphur dioxide or nitrogen dioxide;
and in that way they can cause the damage to the building material.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:37)

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Wind movement has its own effect because of certain patterns. So, they are responsible for
deposition of particulate matter, they take the particulate matter along with them. Then abrasion
occurs, friction occurs; they damage the surface of the building.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:50)

Temperature basically, temperature difference in different kind of materials. They get expansion
then contraction; so, that changes its physical phenomena and it causes the damage. But high
temperature, this corrosion related effect does not occur; because moisture is not there.
Otherwise, corrosion rate increases with the temperature; this is the result of a study.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:18)

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When we talk about air pollutants which are responsible for degradation; so, the major air
pollutants, which are responsible for degradation of buildings are basically carbon dioxide,
oxides of sulphur, oxides of nitrogen, ozone and particulate matter. Now, you can see the
difference. Health effects may be there like VOCs and other pollutants are there; they are
responsible for health effects. But when we talk about building damages, then only a few are
listed here, which are majorly contributions occurs from their side.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:50)

When we see this carbon dioxide because of moisture in the air, this carbon dioxide gives this
formation of carbonic acid. And that is why the rainwater always has somewhat lower pH; and,
but we do not call it acid rain. Acid rain is called only when the pH is very very low of the water.
So, this is always present in the air, and this causes this acidic kind of behavior of the air
moisture.

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(Refer Slide Time: 08:22)

And the oxides of sulphur as you know, we have seen that it can get converted to sulphur
trioxide; and then because of moisture, it can converted into sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is
very very corrosive as you know; and that is why the SO2, high concentration in air is the major
cause for damaging the building materials, especially, like calcium carbonate related building
stones.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:47)

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And metals like iron ferrous, ferrous related, we will see that in detail when we talk about oxides
of nitrogen. So, again, because of moisture, it is converted to nitric acid; but it is not as much
damaging as sulphuric acid, but it is also the causing cause factor for the acid rain.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:10)

Ozone, as you know Ozone is a secondary pollutants formation in the troposphere because of
photochemical reactions; like in the presence of sunlight, NO2 it goes to NO and O. And then
one molecule of oxygen when it is connected to this atom, then Ozone becomes in existence.
And this is a kind of titration reaction. So, NO if is there from like transport sector vehicular
emissions, it can give NO2. So, that is why, this is the titration effect that in city centers where a
lot of emissions are there, from vehicle exhaust emissions; so ozone is less there.

But in countryside, Ozone is more because this NO2 goes with the downwind pattern in the
countryside and sunlight is there; and this gives the formation of Ozone. So that cyclic reaction
occurs all the time. And the ozone is very reactive as you know; it is very highly oxidizing gas;
and it is also greenhouse gas, this is also interesting to see. Ozone is not only the health
damaging pollutant, but it also contributes to global warming and climate change related issues.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:23)

Particulate matter when we talk as I said, this particulate matter in the last lecture as I said that it
caused several kind of health effects. And it is also responsible for several kinds of building
degradation. You can see the sources of particulate matters which occurs in terms of source
smokes, and then these activities construction activities. So they have this abrasive in nature
because friction occurs whenever they strikes to the surface, dry deposition can occur. And then
it can slowly damage the surface of the building.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:58)

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When we talk about the chemistry of the corrosion basically; so, the emissions of sulphur dioxide
or nitrogen dioxide, ammonia etc, they go into the air; and then dry deposition occurs, wet
deposition occurs. So, then this acid rain formation is there and this acidic effect is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:17)

So, the corrosion effect is because of those reasons. Dry deposition, simply because of gravity
particulate matter, even the gases that descends to the surface; and the, wet deposition because of
that precipitation effect is there and that is more dangerous for building materials etc. If there is a
lot of SO2 concentration in air, and that is got converted into sulphuric acid.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:42)

So, when we talk about how materials are affected, so we can see all kinds of materials are
affected by these air pollutants, whether they are metals or non-metals. Even stones like
limestones or marble, and then brick, and mortar, concrete, paints and polymers; all these
building materials are damaged in one or other way by air pollutants. And we will see how they
are damaged.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:06)

So, you can see these sensitive materials against air pollutants like brick; it is not so much
sensitive to the air pollutants, because of its at high temperature it is manufactured; and it is not

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so much susceptible. It can afford to be exposed by high concentration of those kind of air
pollutants.

Concrete is also low; but once you know concrete is damaged and somehow this acidic water
goes inside; and if it starts corrosion of the (reinforced) that you know the steel or iron that
ferrous material. So, because of rust, the volume increases; and then concrete starts to crack, and
then this can get affected.

But, it also you can have very high grade concrete which may not be affected; but that is very
expensive. Mortar, moderate to high effect maybe there because of air pollutants. Sandstones,
limestones: they are high because of this SO2. Similarly, these unalloyed steel is also highly
susceptible to air pollutant because of SO2.

Stainless steel, as you know because the stainless, its name is there; so that is very low affected
by these acidic pollutants. Nickel-plated steel: they are again because of SO2. Zinc, galvanized
steel all these are highly susceptible. Then aluminum, very low; but aluminum has its own
problem you can know about that. But, at least from this air pollutant, it is not so much
problematic. Copper has low, but it is affected.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:45)

When we talk about these metals, so ferrous metals they are affected by severely by SO2, etc.
Non-ferrous like zinc, aluminum, copper, they are not so much affected.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:45)

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And like you can see this figure, this corrosion effect is there; and this is because of this
electrochemical process, which occurs in wet surfaces because of these air pollutants. And the
important parameters which affect the corrosion, reactions are like humidity, precipitation,
temperature, levels of atmospheric pollutants. All these will govern how much corrosion may
occur and how much it may be damaged. You can see these kinds of iron gates can be affected
by corrosion and rust because of this SO2, etc.

And NOx also has some effect Ozone corrosion on the metals is uncertain; means more research
is needed. When we talk about at the places like sea shore; so, sea water has this a lot of salt.
And with air, you know salt comes to the air; and within salt if you see like sulfate sodium is

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there. But the huge quantity portion 55 percent, more than 55 percent is chloride. And that plays
a significant role when this corrosion related action is accelerated because of this chlorides. But
Ozone may be important in accelerating some other reactions.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:10)

When we talk about effects on non-ferrous metals, like 20 years exposure study has been
conducted. So, you can see like exposure conditions in industries, it is very high 6.1. On the
brass 8.5, nickel 25.2; in sea coast, it is less than the industrial area, in rural it is further less. So,
you can see that industrial, because in industrial areas, lot of pollution is there; and the air is
polluted in terms of several kinds of air pollutants, whether sulphur oxides or particulate matters
or other kinds of toxic materials are there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:51)

When we talk about the stones, effects on the stones because of air pollutants, then majorly we
talk about like calcareous stones and siliceous stones. So, siliceous stones are more sturdy like
granite. They are very tough and they are not so much affected by these air pollutants. But, the
sandstones, limestones, marbles etc, they are very much susceptible to the SO2 pollutant; because
of this acid rain or acid deposition, they can be there.

There is a very simple reaction as you know, because CaCO3, SO2, H2O is there; so the calcium
sulfate is formed, Gypsum is also formed. And this carbonic acid can also participate to CaCO3;

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and it is calcium bicarbonate is formed. So, that kind of a stone is very much susceptible to
acidic atmospheric environment.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:48)

When we talk about in continuation to these calcareous stones; then there are different stages.
Like in stage one, simple dissolution of calcium carbonate happens in presence of acid rain. And
the attack by dry deposition of gaseous pollutants, especially SO2 also occurs; but that is slow
process. Then the stage second that is the medium term; and you can see this is the effect of the
second stage. So, in this dissolution of calcium carbonate happens; fall-out and because of this

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acid rain, the surface get damaged, because the dissolution has happened. Calcium carbonate has
gone to different kinds of products like calcium sulphate, etc.

And the removal of a small amount of calcium carbonate may lose considerable number of sand
grains and the leading to surface erosion. And further this acceleration happens because then
more porosity is there and then more attack will be there because of acid rain.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:50)

When we talk about stage three, then in stage three basically this sheltered areas, where calcium
sulfate is not intermittently washed away. This is deposited there; so it can build up into the
concentration and it remains there. And this results in formation of crust, which may be like
followed by the peeling of that surface; and the formation of crust is slow and this particular
peeling process happens. The further damaging of a stones happens you can see here; so, those
kinds of things may happen. So, three stages are there in calcareous stone damage because of air
pollutants.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:28)

When we talk about brick and mortar, the mortar again has certain calcium carbonate related
things. So that is affected, but brick is not so much affected by SO2 attack. So, you can see the
mortar only, those gaps are because of this acid rain you can see.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:46)

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When we talk about the concrete, so in concrete basically this reinforced concrete. Basically, this
is about the reinforced concrete. So, like these steel rods, iron rods are there. So, they are
damaged by acid rain; and rust happens and then volume increases. So, further cracks developed
in concrete and then concrete damage also happens. When we talk about this, this kind of gaps;
so you can see this corrosion starts and then damage continues.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:20)

And on paints also, there are paints which can be damaged by like Ozone; because it is very
oxidizing highly oxidizing gas as you know. So, because of these, then there is presence of
certain calcium carbonate fillers in the paint; so, that can get affected by SO2 also. But, ozone

138
takes part initially and then the damage continuous and it progresses quite high in longer term.
So, these kinds of things may be seen when paint is there, but it is damaged by polluted
environment.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:54)

When we see effects on the polymers like rubber or plastic those kinds of things; so, they are
badly affected by ozone because of this oxidizing nature. So, you can see here cracks; these
cracks are developed by ozone. So, if ozone is very high in concentration in air, so there your
tires will be damaged very quickly; so, the economic effect is there, there are many other things.
And the number of cracks and depth of the cracks in rubber; it further goes depending upon the
ambient air concentration, and the uses of the tires.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:33)

When we want to analyze the maintenance influencing factors like damage thickness etc; so you
can see like natural stone 4 mm is there; these are the critical thickness basically. Mortar 4 mm,
zinc 50 micro meter only; galvanized steel 50 micro meter, paints 50 micro meter. This much of
thickness damage is there, then it is critical. And one should go for some remedial measure;
otherwise, it will be highly damaged after some time.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:07)

Then, economic impacts are there because when buildings are affected, then we have to repair
them; and its age also reduces, the structural components are also get damaged. So, economic

140
impacts are there and the maintenance cost is also increased; and lifespan of building is
decreased. So, economic impact is severe, if you do not care; if you do not deal with the air
pollutants, cleaning from the environment from the atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:35)

And the damage cost can be calculated, estimated by this kind of study. They have given this
table that natural stones and the mortar, zinc etc, how much area that you know is affected;
depending upon the affected area, this repair cost can be estimated. So, that is used for estimation
of the cost of damage because of air pollutants and corrosion.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:59)

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So, remedial measures they may be like coating. There are certain coating which bifurcates or
which is kind of wall in between very thin wall, so that this attack of the sulphur dioxide or
acidic environment does not happen so quickly. Even you might have seen like nowadays, when
you go to the car garage, they say that please get it painted by some coating, the lower surfaces;
so that the rust does not happen, corrosion does not happen. So, those kinds of coating materials
are there, which can be used for remedial measures, or to reduce the ill effects or negative
impacts of corrosion.

When we talk about building materials, stone related building materials; then there are other
ways to go for remedial measures like paper pulp, which is used for this soluble salts removal.
So, this paper pulp related treatment can be done; and this is a kind of non-destructive method.
So, it is a good way of removing those kind of material which was because of crust because of
those air pollutants damage.

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:12)

So, in conclusion, we can say that air pollution causes several, not only the health effects, but
these effects on the buildings; they can cause deterioration, both the metals as well as the rocky
materials. And sulphur dioxide is a major cause of corrosion related the effects on the building
materials, and the structural components.

And the polluted environment is degrading the historical monuments. You might have seen,
whenever you visit some monuments, there may be some damage; so, the damage may be related
to weather as well as related to pollution. So, our monuments have, they are very precious, we
should protect them.

So, reduction of air pollution really contribute in protecting our historical monuments. And it can
increase its lifespan; otherwise, the lifespan of these buildings will be decreased. And the annual
maintenance cost of corrosion is increasing worldwide in over 3 percent of the world's GDP
because of this pollution.

So, if we reduce the pollution, we can reduce this maintenance related cost also. And ozone has
been found the most damaging pollutant for the polymers such as plastics and rubbers. So again,
the property related protection when we talk about, then the reduction of not only the criteria
pollutants, simple pollutants, but also secondary pollutants like ozone has to be there. And to
reduce the ozone concentration, we have to reduce its precursors concentration like VOCs or like

143
CO, or the NOx; those kind of which contribute into formation of Ozone. So, this is all for today.
Thank you for your kind attention.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:56)

And this is the reference list which you can go through to have more information about these
topics which we have discussed. So, see you again in the series of these lectures. Thank you.

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 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 06
Impact of Pollution on Atmosphere, Soil and Water Bodies

Hello, friends, today we will discuss impact of air pollution on atmosphere soil and water
bodies.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:38)

So this would be the content list of today's lecture, like impacts on atmosphere and when
we are talking about impacts on the atmosphere basically we would also talk about
impacts on climate because atmosphere and climate is interrelated through global
warming effect induced by greenhouse gases and other issues of air pollutants.

Then we will also see impacts on soil because dry deposition or wet deposition through
this process. Acidic pollutants interact with soil and they have negative impacts. Then we
will talk about impacts on water bodies. Again, pollutants of different nature, basically
the acidic content which can change the pH of water bodies, and on soil basically not
only pH but those heavy metals also can take a toll on the soil quality. So that way we

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will see the complete impact of air pollution on atmosphere, then soil, and water and
climate.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:44)

Well when we talk about impacts on the atmosphere, so the largest impact on atmosphere
through greenhouse gases, frequently say that greenhouse gases strictly not air pollutants
but there are air pollutants also which are also having greenhouse gas impact. So that is
why clubbing with carbon dioxide sometimes we also talk about greenhouse gases as part
of air pollutants, like methane. So this is a pollutant as well as it has greenhouse gas
impact, or ozone which is also pollutant also has greenhouse gas impact.

So this greenhouse gas impact of these pollutants like methane or ozone along with the
carbon dioxide, they have this global warming impact because they avoids, or it does not
allow the wavelength, the longer wavelength radiation to go out from the earth's surface
because as you know the short wave radiation comes to the earth surface and it is
absorbed by earth's, and then when earth radiates back the long wave radiation or infrared
radiation.

So if these greenhouse gases are there, they capture it. They capture it. And because of
capturing this temperature rises of the atmosphere, and of entire earth’s surface. Then air

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pollutants influences the albedo of the earth's surface. Albedo, we will see, like
reflectivity, because of air pollutants the reflectivity also gets changed.

Air pollutants like sulphur dioxide or NOX and of course, CO2 is always there in the
atmosphere, they also cause certain impacts which is known as acidic rainfall. So acid
rain is contributed by NO2 or oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur. Visibility is also
an issue. When aerosols are there or smog is produced by different kinds of air pollutants
then visibility is reduced of the atmosphere, and it has several negative implications
which we will see later on.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:53)

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You can see here, the air pollution and visibilities relation. Those periods when air
pollution was high, so what was the visibility of, like you can see a particular place in
Delhi, Rajpath. So November 2018, and you can see April 2020. So before lockdown and
after lockdown, you can see the clear cut visibility related issue even in Taj Mahal also.
So 2018 and 2020, these are the two very short videos which can easily give you the
realization that how this clean air really helps us to have greater visibility.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:37)

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Well, the visibility is basically a measure of how well we can see or observe an object or
scene around us. So if air pollution increases, the contrast decreases. Contrast really helps
us to see an object clearly. So when contrast is reduced the abilities to see the object
clearly also reduces.

So you can see here, this, if there is a visibility issue then this kind of scene, the same
place if atmosphere is clean then you can have very good scenic beauty. So aesthetic
beauty or scenic beauty is dependent upon the clarity of the atmosphere. And that is
dependent on pollution. If pollution is more clarity is reduced, contrast is reduced
because of this scattering of sunlight etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:31)

And then, this haze effect is also there on the visibility. So haze is basically caused due to
sunlight. When sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles they have this scattering
effect. And then more pollutants are there so more scattering of light happens. So this
reduces the visibility. So you can have these tiny particles which can contribute in
reduction of visibility.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:58)

Well, there are several types of haze, basically. And haze is caused by interaction of these
pollutants which are coming out of various anthropogenic sources or natural sources also
and then they interact with atmospheric constituents. So when this man-made activity like
industrial activity, power plant etc and plume is coming out of a stack, so within the
dispersion of plume in that area visibility will be reduced.

So it is called as plume haze. This much area only where this plume is passing through,
haze will be created because of this scattering of light because this plume has lot of
particulate matter.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:41)

Then there is this layered haze. So in layered haze because this contrast reduces and there
may be one clarity related layer and reduced visibility related layer. So in that layer
where this visibility is reduced significantly we call it layered haze. And in upper layer
you can have better quality of the visibility and even lower also it can be there, greater
visibility.

Then there is uniform haze. When the pollutants are dispersed properly, uniformly, and
the whole atmosphere get affected in our range of the visibility, then this is the uniform
haze. And the whole atmosphere is having very reduced level of visibility. We cannot see
properly in the air.

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(Refer Slide Time: 07:33)

When we talk about the visibility then we also talk about negative impacts of the
visibility. Because this transportation of goods, or people from different kinds of vehicles
railroads, air traffic etc they are affected by reduced visibility. When dense fog is there
then it is difficult to take off and landing of the flights.

Similarly speed of the rails gets reduced, you cannot see properly at good distances, and
several safety issues emerges because accidents may happen on the roads when the
visibility is very poor and you cannot drive your vehicle at the proper speed because you
cannot see properly at larger distance.

Then even if the visibility is an issue at the tourist places where people try to see sunrise
or sunset or they want to enjoy the sight scenes, so if visibility has an issue then they
cannot enjoy that aesthetic beauty to full extent. So that is also one more negative impact,
you can say.

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(Refer Slide Time: 08:46)

And this is one example. You can see the sharp decrease in the visibility due to increase
in particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen in Delhi in November 2012. So this was the
picture you can see. Very poor visibility. And it was take, may be taken, this picture was
taken quite at the near distance but still, you cannot see properly. You cannot enjoy the
scenic beauty or aesthetic beauty of that particular place.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:13)

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Then there is this issue of effects on albedo. So albedo is basically the fraction of light
which is reflected by a body or surface. So this reflectivity is influenced by particulate
matter and air pollution because that surface is basically either damaged or it, the
enhanced, the reflectivity may be enhanced depending upon the physicochemical
characteristics of aerosols.

So basically when this albedo is decreased then absorption of sunlight increases, and
temperature increases. So one negative impact is related to arctic ice. Because of
pollution its albedo is reduced means the reflectivity is reduced and heat is being
absorbed. So because of that surface ice melts. And this increases a kind of vicious cycle
because surface ice melts then rough surface is there to absorb more, this solar radiation
and to increase the heat content.

Here high albedo means like, very reflective surface. So 80 percent solar radiation is
reflected. When low albedo is there because of soot or carbon particles etc, then the
whole light is absorbed, only 10 percent is reflected. So those kind of pictorial
representation is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:40)

So as I said that because of this soot particles or those particles which can absorb
sunlight, then it can generate the heat and it can warm the air. And when soot is deposited

154
on snow or ice it changes the albedo because its reflectivity is affected, and then it
absorbs the sunlight and it generates the heat, and then it causes the melting of snow and
ice and more warming effect, as I said, because of this vicious cycle kind of thing. More
ice melts, then more surface is out to absorb the heat content and the heat and
temperature rises.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:25)

Here you can see, the aerosol particles which contributes into affecting the albedo. So
there are particles like sulphate particles or sea salts etc, they are reflective in nature. So
they can reflect and they can have cooling effect. They can reflect the sunlight or solar
radiation into the space and, but the other aerosols which have carbon aerosols or carbon
particles, soot etc they absorb the light and they increases the heat content or they
generate the warming effect.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:55)

So that is why these are the scattering aerosols, which are light in color. They reflect lot
of this solar radiation. So they cause the cooling effect in the temperature. And those, the
carbon particles, etc, soot etc, they absorb the light and they have the warming effect. So
aerosols can have both effects depending upon their physicochemical characteristics.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:23)

Then if you talk about impacts on the climate, as you know the climate is basically
governed by this solar radiation. So because of this disturbance in solar radiation through

156
albedo as well as through go this global warming effect, because of greenhouse gas
contained in the atmosphere this can change the climate, and climate can change the
temperature as well as the precipitation patterns also. So those are the impacts related to
the climate, that it can change the heat radiation or it can change also the precipitation
patterns.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:01)

So you can see here, like these, the reduced sunlight causes cooling effect because of
those particles or aerosols which are reflective in nature, and then if lot of cloud
formation is there then water content is there then the earth surface get this greenhouse
gas effect more because warming effect is there because of clouds, clouds act as the, this
blanket kind of thing. So albedo has a lot of change or role in changing the climate along
with the greenhouse gases.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:33)

And this is a very good picture. You can see here radiative forcing is depicted because
different greenhouse gases as well as natural phenomena and particles. Here CO2, you
can see the highest greenhouse gas impact or radiation impact of CO2. Very positive.
Then methane also has, in stratosphere this ozone has cooling effect in the stratosphere,
but positive effect or warming effect in the troposphere.

Similarly this surface albedo, so black carbon on snow, they have positive impacts but in
the land use you can have this negative impacts plus the total aerosols you can have the
direct effect and cloud albedo effect. So they are the negative in the sense because they
are reflecting the solar radiation so they are having the cooling effect.

Then lot of effect of greenhouse gas as well as in totality we can call the total impact is
positive. Total impact is positive because this cooling effect you can minus and you can
add all these positive impacts. So ultimately the, there is this impact on the climate or
radiative forcing because of greenhouse gas and particles, the net result is positive. That
means it will warm the atmosphere or the surface earth, earth’s surface.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:01)

And when we talk about this change in the temperature pattern, so from this 1850 to
2050, this kind of hockey stick curve you can see here, so the temperature is increasing.
So you can relate it with the industrial era. When this industrial revolution started then
emissions of greenhouse gases especially CO2 etc also increased and accordingly the
temperature, overall temperature has increased.

And now the temperature rate increase has rapidly enhanced because of high
concentration of greenhouse gases. And now you can see 1 degree Celsius from 1901 to
2020. This much rose this temperature between these 120 years, you can say. So that is a
very rapid increase of temperature if you look into the context of several hundreds or
thousands of years.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:56)

Well, the change of precipitation or rainfall is affected by climate change because of

temperature change as well as change of the, these aerosols. Because aerosols have of
different size and shape. Small aerosols, like they result into small droplets because they
cause like nucleation for condensing of water vapor. So cloud formation because of very
small particles tiny particles, so small aerosols, so that will hang around. It will suppress
the precipitation.

So there are studies which show that because of these small particle emissions
precipitation can be suppressed, but at the same time then if sizes of the particles are
more they can enhance the precipitation. So that kind of two way effect may be there
depending upon the, this aerosol size. But greenhouse gas impact because of this global
warming, this temperature change, it can has this positive effect on the precipitation.

So it has been realized that this precipitation intensity will increase, and you can see,
several times storms, this thunderstorm is increasing, at several places very high intensity
rains occur. So these are the part of the climate change issues. And here the patterns of
aerosols because of sulphates and greenhouse gases on the precipitation has been shown,
relationship.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:20)

When we talk about these glaciers, because aerosols has deposited on the glaciers and
they are having this trapping of the heat and that is why the thickness of 30 well-studied
glaciers has decreased more than 60 feet since 1980. So its a huge, big issue in that sense
because there are so many rivers which are fed by glaciers. If glaciers recede it will
impact the complete water cycle and our irrigation patterns and availability of the water,
all those things.

Similarly, at the same time when glaciers are receding, they are giving more water to the
rivers etc, so the more water is going to the sea and sea level is also rising. And you can
see this, around 1.7 millimeter per year throughout most of the 20th century this has been
observed because of this global warming impact on the sea levels. And 3.2 mm per year
since 1993. So the rate of increase of sea level has also increased. And that will have very
negative impact on coastal cities and island countries, and all those issues are there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:35)

Well, when we talk about this carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which has risen by 25
percent since 1958 and about 40 percent since the industrial revolution, and this has also
related to this ice cover. The area covered by sea ice in the arctic region at the end of
summer has shrunk or decreased by about 40 percent since 1979. So this is a very
worrisome issue.

So CO2 is increasing and this surface area covered by the eyes in arctic is decreasing.
And this is not only a very simple association of the concentration of CO2 and receding
area of the ice cover on arctic, but there are well established facts, scientific facts and
scientific studies which really relates the greenhouse gas impact through global warming
on glaciers as well as on sea levels etc.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:35)

Well, so now we can talk about like impact on the soil. We have seen the impact on the
atmosphere and climate because of this air pollution, and air pollution is associated not
only these toxic pollutants which we have discussed on, like negative healthy effects, but
there are also greenhouse gases along with the air pollutants and they impact the
atmosphere and climate.

Now we can see what is the impact on the soil. So air pollution they can also affect the
quality of soil because of dry deposition and wet deposition occurs, and this acidic rains
occur and the productivity of soil can be affected because this will change the pH level of
the soil when lot of NOX and sulphur dioxide are deposited through acid rain on the soil.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:27)

So you can see here, acid rain, this can have the detrimental effects on the soil through,
like loss of nutrients or loss of minerals and the elements which are required for the
proper growth of the plant. And then as a result this acid deposition reduces the
productivity of the soil. So total productivity is reduced and even soil can be unfertile
also after some time if we do not really do some helping hand for revitalizing the soil.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:53)

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Then if you see the characteristics of the soil which are important for plant growth etc,
like pH level or this water holding capacity, salinity, nutrient or nitrogen phosphorus,
potassium content, all these are the, like you might have heard about, like government of
India is issuing soil health card to farmers.

So these are the things if you see if they are in the real balancing then the plant growth
occurs very nicely, otherwise if they are disturbed then growth is reduced. It affected
negatively. So because of air pollution all these factors can be affected negatively.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:39)

For example pH level so the optimal pH range is right like 6.2 to 6.8, and there is the
range acidic neutral and highly alkaline. All these, then, if soil is too alkaline then
minerals such as iron and zinc will solidify. So because of pH level many things may
happen. Its ability to retain some nutrients like magnesium and calcium, potassium, they
reduces because of acid rain.

And similarly if alkalinity increases because of changes in the pH levels of the soil
because of certain pollutants then can also, it can impact the iron and zinc, the
concentration of iron and zinc which is also very important nutrient for the plants’
growth.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:31)

Soil characteristics, in terms of like, you can see these emissions of NOX, and SO2 etc,
they come through dry deposition or bad deposition and it can reduce the pH levels of the
soil.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:46)

So, then another is part in terms of water holding capacity. This can also get affected
because of interaction of soil with the air pollutants. So its holding capacity for the water,

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it can be reduced or it can be enhanced depending how this chemical composition of soil
is affected.

And both way, if the holding capacity water holding capacity is reduced, then drought
may occur or it may not give the proper water to the roots. Similarly if lot of water is hold
by the soil then again the roots sitting in water that can be damaged and the supply of
nutrients becomes less in that term because roots will be damaged if a lot of water is
there.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:35)

Then if you talk about like nutrients value nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium etc, so
because of oxides of nitrogen the nitrogen imbalance may be there and that can have
some impact on this soil quality and the plant growth because its immunity and the plant
growth is harmed when one or more of the three micro nutrients are deficient or the
imbalance occurs. So there must be some balance.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:04)

Well, salinity is also an issue. So soil salinity is the amount of salt which is contained in
soil. And high soil salinity can adversely affect the plant growth. So it subjects to the loss
of like osmosis. And salinity causes the water within plants to flow towards the soil when
higher salinity is there.

So it can hydrate the soil and, leaving the plants and crops dry because that water will
flow towards the soil because of this salinity. So if salinity increases because of air
pollutants so negative impact on the plant growth can happen.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:43)

Then here you can see this particulate matter and they can change the physiochemical
characteristics because particulate matters, several pollutants as coated ones, sulphates
etc. Then depending upon physiochemical and toxic characteristics of particulate matter,
the nutrient content of soil can also be affected. So in that way the total growth can be
affected because of these air pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:10)

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And then oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, as we have seen because they contribute in acid
rain, and this like lead is absorbed in small amounts by vegetarians, vegetation through
the soil so it can also lower the productivity. So heavy metals and these acidic depositions
etc, they will cause harmful effect on the soil quality. And then it will be translated into
negative impacts on the plant growth.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:36)

When we talk about, like calcium carbonate rich soil, then the negative impact of acid
rain can be reduced because this carbon, this calcium carbonate acts like a buffer zone. It
absorbs this acidic content through this reaction and that way the soil has kind of less
vulnerability, or more resistance to acid related negative impacts.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:04)

But if soil is not having this calcium carbonate that soil is basically affected severely by
this acid rain, and its quality becomes very low and the nutrient capacity and enriching
capacity to plants decreases very severely.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:21)

When we talk about heavy metals, they also accumulate in the soil top because of this dry
deposition of the particulate matter and because of wet deposition also at the same time.
So the increases in, in its concentration and it is absorbed and accumulated in the plants

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also. And that way plants becomes unhealthy and when this plant is eaten by animals or it
goes in the diet of human beings then it is also dangerous because of bio accumulation of
heavy metals.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:55)

Now, we talk about negative impacts of acidic nature of precipitation to the water bodies.
We have already discussed impact on atmospheric climate and soil, now on water bodies.
So again, because of this acidic deposition of this nitrogen oxides and oxides of sulphur
this pH of the water gets changed.

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(Refer Slide Time: 27:21)

And when pH is changed, it can affect this, the aquatic life like, lethal effects may be
there. For example acid precipitations in the form of snow is suddenly released into the
water when in, during the spring period. And this gives the shock to the fish because this
pH level drastically decreases suddenly, and they cannot survive in that particular
environment.

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(Refer Slide Time: 27:47)

There is one more example to illustrate this particular concept, like in Iraq, at a place this
Mosul province, it was considered the largest sulphur mine in the world. And this SO2
was responsible for the acid rain in that area because of mining activities and so. And the
pH got reduced below 5, and this affected hatching process of the fish, and also, it also
killed the adult fish also. So lot of damage was there in that particular water body.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:20)

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Now, we come to thermal impacts on water body, because global warming is increasing
the temperature of like sea. And this increase in the temperature of sea is really
translating into negative impacts on the coastal ecosystem.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:33)

For example, you can see this bleaching of coral reefs. This is so beautiful coral reef in
the clean water but because of temperature increase this kind of bleaching happens. And
other pollutants may also participate in that kind of activity, but thermal impact may be
there in, in this particular fashion.

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(Refer Slide Time: 28:58)

Then there is impacts of nitrogen on water bodies, because as I said nutrients like
nitrogen and phosphorus they are very important for the, enhancing or reducing the
growth of the plants. In certain water bodies if nitrogen increases, which is micro
nutrient, so this can result into the bloom of algae and those kind of plants in the water
body.

And it results into reduction of oxygen. Because of eutrophication, oxygen is reduced,

and anaerobic conditions may prevail and when oxygen content or dissolved oxygen of
the water body reduces, then aquatic life suffers. They need certain amount of oxygen to
survive. So that becomes kind of, if it is not properly checked or something, constructive
measures are not implemented then that particular water body becomes like a mars or
those, those kind of things.

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(Refer Slide Time: 29:59)

So this is all for today. In conclusion we can say that air pollution can cause different
kind of effects on the atmosphere, climate, soil and water bodies. And it can reduce the
surrounding visibility, this air pollution can reduce the surrounding visibility because of
that scattering effect of particulate matter. And it can cause accidents during
transportation, it can delay flights, all those effects may be there.

Then there is this acid rain formation. It can makes lakes and rivers acidic and it can
disrupt the aquatic life. Similarly soil nutrients can be affected negatively because of
heavy metals because of air pollutants and this acidic patterns of precipitation.

And these greenhouse gases is responsible for increasing the atmospheric temperature,
and it can cause several negative impact through climate change as well as the thermal
impact can be there on the, these coral reefs also. So there are multiple effects you can
see on this environmental components, whether soil water and air because of this air
pollution emissions.

So this is all for today, and we will continue to see other related aspects of air pollution in
the same way. So see you in the next session.

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(Refer Slide Time: 31:23)

And before that, I request you to go through these references which gives the additional
information about this topic.

So that is all for today. Thank you for your kind attention. See you in the next lecture.
Thanks.

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 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 07
Sources and Classification of Air Pollutants

Hello, friends. Today we will discuss about sources and classification of air pollutants.
Basically, as you know we are discussing about air pollution and control in totality. So,
we need to know what is the air pollution, what are its main sources and then we need to
know different kinds of air pollutants because to control them we have to have different
policies, different technologies for different pollutants.

So, unless we know what kind of sources are there and what kind of pollutants are
released, then how can we control them? So, basic knowledge of fundamental knowledge
about sources and classification of air pollutants is very important.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:17)

Well, so, when we talk about the sources of air pollution, basically you can divide it into
like natural sources or anthropogenic sources, anthropogenic means manmade sources,
then you can also divide them like indoor and outdoor sources. So, that way major
sources, then within natural sources we can say different kinds of sources we will see

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what kind of sources are there which can be categorized as natural sources and what are
those sources, which we categorize as anthropogenic sources.

Then, within indoor sources also different kinds of microenvironment related sources can
be there. When we talk about types of air pollutants, then there are many ways, several
ways to classify the air pollutants basically, depending upon their size depending upon
their shape or physical and chemical characteristics. We can say that, physical aerosols or
biogenic aerosols, those kinds of things.

Similarly, the major components regarding types of air pollutants can be like primary air
pollutants, secondary air pollutants or criteria and non criteria pollutants. Within known
criteria like hazardous or toxic pollutants, then there are greenhouse gases. Strictly
speaking some greenhouse gases like CO2 is basically not pollutant. This is part of our
inhalation and exhalation process. CO2 is part of our system. It is not toxic pollutant.

But other pollutants are there which are also greenhouse gases like ozone, etc. They are
air pollutants as well as greenhouse gases. So, in that way to control the greenhouse
gases, to avoid climate change, to avoid other effects on global warming etc, we need to
discuss them as part of the air pollutants.

Also, some people talk about like, noise pollution. That is also the part of air pollution
according to them. So, there are different authors different high schools of thoughts. And
then even people talk about like, light. In the in the cities, so much light is there in the
night that they can disturb the path of birds, migratory birds etc. That is also known as
space pollution or air pollution. Even some people talk about like banners advertisements,
those spaces are occupied. So they call it like air pollution of different kinds.

But strictly speaking, the health impact related air pollutants are those pollutants which
affect our health, which affect the ecological systems and other effects they have. Then
we will discuss about conclusions after all.

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(Refer Slide time: 03:58)

So, in this picture, you can see in totality what are different sources of air pollution. You
can see like natural, natural are volcanoes. Then wildfires, natural fires may occur in the
forest. So, they can emit lot of carbon dioxide or particulate matter or other pollutants.
So, forest can be also the source of air pollutants. As I said earlier, like pollens and
VOCs, hydrocarbons, whatever smell is coming from a plant or flower, this is basically
VOC, Volatile Organic Compound.

So, those kind of emissions may also be there naturally. Whenever you cut the grass, in
the lawn, then also you have certain smell. All those are VOCs, basically. So, natural
emissions of VOCs can be there.

Then when we talk about like, these manmade sources or anthropogenic sources, so, they
can be classified like stationary sources or area sources, mobile sources or line sources.
So, point sources or stationary sources are basically emissions from certain stacks or
chimneys, a point source, you can say. Also, like definition sometimes depends upon the
context also. Like city is an area source, but if you look at the continental scale city can
be a point. In that context that can be kind of point source.

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But in daily life, when we talk about urban air quality management etc then point sources
are only those sources like which are coming, the pollution, plumes are coming out of a
stack or a small heap is being burned. So, those are the points sources.

Area sources can be like number of points sources are there. Like, each household is
emitting when we are cooking. So, in the whole colony or city emissions are coming
from kitchen, or in some industries, industrial area, so many pollution is coming from
different industries. So, that kind of in total can be termed as Area Source.

Then mobile source or line source is basically like, on the road vehicle is traveling. So,
that can be line source or mobile source. Line source can also be because of like, there
are a number of stacks like some industries are in parallel of a river bank. And those in
the line, so, that is also the line source, or agricultural waste is being burnt in a line in a
field. So, that is also a line source, in that way. So, that way you can see like natural
sources, manmade sources and also we can categorize like a stationary sources mobile
sources and area sources.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:45)

Well, so, we have talked about in that picture. So, like natural sources may be sea salt or
dust storm, sand storms and then smoke from wildfire, volcanic eruptions, volcanic
activities are also natural occurring sources of air pollution. Anthropogenic sources,

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stationary sources like power plants, so, again stacks are chimneys, oil refineries or
industries and factories brick kilns, etc wherever a stack is there, chimneys there and a
plume is coming out of it, we call it a stationary source or point source.

Mobile source, on road vehicles or marine vessels, ships etc which are moving. So,
emission is going on, coming out of a chimney of that, or stack of that particular vehicle,
like exhaust pipe or in the ship some exhaust pipe is there, and then aircrafts, also mobile
sources you can call.

Area sources like, lot of agricultural field emissions are there, or wood burning in a large
area, then waste burning also like wherever these landfill sites are there, several hundreds
of yards or meters occupied by waste, and if it is burned, then that can be area source.
And then the cooking or slums, wherever emission sources are in a large size area, then
we call it as area source.

So, basically why do we worry about line source or point source, area source? Because
when we try to model, so according to the area source, point source or line source
modeling techniques are different. So that we will discuss later on.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:11)

Now, we go for natural sources one by one. So, like volcanic eruptions. In volcanic
eruptions, a lot of emissions come of different nature, like huge quantity of sulphur

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dioxide and ash content, particulate matter, those kinds of things like CO2, even moisture,
hydrogen fluoride, and hydrogen chloride, all those things, they come out of this
particular activity.

Then SO2 is being converted into H2SO4, so it can also get converted into acid rain. So
that falls as a precipitation or dry depletion that can be there. So this is the way of,
emitting, this volcanic eruption emitting lot of gases and particulate matter.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:15)

Well, the gravity of volcanic eruptions can be visualized with this example. Like the
concentration of sulphur dioxide in tons per day, which was released from Mount St.
Helen eruption from 1980 to 2005 was huge. It was around up to 3,750 tons per day of
sulphur dioxide, it was released during that span of period. So it was huge quantity, you
can say.

Particulate matter in the smoke and the levels, in the ambient air because of that eruption,
over the four days of eruption, it was around 1,600 micrograms per cubic meter, it is a
very high concentration in ambient air. And that was around 5 times of usual normal
levels, which were observed daily in that area. And the prevailing winds moved around
520 million tons of that ash or particulate matter eastward across the United States.

184
So the whole region was affected by this volcanic eruption emitting a lot of particulate
matter.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:30)

Well, if we talk about in today's context or in current context, so as on 19th August,

August 2021, around 50 volcanoes were counted as, in active eruption status around the
world. These 50 volcanoes. So you can imagine that they are emitting huge quantity of
gases and particulate matters etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:54)

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Well, then there are natural sources of air pollution in terms of forest fire. So
uncontrolled forest fire emits a lot of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and
hydrocarbons also, and ash content that is particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen. Like
around 37,000 fires were detected in the year 2018 using this MODIS (Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer) sensor data through the space.

So, and if we count like how much part of the forest is affected by these fires, so around
54 percent of forest area is exposed to occasional fires, and around 7.5 percent to
moderately frequent fires, and around 2.4 percent to high incidence level and 35.7 percent
around, means not yet exposed, that is unexposed, you can say, in that way, means that
was the kind of study based data.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:04)

When we talk about like Australian bushfire, it is, the area and intensity and extent was
very worst, the extreme bush fires that blazed across southern eastern part of Australia in
late 2019 and early 2020 it released around 750 million tons of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.

And then unprecedented fires burn across, as much as 74,000 square kilometer of mostly
that particular variety of plants. And then, this around Southeast Australia was affected.

186
And it was the area larger than, if you want to visualize, larger than Sri Lanka. That kind
of visualization, you can see.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:53)

Well, when we talk about like other natural sources for example, sand storms or dust
storms, so they also entrains large amount of particulate matter into the atmosphere. And
because of that, particulate matter concentration increases several fold and also it reduces
the visibility severely, and because of that sometimes accidents happen on the road.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:20)

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Well, you can see here, this dusty storm at New South Wales as an example, over parts of
Victoria, to arrive in Melbourne, Australia on January 2020. So the air, atmosphere
became like orange, because of this scattering of the light and the visibility dropped
significantly, and it was almost impossible to drive in that situation. So those are the
effects of sand storm related air pollution episodes.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:45)

When we talk about, further in case of natural sources of air pollution, so the oceans are
also very vast emitting sources of air pollutants. And they emit aerosols, basically, in the
form of salt particles, because wind and that friction is there, then lot of salt becomes part
of these aerosols. And then corrosive properties are there because of, these aerosols have
a lot of chlorides etc. And the coastal locations, buildings get affected severely because of
that.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:25)

Well, these marine aerosols are defined broadly as various types of particles, which are
found over the oceans, for example, like sea salt or sulphate aerosols or nitrate aerosols,
mineral dust, so according to their, these physical chemical properties, we can classify
them in different types of aerosols.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:48)

Then, there are two distinct types of aerosols which are produced by bursting bubbles.
You can see here like bubble goes up, and it bursts, so this film drops and form from the

189
shattering of the thin upper surface of the bubble, and they are injected with a wide
angular distribution. So that is one way of creation of aerosols in the air.

Another one is like jet drops, so which produces large aerosols whose sizes are roughly
10 percent of what is a precursors of bubbles diameter. So that way size related
differences there because of different way of their production.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:30)

When we talk about like their effect, so a lot of corrosion related things happen because
of these marine aerosols. As you can see, like, this atmospheric origin in marine
environment and bimetallic corrosion happens, you can see in the figure also. So marine
environments cause higher corrosion in zinc part or these sleeve related parts and
galvanized forged steel pin, you can see here. So that corrosion is because of this marine
environment emitting aerosols.

Then dust samples accumulated on the pin and the glass part were around 7,000 ppm
fluoride, or 41,000 ppm sulphate. So that kind of high concentration can easily corrode
whatever metal it is there, unless it is, non corrosive metal is there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 16:25)

Well, similarly, in another study this was seen that the influence of marine aerosol
decreases with the distance from the seashore, naturally because their concentration
decreases, but the structures located at certain altitudes in a desertic region can be still
greatly affected as seen in this particular picture. And the, these deposit samples on the
most affected side of the tower had around 18,000 ppm fluoride content, so that is again
very high concentration.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:59)

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Similarly, this is another example of atmospheric corrosion, corrosion of zinc,
detachment of galvanized layer, corrosion of steel etc, they are part of this particular
chemical attack because of marine aerosols.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:12)

Then, in this, the part of natural sources can be like pollen, pollens grains, from flowers
from plants, which can cause several respiratory distress and allergic reactions to many
people and animals also.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:28)

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Well, so pollen allergy data if you want to see, to have a kind of context, then around 150
million European citizens suffer from chronic allergies during year 2016 As per one data.
And by 2025 it is estimated that more than 50 percent of Europeans will suffer from
allergy with no age, social or geographical distinction. So those are negative effects of
these natural sources or naturally emitting pollens, which, again you can call them kind of
particles, but they travel and they can affect our respiratory system.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:07)

If we see, in Indian context, like Bangalore, sometimes people write it as a city of

allergens or pollens. So in a study from 2017 to 2019, this study was conducted on
sensitization among patients with having allergic, rhinitis kind of, or bronchial asthma
kind of symptoms.

So in clinics, they were observed and some data were collected. So around four 400
patients were included in this particular study. And it was performed with 21,
aeroallergens extracted from different kinds of pollens and 7 species of fungi and 9
species of pollen and three species of house dust mite were considered in this particular
study.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:10)

And you can see the result of this particular study. Like, percentage of people are allergic
to different types of pollens, you can see in this particular chart. Similarly, if you see the
percentage of people sensitive to allergies, so like house dust mites having maximum role
in giving allergy to people.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:28)

Now, if we talk about, from natural sources, if we shift our attention to anthropogenic
sources, so if you talk about like point sources, then industrial stack emissions are

194
basically the point sources, as it is shown in this particular figure also. And they can be
like from manufacturing of different products. So you need energy, and some sort of fuel
is burnt there and that emission will go out of the exhaust chimney.

And if it is, not controlled by some equipments, those pollution controlling equipments,
then lot of pollution is emitted in the air. And the nature of the pollutant will depend, of
course, on the nature of fuel which is being burned. The major pollutants which are
released from stacks, chimneys, like these point sources of the industrial units, maybe
like particulate matter or sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide oxides of nitrogen depending
upon which kind of fuel we are using.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:28)

So, you can see here like this portion of U.S. air pollution that comes from power plants,
you can see around 62 percent of arsenic, 77 percent acid gases, 60 percent sulphur
dioxide, those kinds of data they are from plant, power plant emissions. In India around
70 percent of power generation is obtained via coal based thermal power plants. And coal
is, people say that this is the dirty source of energy because it emits a lot of particulate
matter and a lot of sulphur dioxide etc, depending upon the coal quality.

But nowadays this coal is treated well before taking to power plants. So then pollution
levels are a little lesser and then controlling equipments, air pollutant controlling

195
movements are also there, like electrostatic precipitators etc. So pollution level becomes
low in that sense, but it is still huge quantity of coal is burned, then a lot of pollution
comes out.

Large amount of sulphur dioxide, NOX, CO2, CFCs those kinds of things may come out
of those power plants.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:40)

Well, when we talk about line source or mobile source, automobiles are the major source
of air pollutants in that sense. And NOX emissions or carbon monoxide emissions largely
come from these automobiles based on gasoline or diesel etc in the urban setting. So if
you try to compare pollutants, then you will find that in a particular city, these CO
emissions, NOX emissions are coming largely from automobiles, and hydrocarbons also,
VOCs are also in huge quantity.

And there may be some other non exhaust emissions also that could be from petrol
pumps or like tires etc, those kinds of emissions may also be there from automobiles.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:30)

When we see like area source, a lot of waste is burnt in a large area, then waste burning
can be a large source of particulate matter. This is uncontrolled combustion, you can say.
So like a lot of CO2 emission is there. And people throw away plastic etc, so toxic
chemicals also comes out of these waste burning sites. That is very dangerous, basically.
Like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, VOCs, CO, particulate matter and many other
things come into the fuel of these waste burning sites.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:04)

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Then, if you talk about indoor air pollution, so in micro environment, several sources
maybe the air of the indoor air pollution. Like from even our sofa, kitchen activities, even
like, these washing machines, and when we are mopping the floor, so we are using
certain chemicals, so washrooms etc, several sources may be there for the indoor
environment.

So we have to be careful of those sources. Even pets are also source of certain aerosols
etc. So there are several sources in the in the indoor environment, and if you are not
attentive enough, then a lot of harmful effects can be there to our health. And we are not
aware of it, but they are coming from our own setting, our own dwelling units.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:52)

Then, if we see like this scenario of a major source of air pollutants in Europe, then
around like, means, if you want to visualize the, in a city, European city, so 90 percent of
these ammonia emissions and 80 percent of methane emissions come from agricultural
activities in European setting. And the waste or landfills, these coal mining and long
distances these transmissions are sources of methane.

Similarly, the 60 percent of sulphur, that sulphur dioxide or sulphur oxides, they come
from energy production and distribution kind of activities. And many natural phenomena
including like volcanic eruptions are also contributing different kinds of air pollutants.

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And 40 percent of emissions of nitrogen oxides come from road transport. So as I said
NOX emissions in large quantity come from transportation sector.

So you can see different kinds of pollutants in, in European setting, coming from
different activities, anthropogenic sources, in a way.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:08)

Well, then, when we talk about types of air pollutants, because when we want to control,
so if we have kind of emission inventory, so we have different quantities of air pollutants
with the name, so then we have idea that this particular pollutant is being emitted in a
large amount and this is also contributing to certain negative impact to our life, weather
environment or our human health, then we want to control it.

So we want to reduce this. So, unless we have that data, type of air pollutants, their
emissions or their concentrations in the air, controlling technique or controlling policy
would be difficult to devise. So we need to know the types of air pollutants. So we
classify them into different categories like primary air pollutants, secondary air
pollutants, so criteria, non criteria or hazardous.

So primary air pollutants and secondary pollutants you can see, primary air pollutants
basically they are emitted directly by exhaust sources. And secondary pollutants which
are, when primary pollutants are in the atmosphere, then they interact or react with each

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other or they react with constituents of the atmosphere, so then the transformation
happens, and that transformed pollutant is known as the secondary pollutant.

When we talk about criteria air pollutants, basically, they have certain threshold limit. So
like whatever National Ambient Air Quality Standard related pollutants are there, so they
are criteria pollutants, because based on certain health impact studies, scientists and
engineers have prescribed certain limits. Below that limit it is not much harmful. So that
threshold limit is there. Well, so those are like ground level ozone or particulate matter or
CO, lead, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide etc, there are criteria pollutants.

Then there may be hazardous air pollutants. And you can see around 187 hazardous air
pollutants are listed as toxic pollutants, because they, they can affect our health in any
quantity, even if they are presenting very small quantity. So they do not have a threshold
limit. They are very toxic and a small quantity can also be dangerous to our health.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:33)

So when we talk about primary air pollutants, as I said, it is formed by, as a byproduct of
incomplete combustion processes, as the burning of petrol coal or wood. Complete
burning is there then basically it is converted into carbon dioxide and those stable
products, moisture or what, those kinds of things. But incomplete combustion results into

200
certain pollutants, which are unstable. They will react with some other things and they
will result into some harmful impact.

So during this process there is not enough oxygen available when this incomplete
combustion happens. So they create carbon monoxide as a byproduct, and you know
carbon monoxide is problematic to our this respiratory system because it goes into the
blood and it reduces the carrying capacity of the blood for oxygen, and with the lack of
oxygen we faint and even death can occur if a lot of carbon monoxide is absorbed in our
body.

And the biggest source of carbon monoxide are basically the vehicles, transport sector in
any city, you can see. But good part is that like government of India is propagating now
the policy of decarbonization of transport sector. So that way if we shift towards battery
operated electric vehicles in a large number, then this kind of emissions can be ruled out
from the transport sector. But this is the future scenario.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:05)

Well, similarly, sulphur dioxide is also the primary air pollutant. And the most, the most
part of the sulphur dioxide comes basically from these coal burning power plants. And
other fuels like oil and, they may contain other pollutants also. Well, this, this is produced

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in natural sources also, but, like volcanoes and hot springs, but anthropogenic sources are
also, they are quite predominant in terms of thermal power plants.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:40)

Similarly, NOX, that is the oxides of nitrogen is there, and which is emitted by fossil fuel
burning and that can come from different activities including transportation sector, or
power plants or other activities, you can see. And these sulphur dioxide and NOX
emissions they get converted into acid rain kind of thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:59)

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Then there is ammonia. This ammonia is like soluble, colorless gas and it has very strong
pungent smell. And it is primarily leached from animal waste, like fertilizers, etc when
uses in agriculture, and vehicle exhaust can also produce a certain amount. The biggest
source of ammonia, releases from agriculture practices, basically, and from crops from
animals and that becomes part of atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:37)

Well, when we see in this particulate matter, which is, this is primary air pollutant, so that
can be of different size and shape also. Ultra fine, fine, coarse. So according to the size,
like coarser, PM10 etc, and PM2.5, particulate matter which are equal to or less than 2.5
micrometer, they are fine particles basically. And less than that like, PM1, PM0.1, they are
ultra fine particles. And now, people talk about nano particles also. Those kinds of
research is going on.

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(Refer Slide Time: 31:16)

So, aerodynamic properties are particularly matter, they decide which size is very
dangerous and which is not much dangerous, depending upon our respiratory system. So
you can see here like, particles go inside and depending upon their size, some particles
will come out, some particles will get deposited in the lungs and very small ultra fine
particles or nano particles, they can even go to the bloodstream.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:45)

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Well, this is the aerodynamic diameter related equation, you can see, which decides a
particle’s velocity and its impact on human body or respiratory system.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:56)

When we talk about these diameters, so different kinds of values are given, solid sphere,
hollow spear, irregular shape, so they basically influence the aerodynamic diameter and
impact on the, our respiratory system.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:11)

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When we talk about like, the size and their sources, like dust, then dust is basically 1 to
200 micrometer size. So it is quite coarser particulate matter, and it will deposited, it will
get deposited by gravity very quickly. So natural disintegration of rocks or mechanical
processes are there, the sources, and in sand storm, lot of that dust is, or like resuspension
of dust because of vehicles also occurs. So these are the particles, basically of that large
size.

Then if we talk about smoke, so that has like, fine particles around 0.01 to 1 micrometer.
And this, is the basic sources combustion and chemical processes. And chemical or
metallurgical processes, they also release some sort of fumes, which are of 0.1 to 1
micrometer size. Then if we talk about the mist, which is because of condensation or
industrial operations, which is less than 10 micrometers, so PM10, you can talk about in
the mist.

In fog, less than 10 micrometer, basically, the mist with water as liquid droplets. And
aerosols can be less than 1 micrometer, which are airborne suspension. So as you can see
1 micrometer is 10-6 meter, 1 nanometer 10-9 meter. So depending upon the source,
different sizes of aerosols or particulate matter come into the air.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:42)

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So these are the pictures you can see, you can visualize, like the dust source, resuspension
of dust etc, smoke from vehicles exhaust, vehicular exhaust pipes, industrial fumes, and
then chemical fumes can also be there because of some reactions. Mist, fog, aerosols
there are different sources, you can see here, according to the classification of particulate
matter.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:08)

When, we talk about the dust particle size and penetration in respiratory tract. So these
very small particles, ultra fine particles can go up to the lungs and even this part of the
lungs which are alveoli, where this transaction of exchange of oxygen happens in the
lungs and the blood. So that may be affected by those ultra fine particles.

Otherwise, coarser particles get trapped into our nose, which is natural filter system, you
can say. And then 3.3 to 4.7 micro, kind of size, this can be part of this, our windpipe. So
they can deposited, they can cause some allergy and this windpipe gets swollen and then
it becomes uneasy too breathe. So those kinds of things can be there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 35:02)

When we try to see what is the relative size of particles, so it is a good picture which can
help you to visualize the particle size according to like human hair. So human hair,
around 50 to 180 micrometer. So according to that you can see fine beach sand can be
around 90 micrometer, of that size. Similarly, you can see other like grains of pollen of
15 micrometer.

So that way you can see there are particles, which we cannot see from naked eyes, so
small, and they are hanging around, floating, and suspension, in the suspension in the air,
and they becomes part of our respiratory process and affect our health.

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(Refer Slide Time: 35:46)

Well, when we talk about secondary air pollutants after the primary air pollutants, then
we talk about the major secondary pollutant which is ozone. And ozone, it is very
dangerous, it is having multiple negative impacts. Like it is greenhouse gas, which
contributes to global warming. In tropospheric ozone, I'm talking about, where it is really
problematic for us. But in the stratosphere it is good, because it prevents ultraviolet rays
to reach to the planet earth as. So there it is good, but in troposphere, it is very bad.

And then ozone is also very toxic to our body, because it is highly oxidizing agent. So in
that way it is highly reactive gas and composed of three oxygen atoms as you know, and
it is formed in the photochemical reaction in the presence of sunlight when precursors are
there, like volatile organic compounds, VOCs, and nitrogen oxides, those, plus carbon
monoxide also. Those are the hydrocarbons, etc. They are the precursors of ozone.

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(Refer Slide Time: 36:54)

Then if we talk about good and bad ozone, so that is nothing but the stratosphere ozone
and troposphere ozone. Troposphere ozone, we call that it is not good because it is
harmful in several ways. It damages our property, rubber tires etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:11)

Then if we talk about like photochemical smog, so that is again because of several
reactions in the atmosphere. It is composed of particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen,

210
ozone, several kinds of aldehydes, then peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and then there are
unreacted hydrocarbon also. So they, in total create some sort of smog.

And this smog is often in brown, in brownish haze, and it reduces the visibility also, and
it can cause eye irritation and those kinds of things, and nitrogen dioxide is also part of
that.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:53)

Well, similarly, if we talk about criteria air pollutants, so, those pollutants which are
having certain threshold limits, and certain guidelines that concentrations should not
exceed from that, below that it is not very problematic. So these are ground level ozone
or particulate matter, carbon monoxide, lead, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc.

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(Refer Slide Time: 38:18)

So they are defined in National Ambient Air Quality. I would request you please visit the
website of Central Pollution Control Board, and then see the National Ambient Air
quality standards. Similarly, you can find for USA at the EPA site. WHO has also
provided certain guidelines for certain criteria air pollutants. But for us, like in Indian
context, we need to follow these NAAQS, (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) of
Ministry of Environment and Forests through CPCB, Central Pollution Control Board.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:48)

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When we talk about hazardous air pollutants, so these are non criteria air pollutants. And
even small concentration also very dangerous. Like benzene, dioxin, toluene, heavy
metals all these are very toxic and a small concentration can also disrupt our system.
Some are carcinogenic, which can trigger the cancer into the body.

So we should be aware about the exposure to these hazardous pollutants and we should
try that they are not emitted in our surrounding and they are captured properly and they
are not part of the ambient air or indoor environment also.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:27)

So these are around, 189 pollutants are listed by EPA. In 1990 modified List of 187
hazardous air pollutants are there. So CAS number is a unique numerical identifier,
which is assigned by Chemical Abstracts Service. So that way you can find their names
and their number. And when we click that number we can get the detailed information
about that particular pollutant.

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(Refer Slide Time: 39:55)

Then we talk about greenhouse gases. So as I said like, CO2 is not a problematic. It is not
strictly air pollutant, but when we talk about other like methane, nitrous oxide or these
ozone etc, they are problematic. They are also air pollutants. So when we are controlling
air pollutants, so it is easy to list them as a part of air pollutants so that we can control
their emissions also.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:23)

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So if you see greenhouse gas emissions, around 68 percent in India, the greenhouse gas
emissions are coming from energy sources. So energy sources, basically, like thermal
power plants etc. In the U.S., if you see like industry 23 percent, electricity generation 25
percent, transportation 29 percent, and commercial residential they release around 13
percent of greenhouse gases as per 2019 data.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:55)

And then if we see the trends, greenhouse gas emissions trends from 2005 to 2013 in
Indian context, so you can see it is not very sharp rise like China, but it is still increasing
trend, but it is up to 2013 data. Now, government is giving a lot of incentives for going
for solar energy, renewable sources of energy, etc. So that way, and this decarbonization
policy for transport sector. So in future I hope air pollution emissions as well as
greenhouse gases emissions will be reduced in India significantly.

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(Refer Slide Time: 41:38)

Well, so in conclusion, we can say that the sources of air pollutions can be classified on
the basis of their origin or types of emissions, natural, manmade and indoor, outdoor etc.
And those air pollutants can be categorized in different way like criteria or non criteria
pollutants, hazardous pollutants,

And for air quality management, we should know basically, what are different kinds of
sources and what is the difference between different types of pollutants, whether it is
primary, secondary, so that we become more aware, which kind of pollutants is
responsible for deteriorating our air quality. So particular that pollutant, we should first
target, so that we can have better air quality.

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(Refer Slide Time: 42:30)

So this is all for today. Thank you for your kind attention. And you can go through these
references for additional information. And see you again in the next lecture. Thank you.

217
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 08
Atmospheric Formation and Fate of Air Pollutants

Hello, friends. You may recall last time we discussed about sources and classification of
air pollutants. So, today we will discuss atmospheric formation and fate of air pollutants.
That means, we will see for example, when pollutants are emitted and they enter into the
atmosphere, then what happens to them. They basically get converted into secondary air
pollutants or they get deposited or they get transported from one place to another.

So, from source to the receptor a lot of things happen. Their physical chemical
characteristics may change and they may also get transformed into another kind of phase.
For example, gas pollutant, gaseous pollutants can get transformed into like liquid form
like droplets they get into moisture, and all those. They can get converted into solid
particles, that is particulate matter. So, the phase transformation may also happen.

So, you can say there are atmospheric formation of new air pollutants. So, we will see
what are the processes of those formation and transformation of air pollutants, when they
get into the atmosphere.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:42)

So, in that framework we will see the phase transformation, like gas to gas, means,
another gas like CO can get converted into CO2. Then gas to liquid. So, for example, SO2
can get converted into H2SO3, H2SO4, like that. Then gas to solid means, like calcium
sulphate is formed in the presence of calcium particles and SO2, moisture all those things.
So, then it may also happen that gas to liquid to gas, gas to liquid to solid, solid to liquid
to solid particles can get also converted into another form.

Then pollutants also transport. So, transformation and transportation, both things happen.
From the source to the receptor, as I said, when it is emitted, pollutants are emitted, so,
they will be transformed into something. When they reach to the destination, in between
they will be transformed into some other pollutants also. Although original pollutants
may also be there and depending upon the concentration.

Their lifespan may increase if highly concentrated pollutants are there, but at the same
time because of atmospheric processes, that transformation will, will happen, and
transportation will happen so that they can reach to the destination. Whatever destination,
it can be thousands of kilometer, downwind direction or within one kilometer they can
drop down with the process of gravity if particles are large in size those kinds of things.
So, that transportation will also we will study.

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Then ultimate fate of the air pollutants. So, what happens ultimately, where do they go, or
how they are removed from the atmosphere, what is that process and what are other
atmospheric constituents that play a significant role in cleaning that atmosphere. So, you
might have heard about like self cleansing capacity of rivers or water bodies.

Similarly, atmosphere also has self cleaning capacity or self cleansing capacity because
hydroxyl ions are there, those radicals are there. So, they take part and oxidation happens
very rapidly, then, there may be some ozone or other pollutants, which may also do some
scavenging kind of things. So, that decides the ultimate fate of the air pollutants.
Ultimately, we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:21)

So, let's start. Like atmospheric formation of air pollutants. So, here it is shown that
different pollutants are being emitted from various anthropogenic activities. Then
chemical transformation is happening in the atmosphere. And in the presence of the
sunlight, some photochemical reactions may also happen, like ozone production may
happen. Then they also interact with the like cloud formation. Small particles contribute
into nucleation. So, condensation happens and cloud formation happens.

So that way, pollutants, those particles, they get down with the precipitation and it is
called as wet deposition or precipitation. Sometimes solid deposition also happens, means

220
particles they comes down, they come down to the surface. So that is known as the dry
deposition. So those things happen and ultimately they get into, attached to the surfaces
of the buildings or we inhale, animals inhale, they become part of the ecosystem and
water bodies, everywhere they can get into the particular system.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:29)

Well, so, the processes of formation and transformation of air pollutants can be listed like
volatilization, absorption, absorption, oxidation/reduction process, ionization or
hydrolysis or photolysis or metal catalysis, all these things happen in the atmosphere. So,
we will see those processes.

And you can see in this pictorial representation, very nice representation, from the source
to the receptor, you can see like those, whether heavy metals from factories or
hydrocarbons, these are the primary pollutants. They get converted into some secondary
pollutants because of chemical reactions and this photo-oxidation happens, this ozone,
then acidic formation maybe, humidity will play the role, rain happens then they become
part of this rainwater and all those water bodies get affected. So, the source and the
receptor where this effect is visible.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:35)

So now, we see the volatilization. In this process basically the conversion of a liquid
chemical into vapor because of this temperature and pressure, those physical processes
there. So volatile compounds are there. You might have heard VOCs, Volatile Organic
Compounds. Like, on the petrol pump, you have some smell, because those gasoline they
have hydrocarbons they can form vapor. So that vapor is there and this is because of
these VOCs, Volatile Organic Compounds, they become part of air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:15)

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Well, then absorption and adsorption. So absorption basically, you can see like gas liquid
interface it is, and the transfer of gaseous pollutants from the air into the, this liquid phase
such as water. So that is chemical and physical process of course, and that becomes like
as I said like SO2 get converted into H2SO3 and those kinds of things. So, this is
absorption in the, this droplet, liquid droplets is there.

Adsorption, on the surface, like solid surfaces maybe there, so at the surface you can have
these contaminants retention on the solid particles present in the ambient air. So that is
known as the adsorption. So basic difference absorption, adsorption, both are distinct
processes.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:02)

Then oxidation and reduction. You can see like sulphur dioxide is there. In oxidation, you
see the loss of the electron is there, in reduction electron gain is there, and this whole
mechanism is chemical and physical. So the SO2, this is giving these electrons and then
this electron loss is there of minus 2 and SO3 formation is there.

2SO2 + O2  SO3

So that way you can see this oxidation and reduction process in this particular reaction or
equation.

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(Refer Slide Time: 08:31)

Ionization. In this basically, the complete co-solvation leading to separation of

compounds into cations and anions. So that is known as the ionization. And, for an
example like dissolution of salts into ions, Na+, Cl–, those kinds of things. This happens
in atmosphere also, like at the coastal regions where saltwater is, salty water is there and
with the strike of the air, this partition happens and some chemical processes may also
happen in the air and that can break these and they can get converted into Na+, Cl–.

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(Refer Slide Time: 09:16)

So, after ionization, we discuss about hydrolysis. In hydrolysis, like this SO2 goes into the
atmosphere in the presence of H2O, this becomes part of like, reaction of producing
H2SO3, then H2SO4. Similarly, NOX or NO2, they get converted into HNO3 because of
this moisture.

So, this hydrolysis process is there and they become part of this, cloud precipitation from
the clouds droplet, in the form of droplets. So, the acid rain basically formation is the
result of this hydrolysis. And this is reaction of water molecules with the contaminants
present in the atmosphere. And this mechanism is known as chemical process, you can
say.

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(Refer Slide Time: 09:52)

Similarly, like photolysis is there in the presence of sunlight. So the ozone production
happens because of photolysis as you know. And this reaction catalyzed by
electromagnetic energy which is from the sunlight. And this physicochemical process can
be taken into account with the presence of sunlight. So we will see how this ozone is
produced.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:16)

Well, this metal catalyst is formation this reaction is also there, which speeds up in the
presence of certain metallic compounds. And the examples are like oxygen and ammonia.
At 850 °C and 5 atmospheres pressure (atm), with the help of platinum and this rhodium
catalysts to make this nitric oxide.

And this is then oxidized to nitrogen dioxide which is then dissolved in water to make
HNO3. So this is a chemical process, and this is known as the metal catalysis, the
reaction, the whole reaction is shown here.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:58)

Well, as you know, whatever pollution is becoming from the fossil fuel burning etc, that
is the result of combustion. When complete combustion happens then for example, like
hydrocarbons are there, fuels are basically hydrocarbon as you know, so they get
completely oxidized. So that means they get completely converted into CO2 and H2O.
And as such, CO2 and H2O are harmless from air pollutants point of view.

So that is why we talk that we should go for carbon neutral fuels so that extra CO2 is not
dumped into the, or emitted into the atmosphere because that caused this global warming,
climate change related issues. So the complete combustion from air pollutants point of
view, it is fine because in complete combustion, they give some unburnt hydrocarbons,
VOCs, CO, all these are air pollutants, they are very harmful for our health etc.

So complete combustion in that sense is good, but from global warming from greenhouse
gas point of view, we do not want extra CO2 and H2O etc, but we cannot get away with
this at present at least. And incomplete combustion like this production of dioxins CO or
this polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons part is known as PAHs. So all these are the
products and of incomplete combustion, and they are very toxic pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

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Then there is, there is this heterogeneous reactions are also there, like gas to liquid, gas
solid phase, those kind of reactions maybe there. Like NO2, SO2, they get converted into
HNO3 and H2SO4. So these are heterogeneous reactions which also happen in the
atmosphere. So three reactions may happen, complete combustion, so those greenhouse
gases CO2, H2O etc, or incomplete combustion, then of course, certain pollutants and
these heterogeneous reactions can get phase transformation from gas to liquid or so.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:19)

Now, in detail we go through this phase transformation, like gas to gas. So the gas to gas
for example, in the presence of carbon monoxide or nitrogen dioxide or volatile organic
compounds, ozone production is there if sunlight is there. And this particular ozone
formation is kind of single recombination of reaction of atomic oxygen and a molecular
oxygen in the presence of a third body which is kind of like O2 or N2, those kinds of
things are present.

Then they participate in the reaction and produce the ozone, you can see here. And in the
stratosphere this particular reaction happens, and 90 percent of ozone is produced in a
stratosphere, but that is good for us, as you know, because that protects us from
ultraviolet rays.

But in this troposphere, this 10 percent of the total atmospheric ozone is there, this is
harmful, very harmful for us. We do not want it, but still it is produced in the presence of
sunlight if precursors are there. And what are those precursors? Like NOX, NO2 and then
these VOCs, CO, methane all these are these precursors.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:39)

So here you can see this phase transformation again. The explanation through nitrogen
dioxide, which is the only known compound, basically, that can produce oxygen atom
during its photodissociation in the presence of this radiation. You can see here this O
(oxygen atom) is there, NO is there. NO2 from NO2, it can be there.

Then this O is available for reaction with this O2. So ozone is produced. And O2, this
ozone can react with NO and produce NO2 also. This is very interesting reaction, or this
is also known as titration, atmospheric titration. And this, this particular reaction is
responsible that in the city centers where a lot of emission of NO is there, nitric oxide is
emitted from vehicular emissions, so that destroys ozone.

So that is why at city centers you do not find much ozone. But this NO2 goes in the
downwind direction in the countryside with a lot of sunshine is there. So in countryside
or rural areas, this NO2 will produce again ozone by this kind of reaction. So that is very
interesting thing, you should remember.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:54)

Now, this, this ozone molecule absorbs solar radiation and it can also get decomposed
back to Oxygen. So this kind of reaction can happen.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:06)

And then, basically net ozone production occurs when other precursors such as carbon
monoxide or methane, non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) or certain other organic
compounds like volatile organic compounds, VOCs are present in the atmosphere. So
those different precursors are available.

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Then the nitrogen production may take place in the presence, but sometimes ozone
production is driven by NOX, sometimes it is driven by VOCs and we have to know
which is controlling this reaction, otherwise, the ozone production cannot be reduced if
you do not know which particular reaction is dominating in that area.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:47)

So ultimately this gas to gas transformation can be nicely depicted in this particular set of
reactions, where NOX is converted into NO and O, and ozone is produced, CO also gives
the like CO2 and this ozone, and this methane also can produce ozone, and then this,
these are the radicals which, which can participate, and the ground level ozone
production can be there.

So the role of VOCs or hydrocarbons along with NOX is very important in the formation
of ozone in the atmosphere. So that is very important reactions, you should remember,
when we talk about ozone production.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:30)

And this is responsible for this diurnal cycle. Diurnal cycle means within the day, 24
hours it changes. Like in the morning there is no sunlight. So ozone is very minimum. All
ozone is, get converted, with NO it goes into NO2 production. Then in the sunlight a lot
of this ozone production is there, but NO2 is consumed in the production of ozone. So
NO2 is less here.

Then again ozone diminishes in the evening time and this NO starts to increase, and this
NO2 starts to increase. So that way this diurnal cycle is there. It goes up and down. And
that is very again popular reaction for explaining the origin and NOX relationship in the
urban areas.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:19)

Well, the face transformation, now we go for gas to liquid. You can see here like gas,
SO2 is there, and moisture is there. So the, in the presence of moisture it can get
converted into HSO3. Ultimately, it can get converted into H2SO4.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:36)

So here, you can see this H2SO4 production is shown in this figure as well as in, in this
reaction.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:43)

So this is the complete reaction, set of reactions where sulphur dioxide reacts with the
OH radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and this HSO3 radical then rapidly reacts with molecular
oxygen to yield SO3 and HO2 and ultimately this sulfuric acid is produced.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:03)

Well, similarly, NO2 to get converted into HNO3. So this is the same gas to liquid
transformation or phase transformation happens of the pollutants.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:13)

When we talk about phase transformation of gas to the solid, then basically how gaseous
components get converted into particulate matter, those are secondary aerosols. Primary
particulate matters are emitted directly from diesel driven vehicles and so many sources
are there, coal burning, thermal power plants or anything where which you burn
particulate matters are emitted, those are primary pollutants.

But secondary aerosols can be produced by this particular gas to solid transformation.
You can here, see here emissions of ammonia, they, they get converted into like this
ammonium sulphate. So the SO2 presence, if there particles are also there, moisture is
there, all those things, helping, this gas is there, this is also gas, ultimately ammonium
sulphate, that is particle. So that way gas to phase, solid phase transformation can occur.
You can see in this pictorial representation also, the same thing.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:14)

Then, also, this HNO3 and ammonia, that is, ammonium nitrate, again, the particle. But
this H2SO4, is very strong reactive acid, and that see that this ammonium sulphate is
produced, that reaction is controlled by that, so the remaining ammonia if is there then
ammonium nitrate may be produced otherwise that is the dominating, earlier one the
dominating reaction.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:41)

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Now, if you talk about gas to liquid to gas, so three steps or two steps you can say. So
here also, like gases are also shown in this particular, the same reaction of ozone
production, you can see here. This NO2 sunlight, is it dissociate into NO and O and
available. So this react with the oxygen molecule and ozone is produced. And then VOC
and NO, if it is there then NO2 is produced. And NO2 get converted into HNO3. And NO2
can also produce, ultimately the ozone.

So the liquid, this HNO3, this NO2 is taking part here with H2O and HNO3 is produced.
So the first transformation from gas to liquid happening. Now you can see here, this is a
NO2 to plus VOC, the peroxyacetyl nitrate is produced. And this photochemical smog,
nitric oxide, VOC, oxygen, sunlight was, they give ozone, PAN and other oxidants. So
that way gas to liquid and then gas formation again, you can see.

So those kinds of reactions happen continuously into the atmosphere. This is a very
complex reactor, the whole atmosphere is a kind of reactor. A lot of reactions are
occurring there, happening there. And in the sunlight, different kinds of reactions may
happen, otherwise in the presence of these liquid droplets other kinds of reactions can
occur.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:11)

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Now, again this pictorial representation is there. How this H2O, water is there, and this
photochemical smog is produced because nitrogen dioxide get converted into these kinds
of liquid transformation, gas to liquid, and then gases are also there. So basically in smog,
liquid droplets are also there where HNO3 maybe present, then aldehydes maybe there,
PAN is there, and hydrocarbons, all kinds of soot is there.

And that way the secondary aerosols may also be there, scattering of light, so visibility
reduce, and brownish haze is produced in the atmosphere because of, this entity is known
as the smog.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:53)

Then gas to liquid to solid, that is another interesting part, you can see here. Like, this gas
is produced, formation of N2O5. This is NO3, NO2 all these gases. They get converted
into gas. Then this reaction N2O5, with the cloud water, moisture, so N2O5 plus H2O, it
gives us HNO3, liquid transformation, from gas to liquid. Now, HNO3 get converted into
again, this nitrate some sort of nitrate in the presence of other pollutants. So that is solid
particle. So that we gas to liquid to solid transformation may also happen in the
atmosphere.

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:45)

Well now, the another phase transformation. Earlier we saw gas to liquid to solid. now,
we are solid to liquid to solid. That is another way. So because of presence of these
aerosols, they react with the moisture and they get transformed into liquid particles,
liquid droplets, those kinds of things, and then they get deposited in terms of some
particulates, some aerosols. So that is the transformation or interaction of solid to liquid
to solid.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:08)

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And here you can see formation of aerosols are there. So these are the solids. Ultra fine
particles are produced by homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation process. So this is
the solid, formation of aerosols. Then transformation during natural gas to particle
condensation or during condensation of water vapor to combustion process. So that is
basically the, this liquid part.

Then due to the rapid coagulation or random impaction onto the surface, the lifetime of
these small particles is very short. So this solid to liquid to solid, this transformation
happens very quickly and within hours these reactions are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:50)

Then, this formation of aerosols are there, larger aerosol particles can be there, which are
0.1 to 1 micrometer diameter, and they accumulate in the atmosphere. And because their
removal mechanism are least efficient because of their size.

Then lifetime in the atmosphere is around 7 to 10 days. They hang around in the
atmosphere, and they can be transported for a long distance because of this lifetime. And
particles belonging to this accumulation mode are formed mainly by coagulation. So that,
depending upon the size their fate is decided basically.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:29)

Now, we talk about pollutants transport. So here you can see emissions are happening,
pollutants are coming in the atmosphere. From chimney, buoyancy, due to buoyancy or
due to temperature difference that goes into atmosphere, and then because of advective
currents of the winds, means horizontal movement, it goes in the horizontal direction.

Because of convection, this temperature difference and pressure difference, the vertical
movement is also there, which is known as the convection. And turbulence also helps in
the dispersion and diffusion of the pollutants, and ultimately they become part of clouds
and they come down with the precipitation.

So the transportation of the pollutants basically, are governed by advection, convection

dispersion and diffusion. So these processes, let us see.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:20)

Like advection, this is nothing but change in a property of moving mass of air because of
the mass is transported by the wind to a region where the, this property has a different
value. So the horizontal movement or transport of the pollutants can happen from this
point to this point. This is the advection process.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:42)

Convection, as you know, vertical movement. Convection is basically the process of

movement of gases and liquids like fluids etc, due to heat transfer and in the vertical

244
movement, because of this process. And this vertical movement is suppressed in the
inversion if you know.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:56)

Dispersion happens, because of this turbulence and then wind movement.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:08)

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And then diffusion is basically the part of this, basically, this, when different molecules
interact with each other and high concentration to low concentration movement is there.
So that is the diffusion process of diluting of the concentrated pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:26)

Well, so ultimate fate of the pollutants are decided by these chemical transformations
which we have seen, and physical transportation of the pollutants. So in this figure you
can see for example, SO2, NOX is there, oxidation can happen, they can be part of the
cloud formation, then dry deposition can also happen directly because of gravity and
they, when they are part of the cloud formation, then precipitation can also happen. So
this is the way it goes from one point to another.

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(Refer Slide Time: 27:58)

Similarly, the water solubility of gases, they also influence the extent of removal of wet
versus dry deposition. How? Means, those are less soluble, they will deposit, they will get
deposited dry otherwise they will convert it into some liquid phase and they will get,
through precipitation or wet deposition.

So SO2, NO2, they are basically soluble into the water. That is why they become part of
the rain droplets and they cause the acid rain.

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(Refer Slide Time: 28:33)

Then, we see about these soluble gases. They are removed by wet position, liquid
droplets. And also there are like other gases which are not soluble, like ozone or
hydrocarbons, vapors etc. And then some aerosols are also, so they go directly with the
gravity and get deposited on plants, building surfaces etc, and they descends to the
surface.

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(Refer Slide Time: 29:01)

Well, there is this role, if you recall, I just explained a little about this hydroxyl radicals.
Basically, they are the cleaning agent in the atmosphere. If there are no hydroxyl radicals
and their lifetime is very, very small, but they are highly oxidising agents, they clean the
atmosphere. And in tropical areas basically, this hydroxyl radicals concentration or
production is very high.

So that is why some atmospheric scientists say that those developed countries like Europe
etc, they produce a lot of pollution and ultimately, because of global circulation, this
pollution transports to those areas where equator is there, and there these, these hydroxyl
radicals, they clean them. So this is known as, like a washing machine of the, the whole
global atmosphere, this particular region.

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(Refer Slide Time: 30:00)

So you can see these hydroxyl radicals. They take part into the cleaning of the atom,
these, because they oxidize many pollutants, and the self cleansing capacity is decided by
these particular radicals.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:10)

You can see here, the CO, CH4, all these can get converted into like CO2 and CH3, H2O,
those kind of conversion is there because of hydroxyl radicals.

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(Refer Slide Time: 30:20)

So in conclusion, we can say that the atmosphere is responsible formation of secondary

pollutants and there is, like phase transformation is there, that also plays a significant
role. And then physical chemical processes are also there, they play an important role in
transformation on transportation of air pollutants from one place to another.

And ultimate fate of the pollutant basically involves the dry and wet deposition of the
pollutants. And the hydroxyl radicals play a very significant role in cleaning the
atmosphere. So this is all for today. You might be now understanding how these
atmospheric formation, transformation takes place, and then ultimate fate of the
pollutants, what happens because of these reactions, chemical reactions which are
happening in the atmosphere constantly. So this is all for today. Thank you for your kind
attention.

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(Refer Slide Time: 31:16)

These are the references for additional information. See you in the next lecture. Thanks
again.

252
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gujar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 09
Meteorological Parameters & Air Pollution

Hello friends, today we will discuss about Meteorological Parameters and Air Pollution. As
you know, we have discussed like emissions sources, and this atmospheric transformations or
formations of air pollutants then their dispersion or diffusion their ultimate fate. But as you
know even if the emissions are same, emission sources are same the concentrations of air
pollutants in ambient air may be different at different places.

So, what is the difference? Basically the meteorological parameters govern all these emission
sources, how much they will turn into air quality. So, today, we will discuss about the impact
of meteorology on air pollution means meteorological parameters and air pollution. How do
they interact with each other? And how these meteorological parameter influence the air
quality around different places.

So, in this content list you can see like introduction then the brief history about different kind
of meteorological parameters evolution and then the science of this particular subject. Then
we will also discuss a little bit what is the atmosphere. Though we have already discussed
about the atmosphere, then different boundaries of the atmosphere and horizontal moment of
the atmosphere. Then equatorial heating and polar cooling, the effect of earth's rotation
because, it's not the simple the wind movement from equator to pole and pole to equator there
are the effect of earth's rotation, which we will see.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:00)

Influence of the ground surface and the sea and though the distribution of the temperature and
like on the pollution dispersion. Then vertical atmospheric motion and air density change
with the temperature, and with the pressure also because pressure also influences the air
density. Then meteorological parameters measurements, and ultimately we will conclude this
study today. So, in nutshell, we will discuss about the metrological parameters roll into the air
pollution the fate of the air pollutants or decision of air pollution dispersion and the air
pollution the total, the net worth of the air pollution in that sense.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:34)

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Well, meteorology basically is the study of atmosphere, and the motions within that, that like
wind velocity, wind direction and then at the short timescales like minutes to weeks. So,
basically it is related to the weather conditions you can say. So, the meteorology focuses on
the atmospheric variables related to weather forecasting. So, like we do weather forecasting
similarly, we can also do the air quality forecasting nowadays, those kind of models are
available.

And within the near like current within day to day as well as near-future conditions like one
week or so, something like that. The manner air pollutants are dispersed and transported
through troposphere is determined basically with the weather patterns. So, meteorology is
very important in that that sense to see the impact on the air pollution or air quality. And this
air moments, you know, it influences the fate of the air pollutants. Last time we discussed as
you remember, like air pollution transformation, maybe there. Like a phase transformation
maybe there from gas to liquid or particles, but the transportation from one place to another.

And within that transportation this phase transformation may also take place. So, the ultimate
fate of the air pollution or air pollutants is determined by this air movements. So, the study of
air pollution is you know linked with the study of local weather patterns or meteorology in
brief.

So, if the air is calm and pollutants do not disperse much, then the concentration built up of
air pollutants will be high in that particular area. On the other hand, when strong turbulent
winds are blowing very high-speed winds are there, so the dispersion of pollutants is quick.

255
Of course, if turbulence is very high, then maybe near to the source concentration may be
high, because of those turbulence, very high turbulence, but if wind is blowing very rapidly
then it can transport pollutant to longer distances in the downwind direction. And it can result
in lower concentration of air pollutants because the dilution happens, quickly the dilution
happens in the atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:08)

Well, so, you know these metrological data basically helps in identifying the sources of the
pollutants. Because inverse modeling also you can do. For example, at a particular point you
monitor and you got certain pollutants concentration very high, and you do not see much
local sources then with the help of this metrological parameters that from which direction the
wind is coming the up-wind direction, so, you can do inverse modeling.

And you can go like these trajectory plotting and all those things are there, which can take
you to the particular source in the upwind direction. That from there, this particular pollutant
is coming to this place. So, the identification of sources can also be done with the help of
meteorological data. It can also help in predicting the air pollution events such as like
inversion, we will discuss in detail afterwards. Inversion means, the vertical movement of the
air pollutants is restricted, because of this the temperature profile is changed, when in general
like temperature decreases, as we go up from the earth surface, but when it increases then it is
known as inversion.

And inversion is very dangerous condition in the sense the vertical dispersion of air pollutant
is completely restricted or blocked. So, high pollutant concentration may happen in that

256
duration. Then it can also help, these metallurgical parameters can help in simulating and
predicting air quality using computer models. Because the input parameters will need like
wind velocity, then, temperature gradient, all those kinds of things are there and humidity all.
Means, in complex models many meteorological parameters you take into account.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:48)

Well, when we talk about how this knowledge of metallurgy evolved over the years, so, a
brief history would be worth to notice. Like in ancient Greeks period these philosophers or
scientists they contributed some of the earliest known observations and hypotheses regarding
atmospheric phenomena, which led to the discovery of meteorology. Like in 340, before
Christ era (BCE), Irish total produced Metetorologica that the first summary on atmospheric
science and the knowledge body of the atmospheric science and the uses of the word
particularly of meteorology, so, that metrological was the basic the collection of those
particular data in a particular fashion.

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(Refer Slide Time: 7:33)

Then scientist observed after that and created ideas on global atmospheric motion and
regionally scale meteorological phenomena in 18th and 19th centuries. In 1735, the planetary-
scale George, this planetary-scale, single cell circulation system was proposed by scientists
George Hadley. So, this is known as the Hadley single cell kind of model in that sense, but
later on, it was further developed in different kinds of cells, we will see later on.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:10)

Like here you can see like, this is the Hadley sale, otherwise, the single cell was earlier
proposed that at the equator air goes up because it is warm and lighter in density and then it
travels towards pole. At the pole, it descends and then come down, so that kind of cell, single

258
cell happens, but that was very simplistic model at that time. Later on these kind of three cells
were hypothesized and proved like Hadley cell, then this Ferrell cell and the Polar cell.

So, these really influence the, this circular motion of the atmospheric gases, as well as the
winds and it also determines the pollution dispersion, as well as transportation of heat
element and moisture from one place to another, and this global circulation happens. So, the
based on this Coriolis effect. Again, from the scientist named Coriolis, the global circulation
has three major circulation cycles or cells in each hemisphere like Polar, Ferrell and Hadley.

In 1904. And this, established modern synoptic metrology the large-scale weather analysis
taken at simultaneous time periods. So, those kinds of evolution has happened in the
metrological studies or weather-related studies.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:27)

Then at the onset of World War II, the technological advances came to the forefront in this
particular area. Like radar developments happened in 1935, then, as well as increased upper-
air surveillance from weather balloons and aviations. So, a lot of this scientific data got
gathered and the understanding of atmospheric motions increased. In 1937, this introduction
of the methods for analysis of upper-level atmospheric wavy structure were also developed.

259
(Refer Slide Time: 10:00)

And based on earlier mathematical atmospheric modeling efforts in 1950 this first computer
model was produced, which generated the weather forecast. So, weather forecasting is started
in 1950s. Then weather satellites in 1960, Doppler radar in 1990, they further refined this
particular exercise. And other technological innovations, they helped in containers in
continuous mode to shape our understanding to evolve our understanding, and the increasing
the strength or enhancing the strength of forecasting of atmospheric processes.

So, you can see technological advances and the scientific advances helped us to go further in
the in this particular direction.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:48)

260
So, when we try to understand the atmosphere this earth's atmosphere, it forms a very thin
layer surrounding the globe. Otherwise, if we talk about troposphere.

So, this is like 95 percent of this air mass is within the 20 kilometer of earth's surface. So, this
20 kilometer depth contains the air we breathe, as well as the pollutants we emit into and
pollutants where they travel from one place to another. So, this layer called the troposphere is
where we have all weather-related, air pollution related problems. You can see the
troposphere it is very thin layer so, up to like some it is 10-12 kilometers somewhere up to 20
kilometer or so. So, below the stratosphere this is the layer where most of the airmass is
contained otherwise upper layers are very thin atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:36)

So, different boundaries of the atmosphere we can then imagine. Like the lower boundary is
well defined, but of course, it is uneven. Like the surface then oceans, mountains, so that is
the lowest boundary of the atmosphere. Upper boundary is not so well defined basically and
atmosphere simply becomes thinner and thinner as we go up in the space, as we go up in the
height. And ultimately it is very thin in the outer space.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:06)

Then we talk about like atmosphere. If it is peeled off to visualize at the earth and if it is
stitched and seen like a circular plate so the 20 miles is the thickness of this one and the
16,000 miles diameter kind of plate you can take. So, in that sense you can see the width of
the area is very high and the thickness is very low.

16,000 miles diameter and only 20 miles in that sense very thin. So, you can say that the
horizontal motions, they really play a significant role in the atmospheric motions or
atmospheric dispersion of air pollutants and all other metrological parameters transportation
of temperature, humidity, etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:57)

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Well, so, horizontal atmospheric motion is very important to understand. And this horizontal
movement of the atmosphere like winds is driven mostly by uneven heating of the earth's
surface. Because, at the equator, the sunlight is very high and a lot of heating is generated and
then warm air goes up. So, it is very light in the density and this gentle movement is also
affected by rotation of the earth that is that this Coriolis force, as well as the influence of the
ground and the sea. So, all those things really influence the horizontal motion you can say.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:37)

Well, the equatorial heating and polar cooling. This is also again one interesting thing,
because the annual solar average annual solar heat transfer to the earth's surface near the
equator is around 2.4 times that at the poles level. And you can see this excess inclination of
the earth as you know, so, uniform distribution of solar radiation is not there on the entire
earth's surface. It is maximum at the equator and minimum at the pole.

So, this differential in heating pattern that drives the wind movement and the transportation
of other entities of atmosphere or meteorology. So, the atmosphere moves in response to this
difference in heating. And in doing so, it transports heat from tropics to the poles, but it is not
very simple, as initially it was assumed it is little bit complex, which we will see.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:33)

For example, you know, this transportation of heat primarily depends upon three processes.
One is, like sensible heat flux, and it is the process where heat energy is transferred from the
earth's surface to the atmosphere by conduction and convection. Conduction means, like,
direct heating of the molecules of air, and convection means by radiation and vertical
movement of this air mass. So, this energy is then moved from the tropics to the poles by
advection that is the horizontal movement. Advection horizontal movement, convection is
vertical movement. And this creates the atmospheric circulation or global atmospheric
circulation, you can see. General circulation models are based on this fundamental concept.

And then atmospheric circulation moves this warm tropical air to the polar regions and cold
air from the polar regions to the equator. So, that kind of complete cycles happen. As you can
see warm air goes up, then it goes towards the pole and then cool air moves towards the
equator. But as we have seen those Hadley cells and then Hadley cells and then other cells,
so, there is you know these three particular cells, which really helps in this moment of
temperature and other wind moments. It is not very simple. One cycle is not there, there are
three cycles and in between that I can show you again.

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(Refer Slide Time: 16:03)

The Hadley cell and this Ferrell cell and Polar cell. So, this Ferrell cell really works like a
gear otherwise movement is towards this poll, so this gear system is there for further
movement of this air mass you can see.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:20)

Well, so, next is Latent Heat Flux. So, we have seen the sensible heat flux, this atmospheric
circulation and then this latent heat flux, and the third one is surface heat flux. So, what is
latent heat flux? This basically moves energy globally when solid and liquid water is
converted into vapor.

265
So, in vapor, because water is evaporated so the heat is in latent, in hidden kind of thing in
the water vapor. So, this vapor is often moved by atmospheric circulation vertically and
horizontally to cooler locations, where it condenses and it rains and it deposited at snow
releasing the heat energy stored within it. So, that kind of heat transfer takes place from solid
to gas or gas to solid those kinds of circulation is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:12)

Then there is this surface heat flux. And this is the large quantities of radiation of energy,
which is transferred into the earth's tropical oceans. Because the sea is a great sink of heat.
So, there is circulation of these water currents also in the sea. This the warm water goes
towards upper regions and the dense cold water goes in the depths, and then the big currents
like big rivers are moving in the sea so this is bringing this heat, the change of the
temperature and heat flux total surface heat flux is transferred through ocean currents.

So, the energy enters in these water bodies at the surface when it is absorbed through
radiation of absorption, and convert it into heat energy. And the horizontal transport of this
heat energy from the equator to the pole is accomplished by ocean currents. As I said, at the
equator level, water is warm, so it comes up on the upper region and moves towards this
polar region. At polar regions it goes down because the water is dense, and then this whole
circulation happens.

So, after latent heat flux, now, third one is surface heat flux. So, basically in this surface heat
flux, the large quantities of radiation energy are transferred into the earth's tropical oceans.
The energy enters these water bodies at the surface when absorbed radiation is converted into

266
heat energy, and the horizontal transfer of this heat energy from the equator to the poles is
accomplished by ocean currents. Because this, the transfer of the temperature happens
because this large scale rotation of water in the ocean, and these are known as the ocean
currents.

Well, the significance to air pollution of these particular cooling of the polar and equatorial
heating these kinds of differential heating patterns is very important to understand.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:22)

So, the air pollutants in the air it circulates in the same way as these circulation of wind occur
into the atmosphere between tropical areas to the poles. And this air movement is caused
because of solar radiation and the irregular shape of the earth and its surface which causes
unequal absorption of the heat by the earth's surface and atmosphere.

So that is why the wind patterns are there and circulation motion occur. So, dispersion
diffusion, all things happen into the atmosphere.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:52)

And the effect of the earth's rotation is there because it is not the simple one-directional
movement or a simple circular movement. As we can see if the earth did not rotate and it
remained stationary atmosphere would have circulated between the poles like higher pressure
regions, high pressure areas and the equator, equator is low pressure areas.

So, it could have been like a simple back and forth backward and forward pattern, very
simple moment, but it is not so. Because earth rotates that is why the circulating air is
deflected, which we have seen this Coriolis forces.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:34)

268
We will see again it. So, the earth rotates on its axis and it circulates the air and deflect and
deflection occurs towards the right in the Northern Hemisphere and towards left in the
Southern Hemisphere because earth is rotating like this, it is going eastward.

And when this wind movement is there so because of this vector, it goes towards this. This
kind of circulation happens. In southern hemisphere like this. So, you can say that in the right
direction in the northern hemisphere, and if you see on the equator in the left direction in the
southern hemisphere, and right direction in the northern hemisphere, so, this is Coriolis
Effect. And this Coriolis Effect is responsible for many large scale weather patterns on the
earth. That is very important to understand.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:26)

So, you can see the significance of in the air pollution of this earth rotation or air movement,
so, air movement around low-pressure fronts in the northern hemisphere is counter clockwise
and vertical winds are upward, where this condensation happens and precipitation also takes
place. So, this kind of thing happens like you can see. On this side it goes or this side this
goes and that takes the moist air towards the poles.

269
(Refer Slide Time: 21:55)

Well, the high-pressure systems bring sunny and calm weather. And the anticyclones or high-
pressure or weather patterns of high stability in which dispersion of pollutants is poor.
Because of this difference in the temperature profile. And these are often precursors of air
pollution episodes. And sometimes this inversion also occurs.

High-pressure areas indicates this region of a stable layer, and we are pollutants built-up and
do not disperse because inversion may happen in those particular areas.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:32)

270
Well, the major mountain range like Himalayas they are there like barriers in the horizontal
winds. And different climates on one side of this Himalayas and other side of the mountains
can happen. Even smaller mountains and valleys can strongly influence the wind direction
and circulation. So, accordingly the dispersion of air pollution can be affected by these
patterns.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:57)

And the surface of the ground heats and cools rapidly from day to night and from summer to
winter, this kind of cycle happens, but solid ground is not mixed with by the wind. And it is
the convection currents. So, heat cannot mix up to this downwind or upwind direction.

So, solid surface temperature changes more rapidly than that of water bodies. So, that is why
sea breeze and land breeze kind of things happen. We will discuss detail in detail later on.

271
(Refer Slide Time: 23:31)

Well you can see here influence of the ground and the sea the surface of oceans and lakes
heats up very slowly and cools also slowly. So, the temperature buildup and cooling is slow
in water bodies. The earth's surface, it heats quickly and cools quickly. The mostly because
the surface layers are mixed by the winds and by the natural convection currents and mixing
heats up and down this kind of things happen.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

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So, you can see this summer, sun warms the air above the India more than the air over the
surrounding oceans, and which causes the strong upward motion of the air over Indian
subcontinent. And the moisture which moves from this oceans towards the land masses of
Indian subcontinent in the low pressure regions, so this air rises and that moist air comes
towards these surfaces and it forms the monsoon rains.

So, this is a big pattern through thousands of years this kind of system has got developed in
this particular area.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:42)

Well vertical atmospheric motion is also important. And both, of course, horizontal and
vertical motions are important, but vertical motion has its own like mixing air into vertical

273
direction. And, in atmosphere any parcel of here that is less dense then the air of the
surrounding it will rise because of buoyancy because of buoyancy and less density. So, it is
lighter it goes up, and in the cooler regions it comes down. If any parcel, which is denser than
the surrounding air it will sink, negative buoyancy you can call it, and the most vertical
motions in atmosphere are caused by change in air density.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:27)

Now, you can see here the temperature and the density are inversely proportional as you
know, so, the, when temperature is more, so density is less, and the lighter air goes up and
denser air comes down.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:38)

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So, here you can see the temperature and the air density, this affects. Like density is inversely
proportional to the temperature, temperature increases density goes down. But in pressure it
is different thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:53)

So, with temperature air density changes, and you can see this layer of cool layer at the earth
surface this encompasses the layer of warmer air under the normal conditions, and air
temperature usually decreases with the height, that is the normal way. Like your warm air
cold air upper, so the temperature decreases as we go up. But in certain cases, this may be
like this warm air is upper, in the upper regions, because of this suppression of molecules and
collision and those kinds of things and cold air maybe at the lower regions. So, as a result this
convection caused by air heating from the below is limited levels below the inversion layer.

So, inversion occurs means temperature rather than decreasing temperature increases with the
height. And that is very dangerous phenomena when we talk about vertical movement or
vertical dispersion of air pollutants. We will see in detail later on, but this is the concept of
inversion basically.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:58)

So, you can see here it is given that the air density will decrease by about 1% for a decrease
of around 10 hectopascal pressure or 3 °C increase in the temperature. So, those kinds of
things happen in atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:12)

So, in nutshell we can say that meteorological parameters which are very important from air
pollution point of view, like wind speed and direction, because it will take the pollution
further in the downward direction, then the temperature or the humidity and the rainfall and
solar radiation. All these important parameters are there, which will influence the air
pollution dispersion and buildup of the pollution at certain locations.

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(Refer Slide Time: 27:37)

So, when we talk about these parameters individually, like solar radiation, so, the intensity of
the sunlight has an important influence on the rate of chemical reactions, as we have seen
earlier also, like photochemical reactions occur in the presence of sunlight. And smoke
formation, maybe their ozone formation maybe there.

And the cloudiness of the sky and time of the day and geographical location, all these affects
the sunlight intensity. So, accordingly the pollution buildup or the nature of pollutants may
also differ from place to place.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:09)

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And you can see the smoke formation which we have earlier also seen how does this happen
like ozone formation and other pollutants built-up can be there.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:20)

When we talk about wind speed and direction, then the high pollutant concentrations occur at
the at those places where wind is calm and those kinds of things. So, sources and other things
can be and the dispersion of the pollutants can be related to the, these wind the speed and the
direction.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:39)

And you might have known about that when we talk about wind rose diagram, which gives
the direction of the wind and the fluctuations or frequency of the velocity of the wind, all

278
those things are there which influences the dispersion of pollutants in a particular direction.
So, in recent studies also say that like dispersion of particles, which can carry some like
bacteria or virus, so, that also depends upon the wind velocity, wind direction, all those
things.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:12)

Well, temperature is also very important, as we have seen, because the temperature influences
the dispersion because of differential heating patterns. And then the air quality assessment,
air quality modeling, forecasting all these are done with the help of moisture as well as
temperature. Those kinds of things are there as a part of modeling input parameters.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:34)

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Well in the cold weather, when the weather is having the cold atmosphere and the exhaust of
vehicles are more than dispersion may be very less. And warm air rising near the ground, it
takes pollutants away, so dispersion happens with the temperature. These kind of
temperature, things we will see like this is the inversion where a lot of buildup of pollutants
will be there. And in this case dispersion of pollutants may be very simple and it can go
upward direction.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:09)

In hot weather, well, some pollution such as ground level ozone, it is made up more
efficiently as sunny and hot weather and reactions that create harmful ozone in our
atmosphere requires sunlight as you know. So, in the summers and especially during extreme
heat waves ozone often reaches dangerous levels in cities and nearby rural areas. So, that is
again the effect of the temperature and heat flux.

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(Refer Slide Time: 30:36)

Relative humidity is also very important because it will decide how much moisture is
available in the atmosphere and that can react with the SOx or NOx and then the acid rain
related phenomena may occur.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:50)

So, the water vapor plays important role in many thermal and photochemical reactions in the
atmosphere. And as water molecules are small and highly polar they can really bind strongly
to many substances. So, that is why this pollution level is affected by these. And the water
molecules are attached with the particles, suspended in the air, and they can also reduce the
visibility because of the scattering of the light.

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(Refer Slide Time: 31:19)

Well, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is highly variable depending upon the
location and the solar radiation. So, it depends upon what is the geographical location and
how close it is near to the water bodies. What is the wind direction? Intensity of the wind
speed and the temperature of the air. So, the relative humidity generally higher during
summer when temperature is more so, warmer air can hold more water basically, and rainfall
or all at their highest in that particular season.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:52)

Well, it also helps like rainfall is really helping in where deposition or with the precipitation.
The aerosols comes down even gaseous pollutants also comes down in the form of acid rain

282
and so. So, the removing of particles improve air quality, it cleans the atmosphere, so that
way there it is the positive role of the rainfall.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:10)

Well, when we talk about studying the meteorological parameter, so need to measure them.
When we want to use them in the models etc, so we need to have their values. So, their values
comes from the measurements, and the measurements are done by some particular
instrument.

So, this particular table gives a list of these measuring instruments which are used for
measurements of different metallurgical parameters like wind speed and direction the sonic
anemometer is used temperature this platinum resistance thermometer. Relative humidity
relative humidity meter is there, so that way rainfall, solar radiation are measured by different
instruments.

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(Refer Slide Time: 32:55)

So, you can see these different instruments details here and very simple details are given.
You can go through later on about these instruments a lot of information are available. So, the
sonic anemometer basically operates on the principle that the speed of wind affects the time it
takes for the sound to travel from one point to another so that is why it names also like that.

And by measuring the sound wave which speeds in two different directions at the same time,
so the sonic anemometer can measure both wind speed and the direction. So, that we there are
the usage of this particular instrument for wind direction and wind speed measurements.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:30)

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This is this platinum resistant thermometer, which is used for measurement of the
temperature. So, you can see like this metal with the resistance that changes with the
temperature and that is the basic principle behind this, and inbuilt sensor measures these
chains and converts it into temperature readings. So, those kinds of things are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:55)

Similarly, you can see these instruments which are measuring like relative humidity and then
this for the rainfall intensity you can see, very simple instrument is there. So, in funnel this is
stored and then the rate of bucket movements all those play role in measurements of this
particular entity of rainfall.

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(Refer Slide Time: 34:19)

So, this is for measuring of the solar radiation. So, you can see all these instruments are
important in that sense.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:26)

Well, so in conclusion we can say, that the meteorology plays very important role and it
influences this because of earth surface and the axis turn which is responsible for both the
northern and southern hemisphere, the patterns of the wind and temperature differences.
Warm air rises at the solar heated equator with cool air sinks at the poles due to this
equatorial heating and polar cooling, but there are different cells as we have seen where it is.

286
And one important thing is there, like at 30 degree latitude where this Headley cells are going
down warm air is basically without much moisture, and that is why you will find that the
around the earth globe at 30 degree latitude the deserts are there, because there is no rain. So
that is also very important we should remember.

Then this both horizontal and vertical motion in the atmosphere it aids in understanding air
pollution dispersion. And the measurements of meteorological parameters they really play a
role for evaluation and modeling and forecasting of air quality. So, these are very
introductory thing in that sense. Later on, we will see these things how they are utilized in
modeling efforts and understanding various phenomena of air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:45)

So, this is all for today. Thank you very much for your kind attention. This is the reference
list for additional. So see you again, in the next lecture. Thanks again.

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 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gujar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 10
Atmospheric Stability and Lapse Rates

Hello friends, today, we will discuss about atmospheric stability and lapse rates. You might
have heard, like atmosphere is stable or unstable in the sense whether pollution is being
dispersed properly or it is hanging around, so that particular situation on which specific
parameters it depends like lapse rate. Lapse rate mean, change in the temperature with the
height of the atmosphere.

So, those are known as environmental lapse rate. Then there is theoretical adiabatic rate
which is dry adiabatic lapse rate and wet adiabatic lapse rates, so all these things we will
discuss today. And in addition to the adiabatic processes, we will also see the role of this
ELR and DALR that is the Environmental Lapse Rate and Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate on the
atmospheric stability. Because it will influence the dispersion of or movement of air parcel.

So, whether it is super adiabatic lapse rate or sub- adiabatic lapse rate or neutral or negative
or inversed like inversion. Inversion means, like in in normal conditions in the troposphere
the temperature decreases with the height. So, in case you meet that particular situation where
rather than decreasing of the temperature with respect to the height, if it increases then it is
inversion.

In that case vertical movement of your parcels or plumes and pups is completely restricted it
does not disperse in vertical movement. Although horizontal movement may be there along
with the wind, but this vertical this boundary layer dispersion restricts totally and that is very
serious situation. In many you know episodic events this inversion really creates havoc,
anyway. So, this we are going to study one by one these contents list.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:22)

So, when we talk about atmospheric stability first of all let us see this particular you know
figure in this like for example, one ball is there. If I take this ball here, then if I leave then it
will come back. If I take this ball here, if I leave it will come back here. So, that situation,
means, in atmosphere also if there is an air parcel or plume or puff if we take a particular
point then if it goes away from that point and it does not come back then it is unstable like
this one.

You put the ball here, either it will go to this side or that side, it will not stay there. But if it
comes back then it is stable. So, if puffer plume comes back where it is released, it hangs
around on that particular altitude or height, then it is stable. And the neutral condition is like
it does not change unless we push or we provide some external force, it will remain there
only.

So, those kind of three major conditions may be there of atmosphere like it is unstable means
a lot of churning is there and a lot of movement of air can be there and dispersion of
pollutants will happen. But if it is stable then the dispersion will not happen much and a lot of
concentration may build up. Neutral again, means unless external wind power is there, wind
velocity is there or some force is there, it will remain there. So, that kind of particular air
movement in atmosphere, which is strongly influenced by atmospheric instability that we
need to study further.

289
(Refer Slide Time: 03:55)

So, when we talk about this atmospheric instability basically, it is nothing but something
which is dependent on variation of temperature with the height or altitude. And in general,
the stability refers to the tendency of air to rise or sink or means to resist the vertical motion
or it helps in vertical motion.

So, basically it determines the atmospheric status in terms of whether some plume or puff or
air partial will rise or sink or remain at the same place where it is released. And, this air
parcel when it rises, it will expand and when it is expanding, then cooling effect there is there
through adiabatic process and that adiabatic process we will see, but theoretically it creates a
situation where cloud formation is there because of dew point is reached by this expansion
and cooling of the air. But adiabatic process means there is no heat exchange that is the
assumption. We will see later on, on that particular point.

290
(Refer Slide Time: 4:59)

So, basically when we talk about these conditions of atmospheric instability, so, they are
broadly as I said, either unstable, stable or neutral, these are three basic conditions. Although,
inversion is also one which is extremely stable condition you can call it.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:16)

So, when we say that it is unstable that means, when air partial is warmer than the
surrounding air. So, there are two temperatures please remember it. One is, the temperature of
the air parcel means, some puff or plume which has been released from the stack or air
pollution source. So, some temperature will be there of that particular puff or air mass or air
parcel. Let us call it air parcel, which is released as air pollution.

291
So, it has some temperature and it is released in the atmosphere, so the atmosphere also has
some temperature. So, in case the temperature of this air parcel which is released as air
pollutant if it is higher like 15 °C than the surrounding ear, which is 10 °C here, so, that
means this air parcel is warmer, it is lighter, so, it will rise, it will not remain there. So, it will
help in dispersion of air pollution. So, this is known as unstable atmosphere. Means it helps
in dispersion of the pollutant, it will not help pollution remain there only.

So, that means, difference between the environmental temperature, surrounding temperature
and the temperature of air pollution plume or puff of air parcel, the difference decides So, in
unstable when air parcel temperature is higher than the surrounding temperature then it is a
unstable and the air parcel will go away.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:39)

In a stable condition, suppose warmer conditions are there and the temperature of the
surrounding air is warm more and this the parcel temperature is less in that case this parcel is
heavier. It is not lighter, it is dense, so, it will come down. So, that means, it may go towards
the ground and it will create pollution problem, this is the stable atmosphere basically.

292
(Refer Slide Time: 7:05)

When we talk about neutral then the temperature of the parcel, temperature of surrounding
here it seem so, it will remain there unless you push it. Like if you push it then it will go there
and there itself it will remain if temperature again same. But if temperature is different, like if
temperature of the surrounding is less on higher side if it is 8 and if it is 10 then it will rise. If
it is 18 and if it is 10 then it will come back. So, that kind of situation will decide whether the
parcel of the air will go away from the situation or the point where it is released or it will
remain there.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:42)

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So, how do we determine this atmospheric instability? So, basically, we see these lapse rates,
the environmental lapse rate is this one you can see here. And this is DALR Dry Adiabatic
Lapse Rate. So, the point is now, how to determine atmospheric stability. So, here we can see
like this is the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate this solid line. Dry adiabatic lapse rate basically
which is theoretical lapse rate we will see, but I can say that it is like 10 °C decrease of the
temperature with 1 kilometer or 1 °C per 100 meter in the troposphere, so that is known as
dry adiabatic lapse rate.

And then ELR maybe, something lower than or higher than DALR. So, it is like
environmental lapse rate which is existing in the atmosphere. So, you can see here this DALR
is there dry adiabatic lapse rate then environmental lapse rate and SALR saturated adiabatic
lapse rate. This is because of moisture or wet atmosphere. So, the major DALR can be
compared with both the DALR and SALR to determine the atmospheric stability. Because
ELR is the thing which is this surrounding air atmosphere, which can change every day, and
within the day, every hour it can change, but DALR and SALR almost constant those rates of
the temperature decrease with the height depending upon whether we are considering the dry
air or moist or wet air.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:15)

So, here if we see this environmental lapse rate, which is nothing but the difference between
the temperature and the according to the height.

294
So, if we assume like at Z1 height, the temperature is T1 and at Z2 height if temperature is
T2. So, we can see the difference of the temperature T2 minus T1 divided by Z2 minus Z1
that is delta T by delta Z. So, this is the tau or know it is known as the change of the
temperature or lapse rate. So, this is the lapse rate. And it can be either adiabatic lapse rate or
environmental lapse rate. But environmental absolute when we talk so in the atmosphere with
the height what is the temperature recorded, measured.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:58)

So, now if we see this environmental lapse rate how do we measure it. Basically, this
Radiosonde experiments are done. So, meteorologists usually do this in the balloon those
instruments are put and then a sensor-based readings are there. So, as balloon goes up it gives
the reading with respect to the height. So, you can determine what is the rate of the decrease
of the temperature or increase of the temperature, whatever situation is there with respect to
the height.

So, those temperature recording is done, and then it is plotted with the height, so we then
know what is the rate of decrease or increase of the temperature.

295
(Refer Slide Time: 10:36)

In adiabatic lapse rate basically, this is the theoretical change in the temperature with respect
to the height and it is in response to the compression or expansion of the air with respect to
the height. Like if you go up so, the air parcel expands and cools down the temperature
decreases. If you bring down then more pressure and the density increases, and it warms up
so temperature also increases here, you can say. So, adiabatic process is basically no heat
exchange that is the assumption. In adiabatic process we assume there is no heat exchange
between the parcel and the surrounding air.

And then these adiabatic lapse rate can be dry adiabatic lapse rate or wet or saturated
adiabatic lapse rate. As I said, if we consider the moisture or that available in the air, so, then
we can call it as SALR or Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate. Otherwise, for practical purposes
for calculations, we generally use dry adiabatic lapse rate and that is more popular.

296
(Refer Slide Time: 11:41)

So, in dry adiabatic lapse rate you see like this air parcel is going up and up so, it is
expanding and cooling down, and that with the rate of 10 °C per kilometer or 1 °C per 100
meter, so, that the calculation can be easily done, we will see. And this is unsaturated so it is
not relative humidity 100 percent. But when it is saturated, then we call it SALR Saturated
Adiabatic Lapse Rate.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:20)

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So, now, if we talk about the derivation of dry adiabatic lapse rate, so, you can see this very
simple figure which is self explanatory. One column has been assumed which has area, area
A and delta h that is the slice of this air, we have assumed delta as height. So, the pressure at
this point and the above point after this delta h if they are measured and if we determine the
forces at these points so the mass, the force exerted by this mass of the air in this slice is
equal to the difference between the pressures at these two points multiplied by the area so,
that you can see.

……….. Equation 1

p is the air pressure A the area and h is the height of this column and delta is the height of this
particular slice, and 𝜌 is the air density and g as you know the acceleration due to gravity.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:06)

So, if we apply this ideal gas law very simple. So, vapor pressure into the corresponding
concentration which is used to convert the vapor pressure into corresponding concentration.

…………………… Equation 2

298
So, the moles vapor per volume, so, n by V, n is number of moles of the chemical V is the
volume in liters and P upon RT. So, this is equal because of this ideal gas law which is all of
you know, so, this can be used in in this particular derivation.

So, later on if we want to carry out this density part, so, you can have this 𝜌 is equal to the
number of moles air per unit of volume n by V we multiplied by the average molecular
weight MW of air, which is around 28.96 grams per mole. So, by substituting this
relationship into the ideal gas law, which we have seen in equation 2, so, we get this
particular relationship.

……………… Equation 3

………………. Equation 4

(Refer Slide Time: 14:07)

And when we combine the equation 1 and equation 3 then we get this particular relationship
the pressure variation d𝑃/𝑃=(−𝑀𝑊.𝑔)/(𝑅.𝑇) dℎ with respect to the height.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:25)

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So, ultimately, we get this particular relationship this 𝑃 𝜕/𝜕ℎ (1/𝜌)= −𝐶v 𝜕𝑇/𝜕ℎ , where Cv is
a specific heat capacity of at the constant volume, and T absolute temperature in Kelvin.

……………….. Equation 5

(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

So, these equations this equation 3 is rearranged afterwards when we have seen all these
relationships. So, ultimately you get from equation 3 equation, equation 4 this kind of
relationship [𝜕𝑝/𝜕ℎ = −𝜌𝑔]. And then substituting equation 5 and equation 8 into equation
7, so you get this particular relationship.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:09)

When you put those values so this

𝜕𝑇/𝜕ℎ=(−𝑔⋅𝑀𝑊)/(𝑅+𝐶v.𝑀𝑊) …………. Equation 10

Now, we put these numerical values of all these, so, you get value of this point 0098 Kelvin
per meter or minus 9.8 °C per kilometer. So, approximately you can say that 10 °C per
kilometer or 1 °C per 100 meter. So, minus sign is nothing but you go up upper in the
atmosphere in the troposphere from the earth surface and temperature decreases, so that is the
you know this significance of minus sign otherwise, basically the value is 10 °C per
kilometer or 1 °C per 100 meter.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:54)

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When we talk about wet adiabatic lapse rate. So, when this humidity is 100 percent then we
consider this wet adiabatic lapse rate otherwise dry adiabatic lapse rate is enough for all
practical purposes. And then when we are considering this moisture, so, moisture also plays
role. When you go take this parcel here and then this heat released by condensation.

When you go up so, the temperature decreases condensation happens so the heat will be
released by condensation. The moisture will be condensed and the heat will be released. So,
the temperature of the parcel will be a little bit higher, you can say, warmer. This air parcel
will be warmer than it would be based on the dry adiabatic lapse rate. So, that is why the
most adiabatic lapse rate or saturated this adiabatic lapse rate is around 6 °C per kilometer,
whereas in dry adiabatic lapse rate it was 10 degrees Celsius, so that difference is there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:02)

Anyway, so, this is the equation basically when you want to calculate, so these very simple
formulas you can use for calculating of this wet adiabatic lapse rate.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:13)

So, you can see the relationship of wet adiabatic lapse rate with respect to the height and the
temperature variation in this figure is shown, so this is the relationship which can be used for
drawing this particular figure. Well when we talk about you know specific instability
conditions, that can be combination any combination of this DALR, ELR and SALR. DALR
is Dried Adiabatic Lapse Rate SALR Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate and ELR is
Environmental Lapse Rate. So, combination of this can be of different kind. Like for

303
example, if we talk about absolute instability. This is the condition which happens when this
dry adiabatic lapse rate is more than this saturated adiabatic lapse rate and more than this
ELR Environmental Lapse Rate.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:57)

So, in this case, both plots are on the left side of this ELR or cool side of the ELR. This is
warmer and this is cooler. That is why this is known as at absolute stability. Means, it is not
unstable, rather it will be kind of air parcel of any relative humidity will cool faster than the
surrounding environment, and will not rise it will rather come down. So, air would tend to
sink rather than going up. And because sinking of this air creates clear skies and radiation
goes faster and means colder environment you can feel, but this vertical movement of air
parcel is suppressed in this stable atmosphere.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:50)

When we talk about like absolute instability where this ELR environmental lapse rate is you
know, higher than DALR and SALR. So, you can see this means the air parcel of any relative
humidity will cool more slowly, not faster, more slowly than the environment. So, it will be
warmer than the surrounding environment, so it will go up. So, that really helps in dispersion
of pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

When we talk about some conditional stability like DALR is more than ELR and ELR is
more than SALR so those kinds of conditions may be there. In that case, SALR is basically
on the warmer side of ELR and DALR is on cooler side of the ELR. So, the SALR is on the

305
warm side and the DALR is on the cool side and it will have meaning that the saturated
parcels will be unstable, saturated parcels will be unstable it will go up, but unsaturated
parcels or dry adiabatic lapse rate following parcels, they will not go up. So, this is a
conditioning stability you can say.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:07)

So, dry parcel will be stable, they will sink and saturated parcels will go up, means, they will
rise. When we talk about like wet neutral, so, DALR is more than the CLR and SALR and
SALR and ELR both are same. In that case, the dry parcel being on the left side or cooler side
it will sink it will be stable. It will be stable, but wet this saturated adiabatic lapse rate is
parallel to ELR so they are neutral. This will neither go up nor come down, it will follow the
same pattern.

306
(Refer Slide Time: 20:35)

When we talk about dry neutral adiabatic lapse rate, so this is basically this ELR and DALR
parallel and SALR is on warmer side. So, well the saturated parcel being on the right side or
warmer side it will be unstable it will rise, but the ELR and DALR same so the dry parcels or
unsaturated parcel will hang on particular point where it is released.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:02)

Then this is very dangerous situation as we know inversion. When this environmental lapse
rate is basically following the trend reverse trend means rather than decreasing of the
temperature with height it is increasing, this is increasing. This is the decreasing temperature

307
here the temperature is decreasing when we go this side, temperature is increasing when we
go to this side.

So, this is basically this DALR and SALR on cooler side, and so neither saturated parcels nor
unsaturated parcel will rise they will rather sink. And this is kind of cap this inversion acts as
a cap. It will not allow vertical movement of the air pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:47)

Well, so, what is the role of this atmospheric stability in determining the ELR and ALR? So,
the relationship between environmental lapse rate that is the ambient lapse rate or actual
absolute you can say, that is not theoretical. When we are talking about DALR and SALR
those are the theoretically derived lapse rates. When we are talking about ELR that is the
actual lapse rate which is existing in the atmosphere.

So, the relationship between the environmental lapse rate or the ambient lapse rate and the
dry adiabatic lapse rate essentially determine the stability of the air and the speed with which
the pollutants will disperse. So, you can see this is the adiabatic lapse rate. And this is severe
sub-adiabatic this is super adiabatic means if temperature is decreasing faster then it is
unstable.

So, unstable atmosphere is known as super adiabatic lapse rate follows the super adiabatic
lapse rate. Sub-adiabatic means the temperature decreasing but slowly so, that is kind of
moderately stable. Inversion means rather than decreasing temperature is increasing so that is
very completely kind of suppressing of the pollutants. So, these are basically the super

308
adiabatic lapse rate, sub-adiabatic lapse rate or neutral means if you know this ELR and this
DALR are same then we call it neutral conditions.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:07)

So, here you can see this DALR is dotted lines and ELR is the solid line. You can see the
ELR is no faster. It is the temperature, actual temperature decrease is very high speed. So,
this is super adiabatic lapse rate, and this is the unstable and it favors the dispersion. And the
environmental lapse rate is exceeding the dryer adiabatic lapse rate because the temperature
is decreasing faster in existing atmosphere, than the theoretical DALR, so, that is the super
adiabatic lapse rate or unstable atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:49)

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So, you can see here in this particularly super adiabatic lapse rate you can see pollution, the
pollutants rise above and they go above and above and then temperature decreases, when they
are expanding and losing the heat, so those kinds of things are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:05)

Well, when we talk about sub adiabatic lapse rates, so that means, the environmental offset is
slower and DALR is faster than the ELR like shown in this.

So, in sub adiabatic lapse rate this DALR is faster means the dry adiabatic lapse rate is their
theoretical lapse rate is faster temperature decreasing faster in comparison to the ELR and
ELR it's slower, so that is the sub-adiabatic lapse rate or a stable atmosphere you can see
here.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:33)

So here the it will not go up rather than it will sink the pollution or plumes will sink.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:37)

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When we talk about neutral means that DALR and ELR parallel, and the pollution wherever
it is released, it will hang around but it will go away with the wind.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:51)

Of course, wind also takes part in removing the pollution from one place to another. Well in
inversion as you see this ELR is the temperature is increasing with the height so it will
suppress the vertical movement of the air parcel or pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:04)

So, you can see here this this kind of thing. So, here like this is normal pattern where
temperature is decreasing with the height, so the plume goes up. In this temperature is
decreasing, temperature is increasing rather than decreasing with the height so the plume will

312
come back, it will not cross this particular point where this inversion phenomena is there. So,
inversion layer is having a kind of cap which will not allow the vertical movement of
pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:35)

Well, inversions are also of several types. Like ground or radiation inversion thermal
inversion also it is known as then turbulence inversion because of winds, turbulence.
Subsidence inversion because air mass subsides. Then frontal inversion because of warmer
and colder air cross then valley inversion which happens because of valley effect we will see
by figures.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:01)

So, in this figure you can see this ground or radiation inversion because of this thermal
phenomena exchange. For example, this is the, a particular at a particular place, this is the
gradient of the temperature, so, temperature is decreasing with the height. But what happens
like evening time, evening time when sunsets, so, the temperature of this surface decreases
because it loses heat very quickly.

So, the temperature decreases and the air which is upper those above the surface their
temperature does not decrease so quickly. So, what happens the temperature at the surface
earth surface and the nearby layer of the air that is less than the temperature of the air layers
which is above that. So, the temperature rather than decreasing it is like this, it is increasing
with the height up to some height only, we can call. So, this is known as radiation inversion
or ground level inversion which occurs in deserts very quickly in the evening times. And in
winters also we faced this kind of inversion quite frequently.

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(Refer Slide Time: 27:10)

In turbulence inversion you can have particular this upper part of turbulent layer cools down
due to vertical mixing. So, the temperature this is like here, this is the temperature decreasing
with the height and at the ground level and up to some height again the same pattern, but
within this particular layer you will find that the temperature is increasing. So, above the
turbulent layer where temperature is decreasing and this turbulence inversion is because of
this phenomena. And you will find that in between one layer is there where temperature is
increasing. So, that is known as turbulence inversion.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:59)

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Similarly, you know in subsidence inversion is there. In subsidence inversion what happens
like air mass comes down, so, it compresses air and the molecules strike with each other and
the temperature increases. So, in this particular layer, you will find at a particular depth,
temperature, rather than decreasing it is increasing. So, that kind of inversion may also
happen.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:23)

Well, combination of inversions maybe there like radiation inversion and then subsidence
inversion maybe there at a particular height, so the combination may also occur. So, for
example, suppose this is the stack and the pollution is coming out of this. So, it will not go up
it will just remain in this particular layer.

But, if some stack height is above this inversion layer, so, here it will very quickly disperse.
So, it will depend up to which layer the stack height is there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 28:57)

This is the frontal inversion where cool air mass strikes with the warm air, so the temperature
gradient again you can see that at some height, the temperature rather than decreasing it is
increasing because some warm layers will be on the upper side. So, that is known as frontal
inversion.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:14)

Similarly, in the valley like you know, in the morning when sun comes to our surface
becomes quite hot, the temperature is increasing and the valley the surface is cooler in
comparison to the height of the those mountains. So, in that also sometimes this kind of
inversion occurs and this is diurnal inversion weather daily, because of morning and then the

317
sunset after sunset. So, that that kind of inversion can be there, because of temperature
difference at this level and the valley level. So, those may be dangerous when if there are
some industries and emitting some pollutants, this will not disperse so quickly.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:00)

So, in conclusion, we can say that the movement of air parcel or air pollution basically
depends upon the atmospheric stability conditions. And the atmospheric stability conditions
are basically determined by the lapse rates or the temperature variation with the height. So,
the relation between this temperature and the altitude we call it like lapse rate and it can be
environmental lapse rate which is actual and theoretical is DALR and SALR dry adiabatic
lapse rate and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate.

So, environmental lapse rate and dry adiabatic lapse rates that determine the stability
conditions in the atmosphere. And the inversion phenomena traps the pollutant and it is very
dangerous phenomena. It inhibits the vertical movement of the pollution. So, which happens
when temperature rather than decreasing increases with the height. So those kinds of
conceptual understanding I hope you got through this presentation.

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(Refer Slide Time: 30:56)

For additional information, you can go through these references. And I thank you for your
kind attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

319
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor. Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 11
Atmospheric Stability and Plume Behaviour
Hello friends, you may recall last time we discussed about adiabatic lapse rate of the vertical
temperature profile in the troposphere and its relationship with the atmospheric stability.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

Today we will discuss how atmospheric stability influences the plume behaviour because
plume which is emitted from the stack or some source. So, how does it disperse in the
atmosphere, how it is shapes are defined by atmospheric stability and their relationship.

So, the contents that will include like atmospheric stability we will discuss very briefly again
to revise and its classification based on different concepts, then some dispersion coefficients
and then the plume what is plume and how different types of plumes are related with different
kind of stability classes.

Well, so when we talk about atmospheric instability basically, it is associated with the
atmospheric temperature profile, vertical temperature profile and it refers to vertical movement
of the air that is the tendency of air to rise or to resist vertical motion, it can go up or it can
come down or it can be on the same place where this air parcel has been released.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:47)

So, you will recall this kind of inner example, we showed you that something which is in this
position it is stable because you take this ball to here or here it will come down to this position.
Neutral means unless you provide some external force, it will remain wherever it is, but in this
position even in small force, it will destabilise it, it will not be stable. So, it is unstable kind of
situation.

So, in atmosphere also, depending upon the atmospheric temperature profile, the vertical
movement of air parcel is influenced, whether it will go up or it will come down or it will hang
on the same place where the air parcel is released. So, the atmospheric stability basically
determines whether an air parcel in the atmosphere will rise, sink or be neutral. Well,
atmospheric stability can be classified based on three major criteria like depending upon the
lapse rate that is vertical temperature again, then some Richardson's number and classification
schemes.

So, when we look at the stability classified or classification of the stability based on lapse rate,
you have this kind of tabulation form which depends upon the dry adiabatic lapse rate, saturated
adiabatic lapse rate and environmental lapse rate. Environmental lapse rate is the actual lapse
rate within the atmosphere and dry adiabatic lapse rate and SALR are theoretical, DALR means
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate that is 1 °C per 100 metre that kind of thing.

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(Refer Slide Time: 03:35)

So, when this ELR is less than both DALR and SALR or you can say DALR is greater than
SALR, which is always there and SALR is also greater than ELR in that case, the atmosphere
is absolutely stable basically, when this environmental lapse rate is greater than DALR means
the actual temperature gradient is faster, means temperature is decreasing faster than the
theoretical lapse rate of the DALR , then this is absolutely unstable or instable.

Then conditionally stability like DALR is greater than ELR min ELR lying between SALR
and DALR . So, that conditionally stability maybe depending upon whether we are considering
in comparison of DALR or SALR. As you know DALR is Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate, SALR
is Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate, and ELR Environmental Lapse Rate. That is the actual lapse
rate, which we observe and DALR and SALR we derive theoretically.

Then, wet neutral means, this DALR that is the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate, is greater than
SALR and SALR and ELR are in parallel means both are same with the same gradient the
temperature is decreasing in actual which is equal to SALR, then it is known as wet neutral,
when the ELR is equal to SALR and then this kind of situation, DALR is equal to ELR and it
is greater than SALR, then this is known as dry neutral.

And when ELR is negative means temperature instead of decreasing temperature is increasing
with the height that is the negative gradient and that is known as inversion or extremely stable
condition.

322
(Refer Slide Time: 05:12)

When we consider the Richardson number, this is defined as with this equation, we are you can
see these are the parameters this g acceleration due to gravity, then T(z1), T(z2)at different
heights temperature, and actual temperature at z1 and z2 height, z1 minus z2 means difference
between the height or the elevation, and this formula is used to calculate this particular
relationship and this gives the Ri your Richardson number.

𝑇(𝑧1 ) − 𝑇(𝑧2 ) ∆𝑇
𝑔[ ] 𝑔 [ ]
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ∆𝑧
𝑅𝑖 = 2 =
𝑢(𝑧1 ) − 𝑢(𝑧2 ) ∆𝑢 2
𝑇(𝑧1 ) [ 𝑧 − 𝑧 ] 𝑇 [ ∆𝑧 ]
1 2

(Refer Slide Time: 05:47)

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So, according to the Richardson number we can again define the stability classification of that
atmosphere for example, if Ri is greater than 0.25, then it is the atmosphere is stable and in
stable atmosphere no vertical mixing. Weak winds and then strong inversion may also happen.
Mechanical turbulence is dampened, negligible spreading of smoke plume is there in a stable
atmosphere.

Similarly, 0 greater than less than Ri and Ri is less than 0.25, then again no slightly stable kind
of condition happens neutral happens. Neutral condition of this stability classification is when
Ri is 0 when Richardson number is 0, similarly, unstable conditions may be as per different
values of the Ri.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:36)

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Well, so you can say that practically the use of these complex parameters of the gradient of the
temperature or these Ri that is Richardson numbers we normally do not follow rather, we go
for very simplistic things like visual inspections of plume and their shapes and, types or
behaviour. So, different classification of schemes may also be there depending upon which has
been proposed like name of the place or name of the scientist.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:10)

So, this is the Brookhaven a scheme which was given by the researcher at the Brookhaven
National Laboratory and these are the classes A, B2, B1, C, D etc . So, very unstable, unstable,
neutral all these kinds of are their relationship. Then, wind intensity, turbulence, solar radiation.
Solar radiation is very strong, then this chances are this is very unstable, because when solar
insulation is very strong then the Earth's surface becomes hot and the temperature gradient
means decreasing of the temperature profile becomes more sharper means rapidly temperature
decreases with the height, when insulation very strong.

Then weak sunlight, then it is neutral kind of thing means, maybe it is decreasing with the same
rate as adiabatic lapse rate or so, that kind of thing. When solar installation is very weak or
clear night so, that the temperature dissipation or when temperature of the earth is lost very
quickly, then this temperature gradient becomes some sometimes a negative like inversion kind
of condition may happen. So, those are the basically very stable kind of conditions

325
(Refer Slide Time: 08:28)

Well, when we talk about Pasquill-Gifford stability classification, then they give very good
relationship between the surface wind velocity, surface wind velocity means the velocity which
we have measured at the 10 metre height from the ground, that we call the surface wind
velocity. Then the strong insulation or moderate insulation or slight insulation that is in the
daytime. In night-time, they have two categories depending upon the cloud cover.

So, that thin overcast low clouds cover is more than 4 by 8, clear sky or cover is less than 3 by
8, if you divide the sky in the 8 parts and how much cloud cover is there accordingly you can
call it clear sky or the thin overcast those kind of thing. So, accordingly, classification of this
atmospheric instability is there in terms of A, B, C, D, like, E, F, and G. A is very unstable, B
is moderately unstable and C is slightly unstable then D is neutral.

Again neutral whenever neutral is there, means the temperature is decreasing with the rate of
dry adiabatic lapse rate 1 °C per 100 metre or 10 °C per kilometre you please remember this,
slightly stable E and F is moderately stable, G is extremely stable or inversion you can call, so
those kind of things maybe they are depending upon when clear sky is there.

So, the you can see this stability is increasing F, E, those kinds of thing, because the temperature
losing mechanism is very prominent in that case Earth surface loses temperature. So, there are
chances that temperature instead of decreasing it sometimes increased means temperature is
lower at the surface and higher in the our upper layers of the atmosphere, those kinds of
situations may there.

326
Well, when a strong insulation there, then the chances of this high temperature gradient or the
decrease of the temperature faster than DALR, the chances are there that is why these unstable
conditions occur A or B.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:45)

When we see these in terms of vertical temperature gradient and this is standard deviation
horizontal wind direction, again some classification has been given according to their values
this can be seen in this table.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:58)

Well, the Turner’s stability classification with which you can determine upon the basis of
Pasquill-Gifford work and hourly meteorological observations and the stability class is
determine as a this function of wind speed and the net radiation index. A net radiation index

327
may range from 4 to minus 2 where, 4 is highest net positive radiation, radiation directed
towards the ground and minus 2 highest net negative radiation, radiation directed away from
the ground.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:34)

So, accordingly you can see the stability more stable classifications are there minus 1 and minus
2, net radiation index inferences, because this 7 is extremely stable, 6 is stable. So, those kinds
of things are visible in this particular index number you can see this radiation index otherwise,
you can have, this wind speed and the net radiation index when it is 1, 2 those kind of these are
extremely unstable.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:10)

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So, several kind of classification schemes are there, but mostly this Pasquill-Gifford scheme is
very much used by researchers and in dispersion modelling efforts also that is very easy to
follow and understand. Well, when you see this particular coefficient Pasquill-Gifford
dispersion coefficient means how the pollutants dispersed from the central line.

So, for example, this is, this stack and from stack this plume comes and then it starts dispersion,
it goes into downwind direction, x0 means x increases when we go away from this stack. So,
the plume, disperses away from the centreline in horizontal direction as well as in vertical
direction, that is why it kind of funnel shape you can see in the plume and it widens when you
go away from the stack.

And this deviation from the centre in horizontal direction is sigma y, which is known as
horizontal dispersion coefficient sigma y, and the vertical dispersion coefficient is sigma z in
the y direction. So, these values really help us when we do modelling for estimating ground
level concentrations depending upon many metrological parameters and each stack parameters.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:20)

Well, so the coefficient like based on a steadies empirical observations, they have prepared this
kind of chart where you can, see the downwind distance from the source and here the value of
sigma y and these A, B, C, D, E, F these lines show the variation of this horizontal, this
coefficient dispersion coefficient and distance from the source horizontal distance.

So, for example, you want to know what is the value of sigma y at 200 metre. So, you go at
these 200 metres or 2 kilometre, then here this is 2000 metre you go up, if you know that you

329
want to calculate sigma y four, let us say D. So, where is the D neutral condition you go up to
D, then you go this. So, this value will be the sigma y very simple way of estimating sigma y.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:19)

Similarly, sigma z So, these are the plots which show the variation of vertical dispersion
coefficient and the distance from the source horizontal distance. So, again if you take the 2
kilometre or 2000 metre and go up to D, then you can get this value of sigma z. So, that is the
very simple way of getting sigma y and sigma z which will be used for estimating
concentrations in Gaussian dispersion models.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:46)

330
Well, for an example, like for if you are given the stability class A like I just show for stability
class D, but if it is a stability class A and the values of sigma y and sigma z are determined at
1 kilometre, then 1 kilometre is nothing but 1000 metre. So, here you go up to this A, this is
the A and you go this side, so, you get this value.

Similarly, sigma z from 1 kilometre you go to the A and go to the left side and get the value of
sigma z and that is 530 metre around this is 210 metres sigma y and sigma z is 530. There are
other relationships like sigma y sigma z empirical relationships are also there which we will
discuss and we can compare and more or less they are similar little bit difference maybe they
are depending upon other values.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:46)

331
Like, this is one empirical relationship 𝜎𝑦 = 465.11628 (x) tan(TH) ; TH = 0.017453293[c-d ln
(x)] and theta (TH) is given by this relationship where C D and A and B are some sort of
coefficients, sigma y, sigma z are a metres, downwind distances are in kilometres. Whereas, in
graph it was in metres distance was in metres please remember. A, B, C, D are coefficient
determined based on Pasquill-Gifford parameters.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

So, when if you see this particular table, we are Pasquill stability classification A, B, C, D, E,
F are there and the values of C and D are there. So, you can use these values in that formula.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:28)

332
For example for the stability class A you want to again calculate sigma y for 1 kilometre
downstream the same value which we used in the graph. So, you get this kind of calculation
and around 209 metre, whereas from that graph we got 210 metre or so.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:47)

Similarly, for sigma z you can use this A B values C D values was for sigma y, in sigma z this
is axb. So, you calculate the sigma z.

333
(Refer Slide Time: 16:59)

Here in this and you get value around 454 metre, where is it was 500 and I think 30 or so. So,
a little bit difference, but it is not kind of that you are estimating 100 or 150 another one is 500-
600 something like that. So, those kinds of differences may be fine in case of atmospheric
dispersion modelling because atmospheric dispersion modelling is very rough estimation, it is
not very precise and even 50-60 percent deviation sometimes called it is fine otherwise.

But there are other techniques which are becoming now robust, but in atmosphere so, many
uncertainties are there like wind velocity, temperature gradient you can never measure in actual
sense because its changes every minute or every hour and for calculation purposes you cannot
go for so many no parameters. So, approximations are always there.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:53)

Well, when we talk about the plumes, the plume is nothing but, the emission of the these
exhaust gases or particles and the dispersion of the smoke or vapour you can see and resembling
as a cloud it goes down and spreads from a point of its origin. So, from like stack or wherever,
something happens like this and it disperses according to the wind velocity according to the
stability classification.

And the critical relationship exists between atmospheric stability and pollutant concentrations
due to its effect on vertical motion of air parcel, because if this vertical motion is promoted or
helped by this unstable atmosphere, then dilution will be quick, the concentration will be less
and when it is stable, then concentration will be high, because dispersion will be less.

So, the pollutants, which cannot be transported or dispersed into the upper atmosphere, quickly
become trapped at the ground level and it can cause significant risk to the human because of
exposure and those instability conditions we have to see, which creates such situation. So, we
should avoid those kind of conditions, we have to see what is the plume behaviour and the
dispersion effect of the stability classification.

335
(Refer Slide Time: 19:14)

Well, so we can see the plume dispersion depending upon it is, influenced by several properties
like exit velocity, stack velocity or there are plume properties you can call. Exit velocity from
the stack, temperature of the release that buoyancy, exit velocities momentum, height of the
release even diameter all those things are there.

Then environmental properties maybe like wind speed, turbulence and the atmospheric stability
or vertical temperature profile, they will influence the dispersion from metrological point of
view or environmental point of view. So, both these set of parameters or properties, they
influence the dispersion of pollutants and plume.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:57)

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So, the types of plume or the plume behaviour is determined by you know can say the stability
class, like a stability class can be extremely unstable, moderately stable, neutral, stable,
extremely stable inversion those kinds of things. So, let us see accordingly like it will happen
like looping or feigning or coning, lofting, fumigating, trapping neutral, those kinds of plume
types can be there depending upon a particular instability class. So, let us see one by one.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:30)

Looping plumes means the plume when it comes out then it goes up and down and dispersion
happens very quickly and the reason is because the ELR that is the Environmental Lapse Rate
actual lapse rate is higher than the adiabatic lapse rate. So, the atmosphere is unstable and
turbulence is low and depending upon this turbulence this fluctuation will go like it will go up
it will come down.

So, a lot of Eddies of the air this mixing is there and atmospheric Eddies plus turbulence they
help in diffusion and dispersion of the pollutant and this wind also takes away. But, the what
is the problem in unstable atmosphere sometimes because plume goes up and come down. So,
it can come down and at the surface concentration may be higher near to the sources which is
not so, good.

But ultimately, the dispersion happens quite quickly and dilution happens quite significantly,
but at certain places at certain locations near to the source the concentration may be higher.

337
(Refer Slide Time: 21:31)

And you can see the associated wind and turbulence properties like light wind maybe there,
then thermal turbulence are intense. And the occurrence may happen like daytime with clear
or partly cloudy skies, intense solar heating must be there. So, that gradient of temperature is
faster than or more than this ALR Adiabatic Lapse Rate.

Then dispersion and ground contact as I said rapidly with the distance this dispersion happens,
but probability is quite high when concentration at some places irregular although, but at nearby
places maybe higher than the required.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:13)

Well, fanning happens when this the plume neither goes up nor come downs rather it goes in a
kind of thin layer with the downwind direction. So, that happens when the inversion condition

338
is there. So, now neither it will go up nor it will come down, it will just stay thin line like a
very sheet kind of thing. So, the narrow horizontal fan you can assume that is why it is known
as fanning.

No vertical spreading for kilometres in the downwind direction and if effluent is warm, plume
rises slowly depending upon the condition of the atmosphere and it drifts horizontally because
that is possible horizontal drifting, dispersion is possible but vertical is restricted because of
this inversion phenomena.

And the temperature as you see the inverted lapse rate is there because the temperature rather
than decreasing with the height, it is increasing, this theoretical lapse rate is decreasing ALR
Adiabatic Lapse Rate, the environmental upset actually is increasing with the height so, that is
very dangerous thing, we should avoid and at the places where a lot of inversions occur, we
should be very careful we should not go for higher emission related activities in those locations.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:32)

Well when we talk about, these wind turbulences etc. So, again light winds, or very little
turbulence can be there, and it can happen at night or early morning, when the temperature of
the surface is lower, and chances are there that the upper layers of atmosphere is warmer, that
is why this inversion phenomena will be there. And those things like, the concentration is of
course, it will not come to the ground, but it will hang on the atmosphere. So, at certain height,
it will be higher, but it will be avoiding the ground level concentration.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:09)

When we talk about coning it happens when like near neutral phenomena means, the actual
environmental lapse rate is almost near to the ALR. It may be parallel or just a little bit, higher
side lower side does not much matter. And this cone means, vertical movement can happen on
both sides upper and lower and like a funnel or cone, the dispersion happens that is why it is
known as coning.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:39)

And you can see like, moderate or strong winds are the kind of properties which signify these
particular phenomena, turbulence largely mechanical rather than thermal, and this during
windy conditions, day or night it can occur and layer type cloudiness can be there which can
favoured in the daytime.

340
And the dispersion less rapidly with the distance then looping in comparison to the looping.
Looping, dispersion happens quite quickly. So, dilution will not be as good as like in looping,
in the case of looping. But, it will not have the higher concentration at very near distances
which may happen in case of looping.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:22)

When we talk about lofting, which occurs when lower side like stack emission is there, the
below the stack height inversion is there. So, the vertical movement of the plume is restricted
or not encouraged it is you stopped. So, kind of this line is there at the site and if unstable
atmosphere is upper then this stack height, then the dispersion will happen on upper side.

So, that is why it is called as lofting it is a very good thing for us, because it will not induce or
it will not increase concentration to build up higher at the ground level. Because ground level
there is no concentration only dispersion will happen on the vertical side and when lot of
dilution will happen even if this inversion is broken, then the pollution will come to the ground
level it will be very less. So, this kind of situation is very helpful for us.

341
(Refer Slide Time: 26:20)

And the situations when it happens like moderate winds, considerable turbulence, very light
winds or literal turbulence those kinds of situations may be there and probability of ground
contact is very small, unless inversion layer is shallower it is broken very quickly and it is
considered as the best condition as I said for dispersion purpose, because it will avoid the
ground level contact of the pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:40)

This is very dangerous, which is known as fumigating, when the inversion is above just above
the stacks emission. So, this is the inversion and the vertical movement will not be there above
the chimney height or stack height. But whether it is neutral or it is unstable below this stack
height then lot of vertical movement will be there in this particular location.

342
So, the high concentration will be there because of this fumigation this is very very dangerous,
because, very high concentration may occur at the ground level and those receptors whether it
is people or animal or ecosystem, they will be severely affected because of this.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:23)

And these are the conditions when it occurs like during change from the inversion to the lapse
conditions, it may occur also with the Seabreeze in the late morning or early afternoon, when
upper layer maybe their inversion remains and the lower inversion breaks. So, a lot of
turbulence and instability is there at the lower layer and the dispersion may happen very
quickly.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:51)

343
Well, the fumigating, plumes you can see here different kinds of conditions like near coast and
Sea-adiabatic, super adiabatic those conditions may happen. So, coastal regions like this is the
inversion then this kind of situation may happen because of the temperature changes. So, at the
lower level inversion is not there, this inversion breaks. And then it can be the dispersion or
the lower side of the atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:23)

When we talk about trapping, this happens when below a certain height inversion is there and
above certain height inversion is there and in between unstable condition occurs or neutral
condition occurs. So, dispersion becomes only between these layers. So, the trapping because
plume neither goes up or comes down from these particular heights. So, within a layer, this
kind of sandwich kind of condition happens with the plume, unless this inversion breaks out,
because of certain temperature gradient.

344
(Refer Slide Time: 28:55)

And this happens like light wind thermal turbulence or dispersion very slowly concentration is
very high in that particular layer and low probability to come in contact with the ground
because, this is as I said trapped and it can, move in the horizontal direction with the horizontal
windward vertical distribution is restricted.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:15)

345
When we again talk about neutral plumes and if horizontal wind is not so much, calm
conditions are there, then plume rather than going downwards as a coning or something like
that, it will just go up. So, this kind of mushrooming kind of thing may happen, it may go like
this, that kind of condition.

So, whenever you travel on the ground or in the train, if you see around and there are stacks,
chimneys, and you see some sort of shape of the plume, you can easily relate with the
atmospheric condition instability classification, because different testability classification
shaped the plume differently you can, you have seen those kind of plume shapes or behaviour
according to the stability classification.

So, in this new condition, but near neutral lapse rate, but a stable condition plus calm wind
means there is no wind so that it does not disperse in horizontal direction this can happen in
that particular situation no wind kind of thing, day or night anytime it can happen.

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(Refer Slide Time: 30:16)

So, in conclusion, we can say that the atmospheric stability that is the temperature profile, this
influences the shapes and the dispersion behaviour of the plumes. And the lofting is the most
favourable plume tie for us because we always want that the pollutant concentrations should
not build up on the ground level, the concentrations should not be high at the ground level it
goes and dilutes in the atmosphere, that is fine for us.

So, lofting condition where the dispersion happens on the upper side of the stack. So, it is good
for us because ultimately it will be diluted and it will be less than the prescribed limit like
NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards). So, that will be meet very nicely. Looping
is again most favourable for dispersion only means, it will dilute very quickly but sometimes
as I said near to the source, at certain pockets or irregular distances concentration may be high,
that is only the negative aspect of this otherwise, this is also good for diluting the pollutants.

Fumigation is very, very dangerous. So, that should be avoided from the stack above the stack,
if inversion is there and below the stack, it is, in a stable condition that that fumigation can
occur. So, that situation must be avoided, and with the help of metrological observations if you
know a particular place if in winters or some other seasons, most of the time, if those kinds of
conditions happen, that the surface layer is very unstable near to the ground and above certain
it is inversion kind of thing. So, at that place, we should avoid having these kinds of emissions.

So, this kind of knowledge really help us where to locate industry, how much pollution can
build up because of these metrological phenomena, and the emissions which are occurring
because of industrial activity. So, this is all for today to give you idea about the role of stability
classification and shaping the plume behaviour and the role of plumes in deciding the ground

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level concentration weather it will be high or low and how this plume will be help in dispersion
of pollutants away from the ground or nearer to the ground. So, that is all for today for you,
thank you very much for your kind attention.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:37)

These are the references, which you can go at leisure and have more information about different
aspects of stability classification. See you again in the next lecture, thank you.

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 Air Pollution and Control
Professor. Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 12
Boundary Layer, Mixing Height, Stack Height and Plume Rise

Hello friends, today we will discuss about Boundary Layer, Atmospheric Boundary Layer
and its Mixing Height, Stack Height and Plume Rise because they are interrelated to each
other, when we talk about dispersion of pollutants or dilution of the pollutants when it is
emitted from a particular stack or point source.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:53)

So, the contents of today's lecture is like first of all we will discuss atmospheric boundary
layer what is the boundary layer, how it is defined how it is approximated then different
components of the boundary layer and then the concept of mixing height and methods of
determination of mixing height by different methods like Profile measurement, Holdsworth
method is there and Parameterizations and model based calculations are also there.

Then we would talk about the stack height design. So, again there are different methods to
design the stack height like geometric method, numerical methods or even by physical
modelling in the wind tunnel or water fumes and some recommended, equations or
relationships are there by CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) some minimum heights
maxima might those kinds of things are there.

And then the plume rise and its calculations we will discuss because plume rise is also
important in the sense because it is added into the physical stack height when we calculate

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effectively stack height. So, that is also very important when we talk about stack height and
then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:55)

So, when we discuss about atmospheric boundary layer basically it is nothing but the bottom
layer of the troposphere. You can you assume like 1 to 2 kilometre from the Earth's surface
and because topography varies it is not overall smooth somewhere it is mountains or hilly
areas, undulations, water bodies etc, so the height is not constant it can vary from 1 to 2
kilometre depending upon the surface nature of the Earth's surface nature of the Earth's
surface.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:29)

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Well the different components of the boundary layer or atmospheric boundary layer are you
know defined or they are given some nomenclature like surface layer or mixed layer then
residual layer and stable boundary layer those kinds of names are there and how they are
defined let us see.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:47)

So, the surface layer is basically nothing but the, this is the region at the bottom of the
boundary layer you can see here this is the surface layer very thin layer within the boundary
layer or the troposphere the lowest one the nearer to the Earth's surface. So, this is the region
at the bottom of the boundary layer where turbulence you know varies by less than 10 percent
of their magnitude, we will see the turbulence what is turbulence basically.

And the bottom 10 percent of the boundary layer if you assume 100 units you know height of
the boundary layer, then the bottom 10 percent of the boundary layer is called the surface
layer regardless whether it is part of the mixed layer or the stable boundary layer, because
there are other components also the boundary layer but means the bottom part the 10 percent
of the total boundary layer or height of the atmospheric boundary we consider as the surface
layer.

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(Refer Slide Time: 03:43)

Then when we talk about the mixed layer basically it is the layer where turbulence is
predominant. Again, as I said we will see what is the turbulence it is you know churning of
the air lot of mixing takes place. So, this causes uniform mixing primarily in vertical
direction because of turbulence, in the mixed layer is due to solar heating nearly well mixed
layer can form in the regions very strong winds are also occurring. So, maximum height is
reached during the late afternoon during summer seasons because of high solar insulation and
these high Eddies or turbulence this happens.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:24)

Well, when we talk about the Residual Layer, mixed layer was this one and it could go up to
the boundary layer. So, the residual layer is the upper part you can see this is nothing but

352
about the layer which is like about half an hour before the sunset when thermals cease to
exist. And they allow like turbulence to decay slows down in the formerly well next layer.

So, the well mixed layer like this one reduces into these kind of two parts, stable layer the
residual layer. So, the residual layer is the upper part because this is kind of you know the
difference between the stable boundary layer where stability classification will be applied the
concept of instability classification. So, the remaining layer above the stable layer is basically
the residual layer.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:21)

And what is the stable layer? When we talk about this then this is like when evening occurs
and night progresses, then the bottom part of the residual layer is transformed into in the
contact of the ground and it becomes like a stable boundary layer because of certain
instability classification related temperature profile. So, this is characterised by a stable air
with weaker or sporadic turbulence very less very negligible kind of thing.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:51)

When we talk about the turbulence basically you see the air does not move in a very smooth
single direction. It goes up and down depending upon churning and the solar insulation,
topographical undulations all those. So, here goes like this it will go up, then come down
mixing takes place those kinds of things occur.

So, this is the gustiness a certain strong rush of the wind superimposed on the mean wind
direction and you can visualise it as a consistent of regular swirls of the motion which are
called as Eddies. So, the turbulence consists of many different sized Eddies smaller, larger
those kinds of and they are superimposed on each other. So, lot of mixing takes place in a
mixture also you takes a lot of currents go, on one direction other direction those kinds of
things happen.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:43)

Well, so the boundary layer the turbulence which is generated by forces from the ground in
the bottom part of the like solar heating of the ground causes thermals of the warmer air
which rises from the ground and it forms large Eddies causing a lot of turbulence. Then there
are frictional dread because air is flowing it is touching with the ground lot of friction is
there. So, this wind shears develop, which causes the turbulence also because of this drag
force.

Then, obstacle also like trees or buildings or undulated the terrain is there that also causes
turbulence some weeks, because building is there, then some wake formation occurs. So,
again it will be forced like air will come down. So, that is why you know, neither buildings
we do not want stacks because when plume comes then there is tendency that it will go down
because of this wake formation, those are issues maybe we will discuss later on also in detail.

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(Refer Slide Time: 07:43)

Well, the mixing height basically when we talk about in the boundary layer up to what height
a lot of mixing will take place. So, that is also defined because of atmospheric characteristics,
and normally we, get it by intersection of adiabatic lapse rate from the maximum temperature
at the surface and whatever temperature profile is there like this one and then this intersection
occur so, this is the mixing height.

But in theory you can see like, this is the height of the layer in which a lot of pollutants or any
constituents of the atmosphere vertically disperses due to turbulence, vertical dispersion
occurs, because of this, within this mixing height. So, larger mixing height, lot of volume is
available for mixing, dilution of the pollutants, and if it is lower than higher concentration,
we will be there because volume will be low.

Mixing height is involved in like many predictive and diagnostic methods which are related
to air pollution, then models to assess the pollutant concentration at a particular place or
atmospheric plume model. So, this is mixing is very important concept like you can see the
whole this mixing height is there where all the pollutants disperse. The more mixing height,
more dilution, more dispersion those kinds of things, then how to determine?

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(Refer Slide Time: 8:59)

So, there are methods to determine the mixing height, like because your profile measurement
you can measure it like radiosounding or subjective methods within the radiosounding
objective methods, subjective methods or their, remote sounding system is also there, then
you can determine mixing height by parameterization and model which are again divided like
neutral conditions, what will happen to mixing height or there are empirical equations also,
which uses these kinds of conditions or unstable condition, stable condition those kinds of
things are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:36)

So, when we talk about radio sounding you use, we use the balloons and some instruments
are hanging to that, when you know balloon rises, then at different heights, those sensor

357
based equipment’s, give us the reading. So, GPS equipped system is there which gives the
position and the altitude and wind speed, wind direction all those data are collected at the
ground level that system and every second this radio sound transmits its measurements by
radio to the station on the ground.

So, but as this balloon goes wherever depending upon the wind direction flew etc, those data
we get, it is not of our choice that we wanted this particular vertical column that is not
possible in this that case.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:23)

Then, within that subjective method is there because we have the profile we have temperature
profile all those wind velocity etc. So, depending upon the expertise when wherever you
know this profile is changing like this you can see the variation with the altitude this
temperature decreases and at this height, temperature then rather than decrease it remains
almost constant.

So, up to this one can expert can say, this is the mixing height after that this mixing it stops to
work. So, through the subjective method you can get the because of this relationship with the
wind profile also you can see it changes here up to this, increases the wind speed and then
you know it start decreasing. So, the combination of these wind direction wind profile,
temperature profile and expert can easily find out where up to which height the mixing it is
there. So, this is known as the subjective method.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:23)

Objective method is also there, where you plot the profile as well as you know, see what is
the maximum temperature during that observation and from there you know intersect this
adiabatic lapse rate. So, wherever this is intersecting up to that, the mixing height or
maximum mixing height is known. So, that is also one method this is objective, because,
some value will come because of these plots and also.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:50)

Then, there are other methods like this Holzworth's method which is the again objective
method which gives readings about like morning mixing height or afternoon mixing height
depending upon the time of the day. So, like this morning mixing height the minimum the
minimum temperature at the plus 5 percent, there you can have this dry adiabatic lapse rate.

359
Then from T maximum you have the dry adiabatic lapse rate that gives the afternoon mixing
height and the morning mixing height is known when we plot the adiabatic lapse rate from
the T minimum plus 5 degrees Celsius. So, those methods are there and you can easily
calculate those mixing heights.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:32)

Then there are certain plus or minus, pros and cons depending upon their nature by when we
are knowing these data from different methods. So, the reduced sound advantage and
shortcomings are also there like you know data transmitted with very short delay so, this is
good point for that it is compatible for measurement in the free atmosphere. And then, the
suitable for climatological studies, because it needs lot of data then data transmitted via
international communication networks.

So, you have huge amount of data and you can play with those to get different kinds of
insights about the atmosphere mixing etc. But there are shortcomings also like, there are
limitations you can’t go beyond 2-4 soundings per day at mixed limited height is their
resolution depending upon this wind and the crossing of the atmospheric boundary layer
within a few minutes given this snapshot kind of profile. So, there are these shortcomings you
can see.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:41)

Then, we go for in-situ measurements of the mixing height where you can have this kind of
balloon tied with a rope. So, up to certain height you can have the those profile related
measurements. Then you can have the mast where you can have this kind of tower very tall
and you can install different instruments at different heights and you can have these
observations related to wind velocity temperature profile everything. So, you can have the
data in the column.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:10)

Well again, there are some pros and cons like there are this tethered balloon where it is tied to
the rope. So, plus point is like desired ascent velocity according to the desired vertical

361
resolution that we can maintain. Then the turbulence and trace gases concentration
measurements are possible in this particular way.

But it requires a lot of skill, skilled person required to handle it, and then it can’t go beyond
500 metres. So, that is the limitation and it is not possible during very high wind speed or
during strong convection where a lot of vertical movements happen. So, it can be damaged
because of those high winds etc we cannot have better results.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:54)

Similarly, in Mast also there are certain plus point like it can give detailed turbulence
measurements along with the large number of different sensors which are installed on the
tower this installation. Then continuous operation is possible good resolution of the lowest
layer is very much possible you can do whatever height, you want to install those
instruments, but it is very high installation cost is needed because of this infrastructure which
are needed.

Then limitation like 50 to 300 metre only beyond that, it is not cost effective and high vertical
resolution requires large number of sensors. So, again it adds into the cons. So, operational
cost also increases.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:40)

When we talk about remote sounding systems, then from the distance you can have some
observations. So, basic advantages are like continuous operation can be maintained, and they
do not cause any modifications of the investigated flow because whenever you are having a
tower or balloon, so it is a little bit changing that particular location related flow metrics, but
in this this is sensor based on some raise. So, there are no obstacles at all in this particular
method.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:12)

Well types of remote sensing sounding systems or there like light detection and ranging,
which is known as LIDARS, then sound detection and ranging or SODARS, then when
profile radars are also there, then Radio Acoustic Sounding Systems (RASS) is also there.

363
And the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) can easily be used for these kinds of
measurements.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:35)

Well, these LIDARS you can use for measurements of the aerosols and trace gases
concentration also. So, this is very much considered to provide direct measurement of the
mixing height. And then, the SODAR is also very simple, less expensive, remote sounding
system and operational in lower troposphere, which can make, very much suited for routine
operations in that sense.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:00)

Then wind profile radars are also there, which are for direct continuous measurements of the
mixing height in deep convective boundary layer, otherwise other systems may not give

364
realistic data. And then when we talk about RASS Radio Acoustic Sounding System so, this
is an extension of either SODARs or wind profile and it provides virtual potential
temperature provide in addition to the wind and acoustic related these refractive indices
profiles.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:30)

So, these are again pros and cons like for LIDARs, then ground based and aircraft based
operation possible in case of LIDARs and the continuous operation is also possible then,
return signal this originated directly from the aerosols. And but it is expensive the negative
part or shortcoming. And the tracer necessary like gas or aerosol, some tracer must be there,
because without that, it is difficult, to take those readings and then the trained personnel
required for the operation. So, a skilled person is required.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:03)

365
When we talk about the SODARs. So, the good point is like relatively simple operation, not
very expensive and it is suited for even unmanned long term operation automatic operations
are also possible, but then the range is limited. So, the shortcoming is like 500 to 1000 metre
only this gives the reading good reading and sensitive to the environmental noise, then
readings may be disturbed, so, that we have to again process after you know observations.

So, when we talk about wind profiling radar, so again good points like continuous operation
is possible, ground based and aircraft-based operation possible. But you know shortcomings
are like not stable below 200 metre, only beyond 200 metre, it is good and expensive it does
not work well in clean air. So, again there are limitations of this particular issue.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:57)

366
Then when we talk about mixing high determination, so depending upon stability
classification neutral condition those kinds of different equations you can use to, these are the
empirical relationships which can you use for determination of the mixing height.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:12)

367
Well, this environmental lapse rate they are used and unstable conditions when we are talking
about them another equation or relationship is there. And when we talk about these like
calculation of mixing height by parameterization and models, then again there are certain
empirical relationships, where these temperature differences is there and gradient of the
environmental lapse rate, they all these things are used and dry adiabatic lapse rate is also
used for calculation.

368
(Refer Slide Time: 19:44)

Similarly, in this case also like strongly stable when so, maximum mixing depth in stable
conditions you can get here, see the adiabatic lapse rate is crossing even inversion is there.
So, mixing is possible. So, I mean to say like when we talk about inversion, we say that it
acts like the cap, but because of this relationship a little bit, it can go inside even inversion
layer sometimes. Then maximum mixing depth is calculated in weekly stable atmosphere and
this is strongly stable. So, again wherever this intersection is there, so, that kind of mixing
depth can be calculated.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:24)

369
When we talk about critical assessment of different methods to determine mixing height. So,
if we go for different methodologies, no single methodology is perfect. So, the combination
of different ways we need to go for determining a good assessment.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:40)

When we talk about design of a stack height. So, again there are many empirical relationships
to design the stack height like geometric method is there numerical method is there, physical
modelling can also be therefore for determining the stack height.

370
(Refer Slide Time: 20:56)

So, you can see like geometric method has certain parameters for isolated rectangular
buildings that do not have taller buildings or dense taller trees, those kinds of conditions we
have to see before calculation.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:12)

So, these are the you know relationships which gives us the particular parameters which are
used for designing the stack.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:21)

So, you can see here you know this plume is going this side so, the bottom of the plume
extend downwind like 5 to 1, 5 horizontal 1 vertical. So, we have to take care that this should
not come into the height where wind is intake in the buildings, the wind is going inside the
buildings or some wave formation is there that is should be avoided. So, those things are to
be observed and it should be ensured that the height of the stack must be sufficient so that
plume does not come in this particular range.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:52)

When we talk about numerical methods. So, you see different models are also available like
EPA has designed one SCREEN3 model which can give the stack height related calculations.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:05)

You can see here stack design based on physical modelling for by using wind tunnel or water
fume. So, that is very accurate kind of method, but again it requires a lot of skilled manpower
and some infrastructure which is very kind of sophisticated. So, that we also you can
calculate by studying in those models.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:28)

Then there are some empirical relationships like you can have this for particulate matter,
central pollution control board is it recommended certain heights, similarly SO2 related some
estimated height can be taken from this particular relationship. So, these are empirical
relationships, you calculate and then you take the maximum one.

373
(Refer Slide Time: 22:49)

And then the minimum values are also recommended that whatever calculation is there it
should not be less than 30 metre in case of this chimney which is in industries accepting
thermal power plants, for thermal power plants depending upon their capacity they have
recommended like 220 or 275 whether this you know power plant is of 200 megawatt and
below 500 megawatt and then beyond 500 megawatt this is the height minimum height that
should be taken.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:17)

So, when we go for an example like there are certain input parameters, you take those
equations and these values you can use, SO2 say particulate matter etc.

374
(Refer Slide Time: 23:30)

And you put in those equations values and you get calculations like for particulate matter the
calculation is coming around 13 metre.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:38)

For SO2 is coming around you know this 43.5 or 44 metre. So, you go for the maximum one
out of this because this recommended minimum value is also lower than 43.5 it is 30 metre.
So, these three values are there and you go for the maximum one.

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:57)

When we talk about plume rise because we discussed earlier also like plume rises because of
you know momentum and the buoyancy, because of temperature difference, momentum
because of exhaust velocity. So, these two components really helped us to get the plume rise.
And plume rise this delta h is added into physical stack height to calculate the effective stack
height which is used in model calculations when we go for dispersion models etc.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:25)

So, you can see here like these are the empirical equations recommended by different
researchers like Holland’s equation is there. So, they are taking into account this momentum
the velocity and the temperature different that is the buoyancy part. So, different
combinations are there and different combinations are because of those conditions only
unstable condition, stable conditions these are the parameters you can see which are given in
these equations.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:52)

Then when we talk about like empirical relationship which is given by Moses or Carson. So,
momentum and buoyancy factor as I said. This is the momentum related, this is the bouncy

377
related, these are the different nomenclatures of those parameters which are used for
calculation purpose.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:08)

This Bureau of Indian Standards this recommended the BIS formula for estimating plume rise
which is quite popular. So, again this Q part energy part or heat emission this takes care of
the buoyancy. So, delta is calculated by this particular formula u is the, this wind speed h is
the height of the chimney. So, according to that this plume rise can be calculated.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:35)

Then for hot releases then this is the relationship which is by this velocity of the exhaust
emissions. So, these are two parts basically A part is heat release related that is the buoyancy

378
related and this is because of momentum related wind speed is u but this is the Vs, is the
exhaust velocity that is taken into account for momentum calculations.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:04)

This numerical example is given for practice purpose. So, you can use these empirical
relationships you can calculate the plume rise and see which is the maximum one which is the
minimum one, why they are coming that way you can go for those simple calculations.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:18)

379
Then there are additional empirical relationships by different researchers depending upon
what is the stability classification, temperature difference those kinds of things are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:27)

So, many researchers have recommended different you know formula or equations for
calculating plume rise in different conditions.

380
(Refer Slide Time: 26:34)

Well, you can see here delta h is being calculated by buoyancy factor or momentum.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:41)

381
So, in conclusion, we can say that this this mixing height when it is more than more volume
is available for dispersion and for dilution of the pollutants and remote sounding systems are
preferred methods for determination of the mixing height they give good realistic values.
When we talk about like different three methods for the design of the stack height, then
physical modelling may give a more accurate result, but it has limitations as I said
infrastructure is needed for that all those, but there are mathematical models also we they can
also give some values and we can choose out of those different recommended values.

Then, if we talk about like BIS recommended plume rise calculations, then Holland's
equation is also popular. And these Briggs formula recommended by BIS is also very much
popular. So, this is all for today and these are the references for additional information. So,
thank you for your kind attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks.

382
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor. Bola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture - 13
Status of Air Quality Monitoring in India

Hello friends, today we will discuss about status of air quality monitoring in India. Basically,
we will look into how air quality monitoring is carried out? What is its importance? What is
its significance? What are the thumb rules or the processes which determines the locations,
number of air quality monitoring stations, frequency all those kinds of things we will discuss.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:57)

So, before going in detail, I can give you this contents list for this lecture, like we will look
into very basic, very brief information of air quality monitoring. Then different kinds of types
of monitoring, what are those types of monitoring or the way we carry out the monitoring, air
quality monitoring in different ways. So, we will discuss about them. Then stationary source
emission monitoring, we will look into because air quality monitoring and emission
monitoring two different things are there, but they are both important.

Then we will look into ambient air monitoring, like different kinds of pollutants which we
focus on when we go for air quality monitoring, ambient air quality monitoring. Then the
number and distribution of monitoring locations, selection of monitoring locations, those kind
of principles, basic rules and the timeline of air quality related regulations which have been
implemented over the period of time in India so, that we will look into.

383
Then national air quality monitoring program. We will discuss briefly and the non-attainment
cities that is exceeding air quality standard. So, about those cities we will discuss. Then we
will focus on National Clean Air Program which is very important program which has been
sponsored by central government of India. National Clean Air Program or NCAP and after
that we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:23)

So, when we talk about basics or brief information on air quality monitoring, so you can see
that monitoring is nothing but a general term which relates to collection of data or
measurement of the data and the information assessing, processing after the collection of
those air quality related data. And the monitoring is an exercise of measurements of different
levels of air pollutants, basically.

And it gives us some information which is related to, like how much is the level of the air
pollution of a particular pollutant at a given location, where this pollution is there and what is
the time series or when this pollution has occurred. Those kinds of things are determined with
the help of air quality monitoring.

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(Refer Slide Time: 3:15)

When we look into like special differences or temporal differences or trends. So, with respect
to the space or place, you can see the variation may be there from state to state within the
state, city to city within the city from location to location there may be differences in the
levels of air pollutants. Similarly, over the period of time if we monitor from one year to
another, there is variation in different months.

So, average concentration, air quality concentration in different months may be different
because of several factors like emissions may be different, plus metrological factors which
also kind of govern the pollution levels because sometimes wind is more than it can take
away the pollutants and then when precipitation is there, then again cleansing of air becomes
very easy. So, those kinds of metrological parameters also influence the air quality.

385
(Refer Slide Time: 4:23)

So, the temporal variation is there, special variation is there. When we look into the
objectives or aims. So, most of the air pollution monitoring or air quality monitoring, then
what is the purpose itself basically? There are numerous purposes basically, like it can
provide a very sound and scientific basis for development of cost-effective control policies
and programs or technological interventions which are needed to control the pollution
discharges or emissions and to improve the air quality, you can say.

And it also helps in evaluation of potential impacts of air pollution on population, health and
environmental health or welfare of the public because the air quality determines the public
health related issues also. Then it also provides information about reliable information and up
to date information on air pollution levels related to particular location or related to particular
source.

So, that way we can control that particular source which is emitting more of the air pollutants.
Then it also helps in assessing the air quality standards, whether those air quality standards
are being met or not. If it is exceeding at a particular place, then what are the responsible
factors for that. Is it because of some topographical factors or because of some source
emission?

Then it also helps us in determining the impact of air pollution on the ecosystem and our
natural environment and also assessing different policy measures which we have taken to
improve the air quality. So, how much impact is there of that policy or technological
intervention. So, that way air quality monitoring gives us a lot of information from that
perspective.

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(Refer Slide Time: 6:17)

Well, area for monitoring determined on the basis of emission sources, whether it is domestic
or industrial transportation or agriculture related, natural and then those pollutants which are
being emitted, what are the nature of those pollutants? Then the location and magnitude of
the pollution intensity, all those things govern where we need to monitor.

Then metrological factors are also important because some areas are prone to temperature
inversion, which can enhance the pollution levels. So, those kinds of things, then,
topographical issues and undulation is there or flat terrain is there, geographical issues,
population centres where a lot of population is there. So, receptor maybe more. So, it may be
needed to monitor the quality because they will be impacted, their health will be impacted if a
large number of populations is there.

Then historical monuments are also important because they can be affected by the air quality.
So, we need to monitor the air quality in and around those places. Then also some very
sensitive zones like natural parks for us, and wetland. So, pollutants can really change their
particular ecosystem. So, we need to know how much pollution is there in and around those
particular areas. Next is like, if some areas are vulnerable to pollution plumes, then again it is
needed to monitor so that we can learn which particular pollutant is problematic.

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(Refer Slide Time: 7:52)

Then the plan for the development, like if we are planning some particular industrial cluster
or some new city something like that, then also we need to know the background
concentration so that we can foresee that after implementation of our execution of this plan,
what will be the air quality at that location.

Then, if there is complaint from the public or some person that at a particular place some
pollutant concentration is increasing because of some source or because of some industry and
the industry is not taking care of that, then again air quality monitoring is required to see
whether it is true or not.

And then, any epidemiological studies on air quality affect the health already carried out. So,
relationship between the epidemiological studies or the public health or the health on
particular group of the public like children or old people and its relationship with the
pollutants. So, those kinds of relationships can also be established by virtue of this data which
is obtained from air quality monitoring.

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(Refer Slide Time: 9:04)

When we talk about what kind of monitoring techniques are there, then you can see, a
stationary source emission monitoring can be there when some stack is there and you can
monitor the emissions which is coming out of that stack. On road mobile when related
monitoring instruments can be in that mobile and you can travel and you can also monitor the
air. So, you can have a kind of trajectory of the air quality from one place to another. So, that
kind of profile you can generate, a special profile, temporal profile.

Then ambient air quality can also be monitored by virtue of manual instruments or automatic
instruments. Then remote sensing related instruments are also available nowadays or satellite
observations can also be done. So, you can have this column of the air, you can see how
much pollution is there of a particular pollutant, whether particulate matter or ozone or those
kinds of pollutants you can easily monitor from the satellite also. There are certain sensors
and they can give the reading of those concentration in that column.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:10)

Then when we talk about ambient air quality monitoring, so, we have to see what is the
purpose of that because in ambient air different pollutants are there. So, we have to monitor
different pollutants. So, accordingly we need to install the instruments and we can assess the
concentration of criteria pollutants for example CO or nitrogen dioxide or oxides of nitrogen
like and NO, NO2, NO3, those kinds of things. Then ozone or heavy metals, etc, VOCs all
kinds of these pollutants can be monitored by some technique, some instruments or especially
instruments.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:50)

Then the stationary source emission monitoring is done when the stack emissions are there.
We want to know how much emission is going out of that stack and what is the concentration

390
in the exhaust gases which will be diluted afterwards in the air. So, those kinds of things
because we need to know the performance of this air pollution control equipment.

For example, you want to see some ESPs there Electrostatic Precipitator at coal based
thermal power plant etc. So, you need to know how much performance intensities they are or
what is the efficiency of that instrument. So, unless you know how much is the input and how
much is the output. So, those kind of stationary in the stack emissions you can see and know
about those emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:39)

Then you can see On-road mobile monitoring which can be done as I said, you can have
different kinds of instruments in the mobile van and then you can suck the air through those
inlet pipes. And there are censor-based instruments also, they can give the readings of those
pollutants and you can see the profile of the pollutants with respect to the time and the space.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:01)

Well, when we talk about remote sensing, satellite-based monitoring, then also depending
upon the pollutants and depending upon the location, weather city, you want to focus, you
want to focus the whole State. So, accordingly you can have this air quality monitoring and
readings can be taken.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:21)

Well, when we talk about a stationary source emission monitoring, so, as I said, there are
different components of that particular process like indicators of the performance, then
measurement techniques, different measurement techniques, monitoring frequency, averaging
time, all these things are important when we carry out the emission monitoring of the
stationary sources.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:45)

So, when we talk about indicators performance, like proper operation, this is done for
demonstrating the proper operation of the air pollution control measures which has been
implemented. Then compliance of the applicable emission limitations or standards. Because
when we will have some reading, only then we will be able to compare what are the norms
and how much emissions are coming out. So, that indicator performance is done by this
stationary source emission monitoring.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:17)

Then there are different techniques like Continuous Emission Monitoring System can be
there CEMS, Continuous Opacity Monitoring System can be there. Continuous Parametric
Monitoring System can be there or Manual inspections that include like records and

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processes, different kinds of different conditions, work practices, all those things can be
combined and then you can evaluate those things to see what is the emission. Basically, what
is the intensity of the emission and what is the air quality impact of that emission in that
surrounding.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:52)

Then the frequency means like hourly or weekly, depending upon the purpose you can decide
the frequency basically and then even if you are having hourly, then you can convert it into
weekly or monthly depending upon what kind of purpose is there for this monitoring?

(Refer Slide Time: 14:13)

Well, averaging time again you can do because instruments are there which can give you per
minute data, per second, data per hour. So, then you can process, what is the average in time

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depending upon, you want to compare with 24 hourly emissions or hourly emissions.
Accordingly, you have to do the averaging time. So, that comparison can be of the same unit.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:39)

When we talk about ambient air monitoring. Then again, it can be done like through manual
monitoring, by hand instruments and then automatic monitoring.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:52)

So, manual monitoring is basically like some instruments are there and you do like physical
activity when for example, you are monitoring particulate matters so, you have to weigh the
filter paper, you have to install it and then you have to run, you have to check the reading. So,
that means a lot of involvement is there of the expert or the skilled person who knows how to
carry out the air quality monitoring using that particular instrument.

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So, there are well established guidelines which needed to be followed and the manpower
must be skilled and the manual data generation and dissemination is possible by this
particular methodology.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:33)

So, there are several instruments which are used for manual monitoring like Improved West
and Gaeke Method, Modified Jacob and Hochheiser Method, then Chemical Method can be
there, Garvimetric Method can be there for particulate matter. So, these are the listed
different kinds of instruments which can be used.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:55)

So, if we go one by one then this particular method which is known as Improved West and
Gaeke Method, this is used for monitoring the sulphur dioxide and there are these annual

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standards 50 and 20 for industrial, residential and ecologically sensitive areas. Then 24 hours
these guidelines or concentrations are also there, which are 80 micrograms per cubic meter.
So, accordingly monitor data can be compared with these guideline concentrations.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:27)

Similarly, if we talk about modified Jacob and Hochheiser Method, then this is done for
measurements of NO2, nitrogen dioxide. And we can compare with again this table gives the
air quality standard, National Ambient Air Quality Standards for 24 hours and for annual
standards. So, whatever data you are processing you can compare accordingly.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:50)

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When we talk about ozone monitoring or sampling, then this chemical method which is also
known as buffered potassium iodide method, this is used. We will look into these methods in
detail later on. I am just giving you a brief introduction about different instruments or
methods which are used for air quality monitoring. For ammonia, we need to use this Indo-
phenol Blue method.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:16)

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For Gravimetric Method like for PM10, particulate matter of 10 micrometre size or less than
that RSPM, it is also known as like respiratory, the suspended part plate matter. So, the same
Gravimetric method can be used for PM2.5 also and you can see these ambient air quality
standards which need to be met.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:38)

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Well, like gas chromatography method is there, adsorption desorption followed by gas
chromatography which can be used for benzene measurements or sampling. And, if you want
to monitor this Benzo Pyrene then solvent extraction followed by HPLC. HPLC is High
Performance Liquid Chromatography and gas chromatography can also be used. So, these
methods are necessary for measurement of Benzo Pyrene.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:09)

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Similarly, if you go for heavy metals like lead or nickel then, you need to go for Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS), there are different mix, different companies make it
but this is the methodology which is used for this particular, these particular pollutants. If you
go for Arsenic sampling and monitoring, then Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer AAS, is
there and using EPM 2000 method can be used for these Arsenic monitoring.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:39)

When we go for automatic monitoring, then there are sophisticated analyzers which are
sensor based and different techniques are there and the quality assurance, quality check is to
be done. Air Quality Index Development all these things can be done by automatic monitor
because in this case, intervention of human needs very less. Automatically measurements
happen sensor-based calculations happen.

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So, computer-based calculations are also there, it can help us in calculating Air Quality Index
or early warning systems forecasting modelling, all those things are basically done by these
Automatic Monitoring Systems because they give the real time observations, real time
measurements.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:24)

And different methods of the ambient air monitoring of the automatic nature, we go for
ultraviolet, this fluorescence method or this photometric method is also there. So, these are
listed you can see like ultraviolet fluorescence method is for sulphur dioxide, then for oxides
of nitrogen or ammonia, you can use this Chemiluminescence Method and Ultraviolet
Photometric Method can be used for ozone.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:56)

Similarly, other methods are also there for carbon mono-oxide and PM2.5, PM10. All those
different pollutants can be measured by these automatic sensor-based equipment. And Gas
Chromatography is quite expensive, but this can help in measurements of benzene and there
are some sensors also which are used for measurements in automatic fashion.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:24)

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Well, so, when we go for selection of pollutants, which pollutants are important. So, this
depends upon what kind of health impacts we are going to assess or evaluate. So, accordingly
we need to go for that particular pollutant. Also, it depends on what kind of major pollutant
sources can be there.

So, accordingly you can choose the pollutants, like if you want to major near highways or
vehicular air pollutions, then basically carbon monoxide or nitrogen dioxide, benzene, fine
particulate matters like PM2.5 They are the important because they are emitted in large
quantity from these particular sources.

When you go for like coal-based power plant then SO2 particulate matter are more important.
Urban areas, you can go carbon monoxide SO2, NO2, PM2.5, PM10. So, depending upon
nature of the pollution sources and other issues you can choose which particular pollutant we
need to monitor.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:22)

Then we come to how many numbers and distribution of monitoring locations can be there.
How many samples, sampling stations we should install? So, that depends on various factors
like size of the area, how many people are living in that particular area, frequency of the data
which we need. So, all those factors influence the number of these locations or sampling
stations.

For example, if you go for like SPM monitoring and this is the population data, so it gives the
number of, these monitoring stations which are required. So up to one lakh population
100,000 population, minimum 4 stations are recommended. Then population increases, so,
there is some relationship empirical relationship which can be used to decide the, to
determine the number of stations.

405
So, similarly, for all different pollutants, we can get the number of these stations, air quality
monitoring stations like carbon monoxide, you can have only 1 station is enough 400,000
people whereas for SPM you need 4, for NO2 you need 4, for SO2 you need 3. So, depending
upon pollutants, number of stations also vary.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:35)

Then there are, on the basis of the experience and expert opinion and a statistical parameter,
three monitoring stations are chosen as one in each residential or commercial sensitive and
industrial areas. So, that can give fair level of air pollution in different nature of the areas.
And the distribution of monitoring stations can also depend upon pollution sources and
population. So, in a particular location more population is there, then you can add additional
these instruments. Depending upon the sources also.

406
(Refer Slide Time: 23:15)

407
Then, if we go for selection of monitoring location. So, that location how to decide?
Basically, that location should be representative means if you are having so many sources in
industrial location, you choose that location which can be representative of that industrial
area. And if you want to have the background concentration, then you should be locating that
sampling station quite far away from those major sources.

So, that way the representative site this concept must be kept in mind when we are choosing
the monitoring station. Then there are other rules and regulations also like it should be at least
25 meters away from the domestic chimney’s, those kind of thing, guidelines are there. It
should be one meter clearance from those absorbing surfaces like buildings, walls etc. So, all
these things need to be kept in practice.

Then those locations must also follow the law of comparability. So, all four sides should be
quite open. Otherwise, not only it will not be representative, it will not be comparable with
that particular site or location. Then it should be away from the balcony and this traffic
pollution, if you want to have then also it should be away by 3 meter above the street level
and it should be 200 metres from the unpaved roads because then resuspension of dust etc,
can influence the readings. It will give quite biased reading. So, we have to avoid those
biased reading, disproportionate reading.

Then, for longer period or easy access all those power supply, all those things are the factors
which can influence the location. If there is no power then it is very difficult, if you are
having a diesel generator, then it can also add to the pollution. So, those kinds of things we
need to keep in mind that this location should not be destroyed by some external sources.
Topography and metrological factors also influence. If it is a mountainous region or valley,

408
then how to keep this? Land sea breeze, all those things should not again influence this
monitoring exercise.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:36)

Well, when we look into different regulations which emerged or which were framed by the
different government agencies especially like CPCB, MoEFCC (Ministry of Environment
and Forests and Climate Change). So, you can see in 1974 from Indian context we are talking
about. Air quality regulations which emerged in India, so, timeline can be seen like in 1974
the central pollution control board was established. In 1981, then it was entrusted the CPCB
was entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air Prevention and Control of the
Pollution Act. In 1986 this added like provisions of Environment Protection Act.

So, evolution has happened over the years. In April 1994 National Ambient Air Quality
Standards were introduced NAAQS and then in 1998, January this Environment Pollution
Authority PCA, Prevention and Control, this was established to address air pollution related
issues in NCR (National Capital Region of Delhi). So, especially because this was affected by
several regional sources etc.

409
(Refer Slide Time: 26:46)

Then again in 1998, National Ambient Air Quality Standards were revised. In 2009, the
PM2.5 were added, these air quality standards. In 2014, again this National Air Quality Index
Methodology was established. So, how to calculate the AQI? In 2016 PM2.5 included for all
the manual stations under this National Air Quality Monitoring Program otherwise, in 2009,
it was added in the air quality standards.

But the monitoring was not happening across the country. But later on it was added in air
quality monitoring stations also. Then in 2016, December this Graded Response Action Plan
GRAP established to address air pollution emergencies in NCR Delhi.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:39)

410
And then in 2018, this National Clean Air Program NCAP, this draft of this particular
program, which is very ambitious program was released with 637 crores of the budget and the
102 non-attainment cities were identified later on, 20 more additional cities were added into
it. In 2018 October, this NGT (National Green Tribunal) directed the states and union
territories with non-attainment cities under NCAP to prepare action plan. How to improve
their quality? How to reduce their pollution in those particular cities which are non-
attainment in that particular criteria or framework.

So, then in 2019 this NCAP, time bound national level strategy to tackle the increasing air
pollution in those cities with the help of this MoEFCC (Ministry of Environment and Forests
and Climate Change). So, that really launched this ambitious program and there was this
central committee to monitor was also constituted. In 2020, the implementation of Bharat
Stage, 6 norms were done because we were having this Bharat Stage 4 like Euro 4. Similar to
Euro 4 so, rather than Euro 5 we went directly to Euro 6. So, that is known as Bharat Stage 6.

Then in 2024, we will see because this NCAP is having the target to reduce the PM2.5
concentrations in the ambient air in non-attainment cities by 20 percent to 30 percent with
respect to 2017 levels, 2017 levels. So, that is the target in 2024 we will see. So, those kinds
of activities are going on in that way.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:31)

411
412
Well, National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program is a Pan-India program, and it was
launched in stages manner like large cities, then in rural areas also. Now, 344 cities are
having, 804 operating stations for this particular program. This is very large program and it
gives Air Quality Profile for all the cities and countryside for different pollutants, criteria
pollutants particularly.

So, these are the parameters which are monitored under this program. And the frequency is
like four hourly sampling for gaseous pollutants and eight hourly sampling for particulate
matter with a frequency of twice a week and 104 observations in a year, that is minimum as
per these standards, NAAQS.

And monitoring agencies are Central Pollution Control Board, then there are State Pollution
Control boards. Then pollution control committees in different cities, local bodies, National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute nearly all these are in integrated manner
monitoring happens and all the data is collected and analysed.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:46)

So, you can see, the development and increasing in the number of monitoring stations from
1984 where only 7 stations were there and now it is 804 stations. So, that way, we are
expanding in number of stations. So, that gives better profile, special distribution of the air
pollution and all those things are better now a days. And it is still increase basically. Different
agencies are coming for installing their stations also in addition of these government
agencies.

413
(Refer Slide Time: 31:21)

Well, different states have different air quality monitoring stations. So, the highest number
are in like West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. They are having
large number of Air Quality Monitoring Stations. So, they can have better profile of air
quality across the air, regions or different cities.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:43)

So, this is again given in May 2020, this was only 230 continues monitoring stations, now it
is 312. So, continuous monitoring stations are also increasing in number so that really helps
in forecasting of the air quality, for near future forecasting or comparison of air quality
indices, all those things are possible because of these continuous monitoring stations.

414
(Refer Slide Time: 32:13)

Well, again, you can see these number is continuous. From September 2015, when it was 30,
now in November 2021 it is 312 and continuously they are growing in number. So, again,
there number is also varying according to States so the pioneer states are Delhi, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh are having large number of continuous monitoring stations.

415
(Refer Slide Time: 32:39)

416
Non-attainment cities, those cities which are exceeding the air quality standards, so those are
the non-attainment cities, as I said, it was 102 initially and then more added and now it is 122
and some millions of cities were also added and it is now 132 basically. So, you can see the
non-attainment cities in different states.

So, highest number are in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, basically. So,
they are the focused area and you can see the distribution of these cities across the country.
And they are having different levels of air pollutants and they are also shown in this.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:20)

So, the NCAP program (National Clean Air Program) this is very ambitious program and this
will really a game changer kind of thing. This will improve air quality in a big way because
very focused and targeted efforts are being made in an integrated manner, where central
government, state government, local bodies, all are involved.

Educational institutes are also involved so experts and everyone, those stake holders, their
participation and all these approaches are well documented. So, uniformity is there, it is not
like adhocism. Very systematic way this program is implemented, so I am sure that this will
help in improving the air quality of different cities. Right now, non-attainment cities but they
will be cleaner in near future.

417
(Refer Slide Time: 34:12)

And you can see the key components for this particular program are health, economic impact
studies and source apportionment studies, all those kinds of studies are incorporated.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:23)

418
And the broad strategies you can see, the local government as I said, city level, different
departments are involved so their integrated approach or integrated efforts will bring light to
the problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:37)

Well, in conclusion we can say, that the air quality monitoring is one of the important steps in
combating air pollution and continuous air pollution monitoring is more reliable and faster
than the manual monitoring. If provided, calibration is proper because if you are just using
the instruments without calibration, then reliable information may not be there.

And National Air Quality Monitoring Program is one of the first step by Indian Government
which was taken up and towards tackling the air pollution problem. And NCAP program as I

419
said, is more focused and target-based program which will tackle this air pollution situation
in India and air quality will be improved in a significant way.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:25)

So, this is all for today, you can go through these references for additional information.
Thank you for your kind attention, see you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

420
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor. Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture - 14
Air Quality Index (AQI)

Hello friends. Today we will discuss about Air Quality Index. Before that we have gone
through about air quality monitoring status across India and what is the significance of air
quality monitoring. So, there are various uses of air quality data which we collect through air
quality monitoring and one of them is generating Air Quality Index. So, from the name itself it
is revealed, index it is some figure or some values. So, these are the values which are used for
various purposes for air quality management.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:06)

So, today we will discuss about this Air Quality Index and its objectives, its applications, how
air quality monitoring and AQI are related to each other? What are the mathematical
relationships or formulations of Air Quality Index and then there are certain ambiguity or
eclipsing, those kinds of issues are there, how to deal with that related to the data? Then, the
methods or various methods are available for calculating Air Quality Indices. So, which is more
important and in Indian context which kind of Air Quality Index is more popular or we use.

Then there are issues when we calculate the Air Quality Index then before that we also calculate
some sub-index values because after combining all sub-indices, then we calculate the Air
Quality Index. So, before that what is the calculation purpose of sub-indices and on what
breakpoints they are based upon.

421
So, what are the computations methods of those? Then we will see health impacts related to
different ranges of Air Quality Index, Then applications means, how do we apply those Air
Quality Indices for air quality management in different cities or countries and after that we will
conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:24)

So, when we go about Air Quality Index. So, basically this is nothing but the kind of thing
which define a relationship, a figure, a value which defines an overall scheme that transformed
the weighted values of individual air pollution concentrations, different air pollutants like SO2,
PM10, PM2.5 all those into a single number. So, we first calculate the different pollutants
concentrations and their weighted average or weighted value depending upon their health
impacts, and then we combine them.

So, then Air Quality Index is basically kind of the communication purpose primarily a number
which starts from 0 to certain high level, like in India we go from 0 to 500. In other cases, it
could be like one method is there from Tiwari and Ali that gives AQI range 0 to 100 plus. Then
other method is there, which gives 0 to 125 plus. Another one is 175 plus and the CPCB Central
Pollution Control Method which we extensively use in India that is 0 to 500 and methodology
is similar to USEPA methodology basically.

So, we can say that this Air Quality Index is commonly used to report the level of severity of
air pollution to the public, means at any location, at any place, how much intensity or severity
or loading of the pollution is there. So, that is reflected by Air Quality Index. Low value means
cleaner, very high value means polluted region. Higher number the greater the health risk
associated with the air quality.

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(Refer Slide Time: 4:10)

So, how to go for this? What are different objectives? What are different applications? So,
basically to adopt or develop this one Index, which is AQI, it is based on national ambient air
quality standards and health risk assessments. Monitoring program which are representative
for different kind of pollutants in and around a location.

So, those data interpretation is there and this particular range can be coded into different colour
schemes which is easily to understood by the public, general public because scientific and
engineering approach may be quite complex in terms of values, equations, etc. But general
public wants to know whether it is good or bad, moderate, severe, risky all those, dangerous,
hazardous, those kinds of things.

So, to go for those kinds of qualitative interpretation, we should have certain quantitative
approach also. So, this quantitative approach is basically Air Quality Index related values
which gives certain range, according to the range we can announce that this is good or bad or
poor or moderate, satisfactory something like that. Then in overall sense, we can say that there
are broadly 6 objectives which are served by the AQI, like it is used for resource allocation, it
can be used for trend analysis or ranking of locations in terms of polluted or cleaner one.

Then informing the public about the air quality, then enforcement of certain standards whether
they are being exceeded or they are being honoured or met, then scientific research because
whenever you are coming up with certain new research, new methodology, then also Air
Quality Index can give you new approaches to look into that.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:08)

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So, when we go about these six objectives basically like resource allocation as you know,
because we have, that is limited resources whether it is funding etc, we want to solve certain
problem. So, Air Quality Index can give you priority list. Some location is highly polluted then
better we invest some resources there to clean it first. Then we can go less polluted areas
something like that. So, evaluation of trade-offs, it helps in.

Then trend analysis because, over the years or over the months, we can have different values
of the Air Quality Index. So, that also gives certain trends whether it is increasing or decreasing.
So, those kinds of trends can give us some information whether, whatever some majors we are
taking to clean the air to improve their quality, whether it is working or not, those kinds of
things. So, trend analysis can give that kind of information.

424
Then ranking of locations as I said, you can easily rank with the, this is highly polluted, this is
less polluted. So, ranking of different cities with the Air Quality Index you can go for or ranking
of different locations you can go for. Then public information, it is very easy because easily
understand that range, whether it is high value, then it is highly polluted, less value less
polluted, and you can also link it with some colour schemes which can be through website or
through boards etc, digital boards, you can give that kind of information which is visible to
public and they can understand it easily.

Enforcement of standards because there are certain standards and if they are exceeded by high
concentration, ambient air concentration, then this Air Quality Index will be higher. So, we can
easily link means if some standards are being met or being exceeded Air Quality Index can
give us information. So, we can think in a very easy and very fast way to see whether standards
are being met or not.

Then scientific research like it can give new information for research purposes related to air
quality data, it can give new insights for conducting studies on some environmental phenomena
which could be responsible for poor AQI or something like that. Suddenly, suppose, you get
AQI at a particular location very severe.

So, then you want to study what is the region? Whether some local sources is responsible or
some transportation of from a wind direction some pollution has come, so, that you can do
research and you can link the regions of that poor air quality.

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(Refer Slide Time: 9:06)

Then we can address those regions. Well, when we go for, what is the role of air quality
monitoring in generating AQI or Air Quality Index. So, basically, online monitoring and more
manual monitoring goes on in entire country and the online monitoring network, which is
automated way of air quality monitoring, this gives continuous monitoring of different
pollutants.

So, this is the real time AQI computation is possible with those data. But in case of manual
monitoring there is a data gap. Because intermittent monitoring is there, you have to change,
you have to analyse in the lab, so real time concentration values are not available for those
purpose. So, this is not suitable for AQI calculation for quick interpretation.

But historical AQI is on weekly basis for data interpretation is possible, means just to see some
kind of relationship but if you want to go real time AQI to public that every day or some
forecasting something then only this online monitoring network is really helpful.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:05)

427
Well, then how to calculate this Air Quality Index? So, these are two calculation steps like first
of all we go for each pollutant like X1, X2, X3, X4, Xn. So, we know that for each pollutant we
can calculate one index, like I1, I2 something like that, this is the function of the concentration
of that pollutant X1, X2 something like that.

Then we develop these indices sub-indices I1, I2, In for each pollutant. That will give us whether
this pollutant is highly like polluting that particular place or it is okay, it is satisfactory within
the range of acceptable limits. Then we combine all these sub-indices, we aggregate, we
aggregate, so the combination of all these indices when we integrate or aggregate then we come
up with a single index value, I, that is the summation or multiplication or integration you can
call of those individual indices depending upon different pollutants.

So, that is the basically aggregation single value of the Air Quality Index, which incorporates
or which take into account all sub-indices related to different pollutants. So, this is the way like
sub-indices we form I1, I2, I3 for different variables, these are nothing but concentration of
pollutants. Then, this is the function, so we get values and then we go for this kind of
summation like this equation is there.

So, for each kind of pollutant you can calculate I and then you have single value of summation
or integration of aggregation of all those values and here this particular formula which is used
in India also basically, so, you can see this ILO, this is AQI value corresponding to BLO and BLO
is nothing but Breakpoint Concentration lower or equal to the given concentration, which is
available concentration, monitored concentration.

428
BHI breakpoint concentration higher or equal to given concentration and these are related to
like IHI, AQI value corresponding to BHI, ILO, AQI that is Air Quality Index value corresponding
to BLO and CP is the pollutant concentration basically. So, you put those values and you get this
index I. Then you go for different pollutants and then you summation occurs then you can get
the single value.

So, there is one example like for PM10, let us assume that concentration is 85 micrograms per
cubic meter and BHI is 100 and this BLO is 50 and IHI is 100, ILO is 50. So, the calculation
becomes very easy and you get this value you put those values 150, 85, this is 85 and 50, this
is 50. So, you get the 85, this sub-index of this pollutant P is 85. Similarly, you can calculate
for different pollutants and then you can aggregate them.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:19)

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So, this Air Quality Index aggregation is there for all I1, I2, all In. So, aggregation is possible
and you can get the single value like summation may be there, but there are other ways like
weighted additive form can be there. So, this is like for each pollutant waiting is there. Weight
means for depending upon their intensity, depending upon their health impacts etc.

So, you can go for that number of pollutants is N, Wi weightage for the pollutant I. And Ii is
sub-index for the pollutant I, that kind of thing is there. So, you can go for aggregation in the
fashion have weighted additive form.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:00)

Other ways are there like for example, root sum power non-linear aggregation form. So, this is
submission IIP so, integration is there and 1 by p. So, this kind of you know p is no positive real
number greater than one, so that you can have from other sources.

Similarly, root mean square form is also there for aggregation. So, this is the way for root mean
square, you get square root of this. All the I values square of submission and then a square root.
Minimum or maximum operator will be there I1, I2 so, you can get minimum and maximum
values.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:36)

So, different ways are there for aggregation purpose. Then when we go for these kinds of
numbers or indices, there are issues like eclipsing or ambiguity like this eclipsing is something
when an air pollution index does not indicate poor air quality even though concentration of one
or more polluted may be reaching unacceptable high levels, high values. So, that is the
eclipsing, means polluted environment is there, but index is saying that it is fine, no problem.
So, that kind of error may be there.

So, that is kind of underestimation means single value AQI is coming underestimated although
the parts of it, certain pollutants are having poor air quality range but when we are going kind
of aggregation then it erroneously comes out that it is fine. That means, underestimation is
there so, that is eclipsing.

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Ambiguity is there when air pollution index gives you a false alarm means, there is no
individual pollutants are within the range. They are not exceeding those standards, but when
we are summing up we are aggregating, then the value is higher that means it is overestimating.
So, this gives the false alarm, so, that is ambiguity. So, we have to deal with that kind of
statistical thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:05)

We should be careful otherwise, even if air is clean, we are giving false alarm to the public and
public is confused, they say that we have been alarmed that we should not go, we should not
go to that particular place where air quality index is poor, but in real sense it is not there. So,
those issues we have to deal with.

So, in order to remove these kind of error eclipsing and ambiguity related problems, new
indices have been developed. So, like maximum operator approach is adopted to remove these
kinds of errors. So, AQI maximum, I1, I2, In, those kinds of values are computed. And the health
impacts of the combination of pollutants are not known, because synergy is not known and thus
in the health-based index sub-indices cannot be added or multiplied. So, that is another issue
basically.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:00)

Well, when we talk about calculation methods, we can go for different methods like this method
1 is from Tiwari and Ali in 1987, they published. So, this is a AQI 1 by n, summation of 1 to
n, Ci upon Cs into 100, where Ci upon Cs is the small q and this q is air quality rating of any
individual pollutant and Ci is observed value of that particular parameter and Cs is standard
value of recommended parameter, n is the number of parameters.

1 𝐶
AQI = [ ∑𝑛1 ( 𝑖 )] ∗ 100
𝑛 𝐶 𝑠

So, that kind of again integration is there and possible. And for that particular purpose, there
are a range like, if it is below 10, then it is known as very clean. If it is between 10 to 25, then
it is known as clean air, if it is 26 to 50, then it is known as fairly clean, 51 to 75 signifies

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moderately polluted, not very high, 76 to 200 polluted and more than 100 heavily polluted. So,
those kind of differences there as per the range of those indices values.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:10)

1
𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( (log 𝑄1 + log 𝑄2 + ⋯ log 𝑄n))
𝑛
Second method is like geometric mean of the ratio of concentration of pollutants to the standard
value. So, AQI is by antilog of this 1 by n, log Q1, log Q2, log Qn and where this Qn value
comes? Qn is nothing but Cn upon Cs into 100. So, Qn is quality rating, Cn is observed value of

434
that pollutant and Cs is recommended value of the pollutant and is number of pollutants
considered.

AQI =

𝐶𝑛
Qn = [ ] *100
𝐶𝑠
Then according to this method, there are again range similar to the earlier one like below 10
very clean, 10 to 25 clean, 25 to 50 fairly clean and then, there is another range like beyond
100, 100 to 125 heavily polluted and above 125 severely polluted. So, this kind of next level
of pollution, it also gives them information about. (Refer Slide Time: 19:06)

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When third method is there, which is known as pollution index method and this was used in
this Naples City in Italy. So, this is the method like pollution index is I1, I2 upon two and sub-
index Ix, Vmaximum hx upon Vrif into 100 and the values of I1, I2, these are nothing but sub-indices
of two most critical pollutants having higher concentrations.

𝐼1 +𝐼2
I= [ ]
2

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝑥
Ix = * 100
𝑉𝑟𝑖𝑓

So, means there are many pollutants, but select those two highly critical pollutants. Then V
max hx, the maximum 1 hour mean value of the critical pollutant and V rif maximum one hour
limit value of the critical pollutants. So, these values are used for calculation purpose of sub-
indices and then AQI can be calculated and according to this, 0-50 gives the quality indicator
it is optimum. So, no risk for the people.

So, you can see 51 to 75 is good no risk, 76 to 200 moderate no risk. Then 101 to 125 then it
is like mediocre and the numerical index is four and this is generally associated with kind of
like asthma, chronic bronchitis, cardiopathy, light respiration symptoms and during intense
physical activities. So, those kinds of things are there within the AQI range of one, 01 to 125.

Similarly, there are other values like 126 to 150 not much healthy. There are risk for people
with heart disease, old people, children. And this numerical value is 5 here, 151 to 175 it is
unhealthy. And many people feel light adverse symptoms and weak people may feel the gravest
symptoms. Then more than 175 very unhealthy and the seven is the numerical index. And this
is like very adverse health impacts may be there, it may be very risky to old people, children
and respiratory diseases may be very high in those particular situations.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:19)

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Then method four, which is also used in India and adopted by CPCB basically. This is linear
segmented principle, which is used to calculate the sub-indices. In this case, you can see this
formula, earlier also we have seen this. So, Ip equals IHi minus ILO, BHI minus BLO into CP
minus BLO plus ILO, we have already seen Ip sub-index for a given pollutant p concentration.

BHI breakpoint concentration for greater or equal to given concentration that is Cp. BLO
breakpoint concentration is smaller or equal to given concentration CP. IHI AQI equivalent to
BHI, ILO, AQI value equivalent to BLO. So, those values, we can get from certain studies like
these kinds of tables are there. So, we are AQI 0-50 good and colour scheme is dark green for
that, this is minimal impact means there is no impact you can say. 51 to 203 satisfactory and
this is light green colour scheme, then minor breathing discomfort, maybe they are too sensitive
people. Otherwise, normal people will not have any problem.

437
So, this way you can see AQI go 0 to 50, 51 to 100, 101 to 200 and ultimately for O1 to 500
which is severe and this affects even healthy people. So, this is very serious, red colour is there
for that. Before that dark orange is there 301 to 400 that is very poor quality. So, according to
the range the quality of hair is given some name, the colour scheme is given name and health
impacts are associated which are also tabulated.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:07)

So, Indian Air Quality Index or IND-AQI, you can go for short, the overall AQI system is
basically like this we talk good 0 to 50 dark green, satisfactory 51 to 100, the moderate 101 to
200 yellow. Then this poor to 201 to 300 then very poor, so you can have these colour schemes
also and different pollutants are there, SO2, 3, NO2, all these pollutants, their concentrations
are included when we calculate the AQI.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:42)

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So, like for example, if we consider CO, carbon monoxide and we have, we know that CO is
problematic because it has tendency to get absorbed into the blood and it reduces the capacity
of getting the oxygen into the blood. So, that is the reason it is dangerous, and you can see its
healthy impacts like mild headache, when the percentage is less than 20 or so, it goes on
increasing, then its impact is also increasing and unconscious can be there, if it is 50 percent or
so, and it can also lead to death, in fact it is very high concentration in the blood.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:23)

So, when we talk about its breakpoints, you can see the values and different countries have
different values. Like AQI category good, breakpoint 1, satisfactory 2, this is for India. 8-hour
concentration please note it. In us 8 hour concentration, good 5, 11, those values are there.

439
China, they have 24-hour concentration. And they are categories are like excellent, good and
they have different values, breakpoint concentration like 2, 4.

In European Union, this is again 8-hour concentration and they have different names like very
low, low and ultimately very high. In China it is severely polluted, we also have like severe at
last and US considers hazardous. So, different nomenclatures are there depending upon the
values of those indices and those breakpoint concentrations values.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:19)

440
Now, if you go for NO2, like CO, different values are there for this, like break point 40 for
good, satisfactory 80. So, different values are there. Similarly, for US, China and EU, it is given
and similarly, PM 2.5 and PM 10, all these tables give those values of their breakpoints as well
as their name whether it is good or bad, something like that.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:47)

441
So, ozone related, SO2 related, all these values are their tables, you can go through at leisure
and see different values are there for different pollutants please remember. So, the different sub
index will be calculated for each pollutant, then we will aggregate them. Lead and ammonia
also, some countries do not consider, but in India we are considering these also and these are
the values, good 200 for ammonia, 0.5 lead because that is heavy metal and very problematic.

442
(Refer Slide Time: 26:19)

So, you can see this coloured representation of Indian Air Quality Index breakpoint, AQI scale
0 to 500 so, PM 10, 24 hour, good. 0 to 50, PM 2.5 0 to 30, NO2 to 24 hour, 0 to 40. So,
different value ranges there. These AQI related breakpoints.

443
(Refer Slide Time: 26:40)

Then there are health impacts also because good means minimal impact, satisfactory it may
cause little minor breathing related issues discomfort to sensitive people, we have seen. Poor
air quality, it can cause breathing discomfort to people for prolonged exposure. When it is
severe, then it is very dangerous. When we are exposed to this severe Air Quality means highly
polluted.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:08)

Then what is the application? So, application are many as I briefly discussed initially also. This
can give to policymakers a way of quick decision making in the form of rules and regulations
as per the requirement. You might be, in these days when winters are there and in Delhi, this
poor air quality is becoming very big issue. So, you might have read in newspapers that the

444
judiciary is asking the government that even if you have to do the lockdown, reduce this air
quality index, it is very high now.

So, what are the different ways which can be implemented? So, these air quality indices help
in decision making for these kinds of interventions like in Beijing in China, on red alert days
when AQI falls to very poor or severe category, they stop school functioning. Even in Delhi
like for few days schools, colleges have been shut down, because air quality is very poor. This
AQI is giving this range that it is very very poor or kind of sever kind of thing.

Then 80 percent of government owned cars are taken off the roads in Beijing when this red
alert is there for severe category of air quality. Private cars allowed on alternate dates like odd
and even we did last time in Delhi, if you recall. At construction sites, excavation and
demolition related operations are stopped because they emit a lot of particulate matter and that
contributes to the poor air quality in winter, it is very problematic because of inversion etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:55)

In Paris, this AQI related application have been made, like in March 2015 to control the air
problem they made public transport free and removed 50% of the vehicle of the road, those
privately owned. So, that people can go for public transportation if it is not costing. Then
private cars allowed on alternate days and no diesel cars on the road, on the smoky days were
allowed.

And then this minimizes combustion of high sulphur fuels in industry and curtails industrial
operations. Similar measures have been implemented in different cities of the US, UK and
Mexico.

445
(Refer Slide Time: 29:40)

So similarly, if we go for this demonstration or example, how to calculate when different

pollutant related concentrations are available. So, this is one example. You can see, calculate
the AQI for given air pollutant concentrations, different values are there, like PM 2.5 33
micrograms per cubic meter, PM 10 is 63 micrograms per cubic meter, ozone is around 49
microgram per cubic meter, NO2 15, SO2 four, CO is 650.

So, we use this particular relationship to calculate the individual pollutant related sub-indices
and then we will go for its aggregation.

446
(Refer Slide Time: 30:18)

So, here you can see, for an example for PM 2.5 33 micrograms per cubic meter. So, where it
lies? 33 here, 31 to 60, within this range. So, 51 100 is the basically this range of the AQI and
30 will be the minimum, 60 will be high. So, 60 is BHI and BLO is 30. And 150 is because this
range, IHI, ILO this 50 is the lowest. This ILO and IHI is 100 so these values are here.

So, you can use concentration is 33, BLO is 30 because the lower concentration value in the
range of 60 and 30. So, you can go for this ILO is 50 again as I said. So, you calculate the 55,
this IPM 2.5. This is the sub-index of PM 2.5.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:20)

447
Similarly, you can go for PM 10 and then NO2, ozone and then SO2, CO, all different values
are there ISO2, came only 6, CO, it came 33. You go for this ozone it came 50, NO2 it came
20. So, different pollutant different sub-indices.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:40)

Then we go for overall AQI, so, maximum of these. What is the maximum value? We go for
IM 2.5, IM10, IO3, NO2, all those. So, 63 is the maximum value. So, we go for this particular
method, the last method where we choose the maximum value. Otherwise, you have seen those
issues with when we go for these statistical problems like ambiguity, etc that happens when we
go for aggregation.

So, to avoid that we go for this highest value approach. So, 63 is satisfactory, why satisfactory?
You can see the overall value, this is 51 to 100, in between this range. So, this is satisfactory.

448
So, that is why we call, even overall value is satisfactory but ozone, NO2, SO2, CO, all these
values fall in good category if you compare individually. For example, let me tell you, the CO
is 33 so 33 is in good, 0 to 50 within this range. This is good quality, but overall, it is
satisfactory.

So, individual pollutants maybe bad quality or good quality and overall concept is dependent
upon the highest value of a particular index. And then we see in the overall scheme, where does
it lie. So, overall, it is satisfactory although individual pollutants, it may vary good or
satisfactory or something like that.

So, that way you can see particulate matter in the region is high and in order to improve the air
quality sources of particulate matter emission are to be regulated. Because this value is related
to PM 10. This 63 is PM 10. So, those particulate emissions, if we can reduce then the Air
Quality Index can improve.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:42)

So, in conclusion we can say, that Air Quality Index helps in easy understanding of air pollution
levels in real time. It can really help us whether to visit a place or not. If the air quality is poor
then we can refrain from going to that particular place. Particularly the sensitive people or old
people those who are already unhealthy, they should not get exposed to the poor air quality.
So, Air Quality Index gives quick information about that.

And, higher AQI, we know that it has higher health risk and AQI can easily be interpreted buy
common people because it can also be colour coded. So, it is very easy to understand and it can
assist in data interpretation for decision making. Like, whether we should stop private cars, we

449
should stop diesel cars, depending upon, what kind of pollutant is in high concentration. Then
different countries have different break point concentrations depending upon their national
ambient air qualifiers and health risk related issues.

So, they can have different Air Quality Indices also. So, this is all for today related to air quality
management through Air Quality Index. So, the larger part is basically, air quality management,
how to improve the air quality and how to know whether it is polluted or not and Air Quality
Index is very easy and simple and quick way to know whether Air Quality is good or bad or
satisfactory or unsatisfactory, those kinds of things. So, this is all for today and thank you for
your kind attention.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:20)

These are the references that you can go through to have more information about Air Quality
Index, their calculations, their uses, applications, etc. So, see you in the next lecture, thank you
till then. Thanks a lot.

450
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor. Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 15
Introduction to Air Quality Modelling

Hello friends, today we will discuss about introduction to air quality modelling. Before that you
might recall like air quality monitoring we have discussed and then air quality index also we
have discussed. So, what is the importance of air quality modelling? Where it is used? As you
know because in monitoring we cannot do extensive monitoring, because it requires a lot of
resources. And each and every nook and corner we cannot install instruments to monitor air
quality.

So, basically air quality modelling helps us to estimate ambient air concentrations at various
points of our desired destination or of our interest.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:10)

So, in this particular lecture we will consider like brief introduction about air quality modelling.
What is the air quality modelling? Why it is used? And then the basic components of AQM that
is the Air Quality Modelling and its importance. Then, classification on various ways we can
classify them depending upon different kind of viewpoint. Then types of air quality models and
the input data which are required for running the air quality model, and the factors that affect the

451
dispersion models basically, because, modelling is a rough estimation or rough representation of
reality in terms of mathematical equations.

So, some assumptions are there, some influencing factors are there, so that we will discuss. Then
what is the atmosphere dispersion modelling procedure, how it is really like input parameters,
how it is incorporated into the model, how it is processed, how output is taken and all those kinds
of things. Then different kinds of dispersion models we will discuss, and we will summarize
some air quality models. Because there are a lot of variety of air quality models, but we will
discuss very few of them, and later on we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:28)

So, if we talk about air quality modelling, basically it is nothing but as I said mathematical
representation or expression or simulation of how air pollution disperses and react in the
atmosphere. Because it will move, it will change its face; so that kind of transformation as well
as transportation. But, in simple dispersion models we sometimes assume that the gases and the
pollutants are inert or they are not reactive. So, whatever they are being emitted in the form, they
will transport in that way only.

Although it is very simplified assumption in reality does not happen; but for the sake of
simplification, we do it quite often. Air quality modelling it also helps us in estimating the
relationship between the sources of pollution and their effects on ambient air quality, or the
receptor, on the environment, on human health, all those kinds of things. So, you can see here

452
like at from the stack, some plume is coming out and it is dispersing. So, in x-direction, y-
direction, z-direction, and it is diluting the pollution is being diluted.

Because, when it goes into the downwind direction, it disperses from the central line, left, right,
and above, and below of the central line; so the dilution happens. And maybe at the point of our
interest, dilution is so much that the air quality is not impacted or influenced by the
concentration, which is being released due to emissions of the air pollutants from this point
source.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:09)

Now, if we talk about like basic components of air quality modelling, what are different
components which really help us to build or form the complete model? So, we have to have like
mission data, how much pollution is coming out of a particular source that we should be
knowing, and then the source parameters. For example, if the stack is there, then what is the
stack height? What is the diameter of the stack all those? Sources at the ground level or at certain
height, whether it is a mobile source or an area source? So those kind of source parameters we
need to know; then the receptor location.

What is the point of interest, where we want to calculate the concentration; because that is the
point of interest? For example, from industrial area to a village we want to see how much
dilution happens; and what is the impact of air quality of that particular village. Suppose some
industrial area is coming up, it is planned. So, you want to know whether the emissions which

453
will be from this industrial area that will influence the quality of that particular habitation,
whether it is a city, or town, or a village. And how much air quality will be deteriorated or it will
be insignificant?

So, you need to know the concentration because of those emissions like. So, the location of
receptor is important because for that you have to calculate. So, X-direction that is the downwind
direction; how many kilometers away that receptor point is. Then the meteorology; metrological
parameter as you know, like wind velocity, its direction and temperature, humidity, all those
kinds of things we should know. And the stability classification, A B C D; whether it is unstable
or stable, or inversion happens quite often or not, all those kinds of things we need to know.

Then, the initial concentrations, because the point of interest, where we want to calculate the
concentration because of additional emission source, which is coming up. So, what is the
background concentration? Because in background concentration that additional concentration
will be added; then we will compare with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, whether
those being exceeded or not.

If it is being exceeded, then we have to do something to reduce the emissions from that
additional source or to sift the distance something like that. We have to or some technological
intervention means you capture the pollutants before it is being released in the atmosphere so
that the air quality of that particular point or the receptor, it is not deteriorated from the with
respect to the air quality standards.

Then, the total concentration as I said that is the thing that the background concentration, the
additional concentration, because of the additional source and the how much total concentration
is there. So, the estimated concentrations maybe compared with the NAAQS; air chemistry also
plays role sometimes, because if you want to estimate like Ozone products and or secondary
aerosols, those kinds of things.

Then air chemistry plays a very significant role. Otherwise, if you are just considering criteria air
pollutants like SOX, NOX, Particulate Matters etc. You can fairly assume that they are inert;
although they are not. They are not inert; they participate in some atmospheric chemistry like
sulfur dioxide gets converted into SO3 or some sulphate. Similarly, ammonia, nitrate, ammonium
sulphate all those kinds of things happen. But we for the sake of assumption or simplification, we

454
assume that they are not reactive; so, that is another thing. In that case we can ignore the air
chemistry.

But, in certain cases we do not want to ignore the air chemistry like ozone products and
secondary aerosols etc. So, there we have to include the atmospheric chemistry into the
modelling equations. Then, the removal processes because dry deposition is happening,
sometimes where deposition happens because of rain etc. So, that is also to be taken into account
if we want to estimate fairly of good quality; and all these things are there part of the complete
air quality modelling effort.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:30)

So, the importance of the modelling as I said, if you want to come up with some industrial area,
whether it is at a good location or not, whether it will be influence the in downwind direction,
some receptor that can be this village or town or it can be some sensitive area in the sense
ecologically sensitive area, maybe there some river maybe there or some forest area maybe there,
which is like century, which you do not do not want to influence its air quality.

Because, then the whole ecosystem can be negatively influenced. So, all those kinds of things are
there and that is done by virtue of predicting the future concentrations from sources after
implementing a new regulatory programs, or some new industrial area or something like that. In
regulatory program assessment can be done like some, suppose you are going from BS IV to BS
VI. So, emissions will be reduced, but quantities of vehicular or vehicles are growing.

455
So, what will be the impact of that? How much air quality improvement will be there if
emissions are being reduced? Those kinds of things can be done by this air quality modelling
also. There are other ways also, but that is the more important way. Then, assessing the source
impacts as I said, designing control strategies, because if you come to know that because of some
industrial area or some additional source, air quality of a particular destination or receptor is
being deteriorated beyond the acceptable limits.

Then you will suggest some controlling strategies like some good fuel, less emitting less
polluting fuel, or some technological interventions which can capture the emissions before it is
being released in the atmosphere. It can also be used for estimating the pollutant concentration at
various locations around the source, so that you can just give the information to the stakeholders.

See, this is happening like if your calculations are quite of a good confidence level; you can
always argue that look at this, even if this industry is coming up, your air quality concentration
will remain within the limits prescribed limits that is kind of thing. If it is coming, then you can
also suggest that look at this, we have implemented, we have suggested this particular
technological intervention or clean fuel kind of thing; so that the air quality will be not
influenced in negative manner or affected in a negative manner.

Then, it also helps in identifying source contribution to air quality problems whatever episodes
happen. So, what is the contribution of that source? if something like in a in a particular city for
example, you are going to convert the whole fleet in a particular few CNG was implemented in
Delhi. So, what is the impact of that? You can do by air quality modelling kind of efforts; you
can know what what would be the positive impact on some pollutants, concentration now also.
So, how does it work? So, you can see this, pictorial representation.

456
(Refer Slide Time: 11:35)

So, emission source information must be there, as we discussed that how much emission is
coming, which pollutants are there; then, meteorological parameters as we discussed like
temperature, wind, velocity etc. Receptors related for example, if it is a very sensitive eco-zone,
or maybe at a particular location like some school is there, kids and those kinds of hospitals are
there, those kinds of things.

Then, the topography is also very important, like it is a smooth terrain, or undulated and rough
terrain, accordingly dispersion phenomena changes. So, that particular information should also
be there. So, all these are the input parameters in dispersion model. And then it gives us the
atmospheric (concern) concentration of air pollutants at the receptors location. So, this is the way
it really works, very simple way.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:29)

Then, if we want to classify to understand the air quality models, it can be classified in various
ways. For example, in respect to the time period, the models can be short term models; that is for
a few hours to a few days, it can estimate the concentration. And the like worst case episodes,
episode conditions because of accidental release of some air pollutants or something like that, it
can be modeled.

The long term models to predict seasonal or annual average concentrations, or health effects due
to exposure, continuous exposure, like chronic exposure you can say, short term models acute

458
exposure. Acute exposure means shorter duration, very high concentration. Chronic exposure,
lower concentration, but longer term exposure for several months or years.

Based on pollutant type, primary or secondary, it can also be divided or classified like non-
reactive models. That is the pollutants for example, Particulate Matter, SOX, CO etc, which are
assumed as non-reactive. Although in reality it is not like that as I said earlier also, but we
assume for the sake of simplification; because in air quality models, estimated values are not
needed 100 percent nearer to the actual value.

It can be around 40 to 50 percent away; even then, we feel that it is fine for assessing the
boundary conditions or background concentrations comparing; and those kinds of things can be
done by this very simplified view of modelling. Reactive models as I said, in case of like ozone
formation, or some secondary aerosol formation etc. So, what is the dispersion of those particular
pollutants? So, we do use the reactive models.

Then, there may be other classifications based on coordinate systems; grid based system like
region divided into an array of different cells, which can determine the compliance with National
Ambient Air Quality System or standards. The trajectory, which follows some plume as it moves
the down in the downwind direction.

So, in grid we can divide the whole urban area in certain grids, even at regional scale, even at
global air pollution modelling like general circulation models. They divide the whole earth in
different grids, so you can divide into different grids, and you can estimate emissions for those
grids. Those are the input values for air quality modelling techniques, and then you can estimate
the concentrations into different grids. Then you can compare with the NAAQS or National
Ambient Air Quality Standards.

Then based on the level of sophistication, like you want to use quick estimation, and you do
some screening exercise. So, some simple estimations like worst case meteorological conditions
to provide conservative estimates, okay; so, those are quick calculations. For worst case scenario,
you assume like you may assume what will happen when inversion is there, or something like
that. So, for a screening purpose, so that you can have some sense whether it is very problematic
or not, after that you can go in detail.

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Then the refined version is there, which requires detailed treatment of physical and chemical
atmospheric processes. It requires more detailed and precise input data; whereas, in case of
screening, it does not require so much very precise or robust data. You can just do like back of
the envelope calculation kind of thing and you can come up with certain values.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:11)

Now, we discuss about what are important input data, which are required for air quality
modelling. So, you see here like we discussed earlier also emission sources; so, how much
pollutant is being released. And what kind of pollutants are there all those, and whether it is a
point source or line source, those kinds of things. If it is a point source like a stack, what is the
diameter all those things, we have to see the emission source related data; then, the receptor
location. As I said where we want to see the impact means downwind direction like 10
kilometers away, 20 kilometers away, what is the point of interest that we need to know?

Then the characteristics such as deposition rates, dry deposition or wet deposition whatever
happening. At what rate it is happening? Because, it will be reducing the total amount of the
pollutant which is being dispersed in the downwind direction. Then meteorological parameters
which just now we discussed like stability, classification, temperature, moisture, wind velocity,
all those things.

And then the output options like what kind of output we need, whether we need like average
concentration in space and time in a grid point, or we need what is the unit we need like

460
microgram, or some other kind of unit we need. Those kind of output parameters we need to fix;
accordingly we will get the output from the air quality model.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:40)

So, if we discuss about major types of pollutant sources in this air quality modelling, then
basically three sources we consider like point source, line source and area Source. Somewhere
you may also come across like volume source; but that is nothing but another extension of these
kinds of sources. Otherwise, some model developers also say that basic thing is the point source
model; otherwise, line source is nothing but several points in a line.

Area source means many lines in area. So, if you know how to model the point source
atmospheric dispersion modelling, then you can easily extend that particular technique to derive
line source modelling or area source modelling. Although, there are some empirical formulas
also for line source, area source etc we will see what are those different techniques?

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:34)

So, now you can see like point source. As I said, if it is a stack, so emission will come out, some
exhaust gases will come out of the stack; so, you need to know the stack height etc. And this is
the single emission source basically from a particular stack as a thermal power plant, or an
industry, or somewhere like that. So, it can be identified as a point source. If there are several
point source in a line, then you can call it a line source.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:01)

And like mobile sources also like vehicle is moving on the road that can also be considered as
line source. So, vehicular emissions can be considered as line source.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:13)

Similarly, in area source, whether it is big industrial area we have so many points sources are
there, then you can consider it as an area source. Or, emissions are coming out of like forest fire,
or in a landfill site, lot of emission is coming from several square kilometers that kind of area or
several 100 square meters something like that; then you can consider it as an area source also.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:40)

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Now, if we talk about different types of air quality models, so it can be classified or categorized
in different ways. For example, in general we call like physical models. In physical models, we
have to do some structure kind of of that reality like in wind tunnel. You have small cubes etc
that represent the buildings. How the pollutant will disperse? So, some kind of inert pollutant or
tracers you can use for having the reading set different points. If you want to see the impact on
multi storey buildings, those kinds of small structures you can fit in the wind tunnel; and
accordingly you can model physical modelling.

But, then mathematical modelling can be there, which could be like a statistical model or
deterministic model. In a statistical, it can be regressive or empirical, all those kinds of things. In
deterministic, it can be time dependent or a steady state; means after certain time, a steady state
means that concentration will be kind of uniform.

So, then Gaussian plume, it may be or in time dependent, it could be like box model, or grid, or
spectral, or puff or trajectory related. Then different techniques could be like Eulerian or
Lagrangian all those kinds of techniques are there; so, accordingly you can have those air quality
models.

There maybe you might have heard about Artificial Neural Network (ANN) or fuzzy logic; those
kinds of things are also being used nowadays. So, there are various kinds of modelling
techniques you will come across. We are just discussing some kind of those popular modelling
techniques, which are people are using extensively.

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And even among those, we will discuss only few of them. Meteorological models can be there,
because meteorological parameters you cannot have for each point in a city or in a region. So,
again you have to estimate wind velocity or temperature at certain locations. So, the
meteorological models help you to estimate those physical entities of meteorology like wind,
velocity, temperature etc, with the help of some monitor data; so that you can validate those
models.

Always these observed values help us in validating the mathematical models. Then we need to
have plume rise models, because if we are modelling single point or point source model, so we
need to have the effective stack height. So, effective stack height like this is the stack. But, the
emission plume is coming out of it; and it rises. Then it is start dispersion. So, how much it will
rise? That is Δh, which is known as the plume rise.

So, that Δh has to be added into this physical stack height; and then this will be the effective
stack height. So, the plume rise models are also there, how much Δh will be there. There are
several techniques for estimating those plume-rise models are also important. Then the Gaussian
dispersion models from the stack, or from a particular source; so, that modelling technique is
there.

Then Eulerian and Lagrangian we will see what those mean. Indoor air pollution models can be
there, because in a room or in a building how those pollutants will disperse? Or they will defuse
how much concentration will be in different corners of the building or in the office? So, those
kinds of things are to be done at the micro scale. So, micro environment related air pollution
modelling techniques are also there CFD etc.

Then, receptor models may be there; what will be the impact at the particular location, where the
pollution is being received. Stochastic models maybe there statistical or so, those kind of
modelling techniques can also be used.

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:24)

When we talk about meteorological models, so, as I said, it helps us in understanding local,
regional or global meteorological phenomena. So that because as I said meteorological
observations are at certain points; but, you might need those values for other points, where
measurements are not there. So, these meteorological models will help you to get values of that
particular at that particular point of interest.

So, to provide the meteorological input required for air pollution dispersion models, these
metrological models, output will be input for the air quality dispersion model. You got my point,
because meteorological models will give us certain values of temperature, or wind, velocity, or
those kinds of things. So, that will be the output of these meteorological models. But, this will be
the input for the air quality models, where we are aiming to estimate the concentrations by using
these input values.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:23)

When we talk, as I said like this plume rise, plume rise could be because of buoyancy; because
temperature difference is there, atmospheric temperature is less, and the exhaust gases are
coming with very high temperature. So, the buoyancy is there because of this temperature
difference, it goes out, it comes up. Then momentum is also there, because it is coming out with
a speed.

So, the momentum and this buoyancy, though both these things these phenomena, they help in
the plume rising up from this particular stack point to certain height. So, that we will measure
how much this plume rise is there and those plume rise estimations are done by plume rise
models. So, they really helped us in calculating the vertical displacement and general behavior of
the plume in initial dispersion phase. Afterwards, Gaussian dispersion will consider it and it will
be estimated accordingly.

Both semi-empirical and advanced plume rise formulations are available nowadays. And the
plume rise is used for estimating the effective stack height as I said; because in dispersion
models, you use the effective stack height, not the physical stack height. Physical stack height
plus the plume rise; then that is the effective stack height. So, for that estimating, we need
plume-rise estimations and those plume-rise estimations are done by plume-rise models.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:51)

The Gaussian model, dispersion model very simple. So, this is the stack, the pollution is coming
out; and it is dispersing in conical form. So, normal dispersion we assume, as it goes from the
center line in y-direction, from the center and in z-direction also. So, it funnel kind of thing
happens; so that thing known as the normal distribution, you can have these the concentration
maximum at the central line; when it goes away, the concentration decreases, dilution happens.
That is why this kind of normal distribution curve is there, and that is the reason we call it
Gaussian models.

And you can see here Δh is there is smallest, small h is the physical stack guide, capital H is
nothing but is small h that is the physical stack guide plus Δh; that is the plume rise. And then,
you can use the Gaussian models for knowing the concentration at downwind distances of your
interest.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:49)

You see these Eulerian models; these are nothing but new techniques which are using equations
for conservation of mass of a single pollutant disperses, and then they are integrated. So, this
equation can be solved analytically under special and simplifying assumptions. And by
superimposing a grid and using numerical methods such as the finite different methods; this
particular Eulerian technique is used for estimating the concentrations.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:19)

Then there is another technique which is known as Lagrangian models. Those are like fluid
elements that follow the instantaneous flow. So, in air pollution and the emitted pollutants are

469
simulated by a set of computational particles that are moving by pseudo velocities, following
those pseudo velocities at each time step.

And one of the major advantage of this particular particle models versus Eulerian grid models is
their ability to correctly simulate the transport terms, without adding artificial numerical
diffusion. So, these two techniques Eulerian and Lagrangian they are very important in that
particular sense.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:02)

When we talk about indoor air pollution models, so, we need to consider several indoor sources;
and also some pollutants are coming from external side also, like through windows, or through
doors. Some pollution will from ambient air will enter into the house; so, that that is also to be
considered. And the inner sources from kitchen or in office, it may be from computers or, say
photocopying machine; in houses it can be from even washing machine, dryers. Pollution maybe
in kitchen, all those sources can be there; and the paint, all those kinds of things are there.

And then the ventilation effect, filtration effect, then coagulation maybe small particles, then
flocculation all those kind of recirculation because of this air conditioning ducts; so, the pollution
may build up. That is why nowadays, many people are using these clarifiers or cleaners on those
filters in the in the in house buildings.

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(Refer Slide Time: 29:11)

When we talk about receptor models that is used for chemical and physical characteristics of
gases and particles, which are measured at source and receptor to both identify the presence of,
and to quantify the source contribution to receptor concentration. So, like how much is coming
from thermal power plants, how much pollutant is coming from transport sector; so, those kinds
of source apportionment can be done by with the help of these models.

The fundamental principle of receptor modeling is basically the mass conservation between the
emission source and the receptor. So, there are various techniques to identify those concentration
and then the exposure, then its health effect all those kinds of things can be done by using these
receptor models.

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(Refer Slide Time: 29:58)

The stochastic models are various types. And the key idea is like air parcels arriving at a receptor
can be derived from backward time runs or reverse technique. So, if you know the concentration
at a particular place, you can do inverse calculation. You can know how much pollution is being
emitted from a particular source. Forward can be chemical reactions and pollutant concentrations
are then calculated by the forward in time using this CB4 chemical mechanism.

So, stochastic Lagrangian particle simulation to describe the atmospheric transport is shown in
this pictorial representation. And these models are based on statistical or semi empirical
techniques to analyze. It is not chemical interaction or those kinds of things, which we are, we
use in chemical transport Models.

But, they are simple statistical relationships, semi-empirical techniques to analyze the
interrelationship of air quality and atmospheric measurements. So, you develop some sort of
relationship. These statistical models are very useful in simulations such as real-time short term
forecasting, those kinds of; because they are quick and very easy. Otherwise, like atmospheric
chemistry related equations, they are quite complex.

And if you want to know what is happening physico chemical reactions in the atmosphere; if you
want to develop equations in that form, then it is quite complex. And it know, it needs very
highly specialized knowledge of atmospheric chemistry. But in a statistical you know the only
relationships are needed; so, that can be done with the help of the air quality concentration

472
measured and the predicted by the model. So, you can train the model according to a particular
situation.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:47)

The factors, which affect the dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere. Earlier also, we have
discussed like source characteristics are there, some parameters of the source are there, which
will influence the concentration or dispersion of the pollutants and the meteorological conditions.
So, emission rate of the pollutant, what is the stack height, what is the plume rise? What is the
exit velocity and the exit temperature of the gas? What is the stack diameter from metrological
point of view what is the wind velocity, how what is the direction in which direction it is
moving.

Then ambient temperature, atmospheric stability class like A B C D; whether it is very unstable
or moderately stable or extremely stable or inversion all those kinds of things we need to know.

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(Refer Slide Time: 32:37)

So, the atmospheric dispersion modeling procedure can be seen in simple way with this
flowchart kind of thing, like background concentration of air pollutant we should know. So, that
we can learn that after dispersion at a particular point, the concentration will be up or it will not
be affected.

Then meteorological conditions we should have source data like site description, emission rate,
then the model options like receptor grid related model is to be used or dispersion parameters.
Then atmospheric dispersion model use all these kind of input values and it runs; so, the
prediction of ground level concentration of pollutant is done as the output. And that is compared
with the some guideline concentration like National Ambient Air Quality Standards, those kinds
of things; so, that we can assess the potential environmental and health effects.

So, the stage 1, the data input, input data we should collect; then the data processing in the
model, and the data output is there. And those data output are analyzed in comparison to certain
values; so, that we can know whether it is fine or not.

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(Refer Slide Time: 33:53)

The dispersion models can be categorized in different ways like box models, and according to
the developers they have been given different names like AURORA, CPB. Gaussian models can
be there like CALINEE4, or HIWAY2, CAR-MFI those kinds of things; even air more which is
quite popular, Lagrangian, Eulerian models. GRAL and then FARM; computational fluid
dynamics CFD models maybe there, ARIA Local or MICRO-CALGRID, ATMoS those kinds of
things models are available.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:29)

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So, if you do the comparative evaluation of dispersion models, we have listed different means we
have gathered the data from different sources. And in this table we can see the box model, then
the Gaussian plum model, Gaussian puff model. So, their type like they are meteorological
model or combined meteorological and diffusion model or dispersion model; that is listed in
different columns, you can go through that.

Then input data needed, what kind of input data needed in a particular model type; so, that is also
listed here. Then application what kind of for point source, area source, or volume source; then
accuracy whether it is very accurate or it is rough estimation kind of thing. Then remarks are
given like widely used or specialized kind of thing. So, you can go through these models
comparisons; so, that you can learn which model is used in what way.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:23)

Now, if we go through with brief information of these models like AURORA model, which was
developed in Belgium; so, this is nothing but the air quality modeling urban region using an
optimal resolution approach. So, the in short it is known as AURORA. And the model calculates
the concentration of pollutants within a street canyon; so that in a urban streets and those kinds
of things city centers.

And the convections in both the horizontal and vertical directions are considered inside the box;
so, that you can know the diffusion and disperse in both the direction. And it is used to model the

476
concentration of both inert and reactive gases and particles in an urban environment. So, it is a
kind of versatile model in that sense.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:11)

Certain assumptions are there for this particular model. Like it is used as a steady state box
model, where uniform concentration is achieved at a certain point; and then it will be the
particular model. In this box model, this whole city is like length, width and height boundary
layer. So, in that everywhere the uniform concentration is assumed, which may be not so true;
but for the sake of simplification as I said, it is assumed. So, in whole street canyon that uniform
concentration happens.

The model assumes a uniform concentration over the street, but includes turbulent intermittency
in the flow from the wind route of the canyon; so that is also one aspect important aspect of this
model.

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(Refer Slide Time: 36:57)

This is the flowchart of the AURORA model. So, this meteorological module is there, then
Terrain module like soft; this is smooth terrain is kind of rough terrain is there, background
concentration, traffic model, all these are combined. And the data manager takes all these data
and put in this model. Then, the advection diffusion kind of module, emission module, chemistry
module, deposition module, all these modules work.

And then they model this particular street canyon and the concentration is estimated. And then
we can see according to the need, whether we want to use for health effects, or economical
aspects or, some scenario based interpretation; all those things can be done by comparing with
those kind of standard guidelines.

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(Refer Slide Time: 37:49)

And the input values as I said, the terrain data is to be taken from that particular module, which
gives the classification of different land uses, road networks in a GIS system integrated. And
meteorological input data with the resolution up to a few 100 meters by a separate module is
included in this particular model. And emission input data resulting from detailed inventory and
acquisition of existing emission data in combination with emission modeling. So, whether grid
pattern or the whole area city that can be defined; and that emission inventory is used as input
data for this particular model.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:29)

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Then, another model like CALINE4 model of California, which is a line source Gaussian based
dispersion model, which was developed by the California Department of Transportation. And the
aim was for estimating air pollution levels within the 500 meter of the roadways. And it predicts
the concentration of carbon monoxide NO2, PM10, PM2.5 near the roadways, extensively used for
predicting air quality along highways under prevailing traffic and meteorological conditions. It is
quite popular model basically; and it requires relatively less expertise and comparatively less
input data, than other regular dispersion models.

That is why it is quite popular in developing countries also. Because, as you know in developing
countries, we do not have much data; otherwise in developed countries, they have so much data
as per their system. But we do not have much input data and in that case, these kind of simple
models are very useful.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:30)

The input input values or parameters for CALINE4 models are given like traffic data for 24-
hours; then weighted emission factors. And the terrain type surface roughness related factors can
be there; then the road geometry, road type, road alignment, straight or curvilinear all those kinds
of things.

Meteorological data as we always say like wind speed, temperature, mixing height, boundary
layer height, and the stability class A, B, C, D, E, background CO concentration, monitored CO
concentration, whatever. Means whether NO2, whatever the pollutant you want to estimate; so,

480
those kinds of concentrations and these units are given in that way. They are they should be
therefore input values for CALINE4 model.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:18)

Next is HIWAY2 model, this is developed by United States Environmental Protection Agency.
And this is grid size can range for this model from 10 to 100 meter to 10 kilometers; so quite
versatile in that sense. Good possibilities there for a small that area to quite large area, depending
upon the scaling factor basically; and it predicted the concentration of non reactive gases. So,
that is the limitation you can say for reactive it is not being used; but for non reactive gases, it
can give a good estimations.

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(Refer Slide Time: 40:57)

Then the difference between if you want to see CALINE4 and HIWAY2, because they are
similar model. They are estimating the impact of highway emissions or line source emissions to
the perpendicular direction of the highway in the 500 distance, or so how much effect is there,
how much impact is there.

So, if you compare, then you can see that in case of CALINE4, the vertical dispersion parameters
are considered both thermal in in the way of thermal and mechanical turbulence caused by the
vehicle. So, that is the part or mechanism of CALINE4. Whereas, in this case of HIWAY2, it
considers only the effect of vehicles; and ignores the effect of thermal turbulence on vertical
dispersion.

So, in general you can see Gaussian models like both CALINE4 and the HIWAY2 lack the
sophistication, which is required for modeling in street canyons as buildings can only be
represented by changing the surface roughness. So, those kinds of limitations are there, but
difference is clear in that sense that CALINE4 is like it is having the inclusion of mechanical
turbulence also.

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(Refer Slide Time: 42:11)

Then you can see this GRAL model, it is Graz Lagrangian. So, this was developed by the
Institute for Internal Combustion Engines and Thermodynamics, Graz in Austria. And the
coupled Eulerian and Lagrangian model it is designed to model the dispersion of inert
compounds within the homogeneous wind fields.

And this model can calculate concentrations from 10 minutes to 1 hour; line and point sources in
a flat and complex terrain. So that is one strength of this model that for time is scale of 10
minutes to 1 hour. It can really calculate, which may not be possible in case of those
approximations which are used in bigger dispersion models of Gaussian nature.

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(Refer Slide Time: 43:01)

The assumptions and limitations of this particular GRAL model are also there. It assumes the
model assumes a constant plume rise in the vicinity of the tunnel portal, and as a function of the
temperature difference between the ambient air and the tunnel flow. So, that is the basic
assumption, which may not be so true.

And then limitations are there like this model cannot take into account any chemical formation of
particles; because it is taking only non reactive gases as I said. So, the reactive reaction related
things is not part of this model. So, the ammonium nitrate formation, ammonium sulphate those
kind of secondary aerosol formation is not the part of this model. The dispersion times under like
300 second is not recommended for use in this particular model, due to validity of turbulent
parameterization; so, that is one more limitation in that case.

484
(Refer Slide Time: 44:00)

The examples the typical example of meteorological input in this particular model is given in this
table. You can see how much wind speed, wind direction. And then, the type like point source or
something domain size, grid cell size, vertical layers; all those things are given here, which are
typical input parameters for this GRAL model.

(Refer Slide Time: 44:23)

When we talk about AERMOD model, which is quite popular; and it is developed by United
States Environmental Protection Agency and American Meteorological Department or
Association. So, this is very popular model in the sense it can consider boundary layer turbulence

485
structure and its scaling concepts also. And it can predict surface as well as elevated source
concentration in both simple and complex terrains.

So, that is the versatility of this particular model; again, CALINE4 it is also very popular in
developing countries. And assumptions are there for the purpose of calculating one hour average
concentrations, the plume is assumed to travel in a straight line; wherever it may not be true,
because wind changes quite frequently, wind direction.

But we assume in a straight line without significant changes in the stability as the plume travels
from source to the receptor. So that is very simple assumption, which, which may not hold true
in the real life. But as I said, these kinds of models use these kinds of assumptions; otherwise it is
difficult to incorporate all those kind of very complex mechanisms, which are there in the
atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:41)

The flowchart which is being shown for the AERMOD model, so data input there like emissions,
then geological data related surface terrain, meteorological data, wind, temperature, etc. Then
you can see these geographical processing, meteorological processing, and dispersion model.
And then the post processing that means, we analyze the data of the estimated values of
concentration.

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(Refer Slide Time: 46:08)

There are certain strengths and limitations of this AERMOD model. So, in case of strengths as I
said, it is treatment of flows over a simple terrain; and it incorporates a simple method to
approximate flows over complex terrain. So, in that simplified way it is quick to learn and it can
quickly process those estimated values.

But, limitations are there like it assumes some invalid kind of thing, like assumptions can be
invalid at a distance on the order of tens of kilometers downwind, which can change the stability
wind direction and wind speed. So, that is why this is not very suitable for modeling the
receptors beyond 50 kilometer; so, that is the limitation of the, how much distance in the
downwind direction or for that particular grid, you can.

So, if there are mega cities which are spread over beyond 50 kilometers, then this model is not so
good in that sense. Then you have to run it in different modules or ways for different distances. It
is inappropriate for some near field modeling in case where the wind field is very complex due to
terrain, or a nearby shoreline or so. So, in that case those complex models or CFD etc, they are
useful for for that purpose material; but AERMOD model is not good in that particular sense
also.

487
(Refer Slide Time: 47:38)

There is another model ARIA model, ARIA local model of the France, which is CFD model;
basically, computational fluid dynamics model. And it can be used for calculating real time
dispersion of gases and particles from the buses and trains within the urban environment. So,
mobile sources, it can be estimating the concentrations from the emissions from mobile sources.

Then the pollution sources include point source or line source, area source, volume; so it is
versatile in that sense, and those emissions which are either a continuous or intermittent those
kinds of things. Then the model allows the adjustment of a fluid properties of the gases, which
can further allowed to either buoyancy kind of characteristics, or the dense gases which comes
down. So, both ways it is having that capacity; so that is a wonderful thing in that sense.

488
(Refer Slide Time: 48:38)

Some advantages are there like it can calculate the effects of vehicle induced turbulence, by
adjustment of the model parameters. And the chemical transformations can also be modeled
using a post processing modules. So, so it is not necessary that you have to assume inert gases,
non reactive gases, non reactive pollutants; it can also, we used for secondary aerosols or those
kinds of things. So, that way it is very good model for estimating the concentrations in different
ways, using different modules.

(Refer Slide Time: 49:15)

489
Input parameters, like special inputs are needed. 100 meter to 5 kilometer apart areas, including
the necessary a detailed description of the obstacles on a 3D mesh, as well as the topography. So,
means high rise buildings, how much stories are there, or the terrain is undulated or smooth; all
those kinds of things can be used in this. Meteorological inputs are the same like wind speed,
time series, wind rose diagrams; so, that can be incorporated or integrated in this model.

Emission inputs like detailed description of emissions, flow velocity, turbulence, and
composition in each node of a 3D mesh. So that is a 3D model basically; it is very sophisticated
model in that sense. Other optional inputs are you can use EMITRA for calculating car traffic
emissions, and then another module is there for source term evaluation, like accidental releases
maybe there. So, different modules can be integrated in that. So that is again, one more good
thing about these models.

(Refer Slide Time: 50:23)

490
491
When we talk about like summary of different air quality models to compare them according to
their strengths or limitations. So again, we have compiled or taken this from a particular source,
different kinds of models and their types; then recommended regulatory use and who developed
it. Like SLAB model is there, which is the steady state plume and transient model; and case by
case basis, it can be used. And Lawrence, this Livermore National Laboratory that has developed
this model. So, that way you can see different kinds of models are there which we have not
discussed, but they are listed here.

And those we have discussed, they are also listed some of them; so you can go through them in
at leisure, like AERMOD is also there, a steady state Gaussian plume model is there; rural urban
areas it can be used for. And this American meteorological society and US-EPA are the
developers of this very popular model. Then, you can have this SCREEN3 Gaussian plume
model, US-EPA developed; so for different situations, for different context, different kind of
model techniques are developed by developers or organizations. And they are used by scientists,
researchers and practicing engineers.

492
(Refer Slide Time: 51:41)

In conclusion, we can say that the air quality modeling really helped us in predicting the
concentrations of a pollutant or different kinds of pollutants in the atmosphere for a particular
point. The modeling procedure involves mathematical simulations of the dispersion of air
pollutants in the atmosphere, which can physical/chemical processes maybe there. The
dispersion models are used to assess the impact of source emissions; for example, on ambient air
quality at a receptor point, or human health, or the environment. Then the based on the source
and emissions type, air quality models are available for simulation of the dispersion receptor
characteristics.

So, that way they are very useful for impact assessment or health risk assessment, and to
compare the concentrations with the guidelines, those standards. Or, to know whether some new
establishment of industrial area will be good or bad for the population, which is living in the
downwind direction. So, those kinds of studies can be carried out by these air quality models. So,
this is all for today.

I hope you have got a good picture of air quality models, different aspects and parameters their
input data requirement, how do they process different techniques. And what are the output values
and what they are used for. So, this is all, thank you for your kind attention. These are the
references for additional information, you can go at leisure. And see you in the next lecture.
Thanks again.

493
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 16
Gaussian Dispersion Model for Point Source
Hello friends, you may recall, last time we discussed air quality modeling related issues. Within
that, this question dispersion model, we just touched its definition, what kind of dispersion
model it is. Today we will have detailed discussion on Gaussian Dispersion Model for Point
Source, because it can be applied for other sources also. But points for this personal model of
Gaussian nature is very important and very interesting.

So, in this particular lecture. First of all, we will see very preliminary info on Gaussian Plume
model for the point source, different parameters which affect the concentration of air pollutants,
when it is discharged from point source. Then it goes to the air and disperse. Then we will see
the derivation of Gaussian plume model, because simplified version of mathematical
expressions of the dispersion in Gaussian form is approximation, but it is very fast, very quick
and very simple. So, it is very popular.

Then we will see different equations of the Gaussian plume dispersion for different cases, like
when certain height is there of the this source of the emissions or the concentration of the
pollutant need to be calculated at the ground level, central line or away from the central line at
XYZ, something like that.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:50)

494
Then we will see the simplifications of these Gaussian dispersion models, so that we can see if
there is no stack height. If the plume or the dispersion of the pollutant is occurring from the
ground level source, then what will happen? Those kinds of simplifications we will see. Then
this Pasquill Gifford distributive classification again we will discuss. Earlier we have discussed
it.

But we will see in particular for the change of the wind velocity with respect to the height and
with respect to different terrains. Then we will have one estimation of ground level
concentration as an example, as a demonstration and at last we will see certain advantages and
limitations of Gaussian Plume model and then we will conclude it.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:41)

So, this is very important figure for introducing this Gaussian plume model from the point
source. So, here point source is the stack. You can see this stack is having stack height hs, small
hs. This H is the effective stack height. Because hs is added with the Δh. Δh is the plume rise
and plume rise happens, as I repeated earlier also that because of buoyancy.

Because of buoyancy due to difference in the temperature of the exhaust gases, which are very
high temperature and it is much higher than the ambient air temperature. So, it has buoyancy,
it has tendency to go up right. And then the momentum, because with high speed, it is coming
out of the stack. So, it has certain momentum. So, both these parameters momentum and
buoyancy decides the plume rise.

It goes up then it disperses along with the wind direction, way in which direction wind is
blowing in that direction it goes away. So, this the plume height, physical plume height and

495
this plume rise Δh added and then this H is the effectively stack height which is determined by
that, which is used for this Gaussian dispersion modeling. Then there are these coordinates X
Y and Z. X is this wind blowing direction.

The wind is flowing in a certain direction which we take as the X direction, then perpendicular
to it, we have this Y direction, traversing to the wind crosswind direction you can see and
vertical direction is the Z direction. So, X, Y, Z, three coordinates can be seen like here, this is
X minus Y, Z minus Y because we have direction, sense of direction.

So, this direction we have taken minus on that direction it is plus. Then the central line, if it is
at ground level then X, 0, 0 means certain distance away from the stack point source X. And if
it is the ground level point at the central line, then Y is 0 and Z is 0, otherwise it can be X, Y,
Z. Similarly, if it is away from the central line, but at the ground level then Z is 0. So X minus
Y, 0 this is the coordinate.

So, that kind of coordinate, we can have at any coordinate we can determine the concentration
of the pollutant and very simplification this conical shape and the distribution of pollutant from
the centerline away, so it reduces because of diffusion. So, diffusion occurs in Y direction and
Z direction right, Y direction and Z direction, so, away from the centerline, maximum
concentration here is at the centerline.

Then as we go away from the centerline Y direction or in the Z direction, then it reduces. So,
you can see here, the maximum concentration, then we go away so, it reduces, it reduces.
Similarly, in vertical direction maximum at the centerline when we go away then it reduces.
So, this kind of variation is there. So, this is the normal distribution curve, basically, that is
why we call it Gaussian normal distribution or Gaussian Plume model.

496
(Refer Slide Time: 06:04)

Now, if we see other parameters like, for example, wind direction, so, the wind direction
changes from point to point in the time period. Basically, wind is not static it changes direction;
it changes its value or absolute value. So, we have to have the direction as well as the value,
so, wind speed and wind velocity you can say. For example, at this site, if the wind direction
is in that direction, so, plume will go away in that direction, at lower height wind is blowing in
this direction, then plume will blow in that direction after this plume rise, certain plume rise
and then dispersion takes place.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:43)

Now, if we see this wind speed, so, it has like it affects the travel time from source to the
receptor and having the wind speed like half of the wind speed, then it can double the travel

497
time. Those kinds of thing happens. That is very simple relationship. Then there are like for
buoyant sources, plume rise is affected by wind speed because it takes away from the source
point. And the stronger the wind the lower the plume rise because it will not rise full to the
maximum possible, the wind will take it away from the point source.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:21)

When we look at the air pollution concentration for the point source. So, wind dilutes it
continuously, it dilutes continuously. So, it depends on the wind speed. If wind speed is slower
than the dispersion is slow. You can see here, this is 2 meter per second; this is 6 meter per
second, right. So, you can see this is pictorial representation. The concentration is high here;
here concentration is low because dispersion has happened very quickly and very efficiently.

498
(Refer Slide Time: 07:52)

Then the turbulence. Turbulence is the parameter like normal direction is there in which wind
is flowing. But turbulence is within that wind, pockets of the wind, they have different
direction, away or other than the main direction, like these the eddies, it goes up, it comes
down, a lot of turbulence occurs in the fluid motion, whether it is here or water something like
that.

So, if it is going, this is the advection by wind, horizontal movement, convection in the vertical
direction because of temperature gradient and this the turbulence, the eddy mixing, because
this air goes like this, then it comes down, that kind of churning occurs. So, that also adds into
dispersion and diffusion of the pollutants and dilution of the pollutant.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:38)

499
Then there are certain assumptions, basically, because this Gaussian dispersion model is not
the true representation of, what is happening in the atmosphere with the pollutants. Because
pollutants have several things. For example, it may mix, it can react with each other, it can act
or it can react with atmospheric constituents.

So, like SO2 conversion to SO3 or H2SO4, those kinds of things. But, for the sake of
simplification, because otherwise complexity will increase and given so much uncertainty in
monitoring and modeling, maybe we don’t have those great benefits, if we make it more
complex. So, for simplification, we assume certain things, which are not true, but still we
assume, because of simplification.

So, first, like we assume this plume is spread like by molecular diffusion. So, whether then this
wind velocity at least in Y direction and Z direction, diffusion is the most predominant
phenomena. Otherwise, in X direction, in a transportation of plume is taken by the wind. Then
we look at like a steady state concentration means the uniform concentration is achieved at
certain point of time, so, it does not change with respect to the time.

The normal distribution is there, whether in horizontal Y direction or in the vertical direction.
So, at the centerline maximum concentration as you go away, the concentration lowers down.
Then there is no diffusion in X, direction only diffusion in Y and Z direction. And uniform
continuous emission rate we assume, like from the stack, whatever emission is coming out then
it is coming with the constant speed, which is again not true in real sense, but still we assume.
We have some average value.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:33)

500
Similarly, like wind speed, we assume as constant, otherwise wind changes from minute to
minute, but still we assume, we take some average wind speed. And we assume that the terrain
is flat where the dispersion is occurring, otherwise undulation may be there. There may be
certain buildings of different heights or undulations of the trop, this topography may also be
there, but we assume that terrain is flat.

Then we also assume that this pollutant dispersion follows the normal statistical distribution,
as we have seen, maximum at certain point and then decreases like with σthat is the dispersion
coefficient. And shape of the plume is conical. So, like funnel kind of thing it takes otherwise,
like, if it is coming out of a stack, it can go like this and disperse.

So, we assume like conical shape. So, even if there is no concentration we assume here some
uniform concentration is there such conical shape is there. Then we also see like non-reactive
pollutants we assume. As I said SO2 NOx etc. They can react with the moisture, but we do not
assume here any reaction.

We assume whatever pollutant is coming, it is there in the same form, they are non-reactive,
right. So, those kinds of assumptions are there. Also like if pollutant is coming to the surface,
then it bounces back, it is reflected, it is not like dry deposition, where deposition occurs in real
sense, but that we do not consider, we assume that whatever pollution is coming to the ground,
it is coming back and giving the complete contribution to the point, where we are estimating
the air pollution concentration.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:17)

501
So, here as I said, this is the this physically stack height, this is the plume rise Δh and the total
of these two is effective stack height, here this plume is going like that maybe unstable
atmosphere, but we assume that this is following this kind of funnel or conical shape, and their
normal distribution because at the central line, it is maximum. Then as you go away this
dispersion occurs and normal distribution occurs a statistically, that is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

Now, if we want to derive the equation the basic equation of Gaussian plume dispersion model
then there are certain nomenclatures we follow. For example, concentration we represent it,
see, although in different books you will find different nomenclature does not mind. The
concept is same; there is concentration of the pollutant which can be represented as microgram
per cubic meter or gram per cubic meter, means mass per unit of volume.

Then emission rate which is coming out of the stack or point source that is the Q which is like
a mass per unit of time, gram per second, kilogram per hour, whatever unit you are taking.
Then the wind speed like u, average wind speed that we are taking at the stack height. Normally
the wind speed is measured at ground level. Ground level means 10 meter above the ground.
Then we convert that wind speed at the stack height.

So, there is equation for that we will see later on and that average wind speed we include in the
model that is meter per second right. Then there are σy and σz, which are dispersion coefficient.
Horizontal dispersion coefficient σy for the plume and vertical dispersion coefficient σz. These
are in meter. Then physical stack height as I have shown and effective stack height, physical
stack height plus Δh that is the plume rise.

502
Then the crosswind distance that is the Y and this receptor height above the ground that is Z.
So, X Y Z, that kind of coordinate system is there. X is the distance in the downwind direction,
right.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:30)

Now, we will see like, we want to derive the Gaussian Plume model. So, there are certain
things. For example, you have to assume certain, this box of very small size like dx dy and dz.
dx is in the direction of wind velocity X direction, Z is vertical direction; Y is crosswind
direction, right. So, this box can be assumed in that sense. dx, that parcel or that kind of dx, dy
and dz.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:59)

503
Now, if you see like mass flow rate, so, mass flow rate is nothing but concentration multiplied
by the u that wind velocity and then the area. So, area into wind velocity u, that will give certain
value and then if we multiply with dx that distance, so, this area into the short distance will be
the volume.

So, that is why this mass flow rate C U Ayz. Ayz is this one, this one Ayz Ay Az. So, this is the
A yz surface area, vertical to the wind flowing direction. And then mass flow rate out, this is
the mass flow rate in, C U Az, mass flow rate out C U Ayz plus δY δX of CUAyz into dx, means
if some direction dx is there, so, how much change is there. So, that mass flow out rate is
calculated like this. Then the net rate of the change.

3 2
• Mass Flow Rate in = C U Ayz { [μg/m ] [m/s] [m ]}
∂
• Mass Flow Rate out = C U Ayz + (C u Ayz)dx
∂𝑥
∂ ∂
• Net Rate of change = - (C U Ayz)dx = - (C U )V
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥

So, you can convert it into like this. Multiply by dx, so, dx and Ayz will be V and this will be
δY δX and C U, minus means the change of that reduction of the concentration.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:21)

Mass flow rate and similarly in Z direction and Y direction is calculated and the similar
equations are brought.

504
(Refer Slide Time: 16:28)

Then we do the summation of those. So, the concentration that overall expression of the
concentration variation with respect to the time δC by δt is like δ by δX into C U minus
terminology plus these dy and dz, these are the mass diffusivity coefficients, which are in the
Y direction and Z direction, they are taken into account along with this concentration. So, the
summation of these three components give us the concentration with respect to time.

𝜕𝐶 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕(𝐷𝑦 𝐶 𝜕 𝜕(𝐷𝑧 𝐶
= − (𝐶𝑈) + ( )+ ( )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

(Refer Slide Time: 17:01)

505
Now, you see further you can have this steady state condition that means with respect to the
time concentration is not changing, change rate is zero. So, this when we put then that particular
equation give this kind of relationship.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:20)

And then next we can further solve it like second order partial differential equation. So, you
can have this expression ultimately Q equals this summation or integration of KUx to the power
minus 1 exponents of Y square upon Dy plus Z square Dz, those kinds of expression.

𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑈
𝐶 = 𝐾𝑥 −1 exp {− [( ) + ( ) ]}
𝐷𝑦 𝐷𝑧 4𝑥
(Refer Slide Time: 17:37)

506
Ultimately, we get this relationship where σy is this terminology. So, the final equation of the
Gaussian dispersion model is in this form, where Q is this emission rate divided by 2π into U.
U is the average wind velocity at the stack height, effective stack height. σy, σz, those
components which are related to diffusivity coefficient X Y U is terminology is there. So, σy
and σz, they also incorporate these values x.

Sometimes, when looking at this equation people get confused that we are calculating
concentration at the X distance and there is no X in this equation, but X is there which is
included in σy and σz that we have to remember. Now, this H is effective stack height. This
terminology because of reflection. We assume that whatever concentration of the pollutant
went to the ground, it has come back to that point.

507
 𝑄 𝑦2 −(𝑧 − 𝐻)2 −(𝑧 + 𝐻)2
𝐶(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = [exp − ( 2 )] {exp [ ] + exp [ ]}
2𝜋𝑈𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑧2 2 𝜎𝑧2

So, summation is there and then this is the crosswind and this is the vertical wind, you can have
this equation. So, this is the final equation of the Gaussian plume model dispersion. C(x, y, z)
means concentration at the coordinate X, Y, Z, in the downward direction X distance, Y means
from the centerline, Y away, Z is in the like hanging at certain point above the ground level.

So, these nomenclatures are there for every terminology or you can see. So, there are some
simplified cases in the sense because this was the total overall C(x, y, z) at the X Y Z coordinate.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:21)

Now, there are some special cases, for example, we want to calculate concentration at the
ground level. So, ground level means Z = 0, height coordinate is not there, Z = 0. And with

508
ground level reflection that reflection is here. So we can have this simplified version. So, C(x,
y, z), basically, this Z = 0. So Z terminology has been removed here. So we can call it C(x, y,
0).

𝑄 𝑦 2 𝐻 2
C(x,y,z) = πuσ σ exp(−0.5 (σy) ) [𝑒𝑥𝑝(−0.5 (𝜎𝑧) ]
y z

Similarly, concentration at ground level on the central line, Y = 0, here Y term is there. Here
Y is also the 0, Y = 0, Z = 0. So, in that case C(x, 0, 0). So, this form will be, it is derived from
the original form. You can put those values and you will get these values.

𝑄 𝐻 2
C(x,y,z) = πuσ σ [𝑒𝑥𝑝(−0.5 (𝜎𝑧) ]
y z

(Refer Slide Time: 20:15)

Similarly, if we go for like even stack height is 0 means like some heap of the leaves is built.
So, how this person will occur? What would be the concentration at certain distance? So, in
that case Z = 0, Y = 0 and H = 0. Stack is not there. At the ground level only something you
are burning and emission is occurring. So, in that case, this becomes very simple. So, C (x, 0,
0) and H = 0. In that case this kind of relationship we use.

𝑄
C(x,y,z) = πuσ σ
y z

There are other special relationships also, I am not taking into account, but for the sake of this
introductory lecture of Gaussian plume dispersion model, this much is enough for you to
understand.

509
(Refer Slide Time: 21:02)

Then now, if we look at this maximum concentration, where will be the maximum
concentration? One concept says that at the central line maximum concentration will be there,
but how far away? At what distance maybe the maximum concentration?

(Refer Slide Time: 21:19)

For that, we go for these kind of relationships, there are some empirical relationships which
have been derived, this is X component is there, effective stack height and at the ground level
at the centerline, so, Y = 0 and Z = 0. This is the relationship you can have. The maximum
ground level concentration from elevated source is given by this formula.

2𝑄σz
C(x, 0, 0,H) = πueH2σ
y

510
σz = H/(2)0.5

And the distance to maximum concentration is at the distance where σz equals H divided by 2
the power 0.5. So, this equation is strictly correct only if the σz divided by σy ratio is constant
with the distance. So, those kinds of limitations are there, within those limitations with these
within those terms and conditions, we can calculate certain concentration values.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:11)

Now, we see like Pasquill-Gifford stability classification, which we have earlier also seen. So,
this is the surface wind meter per second at 10 meter, that is the ground level, less than 2, 2 to
3, 3 to 5, those kinds of. A strong insolation, so, daytime insolation related dependencies there.

Strong insolation means lot of sunshine is there, moderate insolation may be there, slight
insolation may be there. And the nighttime, it depends upon the cloud cover. So, how much
part of the sky is covered by the cloud. Accordingly this A B C D E that stability classification,
which we discussed accordingly these classifications exist.

511
(Refer Slide Time: 22:54)

They will influence, basically, this wind velocity, because when we want to calculate wind at
different heights, we use this particular formula, where p is this constant value effector with
dependence upon the stability conditions of the atmosphere. So, u = 0 is at the Z = 0 height and
u (Z) is at the Z height and this component (Z /Z0) power of p. So, this equation has to be used.
And where this p is derived?

𝑍 𝑝
u(z) = u0(𝑍0)

(Refer Slide Time: 23:22)

From this particular table, which is as we said dependent upon the stability classification, very
unstable then urban and rural areas and this is the rough terrain related values. 0.15, 0.07, 0.15,
0.07, like that. And, if you want to calculate this value for a smooth terrain, this is for rough

512
terrain, so, then you have to multiply it by 0.6. Whatever value is coming then we can multiply
it by 0.6. So, if there is a smooth terrain then this equation gives the value but 0.6 factor
multiplication must be there.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

Now, like σy σz, how to determine? A rill or also we see these kinds of curves which have been
developed by these researchers, this can be used. A B C D E F, these are related to a stability
classification. Then σy value is there. This X distance downwind distance is there in kilometer.
This is in meter.

Similarly, and the σz value you can see in meter in this direction, X direction, distance in
kilometer. And A B C D are there. So, whatever distance of the horizontal, where you want to
calculate concentration, you go to that point, you go up and up to that classification of the
stability and go horizontally to read the value of σy or σz. So, that dispersion coefficient values
we can get from these charts. There are certain empirical relationships also which we have
already seen, again we will see.

513
(Refer Slide Time: 24:56)

These kind of σz equals axb. a into X to the power b. Those values a and b are to be taken from
other table. Similarly σy is like 465.11628 tan theta and this theta is by this, where c and d again
some constant value, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:17)

So, these are the a b depending upon the X direction. And this also depend upon the stability
classification. For a it will be different.

514
(Refer Slide Time: 25:28)

And for B C D, it will be different. And it is given one condition that the calculated value in
case the σz exceed the 5000 meter then σz is set to 5000, which do not take more than 5000
meter that is the maximum value we have to take.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:44)

Similarly, we can calculate the σz that was for E that was for B C D.

515
(Refer Slide Time: 25:52)

And next is for F, right. Then σy calculation can be taken from this empirical relationship.
Again, the C and D values are there, here, we use in this particular relationship. So, you take c
and d value from this A B C D E F dependent on the classification of the atmospheric stability.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:12)

516
Now, if you want to give some example, how to estimate the ground level concentration. So,
this is one very small example you can try like a stack in an urban area is emitting 80 gram per
second of nitric oxide. It has an effective stack height of 100 meter. So, the effective stack
height is given.

So, you do not need to calculate plume rise, otherwise plume rise value needed to calculate
effective stack height if physical height is given, but directly effective stack height is given, so,
we do not need to calculate it. Then the wind speed is 4 meter at 10 meter. So, that means, we
have to calculate wind speed at the 100 meter by using that power relationship of the P.

It is clear summer day. Clear summer day means very hot day. So, solar insolation is very high.
So, from that table we can see, what is the stability classification and sun is nearly overhead.
So, it is known and very hot day you can. Then you have to estimate the ground level
concentration at 2 kilometer downwind on the central line means Y = 0 and Z = 0. And second
point 2 kilometer downwind, but 0.1 kilometer of the centerline means Y value is given 0.1
kilometer. So, for that σy value we will need.

517
(Refer Slide Time: 27:32)

Now you can determine the stability class. So, for 4 meter per second in this table, 4 meter per
second will be in this 3 to 5 and the strong solar radiation. So, strong solar radiation is this
particular column. So, here this one. So, B is the stability class.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:50)

518
So, this will determine those σy, σz values, if you use the empirical relationship, otherwise,
directly you can calculate from these charts, right. So, σy 290 σz is 220, with this point and 2
kilometer is given. Basically, you can have this 2 kilometer away.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:12)

Well next, this is the u the wind velocity at the 100 meter that is the effective stack height,
because 10 meter height wind velocity is given. So, we can use this 100, that is effective stack
height z. Z0 is 10. 0.15 why? Because, this is 0.15 for B. This 0.15 for the B and urban area it
is urban area, so, 0.15 we have taken.

𝑍 𝑝
U = u0 (𝑍0)

100 0.15
U = 4 ( 10 )

519
U = 5.65 m/s

(Refer Slide Time: 28:39)

Well, now, we determine this concentration by putting those values. So, Q value is given 80
gram per second. And the Y value is 0 because at the central line, we are having H effective
stack height is given. So, ultimately 64.3 micrograms per cubic meter concentration is obtained
at that 2000 meter that is 2 kilometer.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:02)

520
And when we go away from the centerline, 0.1 kilometer, 100 meter away from the centerline,
then the estimated concentration is 60.6. So, you can see, it was 64 and now it is 60. That means
the concentration is decreasing when we go away from the central line. So, very simple to
understand that particular concept, that as we go away from the centerline concentration
decreases.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:18)

Now, we see these advantages of Gaussian plume model are many, like it gives the quickest
results and very closely to whatever we are observing, although, there are so much uncertainty
that even 50 percent deviation, we do not mind, in corporate turbulence in ad hoc manner. It is
not very precise or something like that. And they are extremely fast almost immediate response
time. So very quick to calculate simple in their mathematics which we have seen.

521
Quicker than numerical models. Numerical models are quite complex. It requires
computational time, much more than this Gaussian dispersion model. It does not require
supercomputer because simple calculations can be done by a simple desktop computer, even
on your laptop. Their calculation is based on solving a single formula as we have seen, at the
receptor point. And the cost effective compared to high performance computers, the very
simple thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:20)

Then there are certain limitations because it does not take into account the time required for
pollutant to travel to the receptor. So, that is the limitation. But, again as for rough estimation
it is fine. It is not suited for regional modeling, because the distance for which we can use it,
limited like 20 kilometer or so, beyond that results are not much reliable.

And then there are like we are assuming non-reactive that means, the secondary aerosols, etc.
we cannot take into account of this particular, in this particular model based calculations. So,
for larger distances, this is not much applicable and for reactive pollutants or for secondary
pollutants, if you want to estimate, then it is not going to help us.

522
(Refer Slide Time: 31:12)

Anyway, so, this was the introduction for the Gaussian dispersion model for point source.
Otherwise, line source modeling is also there, area source modeling is also there. We will
discuss them later on. So, in conclusion, we can say that this the simplicity of the Gaussian
model makes it very popular and widespread use is there, despite, there are certain several
limitations, but still atmospheric scientist or environmental engineers are very fond of using
these for policy related calculations or simple estimations.

Then the parameters, for example, wind direction, wind speed, turbulence, they affect the
pollutant concentration emitted from the point source. So, they are included in this. Then
Gaussian plume model assumes several assumptions which we have discussed like a steady
state condition of the concentration of the pollutant, uniform kind of concentration.

Then there are certain stability classifications which we have used accordingly we have used
the p value for determining the wind speed at certain heights. And this model is very popular
because it gives very quick results and analytical formula are very simple to understand and
use. So, this is all for today for Gaussian dispersion model or Gaussian plume model from the
point source.

523
(Refer Slide Time: 32:31)

These are the references for additional information. Thank you for your kind attention. See you
in the next lecture. Thanks again.

524
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 17
Gaussian Dispersion Model for Line Source and Area Source
Hello friends, you may recall last time we discussed about Gaussian dispersion model for point
source. So, today we will extend that concept to model the air pollution dispersion from the
line source and from the area source. So, to do that, basically, first of all we will see the line
source Gaussian dispersion model.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:53)

So, basic assumptions which we use for derivation of the line source dispersion model. And
some examples, so, that the clarity is emerged by this concept of the line source dispersion
model. Then we will go for area source dispersion model. So, basically, as I said during a point
source Gaussian dispersion model that it can be extended to line source, in the sense, because
line is nothing but a series of points.

So, we can integrate and develop a line source model or you can reiterate many times, iteration
of many times for the point source and then line source modeling can be done, but it is very
time expensive, time consuming and very resource consuming. So, we go for some empirical
derivations for line source modeling.

Similarly, for area source modeling, we again either apply this point source model by extending
it to some distance in the wind direction and assuming that it is a virtual source which emit the
complete emission which is coming out of in area. Or another way is that area source can be

525
divided into several strips, for lines, line sources, several lines sources. Then you can also
integrate. So, there are multiple ways. So, let us see how these different methodologies do
justice for this line source modeling and area source modeling.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:13)

So, first of all we have certain assumptions for line source modeling of the this plume
dispersion, like in this particular example, illustration which we are considering, we assume
that the source is at the ground level that means, H is effective height is 0. But we can also
derive relationship with the effective height of the plume at the H.

And we will go through that only basically. But when we are going for like transport emissions,
tailpipe emissions from the vehicles which are moving on the road, so, we considered that it is
from the ground source. It is not much above the ground, so, we do not consider the H or
effective stack height which is basically the parameter of the stack or chimney.

So, you can also consider if there are industries in the row like in an industrial area or near like
bank of the river, in this series of industries are there and several points sources are there then
you can use this line source dispersion modeling assuming certain stack height, effective stack
height.

But, if you are calculating emissions from vehicular tailpipe emissions and then you want to
know the concentration at a certain distance in the perpendicular direction of the highway, then
you can assume that this is the sources or the ground level. Then in finite length source at the
ground level we assume. Because it is not that it is certain stretch, we assume that this is kind

526
of infinite source, so, that the emissions at the line is highest and then it disperses in the vertical
direction.

We assume that the wind is at the perpendicular of that highway or the line source. So, the
concentration we will calculate at the perpendicular or at that 90° of the line source dispersion.
Then we also assume that wind blowing perpendicular to the line, as I said, and the uniform
emissions etc. Which are standard assumptions, which we have discussed in the point source
modeling.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:21)

So, let us see for example, this is highway and vehicles are moving in this direction. This is the
direction of vehicular movement. So, the line source is this one and the wind direction is
perpendicular to this. So, maybe we can get concentration of wind is blowing in that direction.
So, concentration at a certain distance at the perpendicular of this line source. So, this X
direction is, basically, the direction of the wind and Y direction which horizontal direction we
are taking, this is the direction of the vehicular movement.

527
(Refer Slide Time: 04:53)

Now, you know, like this was the standard equation if you remember, for the point source
dispersion modeling for the ground level concentration. So, this was like effectively stack
height parameter and then this concentration, Q is the emission, y is that lateral distance. So,
the expression for the point source is modified for the line source now, we go for the line source
basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:21)

528
So, what we do? We assume that there is a very this narrow strip of dy distance. For that we
assume that the emission in terms of mass per unit of time per length, otherwise, the emission
we are calculating in this like Q is mass per unit of time. Here, we are taking a small q, which
is mass per unit of length and per unit of time, per second meter, like microgram per second
meters something like that.

So, that way this Q, is multiplication of this small q, which is a microgram per second meter
and dy is the meter that the length of the, which we have assumed the small length, small
segment of that line source. Now, if we want to calculate the concentration for the small stripe
this dy then basically dC we want to calculate. dC. So, dC is in this way, you can see.

529
(Refer Slide Time: 06:20)

Now, if you integrate the concentration, so, for all the stripes, when we you extend this concept
for the line source then there are numerous dy basically, so, you how to integrate. So,
integration of this dC which is pertaining to the dy, so, the integration happens this way, this is
the integration of all the dy, all the stripes, several stripes, many stripes. So, ultimately we get
this kind of equation. So, this is for the line source then when we go for like integration minus
infinity to plus infinity for infinite source.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:56)

530
 𝑞. 𝐻2
exp (- 2) = k (constant)
πuσyσz 2σ z

So, that simplifies this basically, we take this particular parameter as the k constant. This H
stack height and σz in the vertical dispersion coefficient and this q divided by π u qy qz. So, in
that case this concentration becomes the k into this again integration for this particular
parameter. So, this gives ultimately this kind of relationship, when we substitute S as the one
of the square root of 2 y upon σy. This S parameter we take basically.

∞ 𝑦2
C = k ∫−∞ {exp (- 2)} dy
2σy

1 y
S=
√2 σy

(Refer Slide Time: 07:37)

So, then we ultimately when we put all those parameters into the standard equation, we get this
kind of relationship. This is the concentration at the perpendicular certain distance x and h is
here, this effective stack height we are considering at present. When we go for ground level
then H will be zero. So, this was for the perpendicular distance, perpendicular to the highway.

2𝑞 𝐻2
C= exp (- 2)
√2π σzu 2σz

(Refer Slide Time: 08:06)

531
But, if you have certain angle like phi then this sin phi parameter is in the denominator that
gives the concentration. When sin phi is 90° then basically this becomes 1, so, it goes away
and it is 0 then it becomes infinite, we will see. So that we do not use for that.

2𝑞 𝐻2
C= exp (- )
√2π σzu𝑆𝑖𝑛Φ 2σz2

(Refer Slide Time: 08:29)

That means certain minimum angle must be there and that is here like phi (ɸ) should be greater
than 20°, otherwise, calculation will be erroneous. So, only beyond 20°, we use this particular
equation. Otherwise, when it is assumption based like perpendicular then this parameter goes
away because sin 90 is 1 and that this becomes 2 to q upon under root of 2π σz u and this this

532
particular parameter is there, which also goes away, because we consider the ground level
emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:59)

So, this is, basically, exponential of the ground level emissions, when H = 0. So, this becomes
the ultimate equation for line source dispersion modeling for vehicular emissions and this goes
away when we consider 90°.

2𝑞
C=
√2π σzu𝑆𝑖𝑛Φ

(Refer Slide Time: 09:16)

So, certain examples of these lines source Gaussian model, as I said in introduction also, this
could be like motor vehicle movement on the highways, some agricultural burning in along the

533
edge of the field, so that can also be considered as the line source emissions. A line of industrial
sources on the bank of a river or stream that can also be like the line source.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:40)

So, that way we can assume all these assumptions and we can calculate using that equation
which we just derived. Now, for a better illustration, better visibility, we go for, estimation of
hydrocarbon concentrations for taking this example for line source dispersion. So, this gives
estimated the total hydrocarbon concentration at a point 300 meter downwind from the
expressway at 5:30pm on an overcast day. So, that gives hint which kind of atmospheric
stability will be there.

The wind is perpendicular to the highway, which we assume and has a speed of 4 meter per
second and the traffic density along the highway is 8000 vehicles per hour that is the kind of
flow rate you can say. And the average vehicle speed is 40 mile per hour. We can convert it
into kilometer, meter. The average vehicle emission rate of hydrocarbons is per vehicle 2 into
10 to the power minus gram per second. So, these are the input values which we will be using
for deriving this concentration at the particular distance of 300 meters at the perpendicular of
the highway.

534
(Refer Slide Time: 10:51)

So, number of vehicles per unit length is basically rate of vehicles travel past a point divided
by the average speed of the vehicle. So, this is given 8000 vehicles per hour, 40 miles per hour
and miles you can convert into meter. So, this has been done, here value has been put. So,
ultimately we get 0.125 vehicles per meter per unit of the length. Although vehicle is never in
fraction, but for calculation purpose we use it, otherwise, there will be some number of the
vehicles in a particular stretch.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:28)

Then the emission rate, q, which is we estimate like mass per unit of length per unit of time.
So, we calculate here. This is, basically, vehicle per meter and then we get this multiply by that
we that emission rate which is given per vehicle. So, we multiply that so, we get this one. 2.5

535
into 10 to the power minus 3 gram per second per meter. So, that is the small q, which will be
used in the equation which we have just derived.

𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑔
q = 0.125 × × 2 x 10-2 × 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠(𝑠) = 2.5 × 10-3 g/s.m
𝑚

(Refer Slide Time: 12:00)

Then we need σz, because in this equation, we need σz, we need small q, small q we have
calculated. Sin phi is not there, because 90°, we are calculating concentration we have to
calculate π value we know. So, σz we need to know. How to calculate σz?

We know the downwind distance 300 meter. So, for 300 meter, we go like this and at this point
we get σz values 12 meter. This is in kilometers, so, you have to be careful, when you go for
meter. 300 meter the value of σz is derived 12 meter from this estimated chart.

536
(Refer Slide Time: 12:48)

Then we put those values σz and q. h is a 0 because ground level concentration as you know.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:57)

So, ultimately we are using this equation, we are having those values in this equation and we
get this concentration at the 300 meter perpendicular to the highway. (300, 0, 0) means y = 0
and this H = 0, z = 0. And ground level concentration. So, this is 42 micrograms per cubic
meter. Then we can compare according to the situation. This is just an example.

At that point if receptor is susceptible to certain concentration and there may be some
background concentration, we can add into that. And then we get the summation of the
concentration that we compare with National Ambient Air Quality Standard and then we can

537
learn whether it is exceeding that or not. So, those kinds of things are possible with these
calculations.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:45)

Now, we go for area source this Gaussian plume model for area source dispersion. So,
basically, area source can be several industries in a particular locality or you know, this kind
of fire in the forest, many many kinds of situations may be there.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:06)

And then we want to apply the point source dispersion model. So, we need to assume that there
is a virtual point, where this whole emission is coming out of that point. So, we assume in the
upwind direction one point. This is X0 distance from this center point of that area, we consider

538
this is the area. And this whole emission which is coming out of this area is basically being
omitted from this, this we assume. This is the virtual source; this is not the exact actual source.

Actual sources in this particular area, but when we want to apply the point source dispersion
modeling, so, we assume that this is, this whole mission is coming from the one point, the
complete emission, total emission, which is in this area is coming from a point source. This is
the basic assumption we need to know.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:55)

Now, we go for you know, certain nomenclatures or these parameters like distance of the virtual
point source from the you know, this actual source of the area source is X0, we assume. This is
in meter. Then distance between the location where we are measuring concentration at the area
source, like this is the receptor. So, we assumed this as XR.

539
You can do it, Xt, whatever you want to know, you want to have, you can, you are free, means
these are just notations. Then total emission rate Q, capital Q, kilogram per hour or gram per
second that kind of, that is the total emission which is coming out of the area and we assume
this whole Q is coming from a particular point, which is virtual point, not the actual but
assumed point. Side of the area of the source is square is S.

So, we assume this is the square source, width and length are equal. So, S is the distance. This
is S. This is S, like that. So, this is S in meter. Then is initial spread of virtual point source is
σy0 in the lateral direction, so, spread will be like this. So, this will be σy from the central line.
So σy0 is the initial spread.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

Now, how to calculate? You can see here this is the X0 distance of the virtual point from the
area. So, central point of the area we measure the distance and σy0 is basically this kind of
distance σy0 and this XR is the distance from this area source to the receptor. So, the total
distance XR plus X0 will be the distance of the receptor from the virtual point which we have
assumed.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:41)

540
Here you can X0 plus XR. And you can see here, other distances is like S, which we have
assumed.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:52)

541
And then you see this other points like Q is the same, which is in the area source and mass is
the same, X0 is in upwind direction, as we have already seen.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:03)

Now, how to calculate σy0 which is dispersion like it can be here, it can be here, that way. So,
σy0, we assume as S / 4.2. S is this distance. So, 4.2 may be something like here. 4.2. S by 4.2.
This is σy0.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:24)

542
And from σy0, we can assume, we can calculate using this particular σy derivation chart, the
distance, horizontal distance, which will give us X0 distance basically. Because this is the x 0,
so for if this is the point and at the X0 point, this is the σy0 So, how much this X0 distance is
there?

Which you can get from here. Because σy = 0, you can read on this particular axis. You go
towards the right and see which particular atmospheric stability condition there A B C D is up
to that go, go down. So, in this case, basically, that overcast is there. So, d neutral condition we
assume, so up to d we will go and we calculate distance X0.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:11)

543
And that X0 is calculated by with the help of this chart and we get certain value, then we can
add into XR.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:20)

544
And we get the total distance. So, the X0 plus XR is the total distance from this virtual source
to the receptor.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:28)

So, this is the step 5 for the point source modeling when we calculate σy and σz. Because, now,
we know the distance and then we can calculate the concentration. Because point source
emission modeling is very simple after that.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:42)

545
So, now, to illustrate, to understand this, let us have one more practical example. For example,
we assume that the wind of the Taj Mahal there is a Taj Mahal at a particular point and upwind
of that, there is an industrial area, effective height is 30 meter, capital H. here, effective height
is given.

So, we can use that, which acts as an area source towards polluting the National Monument,
which is Taj Mahal. The quantity of emission is 100 kilogram per hour. Q value is given.
Capital Q. And the mean velocity of the same at the height of the 30 meter, which is effective
it is 4 meter per second and side of the area source is 500 meter, so, capital S, this distance 500
meter, 500 meter.

Then other assumptions are like treat this area source as an effective point source that virtual
point source and modeling will proceed as it would be a point source located that center of that
area, but with the initial crosswind spread, which is σy0. That σy0, which we have seen, because
S by 4.2, that value we know.

And approximate crosswind extent at the source, which will have S by 4, here S by 4, earlier
we took S by 4.2, something like that under the atmospheric stability condition as E. We can
calculate the concentration of the pollutant at the Taj Mahal, what will be there and the take
the distance of industrial area from the Taj Mahal as 4000. So, that is XR or XT, you can say.
So, in this we will add X0. We will first calculate the x 0, then we will add into this, then the
total distance from that virtual source point source will be calculated.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:27)

546
So, let us go. Here, X0 is the virtual inner source distance, XT is given 4000 meter. Just now,
we have seen these values, as 500 meter. So, this can give us σy0 this, this value σy0.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:45)

Which we calculate. σy0 is S / 4, so, this is 125 meter, we calculate.

σyo = S/4

σyo = 500/4

σyo = 125 m

(Refer Slide Time: 20:50)

547
For 125 meter, for the E atmospheric stability, we go down and calculate this X0 which is 2800
meter.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:00)

548
So, this 2800 meter we will add in to 4000 meter then we will get the total distance from this
virtual source to the Taj Mahal X0 plus XT. So,X0 is 2800 and XT is 4000. So, 6800 meter is
the total distance, which is now the downwind direction from the point source, virtual point
source, basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:23)

549
So, we will use that now, for that distance what is the σy and σz, we need to calculate. Again
we use these charts which are given. So, E, atmospheric stability is given, the distance
horizontal is now, how much, 6800 meter. Again, see, 6800 meters 6.8 kilometer, so, here 6.8
Kilometer, go up to E, go, horizontal and get the σy value, which is 250 meter. Similarly, from
this chart, you get the σz value, which is 65 meter. So, those values now you have which are
needed for that point source modeling.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:57)

So, here is σy σz, you have calculated. H is given, 30 meter. Q is there you have got this 100
kilogram per hour, already given. So, you can calculate it in grams per second. Other values
are given, u, that average velocity speed of the wind, 4 meter per second, σy, σz, you just

550
calculated, 250 and 65. H is 30 meter given. All these values you put in the equation, you get
the concentration.

27.78 30 2
C = 3.14 x 4 x 250 x 65 exp (-0.5 ( 65 ) )

(Refer Slide Time: 22:26)

How much? Around 122 micrograms per cubic meter. So, you can compare it with again, you
can add into a background concentration at the Taj Mahal, then come up with the total
concentration. Then you can pass some judgment whether it is acceptable or not, whether it is
exceeding the limit or not, all those kinds of things. So, that way you really use this in a
particular way of assuming virtual point source for the area source and you can calculate the
emissions from area source, how they are converted into concentration at a certain distance,
distance for the particular that virtual point.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:01)

551
Then, there are certain disadvantages, basically, for this Gaussian plume model for area
sources, like it requires large amounts of input information. And then it consumes large amount
of computer time and involves complexity. So, those kind of limitations are there which need
to be overcome. So, then some alternatives have been suggested by modelers that instead of
this, we can go for simpler methods.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:32)

For example, we can go for Narrow plume Hypothesis, where we assume the line source
modeling and we can use that. Or using area emission rate of only the emission square. And
we assume that this is uniformly mixed there. And then how much will be this transported to
the receptor and how much will be the concentration.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:55)

552
So, for Narrow plume hypothesis, basically, you have to see that receptor in the downwind
direction and upwind, the source is not the point but the line source. So, for line source you
know, you can calculate and then you can integrate.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:07)

So, that is very simple thing, which we have already seen. And you know there are certain
models like this Atmospheric Turbulence and Division Laboratory, ATDL model, which acts
in accomplishes, ground level area sources, ground level area sources kind of computation is
there. Regional Air Monitoring, RAM model, which calculate for ground level as well as
elevated area source. So, those both is possible H is also possible, as we have done in case of
Taj Mahal just we saw.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:39)

553
Then you know, there is another way simplified way, where as we have seen, we have just
discussed that in area emission rate, qa is the constant qa and they u is the mean wind speed and
the uniform concentration will be there and then this value constant is there for different
pollutants like for a SO2, it is 50, for particulate matter 200, for CO it is 600.

For other pollutants are also some empirical values have been derived from the experiments.
So, that values you can use and you can quickly calculate the concentration. So, that is the
concentration for that particular emission rate. But this is within the area source we assume. If
you go for certain distance then again we have to go for either line source or virtual point
source.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:31)

554
So, this is all for today as an introduction how do we extend the concept of Gaussian dispersion
model from point source to the line source, from line source to the area source or area source
again to the virtual point source. So, those kinds of things we have discussed. The expression
of concentration for a point source can be modified in different ways and the results can be
obtained accordingly.

General assumptions are there in the line source derivation like infinite length of the source,
wind blowing in the perpendicular direction, those things are there, which we should keep in
mind. Because, when line source is there, whole emission maximum, emission concentration
at the line source and the concentration will decrease as we go away in the 90° are perpendicular
to the line source, which is in finite according to our assumption.

In area source we can interpret as a virtual point in upwind direction. This is the area source
we go in upwind direction at certain distance, which is, how do we calculate, we assume this
area sources the square. And S / 4, 4.2, something, we get σy0, from σy0 we can calculate the
X0, which is the distance from the area source to the virtual point.

And then we add into this the downwind distance of the receptor, where we want to calculate
and simple points or dispersion modeling we apply. Other than calculating the initial spread of
the source in this Gaussian plume model of the area source, rest of the steps as I said, it is only
for point source dispersion modeling, which we have already discussed.

Now, to overcome certain limitations of this you know, this particular methodology of
Gaussian Plume model, we go for some empirical relations like narrow plume hypotheses or
just we have seen this particular way of calculating at the area source, but they also have certain

555
limitations. So, this is you know, introduction for you for the line source modeling using this
Gaussian dispersion plume and for area source.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:32)

So, this is all for today for you, you can have additional information from these resources.. So,
see you again in the next lecture, thank you for your kind attention. Thanks a lot.

556
 Air pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 18
Determination of Concentration of Pollutants using Gaussian Dispersion Model
Hello friends. So, as you are aware, we have already discussed several kinds of models like
point source model, line source model, area source model to estimate ambient air
concentrations. Now, I think we should try to practice it otherwise the feeling the real feeling
to solve those problems or illustrations will not be so clear.

So, today we will go for kind of tutorial exercise or practical exercise to solve certain numerical
problems based on point source model, line source model and area source model. So, that we
can use different input parameters to estimate ambient air concentration at a particular distance
from the source. So, that practice session we will have today. So, there would be you know
three different kinds of sources point source, line source, and area source.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:22)

And accordingly, we will have a numerical problems or examples based on these points source
dispersion modeling, line source dispersion modeling and area source dispersion modeling
which we have already discussed and then we will conclude.

557
(Refer Slide Time: 01:33)

So, let us go for a point source dispersion modeling. So, first exercise is like there are certain
things which are given for example, if it is given to us that sulphur dioxide is emitted at a rate
of 160 grams per second from a stack with an effective height of 60 meter. Effective height
you know, the physical stack height and then the plume rise.

So, the physical stack height plus plume rise that is the effective stack height, if it was not given
only physically stack height was given then first of all we have to calculate plume rise then we
have to add into physical stack height and then we use it as a effective stack height but it is
already given. So, we will use this value 60 meter of the effective stack height. Then the wind
speed at the effective stack height is 6 meter per second.

Again, it is very easy for us that the wind speed at the effective height, effective stack height
is already given. Otherwise, what happens normally the wind speed at the ground level and that
means, around 10 meter above the ground is normally given then we have to estimate the wind
speed at the effective stack height then we use it, otherwise you know there will be error in the
model calculations, but it is already given that the wind is speed at the stack height is 6 meter
per second.

So, again we will use directly. And the atmospheric stability class is D for the overcast day.
Again, you know sometimes situation is given, night time, cloud cover, daytime, solar
insulation very, bright solar insulation or thin, lean or slide those kinds of things are given. And
we have to assume, plus wind speed displayed related table we can visit and see what is the
atmospheric activity classification, but again here it is already given D.

558
So, we will use it. Then what we have to compute or what we need to estimate? We need to
estimate first ground level concentration along the central line. Look at the language, ground
level concentration that means, if you remember that equation, so that Z = 0, because X, Y, Z
coordinates we can calculate the ambient concentration at any point X, Y, Z. But when we are
talking about the central line, so the X distance would be given which is here 500 meter, ground
level concentration along the central line at the distance 500 meter from the stack in microgram
per cubic meter.

So, the input value of the Q that is the exhaust rate whatever unit it is, so that unit is of the
concentration but we can change it into microgram or gram or whatever unit you want. But
here we have to concentrate there the distance is given from the stack, downwind distance at
the central line that means again σy = 0 because it is at the central line, if it was away from the
central line literal distance something like left or right, so that could be the σy.

But here again it is given that the central line and ground level so the Z = 0, Y = 0, so that is to
be consider that x is only there. So, the coordinate of the point where we need to calculate the
concentration in this first case (X, 0, 0), Y = 0, because lateral distance is 0 and Z = 0 because
it is at the ground level concentration. Second is the concentration crosswind at 50 meter from
the center line for the downwind distance which is same 500 meter. So, Y is given here.

So, that will be (X, Y, 0) because ground level concentration but center line it is away from the
center line with 50 meter distance. So, Y is given. So, that means (500, 50, 0) that is the
coordinates for which we have to compute the concentration of air pollutant. Then third
condition is the position downwind on the central line at the ground level again Z = 0, where
the maximum concentration will occur and determine maximum value in micrograms per cubic
meter.

So, again you will use that empirical formula, you may recall I will let you know what is that
where this maximum concentration occur. So, that is the relationship with σZ and from σZ we
will calculate the X and then for our X we will calculate the concentration because we know
other values.

559
(Refer Slide Time: 06:16)

560
So, first of all the first exercise we have to calculate concentration, the air pollutant
concentration at the ground level in the central line, 500 meter at the central line from the stack.
So, for that σy and σZ we need to calculate because σy and σZ are used in that formula which is
this equation, σy is used, σZ is used, effective height H is used, Y is used.

In this case Y = 0 because at the central line, σy σz here it is. Q is also we have to use that is
given already 160 gram per second, Y wind velocity at effective stack. So, these values we
need to have. So, σy σz is not given, but the horizontal distance is given where we need to
calculate the concentration. So, with this the graph which we have this Pasquill Gifford curves,
we can use that for particular classification of the stability.

So, that D classification is given. So, first of all we go to this 500 meter. So, these are not linear
graphs, but logarithmic kind of, so you have to be careful where this distance this is in kilometre
in X axis. So, we are given 500 meters. So, first of all you calculate like where is 500 meter in
this particular graph, then you go up, up to the D, this is the D.

Then you go to the left where σy value will be there and this is around 36.5 meter here, this is
36.5 meter. So, that is σy. Similarly, for σz again 500 meter this is here, you go up, up to the
D, this is the D, then go to the left and you calculate σz which is 18.5. So, you got σy and σz.
You can, this exemplified you can see this is kind of thing.

Now, we put these values σy σz, Y = 0 because central line concentration not away from the
central line, H is given that is the effective stack height 60 meter, u is given 6 meter per second
at the effective stack height, Q is given that is sulphur dioxide is emitted at the rate of 160 gram
per second. So, that rate exhaust velocity you can say that is given.

And σy σz you have estimated already from that curve. Now, you put those values and you get
the concentration that is C (X, Y, Z), Y = 0, Z = 0, X = 500 meter. So, C (500, 0, 0). So, for
that this calculation happens and we get this calculated concentration at 500 meter in the
downwind direction at the centreline, at the ground level that is 65.3 micrograms per cubic
meter.

160 60 2
C500,0,0 = 3.14×6×36.5×18.5 [exp (-0.5 (18.5) )]

C(500,0,0) = 6.53×10-5 g/m3 = 65.3 µg/m3

561
(Refer Slide Time: 09:08)

Now, we see the second, second exercises at the ground level, but not at the central line, 50
meter away from the central line whether left or right, does not matter. So, this Y is here 50
meter, that we have to put otherwise, all other values are same. So, you put those values and
again calculate you get this 1.696. You can say 1.7 micrograms per cubic meter.

160 50 2 60 2
C500,50,0 = 3.14×6×36.5×18.5 [exp (-0.5 (18.5) )] [exp (-0.5 (18.5) )]

C(500,50,0)= 1.696 x 10-6 = 1.696 µg/m3

562
So, that means at the central line this is 65 around, 65 microgram. Here, it is around 1.69 or 2
micrograms per cubic meter that means, the concentration decreases when we go away from
the central line. So, that is again it is your proved you can say. So, this is the concentration at
the 50 meter away lateral distance from the central line.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:57)

Now, the third exercise is that we need to calculate the distance where measuring concentration
occurs and we know that particular relationship of σz is equal to H divided by square root of 2,
this is the distance where maximum concentration occurs. This is the empirical relationship.

σz = H/√2

σz = 60/√2

563
σz = 42.42 m

So, H you know 60 meter effectively stack height under root 2. So, the σz is 42.42 that means,
at a distance where the σz is 42 meter around there will be the maximum concentration. From
σz, we can calculate X because you remember this we calculate it from the X, σz is given you
can come back like this, you can come down, you can get the X value. So, that we will do here.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:45)

We have this σz value, we calculated 42.42 meter, this is here. We go to this D, you come down
to calculate the X and X distance is around 1300 meter or 1.3 kilometre. So, this X you have
calculated where maximum concentration will occur.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:05)

564
And for this you calculate the σy because σ is needed, σy and σz is needed for solving that
point source dispersion model equation. So, you get this, for this X distance 1.3 kilometre you
get σy which is 84.3 meter here from this particular curve. Now, you have both value σy and
σz.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:25)

You put those values σy and σz, you have Y, how much, 0, why, because the concentration is
to be calculated at the central line not away from the central line. So, Y = 0. H is again that
same 60 meter effective stack height, σy σz values have changed basically and you get this
maximum concentration that is 873 micrograms per cubic meter.

160 60 2
C1300,0,0 = 3.14×6×42.42×84.3 [exp (-0.5 (42.42) )]

C(1300,0,0) = 8.73 × 10-4 g/m3 = 873 µg/m3

So, that is the maximum concentration and the distance we already know around 1.3 kilometre
away from the stack height, from the stack position this maximum concentration will be there.
So, this is the utilization or application of this point source this Gaussian dispersion model to
calculate concentration at the downwind distance whatever it is given.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:15)

565
Now, we take second example of again point source in which little bit different calculation is
to be done like here sulphur dioxide is emitted at a rate of 160 gram per second the same which
was in earlier exercise from the stack. And the wind speed is to be approximately 6 meter per
second at the effective stack height same value, new value is given like 5.1 meter per second
wind speed at the ground level that is around 10 meter of the ground level which is we know it
has a ground level in the night time. So, this is another value is given.

And it is desired that the ground level concentration at the central line should not exceed 200
micrograms per cubic meter at a distance in the center line downwind distance of under 800
meter. So, that means, for X = 800 meter one value of the concentration is given, ground level
concentration. And for that we have to estimate the effective stack height.

That means, in this equation, this concentration earlier we calculated concentration because
effective stack height was given and σy σz we had computed, u is given, Q is given. Now, what
we will do the C is given, we have to calculate effective stack height. So, that is also possible
for this particular example, we will do the next thing of calculating the effective stack height.
So, how do we proceed.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:43)

566
First of all, like for night time, you know the wind speed is given around 5.1. So, night time
and the wind speed is 5.1 that is between 5 to 6 at the ground level. So, what will be, this is D,
you can see here. So, the D is the stability classification. So, first of all we computed the
stability classification because on this many things are dependent.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:12)

For example, we will calculate this σy and σz which curve is also divided into different stability
classification, ABCDEF. So, now, we know for the D we have to compute. So, the distance is
given 800 meter, concentration is given. For 800 meter we need to have σy and σz. So, 800
meter we selected on the X axis, we went up to the D and we went left side to calculate σy
which is calculated around 57 meter.

567
Similarly, from the another curve, we went to 800 meter on the X axis and then we came to
this particular point which is on the D and we went to left side to calculate the σz which is
around 30 meter approximately. So now, we have σy and σz in the same equation of point
source dispersion model.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:01)

So, in point source dispersion model where Y = 0, this is the very simple relationship
concentration is there, Q is there, σy, σz, u and H effective which take height σz is there. Now,
value what do we have, concentration we have it is given for 800 meter 200 microgram per
cubic meter this concentration is given.

So, this value we have to put here. Then this Q value which is exhaust speed you can say this
is also given 160 gram per second. You calculated σy and σz. So, these are the values 57 and
30. u around 6 meter per second at the effective stack height which we have used here.
Effectively stack height is not given, so H we will put.

160 𝐻 2
200×10-6 = π×6×57×30 [exp (-0.5 (30) )]

H= 76.03 m

Now, we can solve this equation, we can solve this equation because only unknown value is H.
So, after solving this equation we got effectively stack height around 76 meter. So, for this
effectively stack height the concentration will not exceed more than 200 micrograms per cubic
meter at the distance of 800 m at the central line that is the ground level concentration.

568
(Refer Slide Time: 16:13)

Now, the next example is of another point source. So, we will see like there is a chimney with
a design a stack height of 250 meter. It is emitting sulphur dioxide at a rate of 500 gram per
second on a sunny day. So, again, for that table remember were night and those insulation, let
me show you, this table daytime, strong insulation, moderate insulation, slight insulation.

So, daytime these inner conditions will determine the stability according to the wind speed.
Night time, overcast or cloud cover is more than 4 by 8 and it is less than 3 by 8 cloud covers,
so though you know categories are there in night time. In daytime, there are three categories
according to the sunlight strength. So, here it is given it is a sunny day in June with moderate
wind speed at stack altitude, means stack height.

569
The stack diameter is 5 meter, the diameter is given. The sulphur dioxide exit velocity is given
13.5 meter per second and the gas temperature of the exit gas is around 145 °C. If the wind
speed at this condition is 6 meter per second what is the plume rise for an ambient air
temperature of 30 °C.

So, plume rise to be calculated. Stack height, physical stack height it is given 250 meter, but
effective stack height is not given. For effective which take height we need to know ΔH, that
is the plume rise. And here it is also given that we need to calculate plume rise. Now, calculate
the ground level concentration of sulphur dioxide. On the plume centreline, plume centreline
ground level concentrations Z = 0.

At the downwind distance of 1 kilometre under the stability class A. Here a stability class A is
already given, you do not need to compute from the table. The density of sulphur dioxide at
145 °C is also given around 1.886 kilogram per cubic meter.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:16)

So, we use these equations like ΔH that is the plume rise equation in this terminology, F is the
buoyancy flux parameter and this is to be calculated by using this particular relationship. So,
we know this volumetric flow rate 50 cubic meter per second for unstable or neutral condition
this equation is to be used basically. And we do not know how much volumetric flow rate is
there.

𝐹
∆𝐻 = 150
(𝑢)3

Where, F is the buoyancy flux parameter (m4/s3), given by

570
 𝐷𝑠 2 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
𝐹 = 𝑔𝑉𝑠 ( )
2 𝑇𝑠

So, first of all we should calculate the volumetric flow rate, so that we can know whether this
equation is applicable or not. Exit velocity Vs. diameter Ds, this Ds, Vs is exit velocity, Ds
diameter of the stack, Ts exit temperature, Ts, Ta ambient air temperature. These are you know
given, so we can easily apply this equation but before that we need to know whether the
volumetric flow rate in this case is more or less than 50 cubic meter per second.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

So, first of all let us calculate volumetric flow rate that is Vs into As, stack diameter that surface
area, before the stack diameter that is this pi D square by 4. And Vs is the velocity with which
this gas is being emitted through that exit velocity of Vs. So, we calculate this volumetric flow

571
rate, this is around 265 cubic meters per second. So, that is more than 50 cubic meter per
second. So, that is why this particular Δ H equation can easily be used. This Δ H, F by this u
and then cubic of the u value that is the velocity, wind velocity.
π
Volumetric flow rate = Vs × As = Vs × 4 Ds2

π
Volumetric flow rate = 13.5 × × 52 = 265 m3/s
4

(Refer Slide Time: 20:03)

572
So, we can use this equation and for that F value we need to have first this and we can calculate
F value from this equation. So, we first apply this equation and calculate the F value this is
around 227. We put that value here and this 6 is there already wind velocity. So, cubic of that
and we calculate this ΔH this is 158 meter that is the plume rise. Plume rise you know, this is
stack height and then plume goes up and dispersed like this.

227
ΔH =150 × = 158 m
63

H = 250 + 158 = 408 m

So, at the centreline of this plume from the top of the physical stack this is the plume rise ΔH,
we have calculated here, 158 meter. And 250 meter is already given the physical stack height.
this is. this physical stack height is 250 meter. So, we add into 250 meter this 158. So, this is
408 meter that is the effective stack height which we will use for calculation purpose.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:00)

573
Now, we need to calculate σy and σz. Stability classification we already know it is given A,
downwind distance is given 1 kilometer. So, 1 kilometer we go here for calculation of σy we
go up to A, this curve for the classification stability classification A, then go left side wherever
it intersect that is the σy value and that is around 150 meter here.

Similarly, for σz go for 1 kilometer on the X axis go up to this A, curve for A classification of
the stability then go left and you calculate σz that is around 400 meter. So, σy σz value we have
calculated from these curves.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:46)

574
Now, what we need to do? We have to put these values σy σz, Q is given already, H we have
calculated effectively stack height 408 just we calculated, σy σz we calculated, u is also given,
and the Q is 500 gram per second, you can see here 500 gram per second this is the Q value.

500 408 2
C (1000,0,0,408) = 3.14×6×150×400 [exp (-0.5 (400) )]

C (1000,0,0,408) = 2.62 × 10-4 g/m3

C (1000,0,0,408) = 262 µg/m3

So, put those values and we calculate the concentration at this 1 kilometre, we calculate how
much it is, it is you put those values all and concentration is around 262 microgram per cubic
meter. So, these are the you know different ways to apply this point source Gaussian dispersion
model to calculate either concentration when effective height, stack height and downwind

575
distance or literal distance that is Y is given. Or otherwise, if concentration is given, then you
calculate the effective stack height.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:37)

Now, we come to the line source. So, line source like on the road vehicles are moving and
exhaust emissions are there from tailpipe and those this line of the emissions is there and the
vertical distance we need to know the concentration to the normal or perpendicular direction
of this line source. So, let us assume another example that on NH-8, Delhi Jaipur highway, a
lot of vehicles traveling to and fro journey daily release harmful chemical emissions as different
kinds of air pollutants.

Now, consider an average emission rate from the vehicles of a pollutant P1 which is given 0.04
gram per second. What is to be determined? Determine the total chemical concentration of that
pollutant P1 at a point 500 meter downwind from the highway. So, downwind from the highway
means, we assume that wind is blowing perpendicular to the highway, you can remember that
line source dispersion model we discussed.

So, we assume that the wind is perpendicular to the highway. So, on that downwind distance
around 500 meter what will be the concentration. The wind we assumed that the perpendicular
to the highway is around 4.5 meter per second. And the number of vehicles is around 0.15 per
unit of length, that is per unit of length means meter, per meter 0.15 vehicles are given. You
can say like per 100 meter 15 vehicles are there, that is the number of vehicles going through
these lines.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:18)

576
So, we now use this particular value which is given of the vehicle number. So, emission rate
per unit length q, we need to calculate q gram per meter per second, it is given per second but
we need to calculate per meter per second. And per meter vehicle are given 0.150. So, if one
vehicle is emitting this much.

𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑔
q = 0.150 × × 0.04 × 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑠) = 6 × 10-3 g/s.m
𝑚

So, these vehicles in per meter they will be multiplied and we can get that 6 x 10-3 gram per
second per meter, this is the emission rate on that particular line source, that we will use.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:57)

Now, for an overcast day stability classification is D. And from following figure we can
calculate the σz value for 500 meter, σz value is around 20 meter for D.

577
(Refer Slide Time: 25:15)

Now, we apply this particular equation where even effective stack height is given, but here
effective stack height is zero because we assumed these ground level emissions from the
tailpipe of the vehicles. So, this parameter will go away, only this 2q upon square root of 2 pi
and σz u. This simple equation will be applied for line source dispersion.

2𝑞 𝐻2
C= exp (- 2σ 2)
√2π σzu z

(Refer Slide Time: 25:38)

578
 2 (6) (10-3)
C (500,0,0) = (2π)1/2(20)(4.5)

C (500,0,0) = 53.2× (10-6) g/m3

So, we put those values, q we have we have calculated 6 x 10-3 and this value is 20 and 4.5 that
is the value of the u and σz which we just calculated we put and we calculate concentration
around 53.2 micrograms per cubic meter at the distance of how much 500 meter, 500 meter
distance perpendicular to the highway line source. So, that is the application of line source
dispersion model.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:07)

Now, we come to the area source. And area source we have seen that particular methodology,
where we assume this virtual point source, we convert area source into a point source kind of

579
analogy and we apply that relationship which we have discussed already. So, the same
methodology we will use.

So, what is the values which are given for area source problem, this is the last example. So, an
area source which is having a side of 400 meter, 400 by 400 meter we assume square area
source. And acting as a source of pollutant is present in the vicinity of a residence effective
stack height, so the effective height of 40 meter we assume this area source, you know a lot of
plumes and emissions are there and effective stack height we are assuming as 40 meter.

The distance of the source from the residence is to be taken around for 4000 meter that is 4
kilometre. And the quantity of emission from the sources 200 kilogram per hour and the mean
velocity at the height is 40 meter that is effective stack height is around 5 meter per second that
is the wind velocity. And then the modeling will proceed as it would be a point source as we
have assumed as a virtual point source.

So, that would be there. For a crosswind speed, that is σy0 in terms of dispersion parameter that
is σy0 which is S/4, S is the approximate crosswind extent of the source under the atmospheric
condition, E it has been assumed. So, we need to calculate concentration of the pollutant from
the area source affecting that residential colony which is 4000 meter away from the source.

So, 4000 meter away from the source this is the residential colony where we need to calculate
concentration that is the from the center of this area source the distance is given. X0 is the
distance of this virtual source which we assume that is the point source. S is 400 meter it is
given. And we need to calculate X0 and we will add into this XT.

So, that we can get the total distance from the point source that is the virtual point source to the
receptor and then we can apply the simple points or dispersion modeling equation.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

580
So, σy0, S/4, this relationship we already know, S = 400 meter is given. So, you know 100 meter
is the σy0.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:34)

581
For σy0, now we need to calculate x value. So, σy0, here you go to the stability classification
curves. So, E stability classification is given, come to the E, go down you get this X value this
is around 2400 meter. So, now, this 2400 meter is this one, this is 2400 meter, you add into
4000 meter you get the total distance that is 6400 meter, 6400 meter is the distance of that
receptor or residential colony from the virtual point source.

Virtual point source is nothing but the area source. We are assuming that this virtual point
source is emitting as much admission as is coming from the area source. So, that is assumption-
based calculations.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:18)

582
So, again we need to have σy and σz because we got this x value 6400 meter. So, for this 6400
meter you go to this E classification, go left side get the σy which is 200 meter. Similarly, for
σz go up to the E classification curve, go left get σz value which is around 55 meter. So, now
you have σy and σz.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:45)

Again, the same equation of the point source dispersion model you can apply, Q value is there
σy σz we have calculated, σz we know now H effective stack height already given 40 meter.
So, that we will use this 40 meter. u = 5 meter is given again at that effective stack height in
the problem it is given, otherwise you can calculate, you can, it is very easy.

583
σy and σz values are there. So, we put those like Q value 200 kilogram per hour that value is
given, you can convert it into gram per second this equation is for gram per second. So, put
those values into gram per second.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:22)

55.56 40 2
C = 3.14 × 5 × 200 × 55 exp (-0.5 ( 55 ) )

C = 2.4695 × 10-4 g/m3

And ultimately the concentration you calculate is around 246.95 or 247 microgram per cubic
meter. So, this is the application of area source converting into virtual point source and
calculating using the point source dispersion, Gaussian dispersion modeling approach.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:41)

584
So, in conclusion, we can say that the Gaussian plume model is very simple model it has a lot
of assumptions although, but for policy makers it is a quick calculation approach basically and
it is used widely spread, it is very popular. Despite so many limitations and assumptions. Then
Gaussian plume model can be applied to all point line and area sources as we have seen, line
source no problem, area source you convert into virtual point source and then again apply that
is again very simple.

Although several assumptions are there for estimating concentrations from various sources
using this model, but rough values are okay for policymaking or these baseline scenario
creations. Variety of factors are there like wind speed or effective stack height, stability classes,
all these affect in fact these concentrations, so, we need to be careful about those things. Like
for example, effective stack height is important.

So, you need to calculate plume rise if effective stack height is not given. If the wind velocity
is given at the ground level, and you need to have the wind velocity at the effective stack height.
So, you have to apply that, if you remember (u1/u2) = (z1/z2)p. So, that equation you can use to
calculate the wind speed at the effective stack height. So, those kinds of things are there you
have to be alert, so that you do not make any mistakes, because these equations work on certain
assumptions.

Like u is the velocity at the effective stack height. So, you have to be careful that the wind
velocity should be at the effective stack height, if it is not given then you have to compute. So,
all those things then σy σz values you need to calculate, all those. If it is away from the central
line, then you have to be careful about the y value otherwise y you can put zero. So, these are
the things for today it is all.

So, I hope, this particular tutorial kind of exercise will help you to visualize properly how to
apply the Gaussian plume dispersion model in calculating these concentrations at the ground
level or at any distance. These are the simple examples which we have discussed, but you can
have little bit more complex examples.

I would advise that please solve on your own and you will be able to appreciate this particular
approach of Gaussian dispersion model. So, this is all for today. These are the references which
you can go at leisure to know more about this particular approach of Gaussian plume dispersion
model. So, thank you for your kind attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

585
 Air pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 19
Assimilative Capacity of an Airshed
Hello friends, so far, we have discussed dispersion modeling techniques like Gaussian
dispersion modeling for point source, line source, areas source. Now, today we would like to
discuss about Assimilative Capacity of an Airshed, you might have heard about watershed. So,
the catchment area and we look into all kinds of variables there like precipitation and runoff,
etc and the carrying capacity of a particular ecosystem like lake or river, how much pollution
it can digest within a given time framework.

Similarly, the airshed also has the carrying capacity or assimilative capacity. That means, we
can discharge certain amount of air pollutants into it and then it can clean itself, there is some
self-cleansing capacity you can say because of dispersion, dilution those natural phenomena
which occurs all the time. And then after that it is again clean atmosphere. And if it is beyond
the assimilative capacity or beyond the carrying capacity, then the atmosphere will be polluted
it will have poor air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:41)

So, first of all we will discuss about what is the airshed then, demonstration or explanation of
the airshed and assimilative capacity of an airshed we will define, then we will see like how to

586
estimate the assimilative capacity of an airshed through techniques of ventilation coefficient or
pollution potential.

Then we will see one example of determining ventilation coefficient of an airshed, then we will
have a case study, so that you can visualize what is the way to estimate the assimilative capacity
of an urban airshed or simply airshed and then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:13)

So, when we talk about the airshed, what is airshed? Airshed is a geographical unit. An area
within some length, breadth, or height you can say, topography is also there. So, this is a
geographical unit which has common characteristics of air pollution emission sources and wind
flow patterns due to certain topographic features or certain metrological constraints.

So, they have uniform kind of or common characteristics of air quality or emission sources and
wind patterns like wind velocity, direction and meteorological parameters like humidity or
temperature profile all those things. So, within that particular area, you will find certain plus
minus maybe there, certain variability can be there, but a kind of uniform. For example, you
can distinguish between a valley.

So, valley area where there are certain ways where this air will take the pollution from one
place to another there will be valley effect, there will be inversion phenomena, diurnal
inversion occurs because of changing of the solar insolation during morning time then evening
time and then daytime. So, that is the variation which is different than the plains and which is
also different than the coastal regions.

587
So, there are certain regions or geographical area which has common characteristics and we
call them as an airshed that atmosphere. It will also have watershed, it will also have other
things, so many several ecosystems, sub ecosystems or larger ones, but it also has airshed. So,
we can define within a boundary and this airshed can be defined as a part of the atmosphere
which behaves in a coherent way.

As I said, it will have some common characteristics with regard to the dispersion of the
pollutants, it will have certain view of dispersion, dilution of the pollutants because of those
metrological factors, it can range from a small area with fewer polluting sources to a large
metropolitan agglomeration with complex air quality problems. So, like here you can see this
figure which shows the airshed boundary for this Chesapeake Bay in the United States. So, this
is the boundary layer it is shown here.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:36)

Well, then this airshed boundaries can be defined differently for different situations. For
example, we can say that an airshed which is limited by geographical regions such as a small
valley as I just tried to illustrate it, or in which dispersion of air pollutants is limited by
topographic constraints, such as surrounding of the hills, water bodies etc.

Then during stable, stagnate, light wind situations, these particular features of the valley effect
or lake effect can reduce the dispersion of pollutants which are emitted through local sources
for example, there may be some industries. Or wood stoves like in villages people use wood or
cow dung or those kind of bio mass for meeting their needs for the energy and this can lead to
the degraded air quality because it does not disperse So, quickly as it happens in plain areas.

588
(Refer Slide Time: 05:35)

The next is like airshed can also be a large geographical area covering hundreds of square
kilometres because of similar type of pollutant emission sources, topography and meteorology.
As a result, it experiences similar air quality issues. So, wherever you go, you will find similar
kinds of emission sources like for example, in a city you will find those vehicular emission
sources, industries maybe there, domestic sources can be there.

But another city can have different kinds of sources they can have different kind of airshed, so
that can vary. And this airshed this covering large geographical areas we have seen this kind
of limitation or boundaries can be drawn to represent the airshed.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:18)

589
And airshed has this height within this atmosphere length, width, etc. The boundaries of airshed
can also be based on administrative considerations. For example, municipal corporation,
regional or political borders. So, this can also occur in vast relatively level areas with no
significant changes in land height like Delhi you can call one airshed. You can then call some
coastal regions airshed.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:51)

Then the methodology for delineating this airshed includes three main steps. First, we have to
quantify emissions to prepare a multi pollutant emission inventory. Without emission
inventory, it would be difficult to know how many sources, it would be difficult to know how
many sources are there and how much amount of pollutants are coming which kind of
pollutants are coming from which source.

Then collection of representative metrological data, we cannot have each and every corner,
these mythological towers, but representative means like industrial area, commercial area, then
residential areas, educational areas. So, because every area has different characteristics, so
representative metrological data can be collected within those particular areas.

And then we have to analyze, we have to evaluate those variations of the local and regional
level metrological parameters, then we need to predict air quality levels using air quality
dispersion modeling tools, which we have studied already. So, that can help in understanding
that atmospheric transport of pollutants or transformation of pollutants also if you use some
chemical transportation model from source to receptor and its dispersion in the study area.

590
So, you can see this emission inventory then analysis of metrological data, collection and
analysis, then air quality modeling, all these three aspects are there for delineation of airshed
related information.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:18)

Then we come to the assimilative capacity of an airshed. It is also known as carrying capacity,
many authors and researchers use different kinds of nomenclature. So, please do not get
confused, this is one and the same thing. But of course, we have to see other parameters like
pollution potential and those things we will come into shortly.

So, the assimilative capacity of an air environment is the maximum amount of pollution load
that can be discharged into that atmosphere without violating the best designated use of the
resource in the planning region, means, that means you can discharge or you can emit a lot of
pollution until it is within the those national air quality standards, it should not violate, it should
not exceed those limits, then assimilative capacity is up to that limit.

If it exceeds then it has crossed the assimilative capacity, that it means, the phenomena
governing the assimilative capacity of your environment includes like dilution, dispersion and
deposition even like dry deposition or where deposition all those things already.

591
(Refer Slide Time: 09:26)

Well, then what are the uses of this assimilative capacity? Why do you want to calculate it? So,
we should know about this feature, that this assimilative capacity can be an important tool for
suggesting the safe limits of disposal of pollutants for industrial operations or for planning
some industrial area as well as for area-based management of air pollution and to mitigate the
pollution levels.

So that way, if you are planning new city, new industrial area, then assimilative capacity you
have to estimate that this much of pollution load can be discharged into the atmosphere. You
need to know the boundary or background information of the air quality and then you do
modeling efforts, we will see shortly that how do we calculate so that you can know how much
pollution load can be allowed to emit different kinds of pollutants.

Well, the assimilative capacity in broad terms is an indicator of potential for future growth
keeping in view the resources such as air water and land because air pollution also can pollute
the water bodies it can also pollute the land.

592
(Refer Slide Time: 10:31)

As these are the integrated approach of the ecosystem. Well, then there are approaches how to
estimate the assimilative capacity. So, the broadly two approaches are there, first approach is
based on the ventilation coefficient, what is ventilation coefficient, we will know. So, this
assimilative capacity in the atmosphere is directly proportional to the ventilation coefficient,
which is computed through metrological parameters like maximum mixing depth or maximum
mixing height and the average velocity within that depth or height, we multiply that.

So, that particular thing is known as the ventilation coefficient. Then second approach is
through pollution potential or dispersion potential, these are two different opposite meanings,
you should be careful about. Like assimilative capacity is inversely proportional to the
pollution potential and directly proportional to the dispersion potential of the atmosphere.

So, it is estimated through dispersion models in terms of resulting ambient air concentration of
pollutants due to change in the emission sources, only then you would like to estimate, is not
it? So, you first one the emission dispersion models and then how much air quality is there. So,
the dispersion potential if it is more because of wind velocity because of certain topographical
features, then it will have more assimilative capacity. Pollution potential means if there are
more sources, if there are more chances of emissions of the air pollutants, then we will have
the less assimilative capacity.

593
(Refer Slide Time: 11:55)

Well, so, the ventilation coefficient we want to study, we want to know. So, you can see this is
you know this environmental lapse rate, it can be monitored by some way like balloons etc, or
those sodars. Then we need to this we have to have this particular adiabatic lapse rate related
profile. So, wherever they intersect up to that depth, we or height we can call it maximum
mixing depth.

So, we can calculate it easily, we need to have the actual profile of the environmental lapse
rate. So, the way temperature is decreasing or increasing with the height. So, this this one is
the actual, and this is the adiabatic lapse rate related. So, wherever they intersect that would be
the height which is maximum mixing height, or maximum mixing depth. And then we have to
know the wind speed at different heights up to the height, as wind speed increases with the
height.

So, we will have different wind disputes at different heights. So, we need to know the average
wind speed within that particular depth, or height of the maximum mixing depth. So, that
average speed of the wind is multiplied by this maximum mixing depth, then we get the
ventilation coefficient. So, the ventilation coefficient basically is an atmospheric condition
which gives an indication.

It is difficult to know how much pollution it can take, but it can really give us some sense that
the air pollution dispersion, ambient air quality and pollution potential will be more or less
something like that.

594
(Refer Slide Time: 13:24)

Well, so, the higher the coefficient, higher the ventilation coefficient, the more efficiently the
atmosphere is able to disperse, and dispose the air pollutants, and better is the ambient air
quality. And low ventilation coefficient, this lead to the poor dispersion of pollutants causing
stagnation and poor air quality, leading to possible pollution related hazards.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:47)

So, the mixing height as we have seen, you can have this particular temperature profile, then
draw the radiometric lapse rate, and intercept it, then measure this one. You can know this one
also like there is elevated inversion layer. So, below this mixing depth is there because pollution
does not cross this inversion layer. And there are various usage of this mixing height basically
it is used or involved in many predictive and diagnostic methods.

595
Because modeling techniques need this mixing depth for several calculations. It also need to
assess pollutant concentrations in models. So, we use this particular thing, atmospheric flow
models all these kinds of tools use the mixing depth.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:28)

Well, so, methods of determining mixing depth are many or several, which you already know
we have discussed in lecture number 12. So, those are like radio soundings, subjective method
with the experts opinion, objective methods, remote sounding systems, then it can be
determined by parameterization and modelling, like neutral conditions for unstable conditions
or stable conditions. So, there are several ways to determine the maximum mixing height or
depth.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:58)

596
Well, now how to estimate this ventilation coefficient? So, let us go through this very small
example for you, like in a given situation the ground level air temperature is 15 °C, it is given.
While the normal maximum surface temperature for that month is 26 °C, because every day
we are measuring. So, at certain day it was maximum 26 °C.

At an elevation of 100 meter, at the height of 100 meter and 300 meter the temperature is like
17 °C and 21 °C. Please note temperature is increasing with the height, so that you should know
that this is inversion phenomena, otherwise temperature decreases with the height normally,
when it is increasing then it is inversion. Well, the wind has a velocity of 2 meter per second
at 10 meter height, that is the ground level we know.

Whenever we say, what is the wind velocity at the ground level? that means, we want to know
the wind velocity or speed at the 10 meter height. The wind exponent is given as 0.3 which is
used for determining the wind velocity at certain heights, because 10 meter it is given at the 10
meter. So, we want to measure at 100 meter, 300 meter then we will use this particular
exponent. Then calculate the maximum mixing depth and ventilation coefficient with these
parameters.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:16)

So, let us see. So, the environmental lapse rate first of all we need to calculate. So, this can be
easily calculated by knowing the difference between the temperature, and knowing the
difference between the elevation or between the height. So, this is 300 and minus 100 this is
the height difference, then this is 21 minus 17 is the temperature difference. So, you can see
here this is increasing temperature with height.

597
 (21 −17)°𝐶
= 0.02°𝐶/𝑚
(300−100) 𝑚

So, this is the inversion ELR this environmental lapse rate is showing the inversion phenomena.
Now, dry adiabatic lapse rate we know this is 10 °C per kilometre decreasing, or you know 1
degree per 100 meter per 0.01 °C per meter. So, this we can draw, and it will intersect here. So,
this is the maximum mixing depth or maximum mixing height, this Z you can say.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:07)

Well then, we want to know what is the height basically. So, the at that height, when these are
intersecting up to that only the plume will go. Up to that air pollution will rise, and then it will
hang over there. So, that you can calculate easily with this particular relationship, because the
slope is given and the Z is there. So, Z will be used in both direction in both for both profiles,
and you will, you can shift the Z value, and you can determine it, it is around 366.7 or 367
meter.

5 + Z (0.02°C/m) = 26 + Z(-0.01°C/m)

26°C - 15°C
𝑍=
0.02°C 0.01°C
𝑚 + 𝑚

𝒁 = 𝟑𝟔𝟔. 𝟕 m

598
(Refer Slide Time: 17:41)

So, this is the maximum mixing depth. Well, now, we want to know the wind velocity at
different heights. So, we know the wind velocity at 10 meter, and we know the coefficient that
0.3. So, p is known 0.3, we know that Z 10. And the u 10 is known. Now, we want to calculate
u at different heights, and different heights are like 10, 100, 200, 300, or up to 366.7 which is
the maximum mixing depth.

Height, H Wind Speed

(in m) (in m/s)
𝑢 𝑧 𝑝
= ( ) 10 2
𝑢10 𝑧10 100 3.99
200 4.91
300 5.55
366.7 5.89

599
Ventilation Coefficient (m2/s) = MMD (m) x Avg wind speed (m/s)

Ventilation coefficient = 366.7 x 4.47 = 1639.15 m2/s

So, we have calculated this wind speed at several heights. And the average of this is to be
calculated so that we can multiply it with the maximum mixing depth, and the average value is
4.47 meter per second. So, multiply it with the maximum mixing depth to estimate the
ventilation coefficient. So, multiply and you get around 1639 square meter per second. So that
is the value of the ventilation coefficient.

So, it will vary means depending upon the wind velocity and the maximum mixing depth. In
the winter, generally mixing depth is low. So, it is low value of the coefficient, this ventilation
coefficient and low potential of the dispersion.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:50)

Now we come to the case study. So, this case study has been taken from research study or some
fieldwork by S. K. Goyal, and C. V. Chalapati Rao from NEERI. And this is assessment of
atmospheric assimilation potential for industrial development in an urban environment of the
Kochi, India. So, we have taken this is the source reference you can go through we have taken
only the few information just to give you an idea.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

600
So, the introduction of the case study is that this is based on atmospheric assimilative capacity
of a typical urban area which is in a Kochi city, this has been determined with respect to the
sulphur dioxide, emission and dispersion of sulphur dioxide we will focus only on that
particular pollutant. Then assimilation capacity of the atmosphere has been represented in two
ways like ventilation coefficient, and then other dispersion potential of the emission load
discharged into the region. So, we will use the dispersion model.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:53)

Well, the ventilation coefficient has been computed using metrological parameters for all
seasons like winter, summer, monsoon, post monsoon those kind of for the year 1998 to 1999,
and it has been represented by January, April, July, and October, respectively. Well, in second
approach the assimilation capacity is estimated through dispersion modeling approach.

601
In terms of concentration of pollutant ambient air concentrations, and the Industrial Source
Complex, ISC dispersion model for point source has been used which is of US EPA, which has
been used to predict the spatial and temporal distribution of SO2 through dispersion modelling.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:34)

Then, we have to see how much data we need to know. So, there are representative monitoring
sites like in industrial area, they have 11 monitoring sites and in residential area 3, commercial
6 sensitive areas 3. So, total 23 monitoring stations are there, where researchers have measured
the surface metrological data with respect to wind speed, wind direction and the ambient
temperatures.

These were collected at a height of 10 meter which is like ground level as I said, for which
metrological station was installed at Kochi during November 1998 to October 1999. And the
concentration of SO2 in the ambient air was measured using the Modified West and Gaeke
method, which is much popular for this SO2 determination.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:27)

602
Well, now in study they have computed ventilation coefficient for different seasons for
different points, we have given only this kind of sample representation. So, you can see for
summer here has been calculated this mixing height, then ventilation coefficient, and wind
speed. This is wind speed, this is the ventilation coefficient, and this is the mixing height and
this is the ventilation coefficient.

So, the multiplication of this mixing height and this wind speed is the basically ventilation
coefficient as you know. So, we have means, it has been drawn like that. Then the ventilation
coefficient you know the comparison was made for different seasons and it was observed that,
in summer it is the highest this ventilation coefficient which is also intuitively you can feel that
in summer boundary layer height is more mixing height is more a lot of volume is there for
dispersion.

So, that meant also wind flows with higher speeds, of course, it can vary from place to place
as I said because in hilly areas, or plane, or coastal regions, it can be altogether different. And
the assimilative capacity of the atmosphere is poor during the morning and late evening hours,
when this mixing height becomes lower, and it improves during the daytime in summer and
winter season when solar insolation is more so, mixing height increases.

In monsoon and post monsoon the ventilation coefficient values were found to be less, and thus
low assimilative capacity was estimated in comparison to the summer and winter. So, these
kind of assessment has been made in terms of ventilation coefficient.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:06)

603
Now, we come to the assimilation capacity as permissible emission load, which is basically
determined by available assimilative capacity you know in the Kochi region in terms of
industries growth scenarios, then predictions of the ground level concentrations were made by
using dispersion model, estimation of the assimilation capacity was made. So, how to
differentiate between this available assimilation capacity, and permissible emission load.

So, because the permission emission load is calculated by indirectly by available assimilation
capacity, and this available assimilation capacity is nothing but the permissible standard that is
the national air quality standard based concentration, and difference between these standard
and ambient pollutant concentration which has been background concentration is monitored in
actual.

604
So, the difference means, if it is low than the ambient air quality standards, that means more
pollution sources can be there and that will increase further but it has to be only up to that kind
of quantity or amount that permissible standards that is national ambient air quality standards
should not get violated. So, that gives the available assimilation capacity.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:21)

And then you know permissible assimilation capacity is basically taken as 75 percent of that
available assimilation capacity. So, that is your kind of thumb rule, because that 25 percent is
kept for considerations for future growth otherwise, if only one particular industrial
development if they are using the complete capacity then there will not be scope for the future
growth.

So, only 75 percent of the available assimilation capacity is used as the permissible assimilation
capacity. And as I said, like industrial area 24 hour average concentration of SO2 was measures
like 53, in residential area it was 5, commercial area 6, sensitive area 5, 24 hours concentration.
And the permissible limits by NAAQS is 120, 80, 80, 30. So, the difference between these two
like 67, 75, 74, or 25 and the 75 percent of this 67 is 50 basically.

So, this has been because we are talking about industrial area, in terms of weather, some more
industries can come some power plants can come refineries can come. So, this value has been
taken because those scientists have considered only this particular industrial development
related problem.

605
(Refer Slide Time: 25:45)

Well, so, the industrial growth scenario you can see this emission rate is estimated by
considering the permissible assimilation capacity of 50 micrograms per cubic meter this much.
And this is uniformly distributed in the impact zone of 20 x 20 kilometre that is known as the
particular airshed you can say, and the maximum emission rate is estimated for winter like
13,645 kilogram per day and minimum for the monsoon that was 5625 kg per day.

And worst case scenario is considered when all the emissions are vented through a single stack.
So, you can see here in industrial area related and this was the dispersion formula which the
Gaussian dispersion equation which is used. So, the Q this is the emission rate which we need
to determine, then there are other parameters which are like stack height and all those
parameters you already know.

606
(Refer Slide Time: 26:44)

So, they stack height, you know like in industrial scenario stack height for existing Kochi
around 30 meter only, and then refinery type scenario 70 meter up to 70 meter it can grow, and
then power plant type 180 meter. So, three scenarios have been considered by the those
researchers and they stack diameter are different for them, exit gas velocities also different and
those velocities have to be used in that formula.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:13)

So, the 24 hours average maximum ground level concentration of SO2 were predicted or
estimated and the permissible SO2 concentrations or emission load has been determined under
different industrial scenarios using this ISCST3 air quality model of EPA, and this is the basic

607
relationship of the Gaussian dispersion model which has been used and you know all these
parameters which are to be used for calculation purpose.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:44)

Well, so, it was estimated that in winter for existing type of industry characteristics the region
20 x 20 kilometre square can assimilate 1.1 tonne per day SO2, that one scenario industry
characteristic of existing means, existing scenario no change. If refineries to be taken, then it
was estimated that around 21 tonne per day can be discharged, it is allowed more why, why is
it so? Because of this is stack height. Because when stake height is more than 30, then it has
chances of better dispersion or dilution.

Then in case of power plant 180 tonne per day was estimated that it can be allowed because in
power plant you can see this 180 meter of the stack height is there. So, coincidentally that value

608
is also about that do not get confused about that, but because of that stack height, lot of emission
is allowed to be dispersed in the air because dilution will happen when it will come to the
ground level because of this very large stack height.

So, the power plant has a very high permissible emission load because of this very large stack
height 180 meter and this is higher than the minimum mixing height in comparison of all
seasons. So, there are maximum, minimum mixing height. So, the minimum means the worst
case scenario. So, beyond that it can easily disperse otherwise, it will take time for that
disposition of the pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:20)

Well, in case studies conclusion we can say that the ventilation coefficient does not give good
idea about the amount of emission load, it gives only the indication kind of that it is better
dispersion possibility or lower possibility, it can only provide a broad indication of the
dispersion of the pollutants low, medium, high like that, but does not give good quantitative
assessment.

But dispersion modeling reveals the industrial sources can be accommodated in the region if
correctly planned, means this gives the real values, whether which kind of industries can be
planned and how much it can allow the assimilative capacity to come through. Then
assimilative capacity in terms of the ventilation coefficient is quite poor indicating high
pollution potential in all seasons.

And dispersion modeling approach gives better results regarding assimilative or carrying
capacity. So, means this this is very interesting study thanks to Dr. Goyal and his team, that

609
you know the variation or the comparison of ventilation coefficient and this pollution
dispersion modeling related approach has given clear cut demarcation that dispersion modeling
related approach is much better.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:36)

So, overall conclusion can be taken from this list, that the common geographical area where
pollutants mix, create similar air quality kind of profiles had common wind flow patterns, they
are called the airshed as we have seen airshed, because the topic is related to assimilative
capacity of the airshed or carrying capacity of the airshed. So, we should know what is the
airshed?

The assimilative capacity of an airshed can be determined by estimating the ventilation

coefficient or by the assessment of the ambient air concentration of the pollutants using
dispersion modeling approach for different sources in a given region and thereby estimating
permissible limits as we have seen in Dr. Goyal’s study.

Assimilative capacity determination through dispersion modeling approach can be an

important tool for suggesting the safe limits of emission of pollutants from industrial operations
or you know for the say other operations also like power plants etc, and other sources as well
for the area based management of air pollution and to mitigate the pollution level.

So, this is all for today. I hope you now get clarity about what is the carrying capacity or
assimilative capacity of an airshed.

610
(Refer Slide Time: 31:49)

Now, these are the references for your additional information which you can go through at the
free time. So, this is all for today. Thank you for your kind attention. See you in the next lecture.
Thanks again.

611
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gujar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture: 20
Emission Inventory
Hello friends, today we will discuss about emission inventories this air quality monitoring
gives us idea about what is the status of air quality at a particular place, but if you want to
know the quality of a larger area, we cannot put instruments at each corner or at each site. So,
we have to do air quality modeling to learn about air quality or air concentration at different
points where air quality monitoring is not going to be installed or air quality monitoring
equipment’s are not going to be installed.

So, there we need air quality modeling, but for air quality modeling, then we want to estimate
air quality concentrations ambient air concentrations, we need input data at emissions. So, the
emissions are calculated and this emission inventories developed before we do the air quality
modeling. So, basically you can say that this emission inventory is the backbone of air quality
modeling.

If you do not have a good emission inventory, emissions inventory is nothing but estimation
of emissions from different activities, different sectors and we combine and the total
emissions in a particular city or a particular industrial cluster or country, country level
emissions are also reported to international agencies like if you want to control greenhouse
gas emissions.

So, every country has to report to a particular agency that this much of greenhouse gas
emissions are occurring in our country. So, the emission inventories developed regularly
because emission change year by year due to technology change, due to land use and land
planning change. So, there are several reasons why we need to have emission inventory at a
periodical intervals. So, in today’s lecture, we will see what is the emission inventory, what is
its importance, what is its role in air quality management.

612
(Refer Slide Time: 2:31)

And how it is developed basic what are the basic fundamental approaches which we use for
development of emission inventory and those basic equations which we use. And then what
are the activity data which are, we consider for estimating emissions for each activity data,
then types of emission inventories, because, several researchers and several agencies have
given some sort of methodology for developing emission inventory.

So, we will see different kinds of emission inventories which are available. Then guidelines
and manual so, permission inventories which have been proposed by different agencies and
the major sectors which contribute to emissions and the sector wise emission inventory we
will see later on, but today it is only introductory lecture about emission inventory and its
different aspects.

So, when we talk about emission inventory, it is a brief introduction then basically we talk
about air quality management because this is one of the fundamental aspect or component of
the air quality management. In air quality management, we need to monitor year then we
need to run some models because at every corner we cannot install instruments to measure
the air quality.

So, at different places, we want to have the air quality measurement, but at other places you
can calculate the air quality or ambient air concentration. So, for calculating ambient air
concentration through some air quality model, we need emissions. Emissions are the input
values for air quality models like dispersion models etc. So, basically we need to develop
inventory of emissions.

613
We need to estimate calculate emissions from different sources for example, you want to
know what is the effect of some thermal power plant at a particular place. So, background air
quality is there and that air quality is because of those background sources of air pollution
that may be from industries, from domestic transportation sector or some other plants etc.

So, you estimate emissions of all those activities and then you sum up them. So, that is the
total emission in that location. When additional source you wants to install, then you have to
add that also then you calculate the air quality concentration, ambient air concentration by
running a model. So, those emissions can change as per the land use and land planning that is
why the emission inventories are developed very periodically after some years because
technology changes, so, emissions also change.

So, emission inventory is a dynamic process it is not that you have developed once one
emission inventory and it will go for years, you have to incorporate the changes which have
been in some technology or policy related issues, land use related issues that influence the
total emissions at a particular place. So, that is why we say that emission inventories is one of
the fundamental components of total air quality management to major changes over time to
achieve that cleaner air. So, you can see in this picture also.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:46)

Air quality monitoring is the basic thing, then emission inventory has to be there, so, that you
can use the air quality model and control strategies depending upon what is the air quality
concentration as per different scenarios and you can achieve the clean air by changing those
emissions, which you get figures from emission inventory.

614
(Refer Slide Time: 6:07)

When like we want to define what is the emission inventory related to a given sector or
activity. So, you can see that the emission inventory of a given region for a specific time
period like for per hour or per day or per season or per year is a comprehensive is stock of all
the pollution emitting sources.

For example, vehicles, industries, power plants, road dust, construction dust, construction
activities related dust emissions, residential emissions, diesel generators and then biomass
burning, waste burning all those from hotels, commercial activities from every source, you
get the emissions you sum up, you develop the emission inventory. And then you use that
emission inventory for this air quality modeling.

615
(Refer Slide Time: 6:57)

And that emission inventory can be like per unit of time like total emissions of this Giga
gram per year, but you want to have grid based emission inventory which we will see why it
is important for air quality modeling. So, the role of emission inventory in air quality
management is depicted by this particular figure, where you can see the modeling, it is
related to inventory.

Otherwise, there are so many activities like quantification of actual emissions and
governmental impact assessment, development of policies to prevent and control emissions,
all those things are interrelated because emission inventory gives input values to the
modeling and modeling gives you certain concentrations of ambient air in pollutants in the
ambient air.

And then when you have the time series of those emissions and air quality related the values
or ambient air concentrations, then you can learn that a particular pollutant is increasing or
decreasing. And if it is increasing, what is the region, if it is decreasing what kind of changes
we have incorporated in our technology or fuel or some other activity, so, that the reduction is
there. So, those impact of policies can also be evaluated assessed by these kinds of activities.

616
(Refer Slide Time: 8:21)

So, the utilization of an emission inventory is manifold like it can be used for planning of
policy or decision making, because you want to change. For example, like in Delhi, you want
to change this public transport system to a particular fuel like CNG it was implemented. So,
how much gain will be there in reduction of particulate matter. So, these emission inventories
helping these kind of estimations.

If you want to change complete those road vehicles to electric vehicles, then what will be the
emissions of those non exhaust emissions like from road dust or from tires etc only those
emissions what will be the changes or you can reduce the exhaust emissions because of
change in particular emission inventory as per the policy and programs. Development or
pollution control strategies, so, as I said whatever control strategy we apply, it will reduce
emissions.

So, those emission inventories will be as per the control strategies, two stroke engine, it is
converted to four stroke engine, so, emission will change. So, accordingly emission inventory
will take these kinds of changes and this spreadsheet modeling or other complex modeling
can also be there for emission inventory because emission inventory is also developed by
certain models.

It is not only simple calculation, but sometimes it needs a lot of sophistication also. Possible
reduction measures and the air quality modeling or future projections you want to have,
according to this, targets or quantitative analysis of emissions whether it is decreasing
increasing, its impact on air quality, then its impact on health risk, all those things can be
related to the emission inventory. So, the utilization of emission inventory is manifold.

617
(Refer Slide Time: 10:16)

Then it also helps in like promoting better understanding of the actual emissions without if
we do not have the real figures, the actual values, we cannot really judge whether, the impact
is more or less for example, earlier people used to say that the transport sector is the sole
responsible for the poor air quality in Delhi. But later on when emission inventories were
developed and it was found that pollutant wise different sectors have different significance.

So, particulate matters were very much released by power plants. So, those kind of when you
have some perception, but that perception can be changed when you have the actual values,
although emission inventory development is also an estimation kind of thing, you can never
reach the actual or absolute value, you have this estimation based on your certain data and
then it also raises the awareness of both policymakers and general public.

Because for a particular city, let us say, you are having the emission inventory for different
sectors. So, with that sector, you will be able to judge, which sector is responsible for a
particular pollutants increase or decrease, if like PM10 you want to target and PM10 is coming
from a particular activity A and in comparison to the activity B. So, better you target the A to
reduce the PM10.

Then similarly, there are other modeling efforts for secondary aerosol generation. So, that is
also important that what are the precursors, which are resulting in secondary aerosols. So, can
we reduce those precursors? So, those kinds of things are also important and the, this
quantitative understanding of actual emissions through emission inventory help us to get that.
Major emission sources can be identified as I just said about that A and B.

618
Priorities for emission reduction can be defined by that emission inventory because it will
give you an information that this is the sector. This is the activity which is emitting the
maximum emission of a particular pollutant. So, better target that. Otherwise you will have
certain amount of money and if you distribute for each sector, you improve, but the
improvement in air quality will not be visible, because we are not tackling that particular
sector which is predominantly responsible for a particular pollutants emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:43)

And the emission inventory helps us to understand that the comparison of different sources.
Well, so, the modeling activities, the emission data, allocated geographically and temporally
means spatially, and with respect to time it can help or it can be used as input data for
atmospheric transport models and atmospheric dispersion models also. The resulting air
concentration will be important for air quality management decision making.

Because, emissions will decrease accordingly, the air quality will vary, the ambient air
concentration will vary, and then we can see which is more important and which is least
important as per their concentrations, whether they are exceeding, the ambient air
concentration standards or not. Then it can also be used for assessing the health impact
because once the concentrations, you can convert it into the health impacts also by using
certain equations by using certain models.

619
(Refer Slide Time: 13:48)

Well, other future projections and setting of the targets are also very important activity like
you estimate the future emissions for example, you can see after 10 years, what will the
emission of this particular city, so, you look at what kind of activities will increase or
decrease accordingly different scenarios you will create and based on those scenarios, you
can make the projections and you can analyze whether certain pollutants will increase or
decrease.

Accordingly, you can look at the policies and programs depending upon the projections. So,
the future emissions which can provide important information for setting up some emission
targets for example, let us say because of this electric vehicles, a particular pollutant like
NOx emissions reduce then it is good. So, that means, other sectors we can concentrate upon
for other pollutants rather than NOx or so.

And it can also influence like ozone production is being influenced by it or not. Those
modeling techniques can also give us additional information by incorporating those kind of
gases or precursors.

620
(Refer Slide Time: 14:58)

Well when we consider the possible reduction measures, then also it is important because the
prevention and control measures, how will you know that whether it is working or not, again
emission inventories, because emission inventories will incorporate those changes those
control measures. For example, power plants, if you are having, let us say this ESP to control
emissions, so, what is the efficiency of that ESP?

Accordingly, the emissions will be changed and your emission inventory will change. So, the
cost effective emission reduction measures can also be assessed by emission inventories,
because you can put different technologies and see what is the emission and accordingly
when you compare you choose the best technology which gives the least emissions.

621
(Refer Slide Time: 15:46)

When we plan some policy and majors and we want to follow up them their impact again
these emission inventories help us to rely upon the decision making process because it will
give the data and accordingly we can judge whether that policy is effective or not.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:04)

Well, when we talk about air quality modeling, we need gridded emissions because we can
calculate emissions as a single value, but we have to divide it according to the activities. In a
city also different pockets can have different emissions in industrial areas, they will have
different kinds of emissions, where roads are there then you will have more CO NOx
emissions, where power plants are nearer you will have different kinds of emissions.

622
So, the grid emissions are divided according to the activity data. So, the chemical simulation
in most of the atmospheric chemical models requires surface emissions in gridded form like
these kinds of grid square 1 x 1 kilometer, 2 x 2 kilometer depending upon how much data
you have. Those gridded emission inventory provides locational information of the emissions
of different types of air pollutants and their sources.

And using a dispersion model and local metrological conditions, we can convert those
emissions into ambient air concentrations. So, that will give us the real situation in which
particular location of the city which kind of pollutant will be more. So, according to we can
suggest some changes in the behavior of the people also. Suppose, according to the
metrological data and the emission, you find that only certain sunshine is good and ozone
production maybe higher in a particular location.

So, you can always warm that, the old people and those people who are having some health
issues, they should not visit that particular location, where according to your modeling the
ozone, concentration may increase because of some precursors.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:48)

So, the emission inventory development approaches also are different like bottom up
approach or top down approach. So, in bottom up approach, basically we go for detailed
activity data. So, it is very data intensive you can say extensive data set we need. For
example, let us say we want to develop emission inventory for a transportation sector. So,
from bottom up approach you need detailed like values of how many vehicles are there
within those vehicles, how many four wheeler, how many two wheeler, within two wheeler
how many two stroke, how many four stroke.

623
Within four wheeler, how many are driven by diesel or gasoline that is petrol or CNG those
kinds of things, as much data you have as much as you can that will help to develop more
realistic emission inventory that is the bottom of approach so, that you survey you get the
data primary data, you use them and develop the emission inventory that will be more
realistic.

Top down approach means by surrogate parameters, like for example, for a city how much
diesel was sold. So, then there are some thumb rules that, this much of diesel burning in
transport sector, this much of emission is occurring of a particular pollutant then you
distribute. So, that top down approach may be there or satellite data you have and you have
some air quality concentration in a column, you want to distribute it for other activities.

So, those inverse modeling can be done. So, those are the things that top down approaches
are sometimes coarser and it is not as detailed as the bottom up approach, but for like
preliminary decision making top down approach can be quicker, those kinds of things are
there to differentiate between the two.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:34)

Well, so the pollutants and this emission inventory, we consider depend upon what is the use
of the emission inventory. So, if you want to know, you want to run a model to see the acid
rain effect then acidifying pollutants you can develop emission inventory, NOx, SOx, etc. If
you want to see the health impacts, etc of particulate matters CO etc. Then you can have
these toxic pollutants.

624
Then heavy metals related emission inventory you can develop, you can develop persistent
organics related emission inventory or greenhouse gas related emission inventory. So, it can
vary depending upon what is the use, what is the problem we want to solve, if you want to
have the emission inventory of all pollutant, you can have it and depending upon how many
resources how much resources you have.

Because, whatever activity will do you will require a lot of resources trained people then for
survey, for collection of data a lot of resources are needed. So, there are limitations also you
cannot go for every kind of thing, unless you have a lot of resources for that particular
activity.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:46)

Then when we talk about basic equation of the emission estimation that is very simple, like
emission is nothing but the emission factor into activity data like emission factor means for
example, for vehicular emission inventory. You want to know when a scooter is running 1
kilometer, how much emission of CO is coming. So, the emission gram per kilometer,
milligram per kilometer depending upon different pollutants and for power plants etc you can
have like a coal is burning.

So, one kg coal burning how much emission is there. So, per unit of weight or mass you can
have the emission factors. So, depending upon the activity emission factors you can have and
then the total activity data you multiply means for vehicles, how many kilometers per day it
will run. So, you can multiply that distance traveled for coal burning power plant how much
coal will be burned in a day.

625
So, for that daily emission inventory or annual emission inventory depending upon you can
multiply those figures and get the emission data.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:49)

And these are the activity data as like transport. So, in transport vehicle categories as I said
fuel types and the quantity all those things are there. Well power plants what kind of
technology is being used, whether it is a gas based power plant or coal based power plant,
then waste burning. So, quantity per capita again different cities have different values for that
middle class, lower class they have different kind of lifestyle.

So, different amount of waste is generated different type of waste is generated then
biomedical waste from hospitals etc labs and then diesel generator. So, you just imagine the
activity. This is just a representative of these activities, but you can add whatever you want
and the activity data can be extended in that way.

626
(Refer Slide Time: 22:43)

Well, the emission factor as I said it is nothing but an average representative value that
attempts to relate the quantity of air pollutant released in the atmosphere from a particular
activity. So, it can be per kilometer driven of a vehicle or per kg of the coal burned something
like that.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:00)

And the types of emission inventories can be like annual average or seasonal inventories or
the forecast or future emissions related emission inventories, gridded or model emission
inventories, greenhouse gas emission inventories, you name the purpose and the pollutant or
the region accordingly, the emission inventory can also vary.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:20)

627
When we talk about annual average emission inventory. So, this is one example for like US
greenhouse gas emissions, this economy by economic sector from 1990 to 2018, you can see
the variation. So, when you have the yearly emission inventory, you have different values, so,
it also gives the trend. So, this transportation trend you can see in 2010, 2015 it is reducing.

So, you can see what is the region whether it is the fuel efficiencies better in those new
vehicles or the population is shifting from particular kind of vehicle to other public
transportation system or the technology is better, those kinds of things you can always look
into. And economic sectors could be like transportation, electric power industry, industry,
agriculture, so, different years, different activity and according to different emissions.

But when you have the time series of emissions, you can always come to this kind of insight
that some pollutants are increasing or decreasing and why they are increasing or decreasing
and if they are decreasing then that kind of technology we can further use or extend and if it
is increasing then we have to make certain changes.

628
(Refer Slide Time: 24:37)

So, that pollution does not increase constantly. Like seasonal emission inventory you can see
here, if we compare like spring season, summer season, autumn and winter. So, here also like
seasonal variation is visible. So, contribution rate for this PM2.5. It is shown in this particular
figure, and the secondary sulfate contribution rate is the highest in autumn you can see 24
percent around and the vehicle exhaust is highest in summer.

So, according to season which particular activity is more responsible for a particular pollutant
up to what extent? Then the road dust and the buildings, cement, dust have a relatively high
contribution in the spring and summer, which 2 to 4 percent higher than the winter. So, those
kind of insights or inferences you can always draw from such kind of figures, which are
based on seasonal emission inventory or temporal emission inventory.

629
(Refer Slide Time: 25:37)

When you talk about forecasted or future projections of emission inventory. So, you will have
these kinds of data for different years like from 2010 to 2030. So, projections are there for
future. So, here reduction due to reduced coal consumption in SO2 emissions is visible. So,
those kinds of policies are coming up that we are shifting from away from the coal utilization
then the SO2 emissions are being shown as decreasing trend.

In this NOx emissions, 2010 to 2015, little bit decrease, but then again it is increasing. So,
what is the reason for that we have to see? So, different you can see this is like power plant or
road transport or those kinds of things, you can see the road transport emissions are
increasing exhaust emissions are increasing. So, that is that will be the responsible if that
particular policy is being followed maybe it is not considering though those electric vehicle
kind of thing. PM10 emissions are also like, these are being increased in increasing trend.

So, this is for Kolkata city basically, one sample study you can see, so, that the emission
inventories, base year is 2010 and the projections are for 2015 and 2030. So, accordingly the
trends can be analyzed and you can link those trends with the particular regions and you can
address those reasons if you need.

630
(Refer Slide Time: 27:09)

Well gridded emission inventory is important as I said, because different kinds of models
need gridded emission inventories to pick from like for a country or for a city whatever you
are taking, so, the data collection like base map or point locations, attribute data, then digital
data generation, scanning of the maps and geo referencing, digitization of the map and
computing attribute data those kinds of things you have to consider.

And then then mapping and modeling, so, mapping point locations, generating grids and grid
overlay and then you allocate the emissions for different grids. So, that is the way to develop
the emission inventory in a gridded form, you can have total emission, but if you want to
distribute in different grids, then you have to follow this kind of procedure.

631
(Refer Slide Time: 28:01)

Well, there are different agencies, which have provided certain guidelines or manuals,
because emission inventory development, if you want to have uniform policy measures, and
the suppose, you are asking different countries to pull their emission in a particular agency,
then you have to provide them some guidelines, so otherwise, people will have different kind
of methodologies and you never know that, how much uncertainty is there in that emission
inventory which they are submitting.

So, guidelines and manuals of emission inventories have been prescribed by different
agencies like European monitoring and evaluation program, it gives this atmospheric
emission inventory guidebook. Similarly, IPCC intergovernmental panel on climate change.
So, for greenhouse gas related emission inventories, which they invite from different
countries member countries. So, the guidelines are given there. Those particular emission
factors they have to use according to the activity.

Then UNDP, United Nations Development Program, so, this gives department of economic
and social affairs manual. Similarly, the global atmospheric pollution forum, air pollutant
emission inventory manual is there.

632
(Refer Slide Time: 29:15)

And if we look at those guidelines, so, like for example, EMEP like European monitoring
evolution program, that gives manuals for these particular pollutants like SO2, NOx,
NMVOC that is known within VOC, VOC is volatile organic compounds, then methane or
ammonia and CO and it is applied for reporting the national inventory and the convention on
long range transboundary air pollution.

So, that is particular program and under that program when different countries member
countries submit the emission inventory. So, this particular guideline or manual they have to
follow.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:55)

633
Similarly, in IPCC as I said the member countries have to follow to submit to UNFCC as per
the guidelines which have been prescribed by IPCC.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:07)

That happens in case of UNDP also, which have different manual for these SOx, NOx and
VOCs you etc. So, every agency has a set of pollutants for that they need emission
inventories and for that they give the this guidelines.

634
(Refer Slide Time: 30:24)

Now, here you can see this UNECE reporting guidelines for emission inventories. So, the
principles are given. So, as a representative thing, just we want to give you an introduction,
what are the scopes like each party must report on emissions for the base year and every year
is starting with the year of entry into force. So, these are the guidelines, they have to follow
religiously.

Methods is also given and the reporting wage also given the numbers within the bracket
indicate corresponding paragraph in the that particular guidelines would say just a guideline
and only basis on the basis of that guideline people develop emission inventory, different
departments are there in each country, they are responsible for submitting those emission
inventories.

635
(Refer Slide Time: 31:09)

So, now, if you want to see different kinds of emission inventories, which are available in
Asia and the world, so, there are several names like RAINS-GAINS. So, this is database
which is developed by International Institute for applied system analysis which is in Austria
to estimate emissions of air pollutants including greenhouse gases. Similarly, EDGAR is the
EDGAR database is developed by National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
to estimate emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases.

Similarly, GEIA is there, LTP, ACESS, REAS, EA-Grid. So, different kinds of set of
pollutants have been considered in these emission inventories. And worldwide these emission
inventories are used by researchers and a lot of efforts are made to revise these emission
inventories. So, that latest emissions are available for researchers.

636
(Refer Slide Time: 32:05)

The pollutants targeted by different inventories are different you can see like UNFCC related
like SOx, SO2, NOx, we use these etc there, but ammonia is not considered in this. Black
carbon, organic carbon, PM10, Mercury is also not considered by this UNFCC. It has CO2
methane and two etc. Rains-gains it has this black carbon organic carbon PM10. So, you can
see in this particular table and chart different emission inventories have different strengths in
terms of particular pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:41)

Now, if we talk about characteristics of inventories, so, basically like how much area they are
covering? So, UNFCC related, those emission inventories are global. So, for all countries
they are providing emission values. Rains-gains is also global and then LTP like China,

637
Japan, Korea, so, they are country specific. And then access is covering South Asia that
means, this India, Sri Lanka, Bhutan all those countries within the South Asia and Southeast
Asia and East Asia these are the countries access inventory considering.

And what are the base years what are the categories anthropogenic or natural emissions are
also being considered. Then the spatial resolution, the country wide or the 1° x 1° that that
kind of thing is there. Then temporal resolution, whether it is annual or some seasonal those
kind of things are there. So, you can see here every emission inventory has certain
characteristics. So, accordingly the uses are also defined.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:49)

Well the emission inventory framework developed by CPCB, Central Pollution Control
Board of India is given here. So, you can see like career emission inventory experiences
based on those like identification of the consent sources those sources can be point source or
the line source or the area source and then the secondary data and primary sites survey data
which are available from secondary data may be available from the published literature or
reports that is also available.

Then we collect all activity levels sources and location data for each source type. And then
the emission this inventorisation of identified sources of as we discussed point, line, like that,
then quality control check should be there, data handling and this statistical analysis must be
there because uncertainty analysis is a very important component otherwise, maybe the
estimations are we away from much away from the realistic values.

638
Then the source wise emission inventories and source profiles, scenario analysis different
kinds of scenarios. Then we have this GIS mapping, the grid based emission inventory we
can develop. So, this is the basic framework which has been recommended by central
pollution control board. So, that different pollution control board or state pollution control
boards and agencies, they can follow this particular framework.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:16)

Then the, if you talk about major sectors of emission inventory. So, again this is just a kind of
sample for transport, agriculture burning, domestic activities, industries power, digital
generated, but you can also add like for construction activities or the waste burning, you can
just add whatever activity you want to include in the emission inventory. So, these are just
sample activities.

639
(Refer Slide Time: 35:46)

And accordingly those sectors we will discuss later on. When we compare emission
inventories for Delhi then like seasonal or area which area is there, NCT Delhi, year of total
PM10 then the Guttikunda, 2018, emission inventory, suffer emission inventory 2018, TERI
develop 2018. So, these are three emission inventories you can see variation. PM10 like TERI
rated only 67 the kiloton per year and this giving 238 and this is 268. So, they are near but
there is a lot of difference here.

So, what kind of sources they have considered, we have to see. Then the total PM2.5 emissions
also it gives a different values and IIT Kanpur related values are 52.34 for PM10, CPCB 2010
published this 2007 year fall, they have 64 this kiloton per year. So, accordingly because
there are changes 1 x 1 kilometer or 400 x 400 meter square meter or 4 x 4 kilometer, 2 x 2
kilometer according to different kind of grid size, different kinds of activities, different kinds
of emission factors, the values may differ for each inventory.

640
(Refer Slide Time: 37:14)

So, it is not necessary that one inventory is good and one other is bad, it depends on several
factors which have been considered to develop the emission inventory. Well, when we talk
about sector-wise contributions to PM10. So, when we compare emission inventories for PM10
in Delhi, you can see here different values for different sectors are there like here these
industries are up to this kind of percentage.

But for road dust is given much more for this inventory. And in TERI, it is not given so,
much share rather in TERI in emission inventory, the construction activities having quite
good share. So, maybe they have not considered that particular activity. So, we have to see
which parameters they have considered for developing the emission inventory that is why the
variation may be there.

Similarly, the estimated values also vary like sector wise variation in the emission inventory
or PM10 you can see here, so, for transport, 5 percent to 20 percent variation can be there, and,
like DG sets, it is quite less so, estimations are quite closure, but for road dust a lot of
variation 35 percent to like 65 percent. So, it means a lot of uncertainties are there. So, we
have to look into the methodology.

The methodology the emission factors they have used and the season and all the variation
variable factors which are used for calculation purpose, then we will be able to know why
this variation is there plus at the same time these kinds of variations also gives an indication
that lot of uncertainties are there, and we have to reduce those uncertainties, so, that the
variation reduces and we come to some kind of actual value.

641
But, this is a kind of dynamic process and every time some new changes are there, the new
emission inventory we have to develop. So, we have to go for this way.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:16)

So, ultimately we can conclude that the emission inventory is a prerequisite for Chemical
Transport modeling or dispersion modeling to calculate ambient air concentrations. And the
extensive data sets are required in collecting the activity data and emission factors for
estimating the emissions in this bottom up approach you can see. And the emission inventory
always tends to outdate due to increasing urbanization or population.

Therefore, it is necessary to regularly update the emission inventory. Otherwise, if we are

using the old emission inventory, and we are, estimating air quality concentrations by using
those old emission inventories, then those moderate concentrations will not be as per the
reality it will be erroneous kind of estimation. Then the gridded emission inventory will
substantially improve the spatial and temporal allocation of emissions.

And that way the air quality models, dispersion models will also give better estimations for
ambient air concentrations. So, this is all for today is an introduction to show you the
importance of emission inventory. Now, next time, we will see what are the different sectors
and how do we estimate the emission inventory for that particular sector. So, this is all for
today.

642
(Refer Slide Time: 40:43)

And the reference list is there for additional information. Thank you for your kind attention.
See you again in the next lecture. Thanks again.

643
 Air Pollution and Control
Lecture 21
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Transport Emission Inventory
(Refer Slide Time: 01:50)

Hello friends. So, you may recall last time we discussed about introduction to emission
inventory. So, how to develop emission inventory, what is the significance of emission
inventory, as we know, we need the emission inventory for the air pollution modelling, air
quality modelling or to discuss or to review various policy measures, which have been
implemented, whether their impact has been positive or negative, all those kinds of things can
be studied based on emission inventory.

So, now emission inventory can be developed for any kind of sector. When we want to have
emission inventory for an urban area, then we have to get emissions or we have to estimate
emissions for every kind of sector, whether it is domestic sector, transport sector, or industrial
sector, or waste burning, or whatever activity you can imagine all those activities which are
emitting one or other kind of air pollutant, we have to estimate it. So, that is the part of emission
inventory development.

So, when we talk about transport emission inventory, basically, we need to know what kind of
different models are there which can be used for development of emission inventory for the
transportation sector and what are their basic requirements, what are the input values the need
for estimating the emissions all those kinds of things we will see.

644
(Refer Slide Time: 01:56)

So, when we go for introduction of this transport sector-based emission inventory, then we
need to know why it is so important. As the globally, at the global level the transport sector is
responsible for around 25 percent of total carbon dioxide emissions, which is very predominant
greenhouse gas as we know. From the fuel combustion in 2018 International Energy Agency
(IEA) estimated and they publish this particular figure. In Indian context if you want to see the
significance of transportation sector, then basically this transport activity is the third most CO2
emitting sector.

And within the transport sector road transport contributes more than 90 percent of the total CO2
emissions, that is the greenhouse gas emissions and when we compare with the economic
development in India, the vehicle ownership is growing, the level has increased of the vehicle
ownership with a growth rate of around 10 percent for two wheelers and more than 11 percent
for cars within the 2001 to 2015. So, this has led to increased levels of emissions, congestion,
energy consumption, all those kinds of those activities, which are responsible for more
emissions.

645
(Refer Slide Time: 03:15)

So, if we talk about the emissions from vehicle categories, different kinds of vehicle categories
or road transportation basically, otherwise transport sector can be like even air ships or ships
or these waterways related container moving those boats or other kind of transportation modes,
all our transportation sector related emissions.

But for an example, for a sample if you talk about road transportation vehicles, then if we
categorize those emissions from vehicular emission sources, then basically like exhaust
emissions are there from tail pipe you know that. You go for the, that air pollution control
certificate when you go for that agency which measures from the tailpipe emissions. Then there
may be some emissions from like friction with the tire with the road.

So, those kinds of non-exhaust emissions can also be there, resuspension of dust when vehicle
is moving or when we are applying brakes, then some sort of emissions can be there. Other
kinds of emissions could be evaporative emissions, like from engine some oil is leaking. When
you are filling the tank with the fuel at the petrol pump, then again some these emissions are
also there or VOC’s etc. Those kinds of operative emissions can be there. So, basically three,
four, type of emissions are there, exhaust tailpipe emissions, non-exhaust emissions from tires,
brakes, etc, and evaporative emissions.

646
(Refer Slide Time: 04:55)

Well, so when we talk about exhaust emissions, then the predominant those pollutants are like
carbon monoxide, or oxides of nitrogen, then CO2 is of course any kind of burning activity,
fuel burning activity, ultimately CO2 is there, because we are burning some sort of
hydrocarbons. Then particulate matter is also there, then particulate matter can be like
carbonaceous elemental there are many variety of particulate materials and size also, but
overall we can say that particulate matter emission can be from exhaust emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:29)

Well, when we talk about operative emissions, then basically mostly volatile organic
compounds those hydrocarbons, they get emitted from fuel leakage etc. Non-exhaust emissions
as I said like these PM10, PM2.5, heavy metals from break wear or tires, roads etc. They are the

647
predominant air pollutants, which are emitted from non-exhaust emission sources of the vehicle
or category.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:57)

Well, so when we focus on vehicular emission inventory. So, basically we need to have
different kind of input data, like what kind of vehicle it is? Whether it is light duty vehicle,
heavy duty vehicle, two wheeler, three wheeler, four wheeler? Then technology two stroke and
four stroke engine? So, much data is required for estimating the realistic emissions.

Then emission standards, whether they are following or not. Fuel category, whether it is diesel-
based, petrol-based, CNG, LPG, ethanol, so many fuel are there. then various correction
factors, because the same vehicle if you are running at the like flat road or at the lower levels
like in Delhi and you take it to Dehradun, or Mussoorie, or any hilly area the same vehicle will
emit differently, because the pressure change, humidity, temperature every kind of
meteorological or atmospheric these parameters they also influence the burning activity, fuel
combustion activity.

Then vehicle kilometer travelled, some vehicle are running for hundreds of kilometres, then
their emissions will be more automatically and then how do you drive that is also important,
although in only sophisticated models that driving cycle is incorporated otherwise, it is
difficult, because we do not have much data especially in developing countries otherwise, in
developed countries, they also take the driving cycle into account, like somebody is applying
more brakes, some uses high speed, every person has different kind of driving pattern.

648
So, that also influence the emissions even if vehicle is same, same brand, same year, but
emissions will be different according to the driving behaviour.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:50)

Well, so when we go for modelling of the emission inventory, so input data and output data
this can be seen from this particular flowchart, like vehicle population, how many vehicles are
there in a city or in a country whatever, scope of the emission inventory is there that depends
on. Then types of the vehicle, what is the age of the vehicle, because as vehicles goes aging,
then emissions are more. Vehicle technology as I said two stroke, four stroke, or those kind of
thing.

Then fuel type, vehicle kilometer travelled, VKT, temperature, humidity, altitude, because that
influence the time this pressure etc. All these are the input values. Then they go into the
emission model and emission model what they give us, like vehicle emission inventory by
pollutants, like how much CO2 is emitted, how much PM10 is emitted, how much CO is emitted,
those kinds of things.

Vehicle type contribution means we know the values, which kind of vehicle is emitting how
much amount of a particular pollutant, like how much PM10 is coming from two wheeler, three
wheeler, four wheeler, those kinds of things. Then efficiency of the current policy, because
when you are implementing certain vehicular emission related policy or fuel related policy,
that will be impacting the emissions also. So, that can easily be visible, that can be seen in that
the patterns of the emissions, if you have temporal emissions like for every year like 10 years
or so.

649
So, for example, when CNG was implemented in Delhi. So, when you have those temporal
emissions for yearly like annual emissions for decades or so, you can easily see when this CNG
was implemented, how much these those particulate matter got reduced those kinds of things,
how much other gaseous pollutant got reduced, those kinds of things we can easily see.

Then input data for dispersion models it is useful, because for dispersion models emissions are
the basic input values. Then vehicular emission trends, so which vehicle is emitting more which
vehicle is emitting less. So, accordingly we can intervene technologically or according to the
policy, fuel consumption and their contributions.

So, which fuel category like diesel is emitting more particular pollutant or petrol, depending
upon how much it is consumed. So, that all those kinds of charts and tables, or metrics, we can
have. So, this gives a lot of information for us to decide about policies, decide about transport-
related activities or what kind of intervention we need to reduce certain pollutants, those kinds
of things.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:33)

Now, when we talk about like inventory models, because these are mathematical models and
they have different kind of characteristics like, we can broadly categorize them into like
average speed models, which uses basically the average speed which a vehicle runs with,
because we do not have driving cycle related data which is very complex.

Then we can have instantaneous speed models, which has the driving cycle related patterns.
So, for each second, minute, they can have they can estimate the emissions. Multiscale models
may be there which can go for different kinds of like exhaust, non-exhaust, evaporative, every

650
kind of very versatile models, they can have. Even in instantaneous speed models there are
models, which can you can use for that kind of activity well or average also.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:24)

So, when we talk about like MOBILE, this model’s name is MOBILE and this is developed by
United States Environmental Protection Agency. So, this is one of the average speed related
models. And the latest version is like MOBILE 6.2. This was last version in that series in 2004
and later updated to MOVES series. So, MOBILE got converted into MOVES series basically.

And this is applied in entire USA accepted by California. California has its own emission
inventory model. It can calculate like hydrocarbon emissions, NOx emissions, CO from cars,
motor vehicles, light and heavy-duty vehicles. So, good range is there for different categories
of vehicle. When we talk about like this MOVES, which is Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator,
MOVES. So, this has taken care now after the MOBILE. So, MOVES is more sophisticated or
improved version of the MOBILE you can say in that way.

651
(Refer Slide Time: 12:29)

Well, when we talk about like which are the correction factors which are to be used in this
emission inventory. So, ambient temperature, humidity or altitude related, correction factors
they use basically and then it can calculate basic emissions as per average speed which is
around 31.5 kilometer per hour for light duty gasoline vehicles.

Similarly, for other vehicles some average speed can be taken. This depends upon the city-to-
city and region-to-region and based on some ground level surveys we bring these kinds of
values which we use.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:06)

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This is the basic equation, where you can see like emission in per unit distance is estimated and
the speed correction factor is there, then basic emission rate is of course used and emission
offsets are there which are calculated or they give the value of emission in per unit distance.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:26)

Well, you can convert that know how much distance is travelled by so many vehicles. So, you
can calculate total vehicles. Now, we come to another model which is emission factor EMFAC
model, EMFAC model. So, this EMFAC model was developed by California Air Resources
Board. And this is provided for like emission rates or weight to estimated vehicle activity by
model year, those kind of parameters are there and this is the website of this EMFAC model
and one can go through it and they can use online also.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:05)

653
Well, when we see around like the vehicle characteristics, such as the vehicular kilometer
travelled, number of starts and number of vehicles are provided to the EMFAC by the
BURDEN model. So, another model is there, which gives some input values for the EMFAC.
So, then may be different modules, which can feed that required values input values to this
model. And this EMFAC 2021 was released on January 21 and now it is available on this
particular website, where you can look at it, you can go through in detail, how it is used, what
are important features. We are just giving an overview of these kinds of models.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:51)

These are the equations which are used for the estimations of emissions, where again this ex is
admission in per unit distance, then you integrate it for all the vehicles. So, for each category
of vehicle you can calculate that way and then you can club them or some summation you can
have.

654
(Refer Slide Time: 15:08)

Then one very important and popular model is COPERT, which is computer program to
calculate emissions from road traffic. So, in short it is called COPERT and it is very popular in
European countries. Basically, it was developed by European Environment Agency, EEA. And
the latest version is this COPERT version 5.5.1. This is the latest one and it was released in
recently in September 21 basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:36)

And it has huge scope for computational purposes of hot running missions, or evaporative
emission, or non-exhaust emissions, all those kinds of things. 105 vehicle categories, and
different 5 classes of the vehicles, cars, light and heavy-duty vehicles, urban buses, coaches,
two wheelers, everything is inbuilt in this particular model. So, you can play with it, you can

655
have emissions for different kinds of pollutants like CO, NOx,, VOCs, methane, CO2 and N2O,
NH3, ammonia SOx. You see, all kinds of air pollutants are there heavy metals, everything is
included in this model. That is why this is very popular and very versatile model you can see.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:22)

Well, then there is this Comprehensive Model Emissions Model, CMEM. And this is National
Cooperative Highway Research program related model basically and it gives the emissions for
CO, CO2, hydrocarbons, NOx, particulate matter and as well as the fuel consumption. The main
purpose of this model is to predict vehicle tailpipe emissions associated with different modes
of the vehicle operations like idle, cruise, acceleration and deceleration. So, I mean to say
driving cycle is incorporated in this particular model and this is the instantaneous speed model.
COPERT was the average speed model.

656
(Refer Slide Time: 17:16)

Well, then, you come to this particular other part of the CMEM model. So, this is the basic
equation which is used for emissions estimations and different input parameters are their CPF
like time dependent catalyst, past fraction is there, the rate of tailpipe to engine out emissions,
all those kinds of things are available based on survey and those agencies can provide these
kind of values.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:41)

Well in flowchart it is also given how these different kind of steps are there stages are there for
estimating emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:49)

657
Well, then another model is VT-Micro, which is Virginia Tech Microscopic Vehicle and fuel
consumption and emission model, this is VT-Micro model and this is used to calculate
emissions of hydrocarbons or carbon monoxide, NOx, CO2 fuel consumption. So, similar to
other models and this is again instantaneous speed model. So, it can have the driving cycle
related values inside it.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:18)

Then, EMPA model is their mathematical model, which is Handbook Of Emission Factors For
Road Transport (HBEFA) is developed by the former European this assessment and reliability
transport emission models and inventory system. And this particular project is there which has
supported this particular modelling activity and the advanced measurements and modelling
techniques have been used in this to solve series of differential equations. So, it is a

658
sophisticated created one it gives good range of estimated emissions from individual vehicles,
over short time scales also. So, at micro scale you can calculate.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:01)

But certain limitations are also there, like it does not include the dynamic behaviour of the
engine. And the inclusion of a catalyst model should lead to improvements in the existing
model that is also one scope and the main disadvantage of this model is that it has been
developed only for the light duty vehicle. So, for heavy-duty vehicle, this model cannot be
applied.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:24)

Then, when we talk about Passenger car Heavy-duty Emission model (PHEM). So, this is
another one which is developed by Technology University, the Graz University of Technology

659
in Austria. So, this have different versions available and according to the need it can be used
for particular purpose of emission inventory development.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:42)

Some input values like passenger cars, diesel or gasoline-based, which is the norms EURO-0
to EURO-6d, those kind of versions of emission norms can be incorporated. Light-duty
vehicles, heavy-duty vehicle, buses, coaches all those kinds of things can be incorporated into
it.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:04)

And all these values are given according to. So, this chart is given how it is used basically what
is the scope and for utilization of this model is represented in this particular figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:18)

660
Then, we go for another this instantaneous speed models, like Modelling of Emissions and
Consumptions in Urban Areas, MODEM. And this MODEM is an instantaneous emission
model as I said which is like produced during this DRIVE, dedicated road infrastructure for
vehicle safety in Europe. So, DRIVE is related that very good acronym very interesting
acronym. This was the program of the European Commission.

And this model is capable of estimating fuel consumption and emissions of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, NOx and CO2. Certain limitations are there like it is not capable of estimating
cold start emissions, evaporative emissions, emissions from heavy duty vehicles and
motorcycles, or emissions of particulate matters benzene. So, a lot of limitations are there with
this model.

661
(Refer Slide Time: 21:08)

Another model as we discussed when we were discussing about MOBILE modal, MOVES,
Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator. So, this is the new version and again except California, it
is used in entire USA and this gives again quite range of air pollutant and the latest version is
there MOVES 2014 version is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:31)

And this can estimate different types of emissions, such as engine running, starting and then
extending extended idling, evaporative emissions, brake-related, tire-related emissions, So, that
is why it is known as multi-scale models basically and then the input to MOVES model when
you want to estimate emissions. So, like vehicle mile travel, temperature, fuel location, and the
country specific inputs are needed for calculation purpose.

662
(Refer Slide Time: 21:59)

This is the flowchart for these moves. So, you can see different kinds of input values, where
they come from which kind of modules help them to have these input values and ultimately,
what kind of these output values are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:16)

When we talk about another this multiscale model, which is International Vehicle Emissions,
IVE model, this is very versatile model and very popular. It can it was developed basically
keeping in view about the limitations of data available in developing countries. So, this was
developed for developing countries basically and it was used in different countries including
in India also like in Pune, one study was conducted based on this IVE model.

663
(Refer Slide Time: 22:43)

And it can estimate emissions for a range of different pollutants like PM2.5, NOx etc, but it
needs different input values like types of age of the vehicle fleet, local conditions, ambient
temperature, all those whatever we have discussed so far fuel specifications etc. because they
will influence the emission factor and the emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:09)

The basic equations are using different kinds of parameters, which are the nomenclatures, given
in this particular page, you can go through like Q is adjusted emission factor which is ultimately
estimated.

664
(Refer Slide Time: 23:22)

Otherwise, there are many other factors for input values for this estimation of emissions from
this IVE model.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:29)

665
You can see these are different kinds of like Qrunning And this is driving cycle related emission
estimations.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:39)

And then all models like these MOBILE, MOVES, COPERT etc. if we talk about limitations
of these models, which are available in developed countries, they have certain limitations for
developing countries, we cannot just use them for developing countries as it is. We have to do
a lot of like adjustments or because these are data intensive, a lot of data is needed, extensive
data set which is not available easily in developing countries like India.

And then there are technology differences also. Their vehicles have advanced technologies
which our vehicles do not have. So, the estimated figures maybe not realistic in this case, if we

666
are using those models, which are very sophisticated, very data intensive, and that is why we
need to have our own model.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:27)

And then IVE model was designed but again, similar we found similar limitations with this
model also, it was not free from those kinds of limitations, which have discussed for other
sophisticated or advanced models.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:39)

So, that is why we thought that we should have our own model and this Vehicular Air Pollution
Inventory Model, VAPI model was developed in IIT Roorkee to address this particular gap, so
that we can estimate emissions from road related vehicles, different kinds of vehicle categories
particularly in Indian context.

667
(Refer Slide Time: 25:06)

So, this was developed in IIT Roorkee as a PhD thesis and now it is popular and many people
are using and for small cities to mega cities, you can it has a lot of flexibility in that sense. And
you can go for like estimation of different future scenarios also, like how many vehicle
population will be there in a city? So, those kinds of estimations are possible with this model.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:33)

This is basic input for VAPI model like what is the city? What is its altitude? It has inbuilt
values for several cities, but you can manually also give our input values initial year or final
year, projections for future, how many years projections you want to have, scenario creation
depending upon different technologies or policy implementation, which is the base year,
emission factors you want to have the default one which are part of this model or you can have

668
your own emission factor. So, that way this model is very, very flexible and very simple
procedure it has.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:08)

So, other input values for this particular model are needed like vehicle type broad categories,
fine categories depending upon their categories. Then phasing out age of the vehicles after
which age this is taken out of the road, then these GDP or purchasing power or income of the
people. Then population growth, vehicle ownership, saturation level, vehicle kilometer travel,
VKT, temperature, humidity, altitude, these are the correction factors, all these have been
incorporated, which are easy to get in Indian context. So, only those input parameters have
been given more importance.

669
(Refer Slide Time: 26:48)

Well, this is the core architecture of this VAPI model. So, you can see all those input values
are there and how these correction factors at what stage they are used to estimate the emissions
from different kinds of vehicular emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:00)

Well, when we talk about like running exhaust emissions. So, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
NOx, CO2, PM benzene, all these VOCs etc, can be estimated by using this particular model.
Then running loss of evaporative emissions are also possible to estimate. Non-exhaust
emissions are also possible to estimate from brake, like wears or tires, PM10, PM2.5, these
emissions can easily be estimated depending upon which emission factors you have.

670
(Refer Slide Time: 27:32)

And this is the basic equation, which has been used for this particular VAPI model. So, the
main concept behind this is calculating running exhaust emissions. And it can apply emission
factor with climatic and geographical correction factors like temperature, humidity, altitude
etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:54)

So, you can see different correction factors, emperical relationships are there which have been
borrowed by from different literature. So, we have taken best features of all good models and
we have tried to make it as convenient and comfortably usable in the Indian scenario.

671
(Refer Slide Time: 28:13)

Well geographical correction factors are there which can be calculated by this equation. So,
this is the part of this calculation part of the model.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

Vehicle population at what stage it will be saturated those are that kind of equation is also there
for calculating the vehicle population.

672
(Refer Slide Time: 28:31)

So, projects and can be made and you can have a good reliable fair figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:38)

And then you can have these registered vehicles, different kinds of models and after a certain
age, how many vehicles will go out. So, at a certain point of time, how many vehicles are there
on the roads, how many vehicles go out of the city, how many enter, all these are incorporated
in this based on the survey based figures.

673
(Refer Slide Time: 28:56)

When we run these operative admission model, so this is the basic equation which is emission
factor-based which can give you those values.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:06)

Similarly, for non-exhaust emissions, this is the equation which can give you non-exhaust
emissions.

674
(Refer Slide Time: 29:13)

Then, if we try to compare different kinds of models and we want to see what are their special
features? What are their advantages, what are their limitations? So, we have compiled these
data in this particular table which you can go at leisure.

So, they have comparison depending upon range of these pollutants, which kind of pollutants
they can measure or type of the vehicle category like some models are only for light-duty
vehicles. Some are for heavy-duty, some are incorporating all types of vehicles.

675
(Refer Slide Time: 29:49)

So, depending on those characteristics, different models have different advantages and
disadvantages.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:55)

So, this is, the summary in this table for all kinds of models which we have discussed.

676
(Refer Slide Time: 30:01)

So, this is all for today in conclusion, we can say that the rising of urbanization, increasing of
urbanization and industrialization, they have given the need of this motorization and the fuel
demand and that is why the increasing of the emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases
from transport sector and especially, road vehicles and the vehicular emissions that can include
tailpipe emissions, non-exhaust emissions, all those kinds of emissions, they can be estimated
by using different kinds of models.

And the vehicular emissions models, which are developed for several countries are used to
estimate emissions from transport sector in those, specific country’s context. So, it is not good
that we just use those models for estimating our transport sector related emissions. We should
rather have our own emission inventory model.

So, in that way VAPI model is good for India or like developing countries, which can give
quick and it is less resource intensive and quick model, which can give you the like baseline
related scenario for policy making activities or for checking whether some policy or technology
has given positive impact or not, how much improvement is there all those kinds of things are
possible with the result of the VAPI model.

677
(Refer Slide Time: 31:31)

So, this is all for today. Thank you for your kind attention. These are the references you can go
through for having additional information. See you in the next lecture. Thank you.

678
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 22
Emission Inventory for Industrial Sector
(Refer Slide Time: 01:19)

Hello friends. You may recall last time we discussed about how to develop emission inventory
of transportation sector. And today, we will discuss about emission inventory for industrial
sector, because emissions are released by several activities anthropogenic activities, whether it
is transportation sector, industry sector, agriculture, power plants, any kind of activity where
we burn some fuel and combustion occurs, then some emissions come out of these activities.

So, after brief introduction, we will look at what kind of emissions are there from industries
and then what are the different models, which are available to estimate the emissions, that
means to develop emission inventories for industries.

Although these models like MARKAL, GAINS, these are the general models means they can
develop emission inventory for all possible sectors, but we will focus only on the industry
sector, which they also cater. Otherwise, you can also develop some spreadsheet models
especially related to industrial activities or any activity, that is very simple when you use certain
relationships of those activities which emit some sort of air pollutants and greenhouse gases
etc. And after case study at the city level using GAINS model, we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:53)

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So, when we talk about industrial activities with use combustion of fossil fuels. So, the burning
activity of fossil fuels and fossil fuels are basically hydrocarbons and they also have certain
other elements like Sulphur and other things. Then nitrogen comes from even air also. Some
nitrogen may be present in fuel also and other things may also be present impurities may be
there. So, they are oxidized and then some emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases
comes out of those particular burning activities.

And these emissions, when we focus only on industrial activities, so there are several smaller
small, mid or large scale industries, which have different kinds of emissions depending upon
what kind of processes they are tackling, or they are using for manufacturing for operating
some other elements.

So, according to those processes, there are several kinds of air pollutants emissions are there
and the emissions when they come into the air, then naturally whether they come from any
other sector not only the industrial sector, when people are exposed to those pollutants, then
there are negative health impacts, environmental impacts are also there. So, those kinds of
impacts are there.

680
(Refer Slide Time: 03:16)

And as you know, because whatever manufacturing activity you do, whatever product you are
manufacturing, there is a use of energy. Energy comes out of from some source, whether it is
coal burning, or oil burning, or some other act like electric power is also a source of energy,
but where electricity is produced if it is not from renewable resources, then it is coming from
some like coal or oil-based power plants. So, again air pollution emissions are there. Biomass
may also be there some source, diesel, petrol anything.

Well, these emissions are the functions of different kinds of factors like quality of the fuel, then
the combustion efficiency, if it is more efficient then CO2 is more rather than other pollutants
like CO etc. And stack emission control strategies and technologies, because even if some
emission is coming out of some activity, when it passes through the stack, if you are providing
some controlling mechanism, air pollutants controlling equipment’s like ESPs or scrubbers etc,
they will capture those pollutants, and the cleaner air will come out will come out of the stacks.

So, it will depend I mean the fuel quality as well as the state control like equipment’s and the
efficiency of the combustion process, all those kind of technological interventions can
influence the total emissions out of those industrial activities.

681
(Refer Slide Time: 04:50)

Well, then, when we talk about other factors, then also there are additional factors like presence
of a large number of small-scale industries maybe responsible for total high emissions. The
reason is because small scale industries do not have much resources to install air pollution
control equipment. So, that may be one reason, that their emissions are more polluting and
when collectively we look at that, then high emissions may be from small scale industries.

Then use of outdated technologies are also one factors for example, someone is using that oil
for furnaces. And somebody is using electric furnaces, then naturally oil based furnaces will
emit more pollutants in comparison to the electric furnaces at the local level. Although someone
can argue that, if electricity is produced from the coal-based power plants, that will also emit
pollutants, but that will be far away where the electricity is being produced. Well, when we
talk about like different policies matter,

So, if there are not proper appropriate policy interventions, then also emissions may be more.
Inefficient waste disposal can be one reason for more industrial emissions, unplanned industrial
growth can be there responsible for large scale emissions. The reason is because if the plant
industries are there, it is easy to control them to implement some policies or to implement
certain technological intervention. Unplanned growth, they also kind of deter these kind of
policy and technological interventions.

682
(Refer Slide Time: 06:31)

Then if we talk about the status of industrial emissions in case of India, then stack emissions
play very, very important role in defining the industrial ambitions in case of India, because the
fuel which is combusted having very high ash content and that is responsible for high amount
of particulate matter. So, we have to provide either good ESP electrostatic precipitators or bag
house filters etc. Otherwise, particulate matters will be released in very high quantity at the
stack level, because of those impurities in the coal.

Well then other than large industrial units there are 36 million micro small and medium
enterprises. And many as I said many small-scale industries do not have sufficient resources to
install very expensive air pollution control equipment. So, that is also one very large or
important factor. Then financial and technical aspects are major constraints for the control of
pollution in small scale as well as micro and medium enterprises also.

So, sometimes industries pool and then they have certain technological interventions,
especially like a wastewater treatment plant, it is easy for them, but for air pollution control
each industry has to install their own equipment’s, otherwise it will be very cumbersome and
complex issue to control emissions of the air pollutants.

683
(Refer Slide Time: 08:01)

Well, now, we come to those kinds of models which are available which can help us to estimate
emissions from industrial sector. One of them is MARKAL model, the market allocation model
shortly known as MARKAL model. So, this was developed in a cooperative mode by a project
which was multinational project over a period of almost two decades and it was by Energy
Technological System Analysis Programme, of the International Energy Agency (IEA), so that
was the sponsor of this project and over two decades the research development went on and
this very refined model came into existence.

So, this is a model which is basically used for compliance with the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, because energy related emissions it can estimate very nicely.

684
(Refer Slide Time: 08:54)

Well, this incorporates the conversion of consumption of energy and the user-defined network
includes in this particular model, like all energy carriers involved in primary supplies, for
example mining, petroleum extraction etc. Then conversion and processing like power plants,
refineries, they are also means this model can handle those kinds of sources also. Then end-use
demand for energy services, for example, automobiles or residential space conditioning,
commercial activities, all those kinds of things, this is very versatile model in that sense, it can
incorporate all these things.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:34)

And this is the basic equation basic approach you can say, the broad approach which is used in
this model like this Ek and summation of different activities and 1 minus ƞ, that is ƞ is nothing

685
but the removal efficiency. So, because if you minus it you deducted then the emissions will
be calculated. X, the actual application rate of control technology is there and A is the activity
rate.

𝐸𝑘 = ∑ ∑ ∑ (1 − ƞ𝑙,𝑚,𝑛 ) 𝑋𝑘,𝑙,𝑚,𝑛
𝑡 𝑚 𝑛

So, basically you have this activity rate for all kind of like regions or sectors or fuel. So,
accordingly it can vary and you can then sum up. So, all those kind of activities depending
upon the sector fuel etc. you calculate and then you integrate or you sum up, then the total
emissions come for that particular k, that is the region you can say in that sense. So, that is the
summation of all calculations.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:31)

Well, when we talk about this framework, so you can see like these are the model inputs like
population projections, GDP projections of that particular region and if you are calculating at
the country level, then the country, then sectoral demands like agriculture, commercial, how
much energy is being demanded by these sectors. So, we are basically focusing on industrial,
so we can focus only on industrial demand-related issues.

Then you can see other things then this all these things come into the model, model processes
according to the equations and the output comes in different ways. For example, it can have
resource wise final energy requirements, it can calculate, supply side technology deployment,
it can also suggest, it is a very good thing in that sense. Demand side technology deployment
also it can give investment requirements, because it has all these unit costs etc.

686
So, that is also possible then emissions of carbon dioxide or other pollutant depending upon
what kind of pollutants and greenhouse gases you are planning to estimate those emissions. So,
you can play with that model and you can get those values.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:46)

Well, the industrial emissions using MARKAL model in India, several calculations has been
made like cement for manufacturing of the cement, iron and steel production or aluminium
production related industries, glass industry, paper industry, fertilizer industry or brick kilns,
power plants, all those kinds of industrial emissions have been calculated using this MARKAL
model.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:09)

687
When we talk about cement manufacturing, so this economic growth has given or raise the
demand of the cement, because several infrastructure projects are going on. Then construction
activities are going on. So, they need lot of cement. So, from cement manufacturing activity,
you can see these are the production-based emissions of different kinds of pollutants like SO2,
NOx, PM10, PM2.5, CO etc. You can see here and the past and projected emissions are shown
for cement manufacturing in India.

So, it is shown that SO2 emissions may increase, if you do not deploy the proper technologies,
which can control these emissions. NOx emissions are the second growth of the otherwise this
SO2, sulphur dioxide is the predominant emissions, which are coming from cement
manufacturing activity.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:59)

When we talk about iron and steel production, then the scenario is like SO2 is also increasing,
but the CO, CO is also very much increasing. So, these are the two dominating pollutants which
are coming out of iron and steel production and like in India, this is the second largest steel
producer with production extending around 111 million tonnes in 2019. So, India produces lot
of iron and steel. So, that way the growth is taking place in this industry. So, accordingly the
emissions of different pollutants are also increasing.

688
(Refer Slide Time: 13:41)

So, you can see this production of aluminium in India stood at 3.65 million tonne in 2020 and
in values, if you see the monetary value, then it is around 20.18 million of US dollar. So, that
kind of scale of aluminium production is occurring here. But if you compare with other iron or
steel or cement, the increase of the CO and SO2 emissions is not as sharp as in those particular
industries in this case.

So, this is interesting to see what are those reasons means, either the growth is not that much
sharp in comparison to those industries or maybe some better fuel consumption, or better
efficiency of the technology, those kinds of things may be responsible.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:25)

689
Well in glass industry also the growth is there, it is not so sharp as cement and iron and steel
industries, but glass industry, because it caters lot of demands for sectors like construction,
automobile and consumer goods etc. The growth is taking place as per the GDP and the
emissions of different pollutants are also increasing. In this particular you can see this NOx
emissions is and the SO2 emissions are more in this case, CO emissions is not so much, that
means the production-related and the combustion-related processes are better in efficiency, that
is why CO is less, CO2 maybe more.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:09)

Well in case of paper industry again CO and SO2 emissions are more in this case and this Indian
paper industry accounts about 2.56 percent of the world's paper production and presently per
capita paper consumption is less than the China and US like it is only 9.3 kilogram in India per
capita consumption, against 42 kg in China and 312 kg in US. And the reason is very simple
in developed economies, a lot of packaged things get transported and in India, that segment is
still a smaller one which has all those kind of packaged food and then the transportation of
different goods etc, in packages, those kind of the usage of paper maybe there.

690
(Refer Slide Time: 16:00)

Now, you can see in fertilizer industry, the emissions of NOx and CO is increasing very fast
and because the production of fertilizers is also very high in case of India agriculture sector is
growing, the usage of fertilizer is increasing. So, that is why you can see the emissions of NOx
and CO is increasing, but interestingly, the SO2 emissions are decreasing. So, that means some
processes are different in comparison to other industries, but we have to control the emissions
of CO and NOx.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:39)

Well, when we talk about the brick kilns, then again the emissions of different kinds of
pollutants are increasing, for example, this CO and this is like PM10. So, these are the
predominating pollutants and you see the comparison with different countries like China is

691
responsible for 54 percent production of the bricks, and 4 percent Bangladesh, India is around
11 percent, so that second largest are the other countries if you see in total otherwise, India is
producing around 11 percent.

So, like approximately 17 tonnes, you can see of coal is required to produce one lakh bricks.
So, incomplete combustion of the coal results in the increase of or release of the several
pollutants in the atmosphere like CO, sulphur dioxide, oxides of the nitrogen and the particulate
matters.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:37)

When we look at the power plants, so again you can see the CO2 is coming and NOx, SO2 etc.
They are coming in large quantity from the power plants and you see the need of the energy is
growing, because living standard is getting better and people are demanding more energy for
having better quality of life.

692
(Refer Slide Time: 18:01)

So, now, we talk about this GAINS model after MARKAL. So, GAINS model is nothing but
the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies Models. So, in short we call
it GAINS model and this next version of the RAINS model you can say. Earlier it was Regional
Air Pollution Information and Simulation model. So, this was developed by IIASA, that is
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. And they had this program of atmospheric
pollution and economic development.

So, they under this program, over the 20 years, this modelling framework has been developed,
it is very exhaustive model a lot of things are there. And this can have integrated assessment
of this even cost and potential of air pollution control and greenhouse gas mitigation strategies,
assessing interaction between different policies. So, that way this is wonderful model, which
can give you not only the quantities of the air pollutants, but also different scenarios of
technological related interventions etc. We will see further in detail afterwards, after short
while.

693
(Refer Slide Time: 19:12)

And this GAINS model can estimate major air pollutants like sulphur dioxide, or NOx, or
VOCs, volatile organic compounds, and then particulate matter ammonia. In greenhouse gases
it can compute like CO2, methane, nitrous oxide or other gases, which are responsible for
greenhouse effect, for each country, it has complete database and from different sources, they
have compiled those inventories and database are there.

Well, so it can estimate for each country and region all potential emission reduction strategies,
mitigation strategies, technological interventions and it has around 2000 specific emission
control measures and their cost involved. So it is a very kind of exhaustive data set it has plus
it has a lot of possibilities for playing for different regions for different strategies, how much it
will cost, how much emissions are there, what kind of strategies may be there which are
possible in that particular region. So, those kinds of possibilities are there.

694
(Refer Slide Time: 20:19)

Well, when we talk about like scenarios, then in operation mode, two major scenarios are
discussed like scenario analysis or you can say optimization mode. So, these are the two basic
modes.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:37)

But, in three ways, three ways you can use for policy intervention calculations and multiple
benefits like simulation of the cost which gives the health and ecosystems benefits for the user-
defined packages of emission control measures. And the other is cost effective analysis which
is used for identification of least cost packages for measuring, which can achieve user-defined
policy targets. And the last one is cost benefit assessment that maximize the monetized net
benefits in monetary terms of the policy interventions.

695
(Refer Slide Time: 21:12)

Well, when we see at this matrix, so these are the multiple pollutant matrix based on that we
can have a perspective like different health impacts, because of particulate matter, we can have
loss of life expectancy from Ozone we can have we can have premature mortality, all those
vegetation damages, ozone, acidification eutrophication, that may be responsible by those
emissions, climatic impacts maybe there, near term forcing, then black carbon deposition at the
to the Arctic. Those kind of scenarios can be discussed.

And then different kinds of pollutants are covered in that particular activity you can see. So,
related to those pollutants with their corresponding impacts we can assess, and then we can
also determine different scenario based analyses, whether this pollutant will cause how much
health impact or how much environmental damages.

696
(Refer Slide Time: 22:11)

Well, this is the kind of the first interface of the GAINS model, where when you go to the site,
this is online available. So, the web interface of the GAINS model can be accessed at this
particular link. And then you can go to this particular point, where you can click proceed to log
in, when you want to use this model.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:34)

So, then this gives the choices of different areas like which area you want to calculate emissions
and you want to see what kind of policies will have how much impact in different ways. So,
like Europe or South Asia or Asia, global all those kinds of possibilities of different regional
combinations are there.

697
(Refer Slide Time: 22:58)

So, you can go, for example, we can select Asia. So, in Asia this kind of colour you will see,
when we choose it, then this will give this kind of colour scheme that, you have chosen this
particular area or region for which the calculations will be there by this GAINS model.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:14)

Then it gives us when we click next, then we have this particular window where we can create
the account or if we have account, then we can do login or sign in means user ID and password
and you can go into the model.

698
(Refer Slide Time: 23:30)

Then, we see like different kinds of things are there like some default modes of the basic model
are there and then, you can toggle also with the advanced mode, where you can have various
other possibilities. So, you can see here advanced mode, there are different possibilities which
can you can try for calculation purpose.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:54)

So, what are those interfaces, we can discuss like activity data are there, which the activity tab,
activity data tab this gives like various kind of menu options for anthropogenic activities which
are used by GAINS for calculating emissions. So, those activity data are defined.

Then if we go for emission controls tab, so this gives possibility for different scenarios that
allows the user to create on control strategies, how do we want to control. Some policies may

699
be specific to a particular country or you want to test what kind of policies can give how much
impact positive impact, so you can define your own policies, control policies, control measures.

Then emissions this option displays when you click it, then the emissions will be displayed
after the calculation back at the back calculations are there. So, this option displays the
pollutants and greenhouse gases. The emissions which are selected for the selected scenarios
and selected region or countries. Then cost option, this gives the cost, how much cost will be
there for those kind of control strategies which we have provided.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:14)

So, then we come to this type of air quality and impact. So, this gives different options to
display like what is the air quality and what are the its impact in terms of health and
environmental impacts for those selected emission control scenarios. So, that can be displayed.

Then when we go to the scenario management, then we can view assumptions about controlling
emissions in GAINS scenario, then data management is there for providing different tools for
data modification and management. Similarly, admin related the tab is there which can be used
for admin related points or those kinds of possibilities.

700
(Refer Slide Time: 25:42)

When we talk about like how this data is displayed, so you can select as we have discussed like
emissions either from basic or advanced interface you can select. Then there will be these
emissions like different pollutants like NOx or PM, those kind of things. So, you can specify
the pollutant which you want to calculate the emissions for.

So, let us say like for particulate matter, then you click the particulate matter, if you want to
calculate for SO2 then you click the SO2, you can select accordingly from this second number
step. The third is the result. So, when we click then the results will be there.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:23)

Then different parameters which can be seen for different selections like it has many scenarios,
so scenarios and that is based on different kind of project activities, different group activities.

701
So, we know what particular scenario does. So, accordingly we can choose the specific scenario
and the region of interest can be selected, then pollutant type can be selected as we have seen,
then we click the Show, then it can show the results.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:53)

Then you can see these are the different emission scenarios as we talked. So, accordingly which
scenario you are considering you can select.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:01)

So, when we click the Show button, so these kinds of graphs are available, calculations take
part in the backend and it displays. So, you can have this PM2.5 emissions for key sectors. And
for different years, like here from 1990 to 2050. So, the scenario based calculations are there
and they are decreasing, because some sort of policy measures we are implementing

702
technological interventions we are implementing, so that is giving the lower amount of
emissions, because those efficiency related scenarios, technological intervention related
scenarios.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:39)

Well, when we talk about like different kinds of charts, we can select bar diagram or other kind
of charts, presentations are there. So, you can select accordingly.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:53)

Well, you can also see these charts for you can export it for different formats like PDF or image
file you can share with other people other researchers, those kinds of things are there. You can
see different emissions are coming from different sectors. So, agriculture, non-road machinery,
industrial combustion, so we are more interested in these industrial processes. So, these are the

703
models as I said it can calculate emissions for different sectors and it can also be used for
industrial sector that is why we are discussing it.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:27)

Then we can view these results in other formats like Excel sheet also. So, you can play with it,
you want to generate other kind of charts other kind of comparisons beyond what is possible
through this model. You can use the Excel mode or this data.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:42)

Then you can also compare two scenarios. So, you can add the scenarios with this particular
tab and two, three scenarios you can compare.

704
(Refer Slide Time: 28:53)

Like for example, two scenarios, if we compare A and B. So, that way you can have these like
B scenario is giving more emissions in this particular year 2010 and A is giving less, so it will
depend upon what kind of scenarios we have generated. So, that means A is more efficient or
better technological interventions may be there. So, those kinds of comparisons we can have.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:16)

Now, if you want to understand in a better way, so we will discuss briefly this case study which
was based on GAINS model basically. So, it was used for metropolitan city of Kolkata. So,
emission inventory and scenario-based analysis for Kolkata city was taken as a study by some
researchers. So, that particular discussion is there on this particular study.

705
So, they have considered these kind of pollutants like SO2, NOx, CO etc, particulate matter,
PM10, PM2.5, black carbon, organic carbon, all those kinds of things and the base year for
calculations was 2010 and 2015 and activities were for several sectors like transport power
sector domestic, but we are focusing only on industry, because this is what we are looking at
Emission Inventory development for industrial sector specifically.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:13)

So, this GAINS city model is there basically another version of this GAINS model for a city-
based study. So, that means, you can narrow down the region and that can give you different
kind of scenario based analysis and you can pick up the best scenario possible.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:31)

706
So, this we have seen the activity data in this particular case study, they looked at four optional
operational coal based thermal power plants within that study area as of 2015. Those four power
plants were considered. Then majority of the operating industrial units which were considered
for emission estimation, they fall into medium, small and micro scale industry, hardly there
were large industries. So, these were of orange category, that we moderately polluting.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:02)

And the scenarios which were considered for this particular study were like Business-As-Usual,
(BAU). So, that considers all current and declared regulations, legislations and policies which
affect the air pollutant emissions applicable to Kolkata.

Then the next scenario that was considered in this study was Clean Air Scenario (CAS) and
that consider some advanced control technologies for industrial and other major polluting
activities, along with those policies which control unregulated emissions typically from the
urban agglomerations.

The third scenario was Low Carbon Intensity (LCI), that scenario and this was like switching
to cleaner and more energy efficient fuels, in key economic sectors including the industrial
ones and having the advanced control technologies. Then the last scenario was advanced
Control Technology (ACT) related scenario, that means the application of the best possible
technologies and advanced air pollution control policies which are applied in cities and
industrialized countries, means cities of the industrialized countries, so that was the best
possible. So, those kind of four scenarios were considered.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:09)

707
And you can see in this BAU scenario, only the positive emissions are there means growth in
the emissions increasing is there otherwise, like PM10, PM2.5, SO2. For particulate matter
basically, for BAU this increasing of the pollutant was there. NOx emissions were also
accordingly increasing in the BAU scenario.

For the other three scenarios the decreasing trend was there, because of the policy interventions.
But in case of SO2 even in BAU scenario, the reduction of SO2 emissions are there, because
already some policies are there which are kind of desulfuration of the coal etc, are there. So,
those are being considered.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:54)

708
Well, well when we go for LCI scenario, then this kind of emission scenario you can see. So,
different scenarios and different results according to those scenarios were discussed and seen
so that is you know symbolic representation of those particular results you can appreciate that
how these models can be used for comparison purpose of based on different scenario
calculations.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:19)

Well so the case studies conclusions are like under the BAU scenario like PM10 particulate
matter of the 10 micrometer, RSPM also we call it. So, PM10 and NOx emissions are projected
to increase considerably along with volatile organic compounds and ammonia emissions.

These alternative scenarios or three alternative scenarios in addition means other than the BAU
scenario like ACT, LCI and CAS, so these were considered with the aim for the battery air
quality for the city of Kolkata in near future. So, those kind of policies were taken into account
for those particular scenarios. And scenarios which were considering advanced control
technology that is ACT and the LCI, they were implemented in Kolkata metro city and they
are expected to reduce primary emissions to some extent and large extent for a particular
pollutants.

709
(Refer Slide Time: 34:16)

So, overall conclusion we can say that the industrial emissions contribute a substantial amount
of total emissions, whether you consider air pollutants or greenhouse gases and insufficient
combustion of fuels or inefficient combustion of fuels and high ash content and limited control
of pollution are the major causes for high emissions from the industrial sector basically. And
the models like MARKAL, GAINS, they are available they can be used for estimating the
industrial emissions and you can also project by using those models emissions for different
scenarios, you can define your own scenarios.

And not only these models but you can also use the excel sheet or spreadsheet models by using
those equations which represent different activities. So, according to the activity data of a
specific industry, you can also calculate emissions for that particular industry.

710
(Refer Slide Time: 35:19)

So, this is all for today for emission inventory development for industrial sector we will
continue on these you know issues of emissions air quality. So, see you in the next lecture
before that you can go to the references and see which are you know interesting and more
informative sources can be there related to this particular chapter. So, thank you for your kind
attention see you in the next lecture. Thanks a lot.

711
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 23
Emission Inventory for Agriculture Sector
(Refer Slide Time: 01:33)

Hello friends. So, as we are discussing about development of emission inventory. For any city
or for any country, if you want to develop total emission inventory, then we have to consider
all the sources or all the sectors and with that perspective, we have already discussed like how
to develop emission inventory for transportation sector, for industrial sector.

So, today we will discuss about agriculture sector means how to develop emission inventory
for the emissions, which are emitted by the agriculture activities or agriculture sector. So, this
would be the content list for today's lecture like briefly we will discuss in introduction, what
are the emissions from the agriculture sector? What are the pollutants? What are the sources?

Then from Indian perspective means different emissions which are coming out of agriculture
sector, that we will focus upon and later on we will see like what are the emissions from
agriculture activities, like enteric fermentation or farm operations or open burning of
agriculture residues, then we will see like what are the tools for estimating the agriculture
emissions, because there are certain software or tools which have been developed by several
agencies or countries for the estimation of agriculture emissions in their respective countries.
Then we will have a case study and later on we will conclude.

712
(Refer Slide Time: 02:06)

Now, if we look into like very brief introduction about emissions or sources of the emissions
from agriculture activities or sector, so we can see like methane from livestock’s enteric
fermentation and rice cultivation is one predominant emissions you can see and nitrous oxide
from manure management and agricultural soil also emitted in a lot of quantity. So, these are
major greenhouse gases you can say.

Then ammonia emissions is also there and they can also react with the sulphur dioxide or these
NOx emissions, which are available or in atmosphere and they can create some secondary
aerosols. So, that way also one contribution from ammonia emissions is also there. Then there
are open burning of agricultural residues, which produce lot of small size particulate matter
typically less than one micrometer and that again create a lot of smoke related problem in
winter especially.

713
(Refer Slide Time: 02:58)

So, in this picture you can see the overall relationship of different agriculture related activities
and the associated emissions or related emissions like you can see methane from this paddy
fields and then CO2 from soil respiration emissions and soil carbon of course, because of certain
processes, then N2 emissions are there, CO2 emissions are there from different activities like
fuel burning in tractors or even respiration systems. So, that is always there, this emissions and
deposition of CO2 or extraction of the CO2.

And this NMVOCs are also there non-methane VOCs hydrocarbons, volatile organic
compounds which are not of methane nature. So, those emissions are also there.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:53)

714
Well, so, if we summarize like what are the important emissions and their major sources, so if
we talk about like ammonia which is mainly from livestock farming and manure management
and the mineral fertilizer applications, this ammonia comes out of or is released in a lot of
quantity. If you talk about fine particulate matter like PM2.5, then this is from burning of
agriculture residues.

Soil cultivation, because re-suspension of dust, so a lot of particulate matter is there or from
the crushing of bedding material by movement of live stocks and agricultural machinery like
diesel engines etc, tractors etc. Then nitrogen oxides are also their oxides of nitrogen from
fertilization of agricultural soil, agriculture, machinery space heating, so oxides of nitrogen are
from several activities related-activities of the agriculture.

Then volatile organic compounds those are VOCs from metabolic processes of vegetation,
manures, burning of agriculture residues, agriculture machinery and then there are NMVOCs
are also as we have seen in the last slide.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:06)

Then methane of course, like greenhouse gases if released, so methane and nitrous oxide and
carbon dioxide are also there from all these different activities which we have just discussed.

715
(Refer Slide Time: 05:19)

When we talk about emissions from agriculture sector from in India basically, then this chart,
this bar diagram shows like enteric fermentation is the dominating source of CO2, equivalent
CO2 means when we talk about greenhouse gases, we represent them as equivalent of CO2
means we can convert them in the potential global warming potential or those kind of thing.

So, like this is the Giga gram CO2 equivalent, this much of emission is there from agriculture
sector and that is basically 14 percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions in 2016 and this
was the total greenhouse gas emissions from the different sectors and agriculture sector was
responsible for 14 percent.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:11)

716
Well within that 14 percent or the emissions from agriculture sector, if we divide into different
activities, then you can see 54.6 around 55 percent is from you can see this enteric fermentation
alone. And the second largest that is around 17 to 18 percent, this is from rice cultivation. And
the third largest emitter is this basically agricultural soil, direct end to emissions direct end to
emissions are there. So, these are the three large basically activities from the agriculture sector.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:47)

Now, if we discuss one by one like enteric fermentation or farm operations related to irrigation
or tillage and sowing kind of activities or pesticide production and transportation, fertilization,
fertilizers production and transportation or open burning of crop residues, these major activities
of the agriculture sector, if we relate them to different kinds of emissions, then we can discuss
them one by one.

717
(Refer Slide Time: 07:17)

Like enteric fermentation, if you want to estimate emissions from that particular activity that
is the digestion process of cattle’s etc. These like sheep or cow those kinds of animals. So, this
is the simple equation, which we use for estimation of emissions of the methane, like number
of animals we go for and this emission factor of the methane for that particular species.

So, different species we again multiply that is a very simple way of calculation, then we add
up all kinds of cattle’s, because the different cattle different animals have different kinds of
emission factors, which have been estimated with the help of different experiment, field
experiment.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:02)

718
When we talk about like ammonia or nitrous oxide. So, those emissions again number of
animals play role, because for per animal we have this emission factor like for N2 or ammonia.
So, that emission factor will be there and then we can multiply it with the number of animals
and this j is the type of animal.

So, for each type of animal we have to calculate then again, we have to combine to get the total
amount of N2 or ammonia emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:32)

When we talk about CO2 emissions from farm operations, so basically like if we know how
much irrigation water has been applied in that much area of the field or agriculture field in that
particular state or district and if we know that the electricity, which is being used for running
the pump is from coal-based power plants, then this equation can be used for estimating CO2
emissions related to that irrigation activity basically.

719
(Refer Slide Time: 09:03)

But if it is being irrigated by let us say from canal etc, then this equation will not be applicable.
Then we talk about like this tillage and sowing kind of activities, when we use tractors, so again
the duration of the tractor operation, because duration will determine, how much fuel is being
burned and the diesel consumption rate liter per hour.

So, we can multiply that how much total diesel was consumed, and this is the one factor which
can be known as CO2 carbon emissions from consumption of 1 liter of the diesel. So, there are
certain empirical relationships are there which can help us to estimate the emissions of different
greenhouse gases.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:46)

720
And now, if we talk about pesticide production and transportation, then again there are
equations, so relationships so herbicide no application, insecticide application in how much
amount of per hectare it is being applied and then again, you can use those values in this
equation and you can calculate the equivalent of CO2 carbon emitted by these activities.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:13)

When we talk about fertilizer production and transportation, similar way like how much urea
is being used, how much DAP is being used per hectare, and there are some emission factors.
So, you can use those multiplication of those factors and you can calculate the CO2 equivalent
emitted by this application of different fertilizers.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:34)

721
And now, if you talk about open burning agriculture residue, which is a big issue as you know
in this time of winter when I am recording this lecture, the gravity of the situation is much
more, because in northern India, this a lot of pollution plumes are there and they are related
with not only local emissions, but also transportation of emissions from nearby areas like
Haryana, Punjab, different kinds of agricultural residues are burned and particulate matters go
by convection into the atmosphere and then they go by advection to downwind directions and
they also add up into the poor air quality of that particular location or city.

Well, so, emissions from these agriculture residue burning is estimated by simple equations or
relationships which has been developed and forwarded or recommended by IPCC, Inventory
Preparation Guidelines are there. So, accordingly for different crops like rice, wheat, maize,
sugar cane and cotton. So, different residues are having different kinds of emission factors and
they are used for estimation.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:49)

Like you can see here. So, crop type and then how much district type and then the state. So,
these emissions for a particular pollutant you can calculate and then you can again you can
integrate or combine all those emissions from different crops, like for each crop, there is
emission factor which can be used this fraction of dry matter in the residue, because only the
dry matter is burnt only means there may be other uses also, it is not that 100 percent of that
residual material is burned. So, how much that residual material is being burned?

So, that is to be taken that amount and combustion efficiency is also a factor, then emission
factor of a particular pollutant from that residual burning is there. So, all these are multiplied

722
then we get the emission of that particular pollutant from that particular crop residue then for
different crop residue, we repeat this and then we add up and calculate the total emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:53)

Now, we come to this, there are different tools or software, which have been like a spreadsheet
related software or other programming language related software, which have been developed
by different countries according to their needs and they are now much popular to fulfil their
needs for estimating of emissions of greenhouse gases or pollutants in respective countries.

And these four major tools we are going to discuss like one is the agriculture module of the
State Inventory Tool that is known as SIT and Agriculture Emission Estimation AgrEE tool.
Then another is Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model Interactive GLEAM-i,
and the Agro-Chain Greenhouse Gas Emissions ACE. So, these are the four tools which we
are going to discuss.

723
(Refer Slide Time: 13:46)

Well, the agriculture module this Ag module of the state inventory tool, it is shown here
different modules are there basically, this has been developed by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency in 2020. And this is interactive spreadsheet model. So, that
is simple, it can be user friendly also, it is designed to help states develop greenhouse gas
emissions inventories.

And this SIT and the production tool can calculate US state level estimates only, not for other
countries basically, it is focused for the US states and the state inventory tool, which consists
of 11 estimation modules you can see here and one is this synthesize module, which can
estimate across all the modules, because the synthesizing is also needed for the total estimation
of emissions.

724
(Refer Slide Time: 14:39)

So, these are the module-related worksheets and the data required for using that worksheet is
given here and what kind of gaseous or pollutants of greenhouse gases will be estimated by
that particular module are given here. So, you can go through like rice cultivation, one module
worksheet will be there. So, this is the data required is seasonal emission factor, area harvested
and the emission of the methane will be calculated by this particular module. So, different
modules are there, different data requirement is there and the gas emissions accordingly
estimated.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:18)

Well, this is basically the control worksheet for this Ag module, you can see here. So, some
default values are there like required data input values you can select from here. So, this can

725
have different categories basically and then default values may be there you can also put your
own specific values and then calculation can be done very easily.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:41)

Well, when we talk about next tool, tool number 2, this is agriculture emission estimation,
AgrEE tool. So, for example, this is available for European Union member states only. So, that
Ag tool was for this SIT tool was for United States and this AgrEE tool is for European Union
and this was developed by European Commission in October 2021 very recently, basically.

And this is basically based on old guidelines or guidebook up to 2019 and IPCC guidelines of
2006 and 2019. So, on the basis of that, this little more comprehensive tool has been developed
by this climate unit at Joint Research Centre, JRC of European Commission.

Well this is developed for livestock activities, agricultural soils, field burning and this can
estimate a number of pollutants like particulate matter, fine particulate matter PM2.5, ammonia
or sulphur dioxide or oxides of nitrogen, non-methyl VOC and then PM10, TSP, carbon
monoxide, heavy metals, dioxins, POPs, persistent organic pollutants, those are greenhouse
gases like methane, nitrous oxide all those pollutants and greenhouse gases can be estimated.
So, that way this is very versatile tool basically.

726
(Refer Slide Time: 17:12)

Now, you can see what is the way of estimating like there are certain categories, which you
have to take care, then air pollutant or greenhouse gas, you want to estimate you have to select
which fuel system you want to go for, then year which year you want to consider. So, activity
data and emission factor basically, that is the fundamental thing for every kind of emission
inventory you must remember, activity data and emission factor. So, those are the things which
we really focus in all kinds of emission inventory development.

So, that you have to need to know and then inventory report is generated, because you put those
activity data and emission factors, then this tool can calculate emissions of those particular
pollutants and greenhouse gases.

So, the basic approach of this tool is basically to enable the user or inventory compiler to fill
out the templates with the activity data and emission factors and after that, you run it and the
emission, total emissions or depending upon what kind of result you want in which form like
emission per activity or emission, total emission or emission per year something like that you
can play with and you can get the results.

727
(Refer Slide Time: 18:24)

Now, we come to the tool number 3. So, this is global livestock environmental assessment
model interactive, GLEAM-i and basically this has been developed by this Animal Production
and Health Division of FAO, FAO is nothing but Food and Agriculture Organization of United
Nations. So, in Rome, the headquarter, where in 2021, it has been developed and it simulates
the functioning of environmental impacts of livestock production activities. So, that way it is
very important.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:58)

And you can see the systematic global coverage of the six livestock species is possible by using
this particular model. So, like meat and milk from cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, meat from pigs

728
and meat and eggs from chicken, all those activities can be incorporated in this particular model
or module.

Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions like methane, CO2, N2 etc. using IPCC methodology
is the part of this particular model.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:32)

Well like you can see this working of this the first bar this these kind of three bar charts, report
emission inventory and protein production and total emissions. And in second, the next two pie
charts, they illustrate the breakdown of emissions by greenhouse gas. Then finally, you can see
these two bar diagrams they show the breakdown of emissions by source and sources of the
feed. So, different way of results you can calculate per field, per cattle.

729
(Refer Slide Time: 20:05)

The fourth model is the agro-chain greenhouse gas emission, ACE and this has been developed
by Jan Broeze by this particular institute in the Netherlands and it has been implemented as a
part of this Cumulative Group on International Agriculture Research (CGIAR) research
program on Climate Change, Agriculture And Food Security (CCAFS) in 2020. So, this has
been the part of that particular program, this model development. And this calculator or module
or model is a basically tool for estimating total greenhouse gas emissions associated to a food
product.

So, this is specifically for food product and the tool which combines the calculation framework
with data sets containing crop greenhouse gas intensities and food loss factors along the chain.

730
(Refer Slide Time: 21:01)

So, you can see this is the of course, this is very complex thing only in one picture, we are
trying to give you the impression. So, there is a scenario comparison you can do basically
different kinds of scenarios you can develop. Then in second step is like selecting geographical
location and the crop. So, this is the basic second step, which can be used. Then you can go for
complete sets of loss and emission factors along the chain, the third step.

Then selecting an entry for the crop greenhouse gas intensity, so that is the fourth step. In fifth
you do like inserting chain configuration data and optionally overrule default parameter values.
So, manually you can do that. And ultimately, you can get the results and results are in this
form that is quite exhaustive and you can then take observation, you can analyze them you can
present in different forms, so that you can have different inferences.

731
(Refer Slide Time: 22:03)

Now, we go for a case study, like how emission estimates and inventories of non-methane
volatile organic compounds from anthropogenic burning sources in India has been developed.
This is the latest study, which has been completed as a Indo-UK collaboration program.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:27)

Well, so, a brief introduction about the case study is that this study evaluated the relative
contribution of individual sources of emissions to allow an assessment of the overall impact of
emissions from burning sources to air quality in India. So, that burning sources overall we have
to see and within that biomass burning is the second largest global source of trace gases to the
troposphere after biogenic emissions. So, that is why this is very important activity and major

732
sources include like, wildfires or agricultural crop residue, burning on fields, residual solid fuel
combustion or municipal solid waste kind of thing those kinds of things are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:07)

Well the methodology, which we are having in this particular case study is emission factors
based emission factors for combustion of crop residues, different coppers residues, we have
different emission factors and we use them on fields have been used and then measurements
for this using particular, this proton transfer reaction time of flight mass spectrometry. So, this
instrumentation has been used 115 non-methane VOCs. So, that is quite interesting to see what
kind of species are there off and then VOCs or non-methane VOCs.

And the emission factor applied was evaluated against that for crop residues used for domestic
combustion in Delhi. So, we could compare basically. Then the mean emission factor for crop
residue combustion on fields was used for specific crop types with the smaller levels of
cultivation. So, that these are the methodological important aspects basically.

733
(Refer Slide Time: 24:07)

When we talk about residue generated from crops, the residue is generated from the cultivation
of four main categories of the crops like cereals, like rice, wheat, maize, jawar, bajra etc. Oil
seeds like ground nut or rapeseed or mustard sunflower etc. Then fibres like cotton jute and
then the sugarcane, these kind of four crops related residues have been considered.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:42)

And this is basic equation, which have been used very simple. So, you can see here CWG is
nothing but mass of crop produced in the state. Then RTCR residue to crop ratio, so that you
can calculate the how much residue will be there, then dry matter fraction DMF is there,
because all residue is not burnt only dry is being burned. Then fraction of the crop residue

734
burned, because other things can be used for other portion can be used for other activities. Then
emission factor for the crop species like wheat or rice are different crop species.

σ𝑛
0 𝐶𝑊𝐺 ×𝑅𝑇𝐶𝑅 ×𝐷𝑀𝐹 ×𝐹𝐵 × 𝐸𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝,𝑖
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

So, you can apply this equation per area cultivated and you can have the emission of that
particular crop and then again summation you do for all kinds of crops.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:28)

So, if you see entire India, you can see the emissions from agriculture crop residue burning on
fields were significant in the northern part of India. So, these were like cereal production related
estate like Punjab and Haryana and the sugarcane and cereal production in Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar.

So, those have been considered and the most significant emissions from Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan were from the burning of oil seed related crops like mustard or other kind of thing.
Emissions from Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu were primarily from
the burning of sugarcane related residues. So, these are area-related specific characteristics.

735
(Refer Slide Time: 26:14)

Well, there are certain uncertainties, because NMVOCs, which are emissions from different
crop residue burning on fields, they are related to timing as well as a spatial distribution of
emissions. So, uncertainties can be there as per their particular location, particular timing. And
the generalization of emission factors measured by that particular instrument and the lack of
measurements of some residues for example, sugarcane led to uncertainty overall estimation.

So, everything is not absolute this is kind of indicative you can say. Then there is uncertainty
largest for generalized the emission factors applied to crops with lower yields as well as millet
and sugarcane. So, those are the uncertainties in this particular case study.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:03)

736
And if we go for conclusions of this case study. So, they are like the compilation has been there
for recently measured emission factors and fuel consumption data to evaluate the magnitude
and spatial distribution of known methane VOC emissions from different solid fuel combustion
and sources across the India as we have seen different estates related activities.

And the agricultural crop residue burning, it will show larger seasonal and it occur
predominantly during the kharif, that is the April-May season and the Rabi crops like October
to November crop burning season, so different two seasons are there. And because October-
November, this Rabi season is related to winter and this atmospheric dispersion is not very
high in this particular duration. So, if a lot of burning activities are there, then within
surrounding areas, pollution related problems may arise.

Then the country wise measures are required to prevent the burning of agriculture crop residues
on fields and municipal solid waste to reduce, the significance of non-methane VOCs emissions
from these particular source categories. That is the conclusion you can say with the help of this
study.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:27)

So, ultimately if we want to conclude, we can say that the agriculture sector significantly
contribute to the greenhouse gas emissions, although there are other emissions like particulate
matters and ammonia, nitrous oxide and methane are the greenhouse gases, but other pollutants
are also there. And these greenhouse gases emissions are basically from these livestock’s
enteric fermentation and rice cultivation related activities and nitrous oxide is predominantly
from manure management and agricultural soils.

737
And emissions from open burning of agriculture residues, releases large amount of pollutants
such as fine particulate matter and that can degrade the ambient air quality, which every year
we see particularly in northern part of India. So, that we means you can now appreciate
agriculture related emissions are also very important, if we consider them how much they
contribute to the greenhouse gas or how much they contribute to the regional air quality status.
So, that is all for today. Thank you for your kind attention.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:35)

These are the references for your additional information, you can go through them. So, thank
you again and see you in the next lecture. Thanks a lot.

738
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Lecture 24
Emission Inventory for Residential and Commercial Sectors
(Refer Slide Time: 02:13)

Hello friends. So, you may recall that emission inventories are very important in case of when
we want to use dispersion modelling. For dispersion modelling, emission inventories basically
play like input value parameters. So, when we develop emission inventories, we develop
emission inventory for each sector. When I say sector, so that means, there are several sectors
which are responsible for emissions of air pollutants emissions like power sector, agriculture
sector or domestic or transport, those kinds of things.

So, we have already seen how to develop emission inventory for industrial sector for
transportation sector and for agriculture sector. Today we will discuss how to develop emission
inventory for residential and commercial sectors and basically, you should remember one thing
whatever sector it is fundamentally what we do, we try to assimilate the activity data, whatever
activity is using certain fuels and that fuel consumption, burning of the fuel is resulting in
emissions, whether greenhouse gas emissions or air pollutant emissions.

So, we need to calculate activity based this fuel consumption and then we have to multiply it
with the emission factors, activity-related emission factors. So, that fundamental thing we have
to apply in every sector. So, let us see today what we will do to this residential and commercial
sector. So, first of all we will look into the introduction basic things like, what are the residential

739
sectors, what are the commercial sectors and what kind of emissions are important from
perspective of residential sector and commercial sector in India.

Then the basic equations, because when we are talking about calculation of emissions, we are
talking about certain equations, certain mathematical relationships and the procedures or
methodology for estimating the emissions for residential sector or commercial sector. Then to
understand the thing, we will go for case study for India based case study and then mega city
Delhi based case study and then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:49)

So, when we talk about like residential sector basically, this covers like fuel combustion in
different activities of domestic nature, household nature like cooking or using fireplaces,
whatever we burn for our domestic activities, we call it in residential sector and like household
stoves, whether it is using LPG or cow dung different kinds of stoves are there depending upon
the economic background of the household or the family.

So, whether it is a small, or a large household stoves, where it is multiplied in millions of

numbers when we talk about a country, so the emission becomes very significant. Otherwise,
first impression we feel that what is that is very small emission from a household activity, but
when we combine it at the city level or state level or country level, then this becomes very large
amount of emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases.

So, their contribution is very important, when we talk about ambient air quality, because these
emissions ultimately deteriorate the ambient air quality, also the indoor air quality, because the
kitchen or those kind of household activities, first of all, they deteriorate the indoor air quality.

740
Then if there is a chimney or exhaust fan etc, then it goes to the outside means in ambient
environment and they again affect the ambient air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:12)

When we talk about commercial sector, then basically it covers like cooking, heating, boiler
operations, captive power generation in commercial sectors, like hotels, restaurants, offices,
shopping malls, hospitals, crematorium, all those kinds of activities are into this commercial
sector.

Then these facilities are basically available in urban areas and typical urban types of fuel
combustion such as gaseous fuels or coal, oil or kerosene are considered when we consider or
when we compute the emissions from the commercial sector and in rural areas basically,
household related activities are more important otherwise, in between rural and urban areas
there are other activities of commercial nature like marriage gardens and resorts etc. They are
also responsible for emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases.

741
(Refer Slide Time: 05:13)

When we talk about pollutants, which are emitted from especially residential sector and
commercial sector, then the major pollutants are like particulate matter, then black carbon
organic carbon, sulphur dioxide or carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide or oxides of nitrogen,
then methane or known methane volatile organic compounds or hydrocarbons, all these are the
pollutants, which are emitted from both the sectors of residential and commercial.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:39)

Well, if we try to have a visual kind of scenario at India level, so there are one steady report
policy report brief policy report and this was developed by Collaborative Clean Air Policy
Centre (CCPAC) in Delhi. So, the seven modelling studies were compiled and their data and
their range of emissions were assessed and it was known that these residential and commercial

742
sector in total both these sectors are responsible for 22 to 52 percent of ambient PM2.5 exposure
to the public.

So, this is a very significant range or the proportion, if you look into PM2.5, because PM2.5
exposure is responsible for several respiratory problems to the people. So, health impacts are
very important in that respect. So, you can see here these HAP means household air pollution.
So, these are basically combining residential and commercial activities according to the
definition. So, they are responsible for 22 to 52 percent of ambient PM2.5 emissions or exposure.
So, that is very high range.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:57)

Then when we talk about this emissions for these residential and commercial sector or
household activities, these household air pollution, so when we divide it into like other sectors

743
or energy industries and then manufacturing industries, so the other sector which is basically
this commercial and institutional buildings related, which we are talking today about, so that
contributes around 10 percent.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:30)

And within that 10 percent basically, if you further divide into sub sectors, so the commercial
is responsible around 32 percent and the residential is around 60 percent. So, the residential is
dominating in this particular other sub sector you can say and then biomass burnt is around 8
percent. So, that way the three major components are of that basically household related
emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:51)

744
Well, then, we come to the basic equations, which are used for estimating residential emissions.
So, as I said, the fuel consumption we have to estimate first, so we need to know, what is the
activity, which is causing the fuel consumption? So, according to that activity, we need to first
compute the fuel consumption. So, FC is nothing but fuel consumption for the type j, fuel type
j like LPG, then biomass or kerosene or whatever you take one particular fuel and see different
activities which are using that particular fuel and how much of that fuel is consumed.

𝐸𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = ∑ 𝐹𝑐𝑗 × 𝐸𝐹𝑖,𝑗

So, that will be the FCj, then from that particular type of fuel j, then we have to see how much
pollutant type of i is emitted. So, different pollutants emissions we need to calculate. So, that
emission factor has to be there for that particular emission of pollutants, that particular
pollutant. So, that will give this total multiplication will give the emission of that particular
pollutant i from the particular fuel j, that is the point and then if you go for, for different fuels,
then combine you can get the total emissions. So, this is the basic thing which we will see in
all kinds of activities.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:16)

So, you can see the procedure of estimating residential emissions. Basically, first of all you
have to calculate the fuel consumption rate. So, you have to see different activities, how much
that fuel is consumed per day or per month or per year you can take the unit whatever you want
to have the time span.

Then the total emissions are calculated by that particular equation, which we have seen and the
temporal and spatial distribution can also be seen like weekly or monthly or daily, that depends

745
means you can really play with that, that is not a very complex thing, once you calculate, annual
emissions or hourly or daily whatever, you can further scale it up in different kind of time span.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:00)

Well, when we talk about the commercial emissions, again similar equation is there. So, here
you can see the fuel consumption from sub sector k. So, in commercial, when we have sub
sectors in that particular sub sector what kind of fuel is there? The fuel type j in sub sector k,
so different sub sectors are there different fuel types out there.

𝐸𝑚𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 = ∑ 𝐹𝑐𝑗,𝑘 × 𝐸𝐹𝑖,𝑗,𝑘

So, for each fuel type or each fuel sub sector you have to compute and for that you have to
know this emission factor. Multiply it have the submission for the particular sub sector for that
particular fuel for that particular pollutant and replicate it for each kind of sub sector for each
kind of fuel for each kind of pollutant.

So, that will be very exhaustive exercise, but nowadays in the age of computer it is very easy
even you can use a spreadsheet or there are certain models also readymade models, you can
write simple, code or logarithmic equations and then you can compute these emissions.

746
(Refer Slide Time: 11:00)

Well again the same procedure first of all, for sub sector based fuel consumption of the
particular fuel type and then calculate the total fuel consumption of that particular subcategory
and fuel type and emissions of the pollutant and then you can distribute it into according to the
desired time span, whether weekly or monthly.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:23)

So, to understand it in a better way, let us go for the case studies. First case study, we will focus
upon India level case study. So, this we have taken from one TERI's report, which is the
development of a spatially resolved air pollution emission inventory of India, that was
developed by TERI. So, this is the report of 2021 it was published. So, we are using our only

747
domestic or residential sector we are focusing, otherwise this report contains all kinds of
sectors, but in this case study we will focus only on residential sector.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:57)

So, you as it is shown residential sector, power sector, industry sector, transport sector, all these
sectors are there and these are the different pollutants, which have been considered in this study,
like PM10, PM2.5 carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide or oxides of nitrogen,
non-methane volatile organic compounds that is NMVOC, ammonia, all these are there. And
this is for 2016, this was the year for that this computation was done in this study.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:27)

So, in the residential sector basically they have taken both rural and urban area. It is not only
the rural but urban also. So, because residential sector is both ways, but only the fuel type

748
differs in rural area and urban area. In urban area you will find that LPG those kind of cleaner
fuels are used in much more quantity, whereas in rural areas you will find that agriculture
waste, cow dung or fuel wood, all those kinds of fuels are still being used, although nowadays
there are several schemes from the government side they are pushing towards the clean energy
ladder, household activity they are providing through Ujwala scheme these LPG connections.

So, better situation is coming, but for 2016, we have different data, where we are we have this
agriculture activities related waste etc, which people are burning and when we talk about the
rural and urban what is the difference. So, these are the basic fundamental yardsticks, which
are used for judging, whether it is rural area or urban area.

So, in the rural area, they assume that more than 75 percent people are engaged in agricultural
activities. And this area is not connecting to a very this municipality or township related kind
of things and those amenities urban amenities are not available. So, that kind of rural related
definition is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:59)

Then we go for again basic equation. So, this is like population, which is in a district using
particular fuel F, so the population which is using in that district, how much population is there,
then this CFS state is specific per capita consumption of that particular fuel, that data we should
have then emission factor related to that particular fuel type must be there, particular fuel type
F and particular pollutant p. For each pollutant different emission factor is there.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝐸𝑃𝑜𝑙 = ∑ ∑ ∑ 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝐷,𝑓 × 𝐶𝑓,𝑠 × 𝐸𝐹𝑓,𝑝

𝑆=1 𝐷=1 𝐶=1

749
So, for each pollutant for each type of fuel, we reuse this equation and then we sum it up for
all the districts for all the fuels or for all the pollutants different pollutants means, you will have
the metrics for different pollutants PM10 is emitted so much, SO2 is emitted so much, those
kinds of things. So, this is the emission of that particular pollutant. So, this is the equation
which we use.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:59)

And the population data here is very important in the sense, because there are certain data
which are indirectly calculated for example household, how many household activities are
there. So, that is again calculated based on certain relationships like here population of 2016
was estimated based on the population census data of the population of 2011, that was the data
available. So, for 2016 it was estimated. So, this is the relationship, which was used for you
can say projection of the population for 2016.So, this relationship was used.

750
(Refer Slide Time: 15:38)

So, that way you can see this household activities also how many these household in 2016
projected household number in district level, rural and urban in 2016. So, this relationship was
used. So, again for 2011 data is there we are projecting to 2016.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:57)

And in this we have to be careful like for example, we want to know how much households are
there, which are un-electrified, which are using fuel wood etc. So, for that again the direct
computation is like you are estimating based on that 2011 data, un-electrified and then
electrified also, but there is the growth rate according to population this is state level change in
power surplus those kind of things. So, that data is subtracted to have the adjusted household

751
un-electrified number, that correction factor is there you can say otherwise that projection will
be a little bit erroneous.

So, this relationship is used for computing the net household numbers, which are un-electrified,
because they will be used for estimating pollution from fuel wood etc, because kerosene etc. If
there is no like electricity for having energy, meeting the energy needs, then people will have
the energy from fuel wood or those kinds of sources.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:03)

Similarly, this kerosene related consumption, calculated number of households using kerosene.
So, the same way you have to calculate the adjusted household numbers.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:16)

752
So, the fuel consumption for LPG again, so numbers are there for different years and you have
to compute or project for 2016. So, based on the data available from the secondary literature,
you have to compute you have to estimate, it is very, very difficult to get the absolute data. So,
it is only the exercise, which is estimating, so there is always some uncertainty, but
nevertheless, we are going for baseline data or that data which are available based on certain
surveys and those are only the things, which we can use for estimation purposes.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:54)

So, the fuel consumption again LPG adjusted. So, the similar equation relationship are used for
correction factor based on 2011 data, then projection of 2016 and those growth rates etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:07)

753
Well, similarly, fuel wood also you can have this adjusted population of the house fuel wood
related consumption. So, you can see this district specific fuel wood in rural areas, and PPFW,
H, rural areas district a specific number of the people using fuel wood, so those kinds of there,
then CFW is the per capita use of fuel wood in rural area. So, all these parameters must be there
which are available from different survey different reports which we use.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:36)

Then emission factors, what kind of emission factors? So, again they are available from
different studies, which people publish the have certain lab based experiments as well as field
based experiments and they bring out the numbers, that how much a gram of that particular
pollutant is emitted, when we burn one kg of the fuel. Fuel can be different like fuel would
crop residue, dung cake, coal, kerosene, for cooking kerosene for this lighting, LPG. So, all
these fuel and activities are there.

So, for per kg of fuel burned, how much pollutant of PM10 or PM2.5, SOx, NOx, CO, NMVOC,
how much it is emitted per kg. So, that is known as the emission factor. You can see all these
values are given in this table, that is are those are the emission factors for each fuel type for
each pollutant type. So, these are the grams per kg, that is the unit which we will use in those
equations for calculation of emissions.

754
(Refer Slide Time: 19:43)

When we see this emission inventory for residential sector and compare, like for PM10, PM2.5,
then you can see these are the fuel wood, FW, fuel wood related emissions are more in
comparison to other fuel types like CR is crop residue, the second number is crop residue. CDC
is dung cake. So, the dung cake is the third one, then kerosene for lighting can say third one
and this is the fourth one CDC, but there is also you can see different colour blue and this
orange or yellow. So, that is the for urban, urban-related and this blue is for rural.

So, always these emissions from fuel wood emissions of PM10 and PM2.5 are more in case of
rural areas in comparison to the urban areas, when we are talking about residential sector,
please focus upon we are not talking about industrial sector or other otherwise things will
change.

So, the fuelwood consumption in residential sector in rural areas is emitting more PM10 PM2.5.
Then this crop residue and kerosene for lighting purpose they are also responsible. When we
talk about SOx and NOx, then again situation is same fuel wood is more responsible. For NOx
is emitted very high. Again, you can see like here SOx is not so much you can see these values.

755
(Refer Slide Time: 21:16)

Then when we talk about CO, the CO from fuel wood and NMVOCs are also from fuel wood
are very high. So, that means if we can shift the population from fuel hood to better clean fuels
like LPG etc, then these emissions can be reduced, although NOx emissions may not be
reduced, because whenever we go for efficient burning, NOx emissions also increase, that is
very tricky thing, but at least a CO emissions can be significantly reduced and other emissions
can also be reduced.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:54)

So, the conclusion in the case study first we can say that the higher estimations of emissions of
PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide in earlier studies may be attributed to the consideration of increase
of LPG uses and simultaneous decrease in biomass uses. So, means increase of PM2.5 and SO2

756
may be there, but decrease may be there in CO, if we compare. So, you can see here decrease
in kerosene consumption in lighting and cooking.

And then this is responsible for increasing growth in electrification, they are responsible for
decrease in PM2.5 And SO2 emissions. So, those kind of inferences, we can make from these
kind of studies.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:38)

Now, we come to the second study, case study that is focused on mega city Delhi. So, this has
been taken from one paper, which is emissions from domestic sector means this paper is
basically for all kinds of emission estimations from 1990 to 2004 mega city Delhi, but we have
taken only domestic sector municipal solid waste and wastewater treatment related emissions
for the mega city Delhi. So, that we will present here.

757
(Refer Slide Time: 23:07)

So, you can see this mega city Delhi is responsible for any urban area is responsible for several
kind of emissions from several sectors, whether it is power or transport, domestic, industrial
all those, but we are considering only domestic and those sectors like municipal solid waste
burning and this wastewater treatment those kind of emissions we are focusing in this is study.
And you can see in domestic also we have considered only the cooking gas, kerosene oil, fuel
wood, crop waste and dung cake.

758
(Refer Slide Time: 23:43)

And this basic equation is the same as I said earlier like fuel how much fuel is consumed of j
type and from that j type fuel how much emission of i type pollutant is there, that is the emission
factor. We multiply them we get the emission of that i pollutant and then we go on doing this
exercise repeating this exercise for all other pollutants. So, you can see this is the equation,
which we are using very simple equation.

𝐸𝑖 = ∑ 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙𝑗 × 𝐸𝐹𝑖,𝑗

(Refer Slide Time: 24:13)

For municipal solid waste burning this is the particular equation, where we are applying certain
factors like methane correction factor MCF is there. Then degradable organic carbon DOC,

759
DOCF fraction of DOC, dissimilated like 0.77 default we have taken. Fraction of methane in
landfill gas F is there. R here in particular case, we have taken only 0, because we are not
recovering any methane. Then oxidation factor default is 0. So, this is the general equation
which we use for emission of methane from municipal solid waste, municipal solid waste.

16
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝐻4 = [(𝑀𝑆𝑊 × 𝑀𝐶𝐹 × 𝐷𝑂𝐶 × 𝐷𝑂𝐶𝑓 × 𝐹 × ) − 𝑅] × (1 − 𝑂𝐹)
12

(Refer Slide Time: 24:57)

Similarly, from wastewater treatment, if we are going for anaerobic treatment, this methane
generation is there. So, we have to consider what is the BOD, and what is the maximum this
methane producing capacity of the wastewater that is BO, and MCF of methane correction
factor again there are correction factors depending upon different parameters or variables, but
the default value we are using is at 0.025.

𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝐻4 = 𝑊𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝐵𝑂𝐷 × 𝐵𝑂 × 𝑀𝐶𝐹

(Refer Slide Time: 25:23)

760
Well, so, the emissions from domestic sector, when we see these emissions are there and the
CO emissions this is increasing and then decreasing from 1997 up to 2000, otherwise you can
see this NOx emission is increasing continuously. NMVOC is also decreasing from 1997 to
2000, but drastic change is there in CO and that basically is related to the decrease in CO
emissions is basically change in the traditional fuels to cooking gas. So, as I said because when
efficient burning occurs in good stoves of the LPG, CO is very less, because directly CO2 is
emitted more instead of CO.

Whereas in fuel wood etc. the combustion is not a complete and this incomplete combustion is
responsible for higher emissions of CO, but in when we go for LPG etc, or cooking gas, then
CO becomes less comparatively.

Similarly, this NO2 concentration in residential area is showing an increase you can see here
and that is because as I said these when we go for from fuel wood to cooking gas, so efficient
burning, so nitrogen is present in air. So, whenever this oxidation happens in an efficient way,
then NOx emissions automatically increases and we have to control it, otherwise these NOx
emissions may be responsible for ozone production, because of photosynthesis reactions if
sunlight is more. So, those things we have to keep in mind when we are considering different
kinds of emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:18)

761
In this case study, we can see that the methane was mainly in 80 percent of the methane emitted
in Delhi was from the solid waste disposal kind of activity and this has increased over the last
decade by about 40 percent from 133 Giga gram in 1990 to 192 in 2000 and the trend reflect
the population growth in Delhi, because many people come here and different activities are
increased and the waste generation is also increased accordingly. So, that is why these kinds of
emissions are also increasing.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:49)

So, in overall we can say that, the residential and commercial sectors may consist of several
point sources significantly contributing to total emissions of different kinds of pollutants. And
the major emissions from incomplete combustion of the fuels used for cooking or heating
purposes like CO etc, maybe there and the rural population are more exposed to different kinds

762
of emissions, because they are using fuel wood and agriculture waste etc, cow dung, and highly
emitting fuels you can say, so indoor air quality is poor and they are exposed to high
concentrations of pollutants.

And it is a good thing that like Indian government is now pushing through different policies
and programs, the cleaner fuels to poor people, so that they are not exposed to these high
concentration of pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:36)

Well, these are the references for additional information. So, thank you for your kind attention
and see you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

763
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 25
Application of Remote Sensing/Satellite-Based Data in Air Quality Management
(Refer Slide Time: 01:02)

Hello friends. You may recall that we have discussed several aspects of air quality monitoring
and then modelling, emission inventory development. And these days we are discussing about
several kinds of emission inventories, whether for industrial sector, transportation sector,
domestic sector etc.

Today, we will discuss about the application of remote sensing or satellite-based data in air
quality management. So, in air quality management means, this can also help in developing
like emission inventories or other issues. So, this lecture will constitute of these particular
classifications or content list like, we will discuss first of all what is remote sensing.

And then satellite remote sensing. What is the need of satellite based remote sensing data in air
quality management? And what are different products of satellite-based remote sensing
observations? And then how do we apply these remote sensing data in transport emission
inventory or agriculture emission inventory or industrial sector emission inventory?

Then we will also see that how these remote sensing based data can be used for predicting
PM2.5 concentration, that is particulate matter of 2.5 micrometer size and using this Aerosol
Optical Depth, which is a technique AOD aerosol optical depth, then we will see what is the

764
way forward that means what are new things which we can do with the help of satellite data
for better air quality management.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:57)

So, like when we go for the introduction of remote sensing, the remote sensing itself is an art
and science of collecting information about the Earth's surfaces, there are so many features of
our surface and various phenomena like, atmospheric phenomena, or watershed, airshed etc.
But today's lecture is basically concentrated on atmospheric constituents based on remote
sensing data.

So, we will focus on these particular aspects of the atmosphere, which is monitored using some
sensors without physical contact with the surface of the earth or with the phenomena whether
like air pollution plumes are there. So, without any contact with that like a physical monitoring
system has some sort of instrument, which has physical contact, then they measure, but in
remote sensing only sensor based data observations are there without physical contact.

So, if you want to understand how does it go like what do we do in remote sensing basically,
the fundamental concept can be understood with this pictorial representation where this
illumination or the energy source is from this sun and the solar radiation comes and the surface
absorbs some part of it, then it reflects some part of it. So, you can see at the point C, this is the
interaction target of the solar installation, then it reflects then it goes up to the satellite.

So, the recording of the energy by the sensors are there in the at this place and then transmission
of the reception of processing these data can be through several other instruments, which are
part of this. At last, we interpret or analyze these data with the help of computers and

765
techniques, maybe some statistical tools plotting the graph tabulations etc, so that we apply and
use that information for whatever purpose we are getting this data like this lecture is for air
quality management. So, we will see how do we use these products of remote sensing or
satellite for air quality management.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:58)

So, these satellite remote sensing of troposphere, which is the lowest layer of the atmosphere
is rapidly developing in, all over the world basically, this field is very increasingly it is going
on in a developing phase. So, satellite sensors in the Earth's orbit,, that can measure trash gases
as well as particulate matter or aerosols and their property is relevant to air quality, whether
their concentration and their other aspects.

So, also like sand storms or forest fires, biomass burning, industrial emissions, all those plumes
can also be traced by satellite observations. So, this is, several uses of the satellite products.

766
(Refer Slide Time: 04:42)

Well, when we talk about what is the need of satellite remote sensing data in air quality
management. So, basically this provides a vast geographical range and the wide spatial
resolution across the region, that is not possible through conventional air quality monitoring,
because we have limitations in terms of resources in terms of, human resources, advisors,
financial resources, because it needs a lot of instrumentation etc. But this way it can, cover a
lot of geographical region which requires a lot of investment, if we go surface monitoring kind
of network.

So, the satellite monitoring can also help in determining like columnar profile of a pollutant
like CO profile in a column or ozone or other like, and then also possible long range
transportation of plumes like when forest fire is there or from thermal power plants, plumes are
going, because of some atmospheric phenomena it can go up and then go transfer that can
transport it in downwind direction. So, it can trace this satellite observation can easily trace and
it can give a good spatial distribution of those plumes. And these air pollution concentrations.

767
(Refer Slide Time: 6:01)

Well, then in context of India basically, if we talk about what is the air quality monitoring
network density in different countries, then ours is, kind of lowest one you can see here, only
0.14, number of monitors per million of the people is there in India, whereas in China is 1.2,
in USA at 3.4, in European countries it is two to three and Brazil 1.8, Japan point five, so, we
are the lowest one in that case.

So, we need a lot of other ways of information and satellite information can really fill this gap
which is because of limitations through surface monitoring.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:42)

Well, when we talk about satellite based data products, so there are many like monitoring
implies evaluation of different parameters such as Aerosol Optical Depth, AOD and gaseous

768
columnar volume densities, which are then converted into some particulate concentration
values and gaseous emissions values in that form. And the monitoring products can be used to
calculate or estimate long range trends in pollutant concentrations and to develop emission
inventories also for major sources of air pollution in a particular given area. So, these are the
uses of these basic products.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:18)

And when we talk about, these satellite monitoring products which are available to India, these
are like you can see for different periods and the domain like aerosol optical depth, ultraviolet
aerosol optical depth, aerosol index, aerosol layer height, aerosol profile, these different,
products or parameters are there which are available for different periods from 2000 onwards
a lot of information is available, some are latest one like 2019 to present, carbon monoxide
total column which is from, the satellite 5P of European Space Agency.

So, different agencies are there like ISRO from India, then NASA from USA and European
Space Agency is there. So, several data are available or products are available in Indian context
we can use all these kinds of parameters basically. So, this table gives the information about
these atmospheric products, which are related to pollution monitoring in Indian context. And
these most satellite data, basically draw inferences on India's air quality from satellites which
are not, launched in India like from USA from European Space Agency, but we have
collaborations and we can get those data.

769
(Refer Slide Time: 08:34)

Now, when we talk about what is the application of these remote sensing data in air quality
management. So, there are many like this list shows like it can help in your quality forecasts,
those data can be used in that way, then it can also help in improving characterization of surface
layer air pollution information, it can also improve the emission inventories and incidental
releases from particular sources of some pollutants, monitoring of air pollution data validation
of models like, because it will give additional information. So, the validation which we do from
generally from these physical monitoring sites available data, this can also help in validation.

Then identification of air sheds in different ways like this air shed is more polluted, this is less
particular pollutant is there in a particular air sheds. So, this can help in that way also, it can
also help in demonstration of episodic pollution, which happens, once a while not always, then
inspection of, consistency or consistently these non-compliant sources we can have with these
kind of data.

770
(Refer Slide Time: 09:39)

So, there are multiple applications basically. When we talk about like how to apply the remote
sensing information in transport emission inventory transportation sector. So, there are some
information, which are very interesting and you will find it very informative also. Basically,
the remote sensing data can determine emission rates for whole fleets and even for a specific
vehicle types and vehicle classes with some emission instruments like Euro 1, Euro 2 or Bharat
Stage 1, Bharat Stage 2 like that,, if sufficient data are available, then distinct vehicle mix and
those models those related emission profiles can also be created with the help of these remote
sensing data.

So, the remote sensing or RS technique, which measures exhaust emissions from the tailpipe
by absorbtion spectroscopy with the absorption spectroscopic technique without interference
with the vehicle means vehicle is moving and without coming in contact with any other thing,
so without talking to the driver or without interfering in driving, the driver is taking its vehicle
without talking to any other person and the remote sensing technique is capturing that
information what is the pollutant stream from the tailpipe.

771
(Refer Slide Time: 10:56)

So, the sources and the how does it happens basically, how it is measured. So, the sources of
infrared or ultraviolet light from a particular instruments can be put like across the road you
can see here. So, this light are placed next to the road with the beam directed across the road.
So, when some vehicle will pass it can penetrate through those plumes or the emission streams
at the height of the vehicle it is kept, so that the pollution capture is proper at the tailpipe or
exhaust plume.

The light is reflected back by a mirror located at the other side of the road and focused into a
detector. So, that way this light intends to give the indirect information of the pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:36)

772
So, the measured, this reduction of the light is directly proportional to the concentration of
certain pollutants in the atmosphere in that particular area. And these pollutants come from the
exhaust of the vehicle that had just passed.

So, as well as from the background presence of the species of the air pollutants in the ambient
air. So, therefore, the pollutant concentration that was measured before the vehicle crosses that
particular light beam and then taken after the vehicle courses. So, the difference is given the
difference of that particular concentration gives how much pollution has been released by the
particular vehicle.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:17)

Then the remote sensing instruments, this configuration how does it take place, this is also
shown in this particular figure you can see there are three units. The first unit measure the
vehicle emissions by absorption spectroscopy, you can see here this one. The second unit
measures the speed and acceleration of the vehicle and the third unit reads the number plate of
the vehicle.

So, with the help of number plate of the vehicle, we know how much how many years old this
vehicle is and there are many other information which can be taken from that particular
repository which is available through this RTO office.

773
(Refer Slide Time: 12:58)

Now, if we talk about like application of remote sensing in transport emission inventory, then
this technique has been further improved like rather than putting the instruments across the
road, now these instruments are placed at the certain height. So, it gives this beam and the laser
is used better for better capture of information. So, that can have this particular information
across the road plus there is a stripe, which can reflect this light of the laser light.

So, the laser beam is used and the information is captured for the whole plume which is being
emitted by the vehicle. So, that way accuracy is better in comparison to the other technique.
So, the laser is used as a source and making the measurement more selective and precise to the
pollutants in that way.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:47)

774
So, you can see here this the first light source and detector are mounted above the road in this
particular configuration you can see, then the laser light is scattered back from the deflector
strip this is reflected strip you can see on the road and then exhaust plume is captured entirely,
because of that particular this arrangement.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:04)

Well, when we talk about the pollutants measured using remote sensing techniques, then we
see that the instruments which are measuring the pollutants are based on absorption band of a
spectrum particular range is there, then Non-Dispersive Infrared NDIR component is used for
detecting like carbon monoxide or CO2 or hydrocarbons. And twin dispersive ultraviolet
spectrometer is used for measuring the oxides of nitrogen like NO and NO2 and also SO2 and
ammonia. So, that way difference is there.

775
(Refer Slide Time: 14:38)

Well, there are certain limitations of remote sensing in transport emission inventory, because
this remote sensing works most accurately under slight acceleration not very high acceleration
and not even when this vehicle is at idle stage. So, the emissions during idle and deceleration
are not captured, so little till the acceleration must be there then it gives the good reading.
Measurements are more difficult when raining is there or surfaces the wet, again then accuracy
is not good.

Then vehicle technique data, technical data taken from the registration database as I said when
this number plate is captured them from that repository from the RTO office we get the
information. So, the record the technical features of the vehicle, when it is new and but there
is no data that how much it is being repaired, how many times or the what is the stage of its
maintenance, those kinds of things are not available. So, some uncertainty maybe they are in
that particular data.

776
(Refer Slide Time: 15:39)

Well, now, if we come to application of remote sensing in agriculture emission inventory,

because transportation is over now, we go for agriculture burning related inventory or the data.
So, the satellite measurements which are generating images with the help of like identify
locations and count of different fires, which are taking place at the forest level or even
agricultural fields and the values which come from a crop residue monitoring exercise using
this Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer MODIS and Visible Infrared Imaging
Radiometer Suite like VIRS data.

So, these undertake by the Consortium for Research on Agro Ecosystem Monitoring and
Modelling from Space this is known as CREAMS. So, that way, it is a well-established well
managed program through this CREAMS agency consortium.

777
(Refer Slide Time: 16:35)

So, this is an interdisciplinary, research initiative of Indian Agriculture Research Institute, IRI
in New Delhi and it is coordinated by division of agricultural physics basically. So, the
CREAMS operates its own, excellent band satellite ground station and receives the direct
broadcast remote sensing images and a range of international site these satellite these
constellations are also there. So, a lot of information inflow is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:07)

So, basically like, this has a portal, geoportal interface. So, it is shown just to give you a kind
of feeling how does it work, basically, there are geoportal toolbar, layers panel and the map
window you can see. So, you can select particular area, and then you can see how many points

778
are there of the fire burning events or agriculture burning, so you can count them and that
information can be drawn.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:33)

But there are limitations like despite the high confidence level of fire counts data, fire counts
derived from satellites are not restricted only to crop residue burning, because even if some
waste burning is there, it will count, some crop residue burning kind of thing. So, uncertainty
is there and the interpretation depicts largely if not entirely associated with the crop burning,
so that way as I said, because it will also count other kind of burning which is not the real crop
residue burning, so that we have to be a little bit careful.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:09)

779
Now, next we talk about like industrial emission inventory, what is the role and application of
this remote sensing. So, basically like coal combustion in Thermal Power Plants (TPP) and for
domestic use in a major air pollution sources in India can be taken with satellite observations
also, like NO2 emissions from thermal power plants can easily be estimated using this particular
TROPOMI. This is nothing about tropospheric monitoring instrument.

So, this can be used for NO2 data product and the satellite data, which is used independently to
track TPP emissions in India, where in situ emission data are not readily available. So, that way
it can again bridge the gap or fill the gap.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:49)

Well, the TROPOMI data, which are available on both they have this sun synchronous and low
Earth orbit satellite related data, which contains four spectrometers, three of them are used for
ultraviolet near infrared rains kind of thing, then the two spectral bands are there one is for the
this shortwave infrared. And it makes daily global observations and it can be used for, these
Ozone, NO2, SO2, CO, CH4 and then HCHO cloud and aerosol properties with 2600 kilometer,
that kind of area it can easily cover overlapping this equator and approximately around 13:30
local solar time is there when it gives the data basically.

780
(Refer Slide Time: 19:47)

Well, you can see how it gives the data about these thermal power plant plumes. So, like due
to high spatial resolution like pixel 3.5 to 7.2 square kilometer is there, high signal to noise
ratio is also there, it is easy to distinguish individual NO2 plumes like you can count here and
from specific sources such as thermal power plants. So, in that particular picture basically the
spatial distribution of this columnar NO2 over northern India in 2019 was observed along with
the locations of nine coal fired thermal power plants. So, this high NO2 is visible in these
particular locations.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:27)

Well, there are limitations again in this case also, the retrieval accuracy may get impacted due
to the presence of clouds. So, then that observation is not very accurate in that sense the

781
accuracy of the wind data presence of other NO2 emission sources like brick kilns which can
be mistakenly taken from the stack as the thermal power plants, industrial complexes and high
traffic density there can also be source of NO2, because of these exhaust emissions from traffic.
So, that kind of interference may be there which we need to remove.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:00)

Well when we talk about like, how to apply it remote sensing for predicting particulate matter
emissions? So, then again, we can go for usage of this MODIS data Moderate Resolution
Imaging Spectroradiometer. And then this Earth Observing System is there US Aqua satellite,
which gives the information about that and it provides numerous aerosol measurements
including aerosol optical depth AOD, which can be used for reflecting fine particulates loading
etc.

In 2011, an advanced algorithm was developed, this is known as Multi-Angle Implementation

of Atmospheric Correction, that is MAIAC which was presented providing a set of AOD
aerosol optical depth product with finer resolutions one by 1 kilometer x 1 kilometer. Earlier it
was 10 kilometer x 10 kilometers. So, that way this resolution related preciseness has been
enhanced over the years.

782
(Refer Slide Time: 22:00)

Well, when we talk about AOD or aerosol optical depth, so the optical depth expresses basically
the quantity of light removed from a beam, which is being scattered or absorbed by aerosols
during the, its path through the atmosphere. So, that amount gives indirectly the, aerosol optical
depth related quantity, and these optical measurements of light extinction are used to represent
aerosols particulate matters amount in the entire column of the atmosphere. So, that is why we
call it columnar values.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:34)

Well, so, AOD is the column integrated value basically, in the column note or the particular
layer and this optical measurement of aerosol loading, AOD is function of the shape, it is
unitless, shape, size and type of number of concentrations of aerosols, so that way it can vary

783
from place to place. Now, PM2.5 monitoring at the ground mass per unit of volume of aerosol
particles less than 2.5 micrometer and diameter surface. So, measurement can be done with the
help of these satellite-based observations also.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:08)

Then, there are certain like light related values, so how to convert it into concentration of
particulate matter. So, this is the relationship like empirical relationship, which is used for
concentration for estimating concentration of particulate matter by this AOD, which we have
measured. So, the AOD is multiplied by this fPBL and HPBL this is nothing but percentage of
AOD in planetary boundary layer and the mixing height and we also have this particle density
and the effective radius of the particles and this extinction coefficient Q is there.

4𝜌𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑃𝐵𝐿
𝐶= × × 𝐴𝑂𝐷
3𝑄 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝐿

So, then this concentration can be calculated by this relationship. So, according to this re,
effective radius size distribution we can get calculation for different kinds of sizes of the
pollutants.

784
(Refer Slide Time: 23:59)

Then this kind of pictorial representation can be there which can give how much pollution is
there for example, this high concentration of pollution in orange and red is shown and the cloud
images are also there, then the low values of the blue, which can be seen because of this kind
of pictorial representation and the vertical bars in various colour denote the PM2.5 air quality
by the EPA category, different columns you can see these are the PM2.5 concentrations.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:26)

e
Well, so, what is the way forward of the satellite observations which are growing day by day
and in different ways we can get the information. So, the NCAP, which like National Clean
Air program, it has the intention or the objective to use satellite data for both monitoring as
well as forecasting of air quality. The action points for satellite applications as well as the

785
associated agencies and timeline are shown in this particular table like domains, monitoring of
the crop residue burning, air quality monitoring network, air quality forecasting system.

So, up to 2019, this was placed into action point like coordination with ISRO, remote sensing
monitoring data for crop burning by the farmers this Ministry of Environment Forests and
Climate Change and Central Pollution Control Board, they made possible for that particular air
quality monitoring network up to 2024 target is there all these state pollution control boards,
central pollution control board ISRO and the space application centre they are joining hands to
develop the capacities for strengthening the efforts for development of indigenous satellite
based products and techniques for estimating particulates and gaseous concentrations in the
atmosphere.

And then when we talk about air quality forecasting system, then the satellite data available
through the satellite network of ISRO to be integrated for monitoring and forecasting and IITM
Pune, that is Indian Institute of Tropical Metrology Pune and under this Ministry of our
Sciences and the Central Pollution Control Board, they are collaborating and by 2022 this will
be taken into account and it will be properly implemented.

So, we can see that these satellite observations or remote sensing kind of things are integrating
into the real air quality management efforts, which are being made by different government
agencies in India. And I look forward that because of these integrations, more efficient air
quality management will be able to be accomplished.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:45)

786
So, this is all for today we can say that this satellite remote sensing provides complete and
synoptic views of large areas in one image. So, that is the beauty of the satellite observations,
which is not possible by point to point air quality monitoring of the data physical monitoring
of the data.

Then remote sensing can also augment or increase the ground monitoring and air quality
forecasting, which mirrors findings from earlier studies both at the global and national levels.
So, that way it can strengthen those kind of efforts and using satellite data, it can be used for
strategies like region specific approaches or it can track the progress systematically and
transparently. So, that there is no more big chances of big errors, that kind of things can be
done by the application of remote sensing data and satellite based products.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:37)

So, this is all for today and these are the references for additional information. So, that way we
have completed the Emission Inventory related lectures and now we will see other things
through case studies etc. So, thank you for your kind attention and see you in the next lecture.
Thanks again.

787
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 26
Emission Inventory: Case Study

Hello friends. So, far we have discussed recently regarding how to develop emission inventory
for different source categories like residential, commercial, for transportation sector, industrial
areas, all those things. So, today we will discuss one case study, so that how to apply those
theoretical relationships which are used for developing of emission inventory, how these
emission inventories are constructed and what are their applications or what kind of lessons we
derive from those emission inventories.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:11)

So, today's lecture will have this particular small introduction about the case study where we
have taken it up. Then what is the location of the study in different zones in Delhi which is the
focus area of this particular study and the methodology which has been used for development
of this case study of emission inventory, then different sources which have been, incorporated
in this particular study like area sources, point sources or line sources related emissions.

Then city level emission inventory for Delhi because the case studies focused on certain
number of zones study zones are there 10 studies zones are there we will see, but then it has
been extrapolated to estimate the emissions from the entire Delhi city. So, that methodology
also we will see into. Then, we will see how the identification of hotspots have been done by
this emission inventory, where lot of emissions are coming from, then the total emissions from

788
10 study zones as well as total emissions from the city level of the Delhi and then we will
conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:12)

So, basically this study was conducted based on a common methodology, which was delineated
by Central Pollution Control Board and NEERI in collaboration with the Indian Oil
Corporation Limited and R & D Centre Faridabad of that IOCL and other oil companies like
BPCL, HPCL, RIL. And they initiated this study for Delhi in the year 2007. And it was
published in 2010.

Well the major objectives of this study were like to measure the baseline air pollutants and air
toxic levels in different parts of Delhi city, that is mega city Delhi you can say including the
hotspots, where a lot of emissions are coming from near like curb side of the roads etc, then to
develop emission inventory for various air pollutants for projection analysis.

So, that we can project and analyse for the entire Delhi city and then to conduct source
apportionment studies for particulate matter, which is not part of today's case study we have
focused only in emission inventory development. Then to delineate an urban air quality
management plan for exposure reduction, that is also not part of that, but we will touch like,
what is the lessons we can learn from these results, which are of this particular emission
inventory.

789
(Refer Slide Time: 03:25)

So, this particular emission inventory has 10 zones and it has got two kind of distinct scales
like one for the 10 study zones of 2 x 2-kilometre, 2 kilometres x 2-kilometre around the air
quality monitoring sites which are already functioning, and then the emission inventory which
was developed for these time zones, which were extrapolated and total emissions for the whole
city of Delhi has been estimated. So, two parts are there basically.

Then what are different sources which have been incorporated in the emission inventory or like
point sources which are basically industrial sources like stack emissions, then area sources like
domestic and commercial areas etc. Then vehicular sources that is line source, so all point line
area source have been considered and there have been, primary data collection also based on
questionnaire survey and other specific surveys plus secondary data have been taken from
various kinds of published reports and other, sources of data.

790
(Refer Slide Time: 04:36)

Well, so these are the locations of study zones like Anand Vihar, Ashram Chowk. So, in this
particular map it is shown like a small-scale industry of Grand Trunk Karnal Road, then this is
Pitampura and Naraina, then ISBT Ring Road, Ashram Chowk, Dhaula kuan. So, all these
kinds of these 10 locations of the 10 study zones are depicted in this particular map which you
can see and each zone has like 2 kilometre x 2 kilometre size.

So, that the detailed study can be carried out with limited resources and then we can extrapolate,
because these are the kind of representative zones you can see. And it has been prepared this
inventory has been prepared in terms of 5 major pollutants, which are like PM10 that is a
particulate matter of the size 10 micrometre or less and then sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen
NO2 etc, then carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons HC.

791
(Refer Slide Time: 05:41)

So, these are the methodologies for emission inventory for every kind of category like area
source point source or line source. So, basically first of all, data collection is there for any kind
of activity basically, you must remember for emission inventory development from bottom to
up approach, we go first of all for data collection, we collect the data which are needed for any
kind of activity which is responsible for emissions of your pollutants.

So, the activity data is important weather area source or point source or line source, activity
data you have to collect and then the those total fuel burning or those kind of estimations are
to be done, then emission factors are there for each kind of activity. So, those are clubbed and
then total emissions are estimated that is the particular basic thing which every kind of emission
inventory incorporates.

So, data collection then emission factors also, the specific emission factors means, the localised
or the activity based emission factor must be there. If there are no indigenous emission factors
then we have to rely upon some literature, some other like EPA or WHO reports also contained
from different countries. So, whatever economies are similar to ours that we can borrow and
we can use in the absence of the indigenous emission factors, then the emission loads are
estimated.

So, like for example, for area source first of all we must know the land use, what kind of land
use is there in that area, what are activities of domestic nature commercial nature etc. Then
hotels, restaurants or fuel use data, how much LPG or coal kerosene are being burned all those
things, then emission factors are to be taken from Indian studies, first of all and otherwise like

792
USEPA in this particular study, they have taken the emission factors from Indian studies and
wherever those emission factors were not available.

So, they have, based upon USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency's emission
factors. So, that thing is common in all these for line sources like vehicular categories. So, first
of all we need to collect data from like RTO office, where we can get different categories of
vehicles numbers and age etc.

So, all those data then emission factors from our Pune based institute, which is automobile
related institute and then CPCB related emission factors are also there, for point source, we
need to identify how much industries are there or power plants are there in this study zones,
which have been considered there are no power plants, but beyond that power plants are there
so, they have also been incorporated.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:30)

So, if we go by sources like different sources like area sources, so these like domestic cooking
or heating then burning of the waste, derived, waste derived fuels like those residue etc, then
bakeries or hotels, restaurants etc have been incorporated in point source, large scale industries,
medium scale industries or smaller scale industries. Those related information we have missed
in this study has been taken. Then in line source like 2 wheeler, 4 wheeler, 3 wheeler and then
with fuel they are being run by like CNG or these gasoline that is petrol or diesel, all those kind
of related different categories have been taken up.

793
(Refer Slide Time: 09:18)

Then so, data collection as I said that activity data have been collected with primary sources
like survey based and then the secondary sources from different kinds of reports or publications
from government as well as non-government organisations. So, this kind of data compilation
and analysis was established like metrics has been there, like air quality monitoring locations
for Ashram Chowk, ISBT, Dhaula Kuan etc.

Then how much population is there in that particular zone, how much slum population is there
because their burning of fuel is distinct than the other population. So, that has been segregated
hotels, restaurants then these dhabas or, the sweet shops, bakeries, they also emit lot of
emissions because of fuel burning in their activities. Open burning then Gensets because

794
whenever electricity is not there then generators run. So, diesel is used and lot of emissions are
there medical waste incinerators, wherever.

So, in these particular zones there were not neither medical waste in incinerators or neither
there were any crematoria’s. So, those kinds of emissions were not there, then locomotives
were there, a few locations like Ashram Chowk and the Naraina etc. So, those have been also
considered.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:38)

Well, so as I said, like hotels or open burning diesel locomotives, which were plying to carry
goods in between Ashram Chowk, Naraina, Anand Vihar locations they have been also
considered.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:51)

795
Well, so emission factors as I said that CPCB Central Pollution Control Board has
recommended the emission factors for various activities. So, whatever emission factors were
available for from CPCB, then they those have been taken. Otherwise, this EPA’s AP-42 2000
emission factors compilation is there for different sources and activity, those have been taken
wherever, indigenous data are not available for emission factors.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:18)

Well, so area sources if we consider first of all, then the estimation of population in each 2
kilometre x 2 kilometre study area was carried out then the slum population and estimation of
fuel consumption or comparison of the fuel consumption in summer, so season seasonal
variation or winter seasons that has been also taken up. Identification of the land use pattern
so, that it can give different information like Eicher map was used in nowadays, sophisticated
maps are there, but in 2007 they used the Eicher map of the Delhi city for the land use patterns.

796
(Refer Slide Time: 11:57)

Well, then estimation of emission load in terms of 5 major pollutants like PM10 as I said earlier
or SO2, NOx, CO and HC. So, in within that 2 kilometre by 2 kilometre estimations have been
made, and this percent emission contribution for each source category has also been estimated
when you have the total and from different sources. So, you can easily calculate how much
percentage coming from different sources or how much percentage of a particular pollutant is
coming from a particular source. So, those kinds of things we can easily play. So, that has been
given in this particular report.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:30)

Well, so if we talk about the total emissions from area sources in those particular zones, so you
can see like there are these emissions of CO carbon monoxide. So, from this small-scale

797
industrial area of Grand Trunk Road and the Naraina they have been much more responsible
for emissions of CO, carbon monoxide and these hydrocarbons are also there.

So, if we see the location wise like PM10, the minimum emissions are from Dhaula Kuan
basically Dhaula Kuan and Prahladpur are responsible for minimum emissions of different
pollutants and pollutant wise like PM10 maximum emission was from the smallest scale
industries in Grand Trunk Karnal Road and the NOx emissions were more in, Anand Vihar and
the CO emissions were again from the small-scale industries Grand Trunk Road. So, that way
different, locations have been identified where maximum emissions are there, and where
minimum emissions are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:33)

Well for point sources like industries, so the industrial point sources for that particular, survey
was conducted and stacks were counted how many chimneys are the stacks are there which are
emitting those air pollutants, well boilers, furnaces related, data were collected, and then total
emission loads were estimated by those using those formula which are used for stack emissions.

798
(Refer Slide Time: 13:55)

Well then in the data collection has been done from National Council of Applied Economic
Research related reports 2002 There are like, in 2002, this was 17,112 polluting industries. So,
that way those data have been there, and these 2,266 units are polluting in nature from DPCC
data that was taken out of which, so segregation has been there, large scale, medium scale small
scale, small scale are like 2252 industries are there.

And then, in large scale industries power plants were considered basically there are like 5
plants, but there they were not in those study zones. And these three are located in IP estate
and then the two are near Pragati Maidan and Badarpur area areas. So, those have also been
considered, then medium scale industries, concentrated on Lawrence road industry areas, so
those who have been also considered in this study.

799
(Refer Slide Time: 15:00)

Well, when we talk about these small scale industries and if we see where they are located, so
Mayapuri, Anand Vihar, Naraina and these small scale industries Grand Trunk Karnal Road is
there. So, engineering studies like if we zone wise if we see which kind of industries are there
which are responsible for various kind of emissions. So, the engineering chemical metallurgical
pharmaceutical, so those kind of industries are there and then other industries other kind of
which are not in this particular category.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:34)

Well, when we talk about like engineering industries are there emissions from different small-
scale industries. So, the engineering industries metallurgical industries are responsible for
maximum emissions you can see and NOx emissions are coming lot of from all these kinds of

800
industries. So, you can see the dominating emissions are NOx from these particular industries
in a very large quantity.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:59)

Well, if you see these from industrial sources again pollutants like PM10 or sulphur dioxide,
NOx etc. So, again NOx is dominating and then CO is also there. So, you can see the difference
between different kind of areas like this small-scale industrial area of Grand Trunk Karnal Road
is the major contributor, if we compare with other industrial areas. Mayapuri is the least
polluting area in that sense.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:27)

Well, now if we talk about like line source emissions, that is vehicular emissions, so, we have
considered like area source point source and now, line source. So, line source basically

801
vehicular emissions you can think of, so these are responsible for a large amount of like CO
NOx etc and they have, vehicular pollution has increased from 64 percent to 72 percent in the
last decades, so lot of growth has been there.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:55)

Well, so, far these calculating estimates or estimating the emissions from vehicular category.
So, primary data of the traffic counts have been collected from RTO office, then different kinds
of category like how much how many, vehicles are there are 4-wheeler category 2-wheeler
within 2-wheeler 2 stroke engine, 4 stroke engine, so those kinds of categorization have been
there and those values have been taken into.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:19)

802
Then estimation of these pollutants like particulate matters CO, HC, SO2, NOx have been there
in that area. So, how many vehicles are there it is easy to take those data from this RTO office
and then calculate the emissions with the help of emission factors and the total like vehicle this
how many kilometres one vehicle travel so, that average value can be taken and multiplication
can be done very easily.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:45)

So, the survey was conducted to have the primary data on different locations. So, that way
some people, those who can do a good survey were hired and they counted vehicles at particular
locations of different categories of the vehicles.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:04)

803
Then the road category wise do traffic count you can see here like the at the arterial roads, you
can see most of the trucks are, plying on the arterial or the roads and the main roads are
responsible for like 4 wheelers and these light commercial vehicles also in large number and 3
wheelers basically go on the main roads mainly. Than feeder roads are there. So, they are
having like 45.7 percent if we count these, 4 wheelers, then they are mostly on these feeder
roads are applying. So, those kinds of categorization have been done.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

Now, if you see this Vehicle Kilometre Travelled VKT needs steady zone. So, for each category
of vehicle this VKT, it has been taken into account from different reports and those counting
of vehicles plus, these VKT’s and then emission factors have been used for emission
estimations.

804
(Refer Slide Time: 19:05)

So, you can see the fleet age composition have been considered 2 stroke, 4 stroke, 2 wheeler
ratio have been considered, then emission factors from ARAI has been used and the emissions
have been estimated.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

So, you can see the how many how many categories are there of the vehicles plus which
pollutants like PM10, CO, hydrocarbon, NOx. So, total emissions of the vehicles in 10 is study
zones if you see the maximum emissions are of the carbon monoxide (CO) and then second is
the NOx and then hydrocarbons, naturally from vehicular categories, these kinds of emissions
are more basically.

805
(Refer Slide Time: 19:43)

When we see vehicular category wise emissions, then like particulate matters are mainly
emitted from the trucks as you can see around 48 percent. 38 percent or so the CO emissions
are coming basically from 4 wheelers. So, if we want to, curb or we want to reduce the
emissions of CO then we need to focus on 4 wheelers first if we talk about hydrocarbons, then
they are mostly from 2 wheelers.

So, if you want to control hydrocarbons then better to control the 2 wheeler related technology,
and NOx emissions are basically coming from like heavy duty vehicles, trucks etc. So, those
are the major sources of different kinds of pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:25)

806
Well, then when we talk about, this re-suspended dust so, it has been estimated that near ISBT
because a lot of vehicles are there on there, this bus depot, main bus depot is there and then,
bus terminal and then this is small scale industry this Grand Trunk Road also has a lot of
contribution of the road dust because of resuspension. So, these are basically two locations
where a lot of dust suspension has been there.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:55)

Well, the pollutant wise identified highest and lowest polluting zones if we want to consider.
So, the particulate matter highest is from ISBT area. And this then high is from the small scale
industry, Grand Trunk Karnal Road and lowest is in Prahladpur. Similarly, for different, like
hydrocarbon, this highest in Ashram Chowk lowest in Prahladpur. So, Prahladpur you can see
mostly that is the lowest emitting sector or location or the zone for different kinds of pollutants.

807
(Refer Slide Time: 21:29)

Well, when we talk about city level, because these were the zone whatever 10 zones were
selected by these, researchers, those were the emission inventory developed. So, city level
emission inventory was developed based on those emission inventories of 10 zones basically,
so extrapolation or projection you can say have been done based on the emission estimations
which have been done in those particular zones.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:58)

So, there have been, estimations or projections based on certain things like population data,
how much fuel consumption is there. So, census data has been taken and then fuel consumption
has been taken from different reports, you can see this population in lakhs and the slum

808
population as well as urban population ruler population, those kinds of population data have
been taken.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:18)

So, the emission estimates from area sources were taken from projections of those estimated
values. So, it was seen that domestic slumps were responsible for the maximum emissions of
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and residential area was also the responsible. So, these two
major areas where they are for emissions, large amount of emissions, and basically if you see
these NOx emissions and CO emissions and the hydrocarbon emissions, they are the
dominating ones even in area sources.

So, that is the situation to worry some because, these are the precursors of ozone. So, in case,
ozone production starts to take place in summer or wherever solar insulation is good, then this
is another big problem which, we can foresee and we have to think seriously about reducing
these emissions.

809
(Refer Slide Time: 23:11)

Well, when we talk about category wise distribution of emissions from area sources, so you
can see like 44 percent is coming, this PM10. So, Major 44 percent is coming from these
construction activities and domestic slumps. SO2 emissions in large quantities coming from
hotels restaurants, because they use those kinds of fuels, coals etc. So, again, domestic slumps
are also there in this particular contribution for SO2.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:39)

So, we hope to see, pollutant wise like NOx emissions, mostly coming from generator sets or
domestic emissions CO emissions from domestic slumps, hydrocarbons, again from domestic
slumps and domestic emissions. So, you can see, these areas sources are also respond because
we have seen that these CO hydrocarbon etc knocks they come large in quantity in from vehicle

810
category which we will see again. But area sources are also giving this large quantity and that
is the worrisome issue.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:08)

Then this grid voyage emission inventory has been developed, so that we can know which
particular areas are there where lot of emissions are coming from. So, you can see this red
colour area, they are the most responsible for a large amount of the emission.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:24)

So, that we can first go and see how, what we can do to reduce in particular those kinds of
hotspots, where lot of emissions are coming from. When we talk about like this industrial
emission. So, as I said earlier that these NEERI team visited all, industrial areas and counted
how many stacks are there for different kinds of emissions. So, they have taken also into

811
account like what kind of technologies they are using, like if ESPs are being used then
particulate matter emissions are very low because that is effective for reducing the emissions,
but then the SO2, NOx emissions are also coming.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:05)

So, you can see emissions from thermal power plants and lot of emissions are there off again
CO and then like from Pragati thermal, the CO emission and this hydrocarbon emissions are
quite high, well when we talk about again this gas turbine power station, so same story is there,
but, if you talk about NOx emissions, then this Indraprastha and Rajghat and Badarpur they are
quite significant amount of NOx emissions are also there.

So, we can see percentage emissions from these thermal power plants and Badarpur thermal
power plant is responsible for quite high amount of PM10 and SO2 but this Pragati thermal is
responsible for highest amount of CO and hydrocarbon. So, that way we can see which power
plant is emitting which kind of pollutant in a large quantity.

812
(Refer Slide Time: 25:54)

Well, when we see these emission estimates from small scale and medium scale industries, so,
basically when we talk about medium scale industries, again the dominating emissions are of
NOx emissions. So, as I said that, this in Delhi basically these NOx, CO hydrocarbons etc, they
are the things to be concentrated upon based upon this particular study. It is all the study and
maybe appropriate policy measures were implemented based on this particular study.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:18)

Here also, like large scale industries are responsible for like PM10, NOx etc, and CO are from
small industry, a small scale industries. So, a small scale industries are responsible for CO as
well as, largest scale industry. So, fear share is there you can say, otherwise for PM10, SO2 and
NOx dominating source are the large-scale industries.

813
So, again, you can see what is the contribution or percentage contribution of different industries
for different pollutants. So, large scale industries are responsible for, very high amount of all
kinds of emissions of course, but like if you talk about CO, then small scale industries are also
very much responsible.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:13)

Well again, so grid wise admission inventory was development distribution of these emissions
were grid wise so that we can know the hotspots. So, you can see here, this is ISBT and this
Ashram Chowk have been identified as a large amount of these emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:31)

Well, so methodology for estimating vehicular emissions. Now, we come to so methodology

as I said, this is based on VKT Vehicle Kilometre Travelled and the emission factors. So, in

814
those 2 kilometre x 2 kilometre, they were estimated and those were projected for Delhi
basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:49)

So, the total length of roads have been identified for different kinds of roads like ring roads,
and then, feeder roads or those kinds of these arterial roads, all these kinds of roads. So, how
many vehicles are plying on those particular roads. So, those data have been used for
extrapolation of those estimations which were taken from the specific zones.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:10)

And we can see like a lot of emissions again of this NOx emission and the hydrocarbons and
CO. So, they are also it is very intuitive that vehicular emissions mostly emit those kind of
emission, NOx emissions and CO emissions.

815
(Refer Slide Time: 28:31)

And you can see again distribution. So, to identify the hotspots, you can see like these kind of
grids are there, which are responsible for like grid M8, this 8 and this M so, this M8 grid is
very much responsible for high value of particulate matter, if you see around 362 kg per day.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:52)

So, that particular methodology was used for identification of hotspots and those hotspots are
like M8, M5, so, these are the names of the grids and these grids include those particular
prominent areas like M8 India Gate, Rajpath, Vigyan Bhawan, Udyog Bhawan. So, lot of
emissions from vehicle categories, maybe there. Then is ISBT, Kashmere gate and you can see
all these kind of names, which are in particular grids are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:22)

816
Well, so to identify the hotspots then grid number 10, Toll Plaza, Chilla these Alka Cinema,
they have been identify. So, you can see the grid and you can see which places are there which
need to take the attention of the policymakers.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:35)

Well, when we talk about the total emissions in 10 study zones, so there are, variations are
there like you can see these as I said a small scale industrial Grand Trunk Road and the Naraina
and they are dominating for particulate matter and NOx emissions you can say. So, that we
different kind of zones have different kinds of information.

817
(Refer Slide Time: 28:58)

But when we talk about total source emissions, these study zones then line source emissions
are dominating basically for these NOx as well as carbon monoxide that is a vehicular category
basically, point source is dominating NOx for NOx in point source. And in area source, CO is
more so, that way you can see which pollutant is coming more from which particular source
category.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:24)

Well, when we talk about at the city level, so the NOx emissions are the highest basically and
they are coming from industrial as well as vehicular emissions, this NOx. Second is CO which
is coming, majorly from vehicular and then the second is from area sources. So, and SO2 is

818
basically coming from industrial sources. So, these kind of information is there and as you can
see this a lot of emissions of NOx is there.

And I always, repeated that, because of NOx and CO hydrocarbons etc peak occurs of ozone.
So, we should be quite sensitive or sensitive about these kinds of pollutants, how to reduce
them because they may create another problem in future if we do not give you attention.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:53)

Well, source why emissions at the city level also you can see like these CO emissions NOx
emissions, hydrocarbon emissions, they are dominating PM emissions like 52.5 from the road
dust basically. So, that is the major source, but for CO emission the vehicle categories are the
most, second is area source for these hydrocarbons again vehicle and area source are
responsible and for NOx emissions again industries and vehicle categories industries are more
responsible.

So, that way you can see like, SO2 only industries are there to control. So, according to their
amount we can look into that which kind of shows we need to first focus upon to apply certain
policy interventions or technological intervention, so, that those emissions can be reduced and
air quality can be improved.

819
(Refer Slide Time: 31:52)

So, this is basically, case study how these emission inventories are developed and how they
are, used for inferring information or insights, as we have seen which kind of pollutants are
more and how to focus upon some policy decisions or technological interventions specifically
for those pollutants, otherwise, they will create some other problems, whether health related or
ecological related.

So, we can say that in this study, we have seen the emission inventory, which was developed
focused on certain zones and then extrapolation has been done for city level and then hotspots
were also identified. And it is also identified that specific pollutants like NOx are being emitted
in large quantity from different sources and we can categorise or target those sources to reduce
the emissions of NOx or CO and hydrocarbons.

So, that we do not fall into that kind of problem of for ozone products and because ozone is a
very hazardous, pollutant in the troposphere, although it is good in the stratosphere as you
know. So, those kinds of inferences or insights can be developed by these kinds of inventories.
So, I hope you like this particular case study.

820
(Refer Slide Time: 33:24)

And these are the references where we have taken information for this particular case study,
and you can go through this information in your free time. So, this is all for today. Thank you
very much for your kind attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

821
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 27
Methods of Source Apportionment

Hello friends, you may recall we have already completed how to develop emission inventory.
Today we will start about source apportionment studies, means how to apportion the sources
means different sources of the pollutants and what are different methods for carrying out the
source apportionment.

So, first of all, we will discuss about the introduction of source apportionment, then we will
look into the significance of this particular study which is known as the source apportionment
and then major methodologies like bottom up or source based methods which are which kind
of models we are using for bottom up approach of the source apportionment studies, and what
are their advantages and disadvantages.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:13)

Then, we will look into top down approach or receptor-based method models and advantages
and disadvantages. And then we will look into the possibilities of integration of both the
approaches so, that we can have the win-win situation or best features of the both the
approaches and then we will conclude.

822
(Refer Slide Time: 01:32)

So, when we talk about source apportionment basically, this is the process or practice for
deriving information about different pollution sources and the amount they contribute to
ambient air environment, in terms of different pollution levels. So, you can say that this source
this source apportionment techniques, they can contribute in efficient manner of air quality
management and they are used in looking into variety of sources which contribute in significant
manner. So, that we can target those sources which are dominating sources to control the
emissions from those sources and then we can reduce the air concentrations or particular
source-based emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:17)

823
Well, when we talk about significance of source apportionment study, then the quantification
of pollutants or the pollutions which are coming from different regions. So, the regional sources
or whether it is coming from long range transportation from different areas and trans boundary
transportation of pollutants also happen, then there may be natural or these anthropogenic
sources.

So, we can really categorise we can see which pollutant is coming from which particular source
in dominating manner. So, the identification of different sources of the pollutants that are of
our interest or particular interest like these polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or pH or ozone
precursors like NOx emissions or CO emissions, then hydrocarbons or elemental carbons,
black carbons, particulate matters, PM10 PM2.5 all those, which are very important from a health
risk point of view also. So, we look into those pollutants and their specific sources.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:22)

So, the key thing is that a particular pollutant because you name ambient air there are so many
pollutants. So, if you want to know, whether this CO emission or particulate matter emission,
which has contributed to the air quality degradation, so that PM10 has come from how many
sources and what is the amount of that PM10 from different sources, so that we can know that
we can list this is the major source this is the moderate, this is the minor, so that we can look
into the major sources basically.

Now, there are different approaches for doing this source apportionment like bottom up or
source-based approach or method, then top down or receptor based method or approach. So,
when we look into bottom up or source-based method, so basically, we focus on the sources.
So, how many sources are there which are the major sources like we can have in your town or

824
city, several kinds of sources like industrial sources, maybe their power plants or maybe there
are from transportation sector or domestic sources like and we have to develop emission
inventory with specific to the sources basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:36)

So, when we talk about the source-based methodology of the source apportionment study or
bottom up approach, then we are basically talking about emission inventory development and
then using the emission inventory into the dispersion modelling. So, the dispersion modelling
gives us the air quality concentration at certain locations which are of our interest.

So, that is the, bottom up means at the ground level we need to know how much pollution
sources are there how much pollution is coming from those sources and those pollution, those
emissions, how do they contribute into deteriorating the air quality. So, for that we use different
dispersion models.

825
(Refer Slide Time: 5:15)

So, basically when we talk about bottom up source-based approach, we go into different kinds
of steps like identification of the potential sources is an important sources, description of the
physical and chemical processes, which will contribute into, formation of secondary aerosols
or pollutants. So, we have to document those primary pollutants, secondary pollutants, which
are going to be there because of the emissions of different types of pollutants.

Then we need to baseline mapping and pollution, hotspot pollution levels, because like, there
may be some intersections of the transportation or highways. So, there may be very high
emissions of NOx or CO. So, we have to categorise or we have to point out that these are the
hottest spots or there may be some particular industries in nearby areas, the new power plants,
so, maybe SO2 or particulate matter may be more in those particular places. So, we have to
identify the hotspots or we have to do the baseline mapping. Then we need to do the
apportionment of the pollution by the source using the dispersion modelling.

826
(Refer Slide Time: 06:24)

So, when we go step by step, when we go for identification of the potential sources, basically
we have to look into physically quantification of those different kinds of energy usages in
industries or domestic sources or sectors and then their emission strengths, source wise as well
as pollutant wise in the city or particular region of our interests.

Then we need to go for requirement of the preparation of the emission inventory because
without emission inventory, we will not be able to use the dispersion models, those dispersion
models which will give us the concentrations of different pollutants. So, we have to identify
different sources like maybe, some power plants or industries, then there may be some
particular, like roadways or transportation sector. So, we have to identify first these are the
dominating or potential sources of the pollutants.

827
(Refer Slide Time: 07:13)

Then we need to describe their physical and chemical processes, which will contribute into like
primary or secondary kind of pollutants plus we have to look into local and these regional
meteorological parameters, whether wind speed or temperature because they will be used for
dispersion modelling.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:36)

So, in the same process, we have to document the primary pollutants, secondary pollutants and
like some chemical transport model can be used for looking into these secondary pollutants
like WRF-CHEM model or some other models can be used and we have already discussed in
lecture from 20 to 26 basically, about these emission inventory which we develop and different
case studies, how to develop the emission inventories.

828
Plus, at the same time, this framework of the central pollution control board in terms of
emission inventory framework or development of the emission inventory is very important. So,
step by step in terms of the flowchart it has been given. So, it is very easy to follow basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:21)

Then we go for this baseline mapping of the pollution or the hotspots as I said, there may be
certain hotspots where a lot of pollution is coming from activities. So, the baseline mapping of
the pollution and the hotspots has to be done, for dispersion modelling and this source models
when we use so, hotspots in terms of emissions, hotspots in terms of high air quality
concentrations. And for that, we have to use some models like Gaussian dispersion model
Gaussian Plume model or Lagrangian model depending upon the situation.

829
(Refer Slide Time: 08:58)

And there are differences like Gaussian dispersion model, which assumes like turbulent
dispersion is there and it can be described in normal distribution kind of at the centre line
highest concentration, when we go to the lateral direction or vertical direction, then
concentration decreases as we go away from the centre line, then Lagrangian model may be
there which uses basically the moving framework with a reference like trajectories, so multiple
particles they follow up.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:31)

So, this is this is a kind of complex model and mostly we use Gaussian dispersion model and
this equation you might be remembering this concentration which is based on the emission and
then σy σz that is the lateral and vertical dispersion coefficients and like this stack height plus

830
plume rise all those kinds of things and then x, y, z can be the coordinate where we are
interested to calculate the concentration.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:55)

When we talk about the Lagrangian model basically, this fundamental equation is used where
the average concentration and the source term concentration in terms of mass per volume per
time and the probability density related function is also used per volume. So, you can see this
integration of these kind of variables.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:15)

But for simplification, we can distribute into two very simple terms basically, when we use
these Lagrangian model and there are computational models now, nowadays available which
you can use, whether based on the Gaussian dispersion technique or Lagrangian technique.

831
(Refer Slide Time: 10:30)

So, when we talk about the advantages, what are the advantages of this using bottom up
approach? So, there are several advantages basically like it can help us locating pollution
sources through the development of emission inventory. So, we know which kind of source is
more dominating because we have these emission calculations then we can identify the
potential sources of primary pollutions or primary emissions.

Then we can describe those relevant physical characteristics or chemical characteristics in the
sense of their, physical parameters or chemical parameters. We can also understand those
chemical processes which can contribute into the secondary aerosols or secondary pollutants.
Like secondary pollutants like ozone or secondary aerosols, maybe sulphate or nitrate etc.

832
(Refer Slide Time: 11:21)

Then, we can also document these potential, sources of secondary aerosols formation
processes, and we can identify the sources which will be most effective, because we know
different kinds of sources in terms of quantity as well as in terms of their effect on the air
quality concentration by using the dispersion model.

So, we can now know which source is dominating or which is culprit which is deteriorating the
air quality in a significant way. So, we can identify those particular sources and we can, directly
estimate the effects of those changes in terms of emissions and in terms of ambient air quality
concentration. Plus, spatial variation, temporal variation, those kinds of things in terms of the
quality and exposure we can do in this particular activity of the bottom up approach.

833
(Refer Slide Time: 12:15)

But, there are certain disadvantages also, like when we go for collection of primary data, and
we go for emission inventory development, based on emission factors and laboratory
requirements for those generating those emission factors, it is very expensive process basically,
highly complicated laboratory equipment’s, we need for like, different kind of vehicle emission
factors.

So, for each activity, if we need to have the emission factor, it is a huge task basically needs a
lot of resources, a lot of infrastructure and a skilled manpower. Similarly, for development of
emission inventory, we are heavily dependent upon those activity level data, fuel consumption
data, so uncertainty may be there and it can vary from, region to region. And then experienced
or skilled staff is needed for developing emission inventory for calibrating the emission,
estimating tools or models plus dispersion models.

834
(Refer Slide Time: 13:20)

Now, if you go for top down, or receptor-based approach method, which is another very popular
method which we will see. So, in this basically we go like for sampling, we go for the air
quality concentration sampling, and then we match those air pollutants concentrations to the
pollution sources, because we also identify the pollution sources.

So, different markers are there, there are different signatory pollutants from different sources
like as I said in one lecture that if you are given a table and in that table, you see the NOx
emissions, NOx concentration is very high your CO concentration is very high. So, you will
intuitively think that this site may be near to the transportation sector or some highway or
something like that, if you get high concentration of the SO2 etc, then you may assume that
maybe coal based thermal power plant is nearby. So, that way you can link you can match
basically, and there are statistical tools also.

835
(Refer Slide Time: 14:23)

So, we will see in this particular top down approach basically, we need to identify first of all
the hotspots of the pollution sources and the levels as we do mapping through air quality
monitoring and the identification of the sources. Then we go for, identification of chemical
compositions of different particulate pollution, chemical analysis is to be done after when you
collect like particulate matter, then you go for chemical analysis in the laboratory.

So, how much heavy metal is present in that particulate matter or which kind of different
pollutants are present there. Well, then we describe based on the source profile and the
statistical analysis we have to do. So, we can basically match the sources and the pollutants
and we can differentiate between primary and secondary pollution also, and then we do the
detailed apportionment of the pollution with respect to the source.

836
(Refer Slide Time: 15:17)

Basically, when we go for, this identification of sources, the monitoring of the pollutants, and
then we go for this chemical analysis, and then we go for this matching of the statistical tool
utilisation for apportionment. So, all these are given in this particular picture, so the first of all
the critical pollutant levels have to be identified those locations where a lot of pollution is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:44)

The second is identifying the chemical composition of the particulate pollution. So, for that we
have to do chemical analysis in the laboratory basically, so sample collection and then the
measurement of those samples and take to the laboratory for chemical analysis, so that we can
know several kind of pollutants which are toxic chemicals available in those particulate
pollutants.

837
(Refer Slide Time: 16:05)

Then we go for this receptor modelling, so like chemical a mass balance or PMF, etc we will
see later on, so those kinds of tools we will basically use.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

So, like as I said that the fundamental principle of the receptor modelling is basically the mass
conservation. So, the chemical mass balance analysis can be used to identify and apportion the
sources of the contaminants in the atmosphere using the CMB technique basically. So, mass
balance equation which is used for this particular purpose is this one you can see the chemical
species of different nature ith zth, in ith sample zth chemical especially can be mean different
samples may be there different species may be there.

838
 𝑝

𝑥𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑔𝑖𝑘 𝑓𝑘𝑗

𝑘=1

So, we represent like that, then the concentration of that particular species in the material form
from the kth at source right and then airborne contribution of those particular material from the
kth source contributing to the sample. So, their relationship is expressed with this particular
equation.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:10)

And this equation further simplified as a CMB model in this particular form, so that you can
easily calculate, which kind of species coming from the, which kind of a specific source.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:26)

839
Well so, when we go for this top down or receptor-based modelling, that is the CMB modelling
or Chemical Mass Balance modelling basically. So, for example, we go for PM10
apportionment, so, in PM10, whether elemental carbon, organic carbon or some heavy metals
are present or carbonaceous fine particles are there for that it is quite usable for using the CMB
technique.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:50)

Then, there is another method that is the multivariate method. And that that multivariate
method basically, you can use this Positive Matrix Factorization model or PMF that is very
easy tool and that kind of late the pollutant with a specific source and this is computer based
technique and statistical analysis is to be done, and the US EPA has used it and after that, it has
been very popular among atmospheric researchers or air quality scientists.

840
(Refer Slide Time: 18:25)

So, this is particular relationship which represent this PMF model which can be used like
chemical species then uncertainties maybe their concentration of that particular jth species again
the same concept airborne contribution from particular source. So, all those i, j, k whether it is
species or that sample or the source that has to be related with each other.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:55)

So, this particular top down or receptor-based model or method in the next lecture, we will
discuss in detail. So, we can just skip at present the source apportionment using the receptor
model.

841
(Refer Slide Time: 19:08)

So, we can directly come to what are the advantages and disadvantages of the receptor-based
method basically, it can determine those monitoring at the selected monitoring sites hotspots
some particular compliance levels whether it is exceeding or meeting the those air quality
standards or not, it can also help us in identification of those critical pollutants of the concern
which can have severe health effects etc.

It can also be used for differentiating chemical composition of particulate matter in terms of
primary or secondary contributions, how much is there, then description of source impact
estimates can be done by this technique receptor-based model, identification of sources with
respect to the most effective controlling technique because when we know the dominating
source we can just what kind of technology we can use to control that particular source.

And it can also avoid some uncertainties which are quite part of that emission inventory-based
modelling or the bottom up approach. So, that kind of uncertainty can be reduced and it is much
simpler and must cost it for much cost-effective in terms of resources and skilled manpower.

842
(Refer Slide Time: 20:17)

Then there are certain disadvantages also, like it needs to have an apply appropriate source
profile, which can match emission sources with the ambient air pollution which is again it is
not so, easy, it needs some intuitive gas as well as some laboratory-based analysis, those kinds
of things we need to know and the computer modelling skilled manpower is needed.

In some cases, not being able to differentiate between the sources that can have similar
chemical compositions for example like, cooking and open burning will have similar kind of
air quality pollutants. So, it is difficult whether it is coming from the, open burning or from the
cooking. Otherwise in emission inventory, we can have, different permissions so, that is the
advantage in that bottom up approach, but in top down, this is the limitation, because we cannot
differentiate in terms of those particular pollutants, which are common in both the sources.

Like road dust and soil dust can be simple. So, it is coming from the resuspension of the road
dust or from the soil dust, we do not know, so that is the limitation in this particular approach.
Also, it is not possible to be able to fully account the possible, non-linearities due to the
chemistry and the formation of secondary aerosols, because that is one more limitation in this
particular approach.

But, now we talk about the integration of the bottom up and top down approach, because both
have certain advantages, both have certain limitations. So, if we get those advantages,
integrated then we can have better kind of analysis and better kind of rituals.

843
(Refer Slide Time: 22:06)

So, the like bottom up approach, which give the technical challenges or like in terms of time in
terms of resources, etc whereas this top down approach is quite simple in terms of very few
resources are needed. So, that way we can integrate those approaches.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:28)

Well, so we can look into this information which are available through bottom up or to the top
down and we can have the best aspects of the both the techniques and we can, that way
minimise the limitations of both approaches.

844
(Refer Slide Time: 22:46)

Well, in conclusion, we can say that the results of the source apportionment provides new
information in terms of emission sources as well as it gives us the quantities of different
estimations of source specific pollutants. Then top down source apportionment combined with
bottom up when we integrate that approach, like I mentioned inventory techniques as well as,
PMF technique etc it gives us much better results for air quality management systems.

Plus, source apportionment provides, policymakers with realistic techniques and information,
so that we can go for targeting only those sources, which are more dominating and which are
like low hanging fruit so that air quality improvements are quite quick. If we do not know the
specific sources which are contributing to a particular pollutant, then it is very difficult to make
a policy or to make a programme to reduce those pollutions. So, that way source apportionment
is very important, because it gives us an idea which particular pollutant is coming in large
quantity from which a specific source so that we can target that source.

845
(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

So, this is all for today, this is the reference for your additional information. And in next lecture,
we will look into the source apportionment study based on the receptor modelling. Thank you
very much for your kind attention. Thanks a lot.

846
 Air pollution and Control
Professor – Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee
Lecture – 28
Source Apportionment using Receptor Modeling
Hello friends. Today we will discuss about source apportionment using receptor modeling. As
you may recall, we have discussed general aspects of source apportionment, what is the source
apportionment, what are different techniques or tools for doing the source apportionment.
Basically, when we talk about a particular urban air shade or a particular location and we want
to know that whatever concentration we are getting of a particular pollutant, then how much it
is coming from a particular source.

Whether it is coming from let us say 2 wheelers or 4 wheelers or from power plant or from
domestic sources, so to specify the source means the contribution of a specific source to the
receptor means who is receiving the air concentrations of that particular pollutant. So, what is
their absolute and relative contribution as per the source and to the receptor?

So, that relationship we want to know through the source apportionment studies. Because only
after that we would be able to know that a particular pollutant is coming from a particular
dominating source. So, that we can attack that source to control it whether through some
policies, through some technologies or changing some fuel etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:48)

So, the content of today's lecture would be like, we will discuss little bit on introduction. Then
what are the receptor models and the main characteristics of these receptor models are of

847
various kinds. So, we will discuss about them. Then the role of receptor models in the source
apportionment. How do they play their role and the procedure of source apportionment using
the receptor model.

So, the receptor model is the basic focus of today's lecture. To use them to do the source
apportionment, otherwise there are several techniques but we will focus on receptor modeling
and the conclusions thereafter we will summarize this lecture on the conclusions.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:25)

So, when we talk about source apportionment as you know, it is nothing but a particular
exercise or practice of deriving information about pollution sources and the amount they
contribute to ambient air pollution levels, means different sources they will contribute different
amount of a particular pollutant. So, we will know how much amount is coming from a
particular source. Here source ambient of PM10 in a Bay Area. So, 29 percent is from motor
vehicle, 30 percent from fireplaces, wood stoves etc. Refineries contributing 7 percent,
construction activity is 11 percent.

So, the PM10 is coming 29 percent from motor vehicles, 11 percent from construction. So, that
is the source apportionment, means how much it is coming from different sources. So, to
understand how to reduce the pollution in the environment is source apportionment study is a
must activity, you can say. It needs to be conducted because it will reveal what the sources of
the pollution are and how much each of the contributing source is contributing to the particular
air pollution level.

848
So, when we talk about receptor models because we are focusing in this lecture on receptor
modeling otherwise there are several other techniques for source apportionment. So, when we
talk about receptor models they are nothing but mathematical or statistical tools like equations
and relationships to identify the sources of air pollutants and quantifying them in terms of
absolute or relative contributions of the pollution load at a receptor location.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:10)

849
Wherever location we are interested to find the concentration and the source contribution and
these receptor models basically use the chemical and physical properties of gases and particles
because pollutants can be in gaseous form or particulate matter form and then they are
measured at a source and receptor to both detect and quantify the presence of source
contributions. For example, here you can see, this air pollution source like 45 percent is coming
from dust and construction activities. Industries is contributing around 8 percent and then the
waste burning is contributing around 17 percent.

So, that kind of distribution of relative contribution of different sources of a particular pollution
can be there. Well, when we again look at the receptor models then basically these receptor
models apportion the measured mass of an atmospheric pollutant at a given site or location that
is known as the receptor, that is why the name is receptor modeling.

850
And the fundamental principle of the receptor modeling is a mass conservation between
emission sources and the receptor because we assume that whatever the mass of that particular
pollutant has been released from the source, it has come to the receptor. So, that kind of
assumption we work upon.

And these are the equations which we use for receptor modeling where you know sources are
identified and this equation is solved for the mass balance equation, we call it. So, here you can
see Xij, j equals summation of gik into fkj plus eij and here this Xij is nothing but the concentration
of the jth species in the ith sample. So, there may be several samples and there may be in each
sample different species like PM10, SO2, NO2. So, when we talk about particular species, in a
particular sample and we calculate the concentration of that or monitor the concentration of
that particular species.
𝑝

𝑥𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑔𝑖𝑘 𝑓𝑘𝑗 + 𝑒𝑖𝑗

𝑘=1

Then we will see that the contribution of kth source because that will be coming from n number
of sources, so the contribution of the kth source in the jth sample that particular sample and f
denotes the concentration of jth species in the kth source. So, the multiplication of these all
permutation combinations happen and we multiply and sum up that to calculate the total
amount and then there may be some gap, because observations and calculations and the total
concentration may not be exactly same.

So, then we also use this residual term eij so residual term that is the difference between the
measured and the fitted value. Sometimes it is used, sometimes it is not used depending upon
the situation. And, when we go further, then in order to find the solution a data set with a rather
large number of data consisting of chemical constituents such as elemental concentrations and
gathered from several samples it is required.

Large number of data is available then good robust evaluation happens. So, the large the data
matrix, the higher the chances that the model will identify distinct factors that can be identified
as the sources. So, identification of sources becomes easier in that case when we have lot of
data.

851
(Refer Slide Time: 7:43)

And when we look at the main characteristics of receptor models then there are number of
characteristics like the use measured concentrations at the receptors. So, these receptor models
they use the concentrations which are measured at the receptor or location, receptor location.
And it refers to the chemical mass balance principle basically.

Whatever mass balance is there input and output that should be the same. Based on the solution
of multi linear equations, so different variables are there and it does not require like complex
meteorological and chemical processes which we need in some other models, those complex
models.

So, this is easier one and it requires low computational intensity. So, that is why it is preferred
one and mainly it is used on particulate matter because that mass balance thing is properly
suitable for this. Otherwise for gaseous species some reactions may happen which we generally
do not account in this particular technique. The appropriate for urban and regional scales for
that, in that sense it is good results are received by receptor modelling, on those scales.

852
(Refer Slide Time: 8:57)

And when we see, what is the procedure? Source apportionment, the procedure using receptor
modeling so again different steps are there. For example, we do first of all preliminary
evaluation of the study area. So we will look at the study area and the different features aspect
of that study area, we note down and discuss about that. Then we define a methodological
framework depending upon what kind of study area it is.

It is coastal area or it is land logged area hilly area. Accordingly, specific requirements may be
there, so the framework is designed based on that preliminary evaluation of the study area.
Then the criteria selection like site, how to select the criteria? So, site or those criteria which
are needed for these computational activities. So, site must be there, species or minimum

853
number of samples so these are the basic criteria which are selected for carrying out this source
apportionment through using receptor modeling.

And the chemical analysis is very important because only then we will be able to know how
much heavy metal is there, how much a particular species is there in the particulate matter. And
then basic statistics because the relationship it uses for sensitivity analysis for uncertainty
analysis, all those things basic statistics really help us and then the preliminary data quality
checks are also needed.

Then the input data uncertainty calculations are to be done and selection of the receptor models
is to be carried out. Then the factor analysis evaluation of the source contribution by factor
analysis when we estimate and do model performance indicators and test of the model
performance validation is also to be conducted or carried out. Then the reporting results and
methodology is the last thing based on the those calculations and evaluations we do.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:59)

854
So, when we come to the first step like preliminary evaluation of the study area, important
aspects are like emission inventories. At least like municipality area or town level area if some
very basic emission inventories available then it will give us some insight that which sources
are dominating. Although it is not necessary that at the receptor only those dominating sources
will be there because it will change depending upon the location, it will change.

It is not necessary, so, that is why a mission inventory based source apportionment may be
different than this receptor modeling based one. So, local source profiles will see, what are the
different sources, what are their profile, intensity, which kind of fuel they are using all those
things.

Then the time series at different time resolutions like daily variation or yearly averages, those
kind of averages values we need to compute and the profiles based on those pollutant levels

855
whether it is daily or annual level, we compare with those threshold values, you can say like
(NAAQS), National Ambient Quality Standards whether they are exceeding those standards or
not or lower than those. Those kind of information help us to carry out which space is more
important to study.

Then we look at like collection of available data on atmospheric pollution. We continue in

terms of special distribution of the pollutants, which are the hot spots where lot of air pollution
is being emitted. Then meteorology at the local and synoptic scale, so you can see means what
are their wind velocity or those adiabatic lapse rate related comparison with the environmental
lapse rate and those stability classifications, moisture, temperature all those things we need to
have.

Then the previous source apportionment studies if they are available, then we have to see
because land use, land planning changes over the period of time. So, the receptor also changes
in terms of getting different kind of species of air pollutants. When we describe about the
physical systems, then we see, of that steady area. Physical system means what are the
topographical features are there.

There are mountains or valley terrain or like tall buildings are there, some street canyon effect
is happening or not some water bodies are there or not because they will influence the
meteorological parameters. Large water body is there then temperature gradient may be
different and moisture content may be different.

Then the local sources, which are very complex like different kind of sources are clubbed
together. Then isolated local sources may be there. So, some combined sources may be
available some isolated sources may also be there like distinct sources. Suppose power plant is
there so it is quite distinct source of pollution.

We know which fuel is being burnt in the power plant like coal then we easily know that what
kind of pollutants are coming from that. But there are mix like in industrial area several kind
of fuels are being burnt then every kind of vehicle is coming from diesel based or LPG based
or CNG based or gasoline based. So, it is a mixed one, that kind of thing may happen.

Then the major transportation information, all categorization of vehicle category there, fuel
type, technology type, 2-stroke, 4-stroke all those things. Then the prevailing wind direction is
important because it will give us an idea that may be some additional source is coming from

856
the up wind direction. So, the wind direction is very important and the distinctive sources
through back trajectory we can calculate, if we know these wind related profiles.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:58)

Then when we try to define these methodological framework so the preliminary evaluation
which we do accordingly this a and b we have already discussed, then the objective of the study
are noted down properly. So, that we do not deviate from the aims and objectives of the study.

Then we go for available resources like how much funds is available? How much staff is there?
And whether staff is highly skilled or low skill kind of staff? How much time is available to
do? Because they will determine how much extent of this exercise we have to do. If you do not
have large funds then we have to go for simple exercise of source apportionment. We cannot
go for detailed in one.

Then when we talk about like model and software which need to be used for this exercise of
doing source apportionment through receptor modeling. Like (PMF), Positive Matrix
Factorization to be done or not, chemical mass balance is to be done. So, which software, which
model we are going to use. Then input data sources like which may be already available or
maybe we have to collect those required data from different sources or by preliminary primary
survey.

Then required qualification of the operator and training needs according to, because if you are
using a software then the person should know how to deal with the software. You cannot just
employ someone who does not know the software and then you just ask him to you know learn

857
and do. Then it will require lot of time, it will be wasted so many months and maybe the study
is delayed.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:33)

858
859
Then the criteria selection is also like site selection, as we have discussed. So, sites that
represent a diverse range of the sources in each area are preferred than those affected by a
single source because diverse sources then these models really work well for different sources
and the multiple sites with the same or different characteristics are frequently used. So, that is
also very important criteria of the site selection.

Then when we go for estimating the sources which are based on variations in contributions
from different sources like traffic, urban background, rural or regional background because
then different pollutants will come according to the background, rural emissions are different
than the urban. In rural, biogenic emissions may be more. The ability to quantify the
contributions from medium to long range transport is also made possible by orienting stations
according to the main wind direction because as you know, from wind direction some pollutant
may come, as we have already discussed. So, that orientation is also very important.

Then when we talk about species selection which species are more important. So, the chemical
species which are to be included in analysis that should be selected according to the study
objective, otherwise we will waste lot of time if we cater all kind of pollutants and species. We
should focus only those important species which are according to our objectives.

When we are going for acid rain related then better you go for SO2 NOx, you do not need to go
for other pollutants. Traditional receptor models focus on a small number of chemical species
to represent the majority of particulate masses. Because that gives lot of information about
different characteristics of pollution sources.

860
Well then within this criteria selection, we talk about continuously about species selection. So,
other important aspects are also there, like major ions like sulphate, nitrate, ammonium and the
carbonaceous fraction like total organic carbon or elemental carbon, organic carbon as well as
few other elements whose absolute and relative concentrations or specific ratios are used to
identify sources that should be kept in mind.

Nitrate is related with these particles or particulate matter larger than those associated with
sulphate, their contribution and ultra-fine particles with the gasoline and diesel exhaust but not
with the vegetation burning. So, according to the source and objectives, we have to change the
species selection criteria. Then the samples, how many samples we need to do. So, in practice
many samples are required to obtain the results that are representative of the variety of
conditions in the study area. Like it can include the variability of sources over time. Then
multivariate techniques only work properly with large number of samples as input criteria.

So, that is also one important aspect depending upon how many samples we are collecting and
for how many species and those kind of things are to be kept in mind. And, continuously when
we talk about like samples so what happens the most common configuration is the collection
of 24 hour samples with adequate particulate matter to do chemical analysis because you must
have adequate quantity otherwise the chemical analysis will not be proper and there should be
enough number of samples to capture the sources variability.

Otherwise some bias will happen, if you do not have adequate number of samples, large number
of samples then some samples may miss, some important species or their pollution loading.
And these samples which some sources are missing or insignificant they will be captured when
large number of samples are there and from mathematical aspect, the minimum number of
samples is the one that produces a degree of freedom to variable number V ratio greater than
60, D divided by V that is should be greater than 60. And while the optimum is one that leads
to the values over above the 100. So, this is the equation which is used for calculation this
particular ratio.

861
(Refer Slide Time: 20:51)

862
Now, when we do the chemical analysis, for that purpose first of all, we have to collect the
sample. So, filter paper is used and this high volume sampler is the way the instrument which
is simple instrument like air goes through this filter paper then the particulate matter is
deposited on the surface of the filter paper, it is analyzed and we see what kind of different
species are there.

So, the chemical analysis of particulate matter is commonly performed using the filter based
method which is shown in this particular schematic diagram and filters are chosen based on the
important criteria like compatibility with the analytical procedure. Whatever procedure we are
using, so it should be compatible. It should not disturb the sampling procedure or species
concentration or amount.

And it should not interact with the sample otherwise the values will change. It should be inert
in that sense and it should not have impurity. If it has very very low impurity levels must be
there otherwise our sampling, our analysis will be completely erroneous and it should also have
high efficiency. So, the commonly used these filter matrices are pure quartz or coated quartz
or Teflon, those kind of, nylon different kind of filters are available and because these
carbonaceous aerosols must be analyzed at elevated temperature.

So, only quartz fibre filters we use for this particular determining different ions and elements
and carbonaceous fractions in a particulate matter collection. So, this kind of filter paper before
we do sampling after sampling we get because the particulate matter get deposited on the filter
paper. So, this kind of ah difference is there. When we consider about local sources profile or
fingerprints of the local sources, that is also very important aspect and information.

863
So, when we consider the resource requirement for local sources characterization or
fingerprints of the local sources or sites from previous work, it is like similar domains or
obtained from the source profile repositories which can be taken from different reports
attributes are like United States EPA, Environmental Protection Agency. In case of India, you
can go for Central Pollution Control Boards different reports etc. They can give us the
background information about that particular local sources.

And the source oriented monitoring stations can be used to characterize the source emissions
if periods in which other sources influence the sample are excluded from the analysis. So, that
kind of cautiousness, we should take care. When we talk about like different analytical
techniques then like organic carbon and elemental carbon, either total or by single temperature
steps are commonly measured using the thermal optical methods.

And when we have to analyze these inorganic elements. Then ICP-MS, this Inductively
Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), this is very much used and Graphite Furnace
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GF-AAS), this is also used for this particular purpose of
inorganic elements. Then if we go for analysis of organic compounds then High Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) methods are used for these kind of compounds.

So, depending upon the different species, different chemical analytical methods or techniques
we need to use, otherwise we will not be able to get the right results.

864
(Refer Slide Time: 24:26)

865
866
Then basic static statistics are important for carrying out this study, so it is good to practice
some summary plots and some simple tests to know the reliability or its robustness and the
overview of relationships between variables and their changes with the sample to sample, if
their variation because of some meteorological changes or changes in the way of taking the
sample, all those changes are figured out in when we take different samples and analyze them
through different statistical methods.

So, many commercial and free software are available for carrying out those statistical analysis
and like Statistica, MATLAB, R kind of software. There are many kind of software you can
use for that purpose and box and whisker plots are useful for visualizing central values of these
variables like mean, median and the dispersion of data around the central values also like
minimum, maximum values, all those things are to be carried out by those plots.

867
And these plots basically give a visual overview for the data spread that enables us for a
preliminary assessment of the distribution because those plots are very good visual inspection
happens through those plots. How much variation is there, how much contribution is there and
this visual test of normality such as histograms or probability plots and normal probability plots
they are very useful.

So, they should be carried out by using these basic statistical analysis. Then when we talk about
different correlation matrices, so there are also, you can see these scatter plots may be there.
So, they also give some information because identifying like abnormal data point suppose some
point is here, so that is like outlier. We will see what is outlier, how it is identified?

So, variation of different values and abnormal data points, there can be done by these kind of
correlation analysis and the variables which are involved like pearson correlation coefficient
‘r’ and related statistics for every possible pair of variable, it is useful for exploratory technique.
It is a useful explanatory technique provided the influence of outliers has been evaluated and
taken out.

Then otherwise, low correlation when ‘r’ value is less and nearer to 0 like 0.2, 0.1 and high
correlation means 0.9, 0.95 then it is high correlation up to 1. So, those kind of values can give
us those ideas about its variation and nearer to the right value. Then when we see least square
regression, this is also important statistical parameter which gives the simplest and quickest
technique to more in depth exploration of the association between two variables whether they
are properly related or not.

And the slope and determination coefficient like r-square these provides useful preliminary
information to describe linear relationships between variables considered whether they are
linearly variable or not or they are completely unrelated. So, the r-square if it is 0.9, the input
variables explain 90 percent of the variation in the output variable. So, those kind of you can
see like here this nitrate and sulphate and this is ammonia whether they are related to each other
or not.

So, those values are there, r-square is around 0.945. So, their relationship is very good in that
sense, variation is very good. They are closely related. Then we talk about time series analysis,
time trends that is also very important. So, the plotting time trends of the variables it makes
possible to identify regular pattern in data, whether it is decreasing or increasing, having some
peaks those kind of things.

868
So, if there is a peak then why that peak is occurring whether some local source has been in
that particular time period or not. So, those kind of things, we can really see through these plots
of the time trends. Then when we want to know the outliers, so these are the values which are
not in the similar variation. So, they may reflect like genuine properties of studies, system
derived from measurement errors that are not relevant to the model.

So, those outliers may be because of certain mistakes. So, by these basic analysis you can find
out their pattern and those outliers can be removed otherwise they may give us wrong influence
or wrong conclusions. When we talk about a spatial distribution, like geographical. So, special
patterns can be only assessed by many sites available. Then variations are important and easy
to detect.

The special variations of the chemical and physical properties of the aerosols are coherent with
the geographical gradients in variables that influence the emissions of concentrations of
atmospheric pollutants like NaCL. NaCL is expected to be higher in the sites close to the coast.
So, that way these special variations or sites, properties can also give us idea which kind of
pollutant may be higher in those locations.

If we want to know these representative concentrations, how their two receptor species are
there, so the ratio scatter for plotting can help to determine their contribution at a particular
location.

869
(Refer Slide Time: 30:12)

870
871
Then when we talk about preliminary data quality checks, so missing values or 0 and negative
values which have kind of no meaning, so they can be removed by these kind of analysis. So,
the simplest option is to remove those raw samples which are having these kind of values and
as an alternative approach to fill these missing values with estimated values such as the mean,
median or geometric mean of the species because 0 may be there when instrument is not
working.

So, that means that value 0 is not right but because of certain reason that 0 is coming. So, we
have to remove them and then the missing value has to be filled by those mean values because
we can know through the trend or how much value can be there. So, those missing values can
be filled by our expert opinion with the help of those data.

Then when we talk about which values are good and detection limits are or below detection
limit whether they are important or not, so the limit of detection is a term which is used in
analytical chemistry to describe the lowest concentration of the sample at which destruction is
possible. Below that it will not be possible, so the values below the detection limit of the
analytical method should be used if they are available.

Otherwise it is not possible. So, it has been suggested that only species with more than 50
percent of value below the detection limit should be included in the data set. As this is adequate
to provide information about the sources. So, that detection limit and those kind of information
and concept is very important to learn.

Then signal to noise, some information may be like noisy means that is again kind of outliers
or they are not really important but they are coming from different sources. So, the power ratio
between desired signal meaningful information that is desired signal S and the background
noise and unwanted signal which has come because of some other sources which is not the
regular source that is just outlier kind of thing.

It is known as the signal to noise ratio and this signal to noise ratio is useful for classifying
variables according to the information they supply for the source identification analysis. So,
variables which need to be excluded when this S / N is less than 0.2 that means N is very high
in that number and the variables which are suitable for inclusion for the analysis are those for
which S / N is greater than 0.2 but less than 2.

So, those kind of values we should know. Then when we talk about mass closure or ion balance.
So, this again you have to see like there feasibility or evaluation we do depending upon

872
equivalence of anions, cations. So, their summation should be equal otherwise we have to fill
those errors by calculations related to like modeling efforts.

When we do analysis of consistency in time and space so the sampling methodology changes,
our analytical techniques may also create some disruption in time series. So, that must be duly
considered during data elaboration otherwise again our interpretation may be wrong. So, the
comparing time series from multiple location assist in identification of unusual patterns.

So, if we have multiple locations monitoring sites, if one site is not giving good information
then nearer site may be taken as the base case so that it can you know fill up those mistaken
kind of information. When we do like time series analysis, so again you can have the species
and other variables collected during different years and you can have their variation, they are
going up or down, what kind of regions are there for different patterns. So, those patterns give
us some important information about their variation depending upon those factors.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:12)

When we talk about source apportionment like uncertainty calculation sensitivity analysis. So,
those are also important thing and by this positive metric factorization or chemical mass
balance, they are required for uncertainty of the species concentrations as input data in order
to solution of uncertainty of the output. So, those values is very important. And analytical
uncertainty can be estimated by the linear regression. So, that is one important way of doing
that.

873
(Refer Slide Time: 34:46)

874
Well, when we want to select the receptor models, so there are many options like chemical
mass balance, positive matrix factorization, factor analysis without constraints then hybrid
expanded models. So, a number of models are there but we need to do which is more popular
more important. And why do we select this CMB because this is the most commonly used
receptor model, this chemical mass balance and positive matrix factorization PMF.

CMB and PMF are most popular models they are easy to use and CMB model is the least
square model basically which estimates the source contribution on the basis of the chemical
fingerprints of the source and the concentration of the pollutants. So, that relationship is easy
to establish and this positive matrix factorization model is based on uncertainty weighted factor
analysis which relies on pollutant measurement.

So, this is the basic difference between two and the main strength of the CMB model is that
unlike other statistical receptor models like PMF, if you compare CMB and PMF, then CMB
is better than PMF because it does not require a large data set. Wherever in PMF you need to
have large data set and the theoretical equation can be solved for an individual sample.

That is the beauty of the CMB and the CMB output does not require additional identification
of the contributing sources factors since the profiles are pre-selected and for specific sources.
So, with this equation we have already seen, so this is the basic equation for CMB analysis.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:24)

875
When we go for evaluation of source contribution estimation and model performance
indicators, then there are various indicators but one of the important indicator is Absolute
Principle Component Analysis, (APCA). So, you can see this APCA values for different like
CMB, PMF are shown and the number of sources which are resolved by APCA is generally
lower than the obtained with other models like PMF or CMB.

And quantification of source contribution may not be as precise. So, that is one particular
feature of this and this APCA is an exploratory receptor modeling tool for urban air quality
management, for the design of air pollution mitigation strategies. So, this is very popular in
that sense and the scientific application is, in scientific application APCA should mainly be
used to obtain preliminary picture of the possible contribution sources.

876
So, for detailed one it is not so good but for preliminary it is good, as a preparatory step for use
of more advanced model PMF, CMB. So, before that APCA can be used for preliminary
analysis.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:41)

877
878
So, the test of these model for performance this validation, you can do various techniques you
can use like ratios unique source tracers are there which are rare and therefore element and
molecular ratios have often been used for this trace similar sources and examples are like PMF
factors, the elemental ratio like sodium and chloride ratio and compared to the sea water
composition. So, that relationship can be easily established.

There may be some residuals for normal curve, that is also one important. And the well-
modeled species alternatively shows normally distributed residual within the range of + 3 and
- 3. So, that is also important because the distribution of residuals should be investigated in
order to verify how well the model is fitting with each species. So, that is also important.

Time trends which we have already discussed but again we can see that time dependent due to
the influence of atmospheric processes and meteorological parameters variation due to some
human activity also. Time trends may be there and we can know why the variation is there,
what is the reason is there. So, as a result the source contribution will also change over time
like variation is suitable diagnostic for evaluating interpretation of factor profiles according to
the time relation.

When we talk about wind direction analysis, so this is the plot where wind profile is also there,
pollution profile is also there. You might be knowing this wind rose diagram so those wind
rose diagram and pollution rose diagram are clubbed here and this is a kind of simple but
reliable method to plot source contributions in a polar scatter plot which is shown here. And it
is plotted in such a way that the wind direction determines the angle and the source contribution
determines the radius of each of the plot.

And such a plot shows briefly the general behaviour of wind directional dependence. So, maybe
from a particular wind direction more pollution is coming so that insight is very much available
from these kind of analysis. When we talk about overall uncertainty then again we have to do
some source of uncertainty analysis, so that we can figure out, what is the reliability of those
data which we are getting out of this analysis.

879
(Refer Slide Time: 40:10)

And the results which are described according to the steps proposed for overall procedures are
to be reported in a nice manner. So, when we talk about reporting the results and methodology
it is also important how do you report those results which you have got with this whole
extensive analysis.

So, experts decision are described and evidence of the objective information like quantitative
test or sensitivity analysis or uncertainty analysis, external information all these things should
be taken into account and incorporated in the report and presentation of those results. So, this
point is essential for critical steps such as selection of source profile in chemical mass balance
modeling and the identification of the number of sources and factors assigned in factor analysis.
So, that is why this is important.

880
Then when we do documentation so it should include like references of the source profiles and
the input and the model and their version which model you are using which latest version or
which version you are using for the analysis because that will also influence the results
preciseness and the specific case which you are describing and then when we talk about
unquantifiable sources of uncertainty, that uncertainty should be considered which are not
quantifiable because they are there in actual sense but we are not considering and they will
include some uncertainty in our results.

So, with the understanding of these errors in the input data and model assumptions as well as
complexities, they contribute to the total uncertainty budget in a receptor model. So, that is also
to be incorporated and properly discussed.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:56)

881
When we talk about sources receptor modeling, one example so these sources like soil dust or
steel plant is there, so these sources, they are giving like calcium 50 microgram per cubic meter,
iron fe 15 microgram per cubic meter. So, they are present in the ambient air. So, we need to
calculate the pollution contribution of each of the sources in the ambient area and which sources
need to be controlled, if we want to know.

And these are the fractions emission composition, 0.9, 0.2, 0.1, and 0.8. So, we use by that
particular equation, so this mass balance equation we are using. This A and B for first calcium
for iron and then put those values which are available in the problem and you calculate so you
get these values and you can say like fraction in the steel 52.8 from the soil it is 12.14.

So, the contribution of the steel plant as a source is greater than that of the soil dust. So, we
must control over the source of the pollution emitting from the steel plant. So, this kind of
information we receive from the these simple calculations which we are using.

882
(Refer Slide Time: 43:14)

So, in conclusion we can say that the source apportionment analysis receptor models play a
very important role in carrying out the source apportionment analysis. And the receptor models
have the advantages of providing information derived from real world measurements including
like estimations of output uncertainty and these receptor models are user friendly, very easy to
operate, they are easy to handle and receptor models are extensively used for the quantification
of source contribution at local and regional scales all over the world.

So, they are very popular technique. So, I hope you know with this presentation, you know a
bit about what is the importance of receptor modeling and how do we use it for carrying out
the source apportionment.

(Refer Slide Time: 43:58)

883
Well these are the references for additional information. Thank you for your kind attention.
See, you in the next lecture, see you again. Thanks.

884
 Air pollution and Control
Professor – Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee
Lecture – 29
Indoor Air Quality: An Introduction

Hello friends. From today onwards we will discuss two, three or four lectures on indoor air
quality. So, today a kind of introduction we will have about indoor air quality that will
include what is basically this indoor air pollution? What are the causes of indoor air
pollution? What are the major sources?

(Refer Slide Time: 1:11)

Then how indoor air quality is defined and what are the historical background or perspectives
in that sense and what is the importance? Why do we really worry about indoor air quality
and what are those important parameters that influence the indoor air quality and then some
health impacts which are associated with different pollutants which we get exposed in indoor
environment or micro environment of the buildings etc.

Then a few important things or aspects like sick building syndrome that we will discuss and
what is the role of ventilation in maintaining air quality of indoor environment. That we will
also discuss and later on we will have concluding remarks.

885
(Refer Slide Time: 1:37)

So, when we talk about indoor air pollution basically we refer to those chemical, biological or
physical contaminants which are present in an indoor air and that may result into some sort of
health issues to the receptor, to the people who are living inside the that particular
environment. And most of the time we feel that this air pollution problem is only outdoor
problem or only ambient air related problem and that may be the reason that most of the
discussions happen is regarding only ambient air quality. We have so many standards like
national ambient air quality standards but related to indoor air quality hardly any standard are
there.

So, there is a huge gap. We think that only in industrial areas or industrial environment or
outdoors this air quality may deteriorate and there may be air pollution kind of thing but fact
is that the air inside the buildings or the micro environments can be highly polluted and we
are not aware of that. Several kind of pollutants may be there inside the buildings and we can
get exposed to that. Sometimes at times the air pollution inside the building is more than the
ambient air and there are certain regions we will discuss about those aspects also.

886
(Refer Slide Time: 3:02)

So, when we talk about the causes of indoor air pollution, then we come across like for
example air tightness of building may be responsible because it prevents the air exchange.
Circulation is inhibited, air circulation is inhibited and whatever emissions are being
generated indoor like from kitchen or from smoking or any other activity like from dryers or
washing machine or moping and brooming, all those kind of activities, they can generate a lot
of dust or air pollutants and they may be inside the building because this air tightness of the
building may prevent to get them out and there may not be proper ventilation.

So, the poorly designed air conditioning or ventilation systems also adds to the air pollution
in the micro environment of buildings. Then indoor sources of air pollution may be there, as I
said from kitchen or from other activities we have, even from furniture or from paints etc
there may be some passive emissions and outdoor sources of the air pollution may also
contribute to the indoor environment because whenever we are opening window or door then
air is coming from the outside and this inside air goes outside.

So, if there are significant sources outside the building and those sources are polluting the
ambient air that air can flush into rush into the building, inside the building and that can also
add to the indoor air pollution.

887
(Refer Slide Time: 4:45)

Well so, when we talk about different sources basically these are like whatever gases or
particulate pollution which are coming from indoor air quality problems from homes or office
related activities and as I said, it can it can come from outdoor activities also, whatever order
outdoor activities they can add. And these chulas or in kitchen plus tobacco or dust from
these kind of activities they may or even when we are using some room freshener or these are
basically VOC’s Volatile Organic Compounds. They also add into the air pollution inside the
buildings.

So, sources can be several like building materials or furnishing items or household products
like air fresheners and there are numerous activities which can release like even when we are
doing some sort of puja, we are burning something then whatever things are being burnt that
can add into the air pollution inside unless we have proper ventilation system.

888
(Refer Slide Time: 5:56)

So, when we talk of different aspects so air tightness of the building is one important aspect
because it prevents the air exchange as I said and it can build up some hazardous impact in
the indoor environment as ventilation rates are reduced sometimes we feel about like energy
efficiency that we should not go for very high intensity or efficiency of ventilation because
then electricity bill will be very high.

So, what happens sometimes people do that this ventilation rate, they reduce to improve the
energy efficiency and the lower carbon emissions. Those could be the reasons to achieve but
then that can result into built up of indoor air pollutants and it can lead to development of
negative air pressure inside the building.

889
So, negative air pressure means low pressure and if air pressure is outside, the building is
higher then again the polluted air can come from outside to inside through cracks, through
whatever opening is there through that air can come as air is so diluted fluid, it is very
difficult to prevent it to move from one point to another.

So, you can see here, when it is shown that of course there are ventilation systems then some
positive pressures are there proper and then air goes out in from the inside to outside but from
outside to inside also air comes depending upon the pressure. So, wherever negative air
pressure is there air will come from outside to inside building, wherever positive pressure is
there air will go out from the building to the in outdoor environment.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:44)

Then poorly designed Heating Ventilation And Air Conditioning (HVAC), Heating
Ventilation and Air Conditioning system, if it is not designed properly then it can also result
into several kind of pollutants like it can result into fungi or moulds or other sickness causing
microbes or bacteria all those kind of things may happen and that can add into allergic related
issues.

So, in air conditioning duct if it is not clean and if it is moist and it can cause microbes
related activities then it is very dangerous to health issues and return air grill, if it is not
cleaned regularly periodically that can also cause that can also get converted into sources of
air pollutants rather than air conditioning, it may reduce the temperature of course but it can
add to several kind of air pollutants.

890
(Refer Slide Time: 8:45)

So, the sources of indoor air pollution in a typical household can be seen in this pictorial
representation. For example, from bedroom can be there, bathroom or air conditioning units,
living room and laundry room where VOC’s can be generated by these detergents etc those
kind of things, cooking devices all these kind of activities can add into one or the other kind
of air pollutants inside the building.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:14)

And in office buildings then there may be additional sources like photocopying machine can
be there and heaters or some other kind of activities, carpets capture lot of dust, if you are not
doing proper vacuum cleaning then it can be source of lot of dust or particulate matter of fine
nature and it is very health hazard.

891
(Refer Slide Time: 9:40)

Then, if we club them as different kind of sources then we can say that indoor human
activities can add into the air pollution inside the buildings and building components and
furnishing like furniture or even walls paints etc so far set bad sets everything, dust mites can
be there all those things are the concern from air pollutant point of view and then from
outside building also as I said, polluted air can come inside, equipment’s of different nature
can add into those chemicals leads from buildings or when we are using chemicals in
washroom there also some fumes may be generated.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:22)

892
Outside the building there may be additional sources which are of usual nature as we know
whether it is from industrial stack emissions or pollens from different trees or plants and then
general vehicle exhaust all those kind of things are there from parking lots, garages, orders
from different activities all those things can be additional sources which can add into indoor
air pollution.

Then there may be like these leakages from underground fuel tanks which have petrol pumps
or any other kind of units they can have and then moisture can also be there because if proper
drainage system is not there within the building, if leakage is there and seepage is there, they
can also add into these kind of very fine pollens means pores or those fungi related issues and
they can add into some microbes which are health hazard basically.

893
(Refer Slide Time: 11:28)

Equipment’s, we have exhaust fan etc, if you are not cleaning them properly they can also be
like sources of air pollutants. Even those air cleaners, now a days people use air cleaners or
air filters if you are not cleaning regularly those air filters rather than cleaning the indoor
environment they can add into air pollution. So, it has to be cleaned regularly. So, all those
kind of equipment’s if you are not maintaining them properly they can add into indoor air
pollution.

So, whether it is heating ventilation air conditioning related equipment or non-HVAC means
non-heating ventilation air conditioning equipment, like solvents or toners all those kind of
cleaning processes all those can emit one or other kind of indoor air pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:16)

894
Different human activities as we know, we are using some pest control related chemicals
pesticides etc they also add into pollutants inside the building, house activities are there like
airborne dust or dirt and then cleaning materials all those things are there for adding into the
air pollution inside the micro environment.

Personal activities like smoking, cooking, body odour, if we are not clean then we are also
adding into some air pollutants. Our pets, if we are not keeping our pets properly clean then
they can add into several kind of air pollutants. Their hair and many things may be there,
cosmetic order can be there, all those things. Whatever we are using which smell that is
basically adding to the air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:11)

895
Then building components and furnishing as we discussed like surfaces or open cells or
deteriorated furnishing items materials containing damaged asbestos all those kind of things
are there, then unsanitary conditions like microbiological growth on soiled or water damaged
furnishing, microbiological growth may be there in those surfaces which are moist or and dry
traps may be also there which can like sewer gas related issues can also be there. So, order
causing activities can be there for adding into indoor air pollutant.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:50)

Other sources like because accidentally some liquids are spilled that can also add into some
sort of pollution. Then repair activities, when whenever we do that also adds into some kind
of air pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:03)

896
And now we come to indoor air quality because whatever we have discussed are adding to
the indoor air quality. They are leading us to the quality of indoor air. So, how do we define
what is the indoor air quality. So, theoretically we can say that it refers to the air quality
within the buildings or structures wherever we are living whether it is residential building or
the office building especially as it relates to the health and comfort of the building occupants.

When your room is properly tight, I mean improperly tight I would say and it is not ventilated
properly then lot of suffocation can be there. CO2 build up may be there and you are not
having proper oxygen for your body and ultimately you may fall sick. So, indoor air quality is
basically defined by the depiction of concentrations of different pollutants and thermal
conditions plus humidity related issues also.

And some air pressure if it is having negative kind of thing, so then different air pollutants
come from outside and they have health the impacts of negative nature discomfort and
performance of buildings of occupants, performance means working performance can reduce,
efficiency can reduce, you may fall sick you may not attend your school or college or office
and you have to visit the doctor because of some respiratory problems and that may be
because of this poor indoor air quality.

So, again as we talk about what is the significance of indoor air quality in terms of household
air pollution. So, it is given data 3.8 million die prematurely every year from household air
pollution. So, from cooking, this is 2016 data. So, those kind of things are there which really
alarm that we should be careful about the indoor air quality.

897
(Refer Slide Time: 16:04)

So, why do we study? The reason we know because it is affecting our health and
environmental protection agency has given some data like people spend over 90 percent of
their time indoors now a days and if you look at this corona, means the whole world almost
everyone was in inside the their houses. Their outdoor activities was restricted very severely.

So, even this lifestyle is becoming, so that most of the people whether they are working in
factories or in offices, they are working in some indoor environment and the air pollutants in
those micro environments are 2 to 5 times higher than the outside. That has been observed
because of those observations, these are the data.

World Health Organization also has estimated that more than 30 percent of all commercial
buildings have significant indoor air quality problems. So, that means the severity of this
indoor air quality is affecting a lot of people, a lot of population and we should worry about
it. We should do something to improve the indoor air quality.

898
(Refer Slide Time: 17:15)

Now if you talk about historical perspective whether in past those centuries, this was the issue
or not? So, when we go about the literature then we find that ever since men first lit the fires
in shelters, in caves so indoor air quality has been a health issue. Basically, there are
evidences of such nature that lungs were blackened because of that particle deposition and it
has been seen in this mummified human remains which were discovered in Egypt and Peru
and those countries.

So, indoor air quality became an important topic in 18th century very much because of lot of
this coal burning and fossil fuel reuses and the first regarding deaths of workers in mines
basically and those kind of activities, when the slavery was there, so from Africa to America

899
when ships were filled with so many people and ventilation was not proper, so many people
died and that was basically because of poor air quality.

And then we talk about this first indication of indoor contamination in terms of asbestos
concentration or asbestos pollution. This is a carcinogenic substance as you know and this
was discovered by epidemiologists. So, in a 1970 study it was found that less rate of
ventilation then higher concentration of radon, source of the radon was building material and
on July 12, 1989 environmental protection agency issued a final rule banning most asbestos
containing products.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:14)

So, whatever building material having asbestos, so that was discarded or banned for uses for
the building material purposes. Indoor air pollution importance of indoor air quality in terms
from solid fuels when we are using coals etc, it accounts for 3.5 million deaths and 4.5
percent of global daily adjusted life here. This kind of data are there from a study and it also
accounted for 16 percent particulate matter pollution. So, that way it is a very significant
issue that indoor air quality has to be clean otherwise large number of population can get
exposed to its harmful effects.

900
(Refer Slide Time: 19:53)

Then what are the parameters which effect or influence the indoor air quality. So, when we
list them like rate of exchange of air from outdoor like ventilation outdoor to indoor what is
the air mass exchange which mechanical engineers usually read about or study about and the
concentration of pollutants in the outdoor air, rate of emissions from sources indoors, rate of
removal of pollutants like sinks are there, some indoor temperature indoor humidity, age of
the indoor structures or building material, type of foundation soil.

Because if it is contaminated like suppose it was a landfill site and you have constructed
buildings there, so maybe some very harmful chemicals are there and slowly they come out
of the soil and they fill up complete the building atmosphere and you never know this can
happen and later on we find that certain health issues are there.

901
(Refer Slide Time: 20:44)

When health impacts of indoor air pollution are discussed, the reduction in oxygen level of
species are the reasons, those are the reasons like increase in CO2 level, as I said when you
feel suffocated because CO2 increases in lot of quantity then temperature may also increase
because of certain activities, increase in humidity can also add into discomfort, increase in
bio-resource and order that can also affect our daily life.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:20)

Well, when we talk about short term and long term health impact of indoor air pollution. So,
short term like it can cause headache or it can cause some irritation to nose, throat, infection
eye inflammation coughing and painful breathing those kind of issues. Now in winter many

902
people have these issues and pneumonia or skin irritation all those things can be in term short
term kind of effect are there because of polluted air inside the micro environment.

When we talk about long term effects so it can affect the central nervous system, the
headache anxiety all the time. Cardiovascular disease can also be there, heart related disease
can also there, then respiratory diseases like asthmatic problems may occur or even cancer
causing things can also be there because of constant exposure to the polluted air inside the
buildings.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:13)

When we talk about the pollutant specific effects, there health effects whether it is outside the
building or inside the building it is the same like knocks is causing irritation to the skin or
eyes and the throat and it can cause coughing also and there are some limits are given there

903
by environmental protection agency. Some standards are there, this should not exceed these
are the limits, CO is having like headache even in fact CO as you know, it can cause death
also if high concentration of CO is inhaled and we do not get aware of it because it does not
smell or this is odourless, colourless.

RSPM, this Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter that is PM10, that can cause cancer also
if carcinogenic elements are coated in those particulate matter whether it is PM2.5 or those
fine particles they can enter into our system. SO2 means sulphur dioxide can result into lung
disorder or shortness of the breath those kind of things may be there and this radon can cause
lung cancer.

Similarly, there are like formaldehyde asbestos all these are very healthy effects can be there
like formaldehyde can skin allergies can result from that, asbestos can cause lung cancer,
pesticides again they are can result in skin diseases, VOC’s they can have eye irritation or
skin dresses, CO2 well surrogate index of ventilation because CO2 is more than ventilation is
not good and when CO2 is more and oxygen is less then you feel uncomfortable. Ozone many
times we have discussed that it is very problematic and it can cause several kind of problems.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:09)

904
When we come to sick building syndrome, you might have heard this terminology sometimes
you might heard like some building is blamed like if somebody goes and the family goes
there they always fall sick. Sometimes we mark a building saying this is ghost building, all
those kind of things are there, sometimes they say do not live in that particular building, it is
cursed. Anybody or any family come to this building, they fell sick.

So, basically that may be because of certain these indoor air pollutants also. So, that is
terminology sick building syndrome is there. So, this term basically is used to describe
situation where building occupants experience some acute health related issues. Whenever
you live in there, then you have breathlessness or some heart related problem or whatever
depending upon what kind of pollutant is there.

So, specific illnesses may be there some causes can be identified related to the pollutants. So,
the poor lighting, poor indoor air quality, poor ergonomics means you can fall if it is not
designed properly and then you can say that this is cursed building, we cannot live healthy
here uncomfortable acoustics, psychological stress because if light air all those combinations
are not proper then you do not feel good.

So, those may be the buildings which are known as or result into sick building syndrome.
And the solutions for that we should really care about this lighting, air circulation all those
things. So, we can solve that problem and the air cleaning, increasing ventilation rates and
proper communication with the residents and monitoring of the pollutants and then
identifying the sources of those pollutants, removing them that kind of thing can be done to
make that building as healthy living space.

905
(Refer Slide Time: 26:11)

Well, ventilation plays very important role for removing the pollutants from inside to outside.
And sometimes as I said, ventilations can even increase the pollutants also if it is not properly
designed. So, there may be natural ventilation, there can be mechanical ventilation or the
hybrid system can also be there. So, those things can be seen, here you see the ventilation
rate, air flow direction, air distribution all those things basically play important role otherwise
some corners of the building will be highly polluted if ventilation is not proper.

906
(Refer Slide Time: 26:50)

If you talk about natural ventilation, it can be in terms of like single sided ventilation or cross
ventilation, stack ventilation all those kind of things can be there. And in natural ventilation
basically you can see here these species where circulation happens properly but it can bring
pollens and other pollutants from outside air if it is not properly designed.

Because natural ventilation means you allow air from outside to come inside and from inside
to outside with some ventilators which are naturally taking this circulation of the air. So, that
way we are not controlling outside air, it is coming just from some openings. So, that may be
one issue. If it is not clean air outside then it can be an issue.

907
(Refer Slide Time: 27:38)

Mechanical ventilation basically it can control. The air flow, speed, volume, temperature
everything you can control because mechanically it is designed and that way cool air can
come down and then this warm air goes up and it can get out with those particularly systems
which are designed for ventilation.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:58)

So, you can see here like in natural ventilation there may be some pockets where high level of
pollutants may be there because natural ventilation cannot go to each and every corner with
uniform flow rate of the air. It has some limitations but mechanically designed proper

908
ventilation system can have uniform distribution of air circulation and that can remove the
pollutants properly.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

In hybrid or mixed mode ventilation there are this combined natural driving forces you use
and then whenever this natural pressure difference is not there, then you use the mechanical
devices for proper ventilation.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:39)

When we talk about like assessment of ventilation performance, so we have certain these
kind of questions which really help us to see whether the ventilation system is performing
properly or not. For example, does this system provide sufficient ventilation rate as required?
You can calculate that. Is the overall airflow direction in a building is from clean air to dirty

909
zones so that the dirty zones flush out and then how efficient is the system in delivering the
outdoor air to each location in the room.

And how efficient is the system in removing the airborne pollutants from each location in the
room, so that room is having clean air. So, those kind of things can be seen and for
assessment or evaluation of ventilation system.

(Refer Started Time: 29:24)

Well, in totality when we talk about ventilation and indoor air quality. So, basically the
energy efficient residential buildings having mechanical ventilations with the heat recovery,
they are proved that with the lower concentrations of indoor particulate matter PM10 or PM2.5
carbon dioxide or VOC’s compared to the conventional apartments which do not have the
weather properly controlled mechanical ventilation system.

So, that picture shows that in that proper like ventilated system which is controlled
mechanically you can have healthy environment in comparison to the conventional
apartments. So, that is one important aspect that if you want to have good indoor air quality
have the good ventilation system. So, that you live in a better condition and you do not fall
sick, you do not get exposed to indoor air pollutants.

910
(Refer Slide Time: 30:23)

So, this is conclusions from this introductory lecture. We can say that the indoor air quality
assessment and management need more attention as increasing number of people are
spending more and more time indoor environment. Whether it is office or our residential
buildings and the understanding and controlling the sources and dispersion and diffusion of
common indoor air pollutants can help to reduce the risk of indoor health impacts.

And proper ventilation is required to keep indoor environment healthy in terms of better
indoor air quality. So, I hope with this introductory lecture, I am sure you can visualize what
the importance of indoor air quality is and which are the sources important, sources or major
sources which can deteriorate the indoor air of the micro environment whether it is library or
your residential house or office building or office room, whatever.

So, with this I finish this lecture and we will continue discussing about other aspects of the
indoor air quality.

911
(Refer Slide Time: 31:35)

These are the references for more information on indoor air quality, please go through that
whenever you have time and thanks again. See you again in the next lecture. Thanks.

912
 Air pollution and Control
Professor – Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee
Lecture – 30
Specific Sources and Types of Indoor Air Pollutants

Hello friends, you may recall last time we discussed about introduction of indoor air pollution
or indoor air quality. Today we will go beyond that and we will discuss about specific sources
and types of indoor air pollutants. So, in detail we will go about different kind of sources which
are available in micro environment, indoor micro environment and different types of pollutants
which come from those specific sources.

So, in this we will have combustion related products like carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide
or indoor particulate matter and then some second hand smoke due to like tobacco smoking
etc. Then building material and furnishing related emissions may also be there because
adhesive or those paints etc they also emit building materials they also emit certain pollutants
like asbestos, formaldehyde, lead or some VOC’s volatile organic compounds.

Then there may be some biological pollutants like dust mites or animal allergens or moulds
depending upon what kind of environment is there, humidity is there or not all those. Then
pesticides when we are using even for plants etc. So, those kind of exposure may be there, from
outdoor also some pollution can intrude in inside the buildings and then some pollution come
from surface and those kind of radioactive related pollutants may also be there. So, those kind
of specific sources and pollutants we will discuss.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:07)

913
So, if we focus on primary causes of indoor air problems, then you can see like sources may
be many, even from outdoor like outdoor emissions or outdoor air pollution can also come to
the indoor like from windows or when we are opening doors etc. Unless it is very tight building
exchange of air is there and depending upon the outdoor air quality, indoor air quality can be
influenced and from indoor emissions outdoor air quality can be influenced. So, this is two-
way process basically.

But within the indoor environment like cooking activity can be there and depending upon the
fuel whether we are using these biofuels or some solid fuels cow dungs or wood etc and if we
are using liquid fuels like kerosene or LPG or we are using other kind of stoves. So, depending
upon that some sort of pollutants may come from the kitchen. Well then, tobacco smoking
means those people in those families where people smoke so those contribute to the indoor
quality deterioration because whatever particulate matter or other pollutants are being emitted,
they will be inside the house.

Then you can have this dust like when you are brooming or you are walking even then those
dust resuspension is there. So, that is again another source of indoor air pollution. Mosquito
repellants, when we are using some sort of these repellents now a days, they also emit
something. Some particulate pollutants also and some gaseous pollutants also.

When we do some paint related activities again some aerosols are there in the air because of
those activities and even in future also some paint can emit some sort of emissions depending
upon what is the composition, chemical composition of the paint. Then like agarbatti, candle
or whatever source of the burning is there, so they can contribute to one or other kind of the
indoor air pollutants.

914
(Refer Slide Time: 4:19)

So, the sources are like fuel burning combustion appliances, use of the tobacco products then
building materials and furnishes. So, this is the summary kind of thing which I just discussed
or products for household cleaning and maintenance, central heating and cooling systems and
humidification devices. They also contribute. Then pest control activities because we are using
some sort of chemicals, so those chemicals also get emitted into the air and outdoor air
pollution, as I said it will come inside.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:54)

When we try to visualize what is happening inside the building, so if this is a kind of residential
building, dust, mites etc from bedrooms that can be one source. And pet, our pet whether it is
cat or dog they are roaming around inside the building and they can be source of some sort of

915
allergens etc. Then this asbestos and dust chemicals can be from the sheets also, then from
bathrooms because several chemicals are being used and moisture is there, humidity is there
so bacteria can also grow.

So, those kind of viruses or bacteria can be sourced or emitted from the bathrooms etc. Kitchen
can be source of different kind of smokes, carbon dioxides and other pollutants, living areas
like if somebody is smoking in the living area then it can be a source of tobacco related
pollutants. Garage can be source of like VOC’s etc when some leakage of fuel is there and yard
also like because of plants, some pollens may be there and when we are using some sort of
pesticides, so they also come into the air as aerosols. So, all these are the kind of sources of
indoor air pollution in household related environment.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:14)

When we talk about business or office setting, then different kind of activities are there to
contribute to indoor air pollution like photocopying machine is there so some emissions are
there for of VOC’s. When you are changing that toner again some aerosols will be in the air.
And then again similar like moping and chemicals we are using so those VOC’s will be in the
air and then if it is a laboratory, then other chemicals utilization can contribute to indoor air
pollution.

916
(Refer Slide Time: 6:56)

Well, when we relate the combustion products and their sources. This is very very
comprehensive list like different kind of pollutants are there combustion products basically like
CO, NO2, SO2 and NOx particulate matter and they are emitted from gas stoves or appliances,
wood and coal stoves or fireplaces or mosquito coils, candles all those may be the sources
inside the house.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:24)

Now, if we talk about one by one for different pollutants. So, they have certain physico
chemical properties characteristics and the dominating source also for each pollutant. We will
go in detail now like carbon monoxide, this is odourless, colourless but toxic gas. It can go
inside our body it can reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. We can get

917
unconscious, even high dose can kill the person. So, this is a silent killer because it does not
smell and it is difficult to detect the poisons and it can kill.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:04)

Then there may be certain sources for that, for example you can see here all these kind of
sources are there which contribute to the carbon monoxide emissions, whether it is gas or wood
burning fireplace or car left running in the test garage so carbon monoxide is there in these
exhaust emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:27)

All these activities can contribute to the CO emissions. When we talk about nitrogen dioxide,
whether it is NO2 or NO these are having negative healthy facts. And this EPA National

918
Ambient Air Quality, they have given certain standards and beyond that they are quite toxic
basically reactive.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:47)

And the sources could be many again as like unvented combustion appliances, gas stoves etc.
They emit lot of NOx because NOx emission is always there like CO and CO2 is there whenever
you are burning something because NOx has to be there when burning activity is nothing but
oxidation and oxygen is coming from the air and in air a lot of nitrogen is there.

So, NOx emissions excluding is very very difficult unless you capture that and convert into
something else through catalytic converters etc otherwise NOx emissions are there, you can
control many emissions but NOx emissions controlling is a very difficult task basically. Well
from welding, tobacco smoke, kerosene heaters all these are sources for the NOx emissions.

919
(Refer Slide Time: 9:31)

When we talk about the particulate matter, so they also come from different sources and you
can see like when sunlight is coming in a dark place you can see different small particles which
are detectable by naked eye but they may be very small particles, ultra-fine particles which are
not visible, very very fine particles.

Now a days, people talk about nanoparticles also and they can go into our body into our blood
also and if they are toxic they can really trigger some very chronic diseases. And there are
certain standards and we have to be careful that the concentration whether indoor or outdoor
pollution of these particulate matter etc should not exceed beyond that standards, but it may
exceed depending upon the strength of the source and then the size and shape of the pollutants
of the particulate nature also govern the health impacts like PM10, PM2.5, PM1, they have
different range of affecting our health because they are respirable.

Coarser may be removed by our nostril, this filter system but small particles can go to
respiratory system and influence our health as we discussed normally about this.

920
(Refer Slide Time: 10:47)

921
Then indoor PM sources are many whatever burning activity or we are working even then some
suspension is there, so all those sources are there for particulate matter and the coarse particles
and the PM10 they have different nature as I said and they have different health effects. So, we
need to be careful about small or fine particles basically like PM2.5 and you can see the
comparison with this human hair. What is the size of these fine particles, so you can appreciate
these are very very smaller or very fine particles which are difficult to imagine or look at and
visualize.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:28)

While ultra fine particles like 0.1, PM0.1 they are very smaller and they can originate from
similar sources like PM2.5 and they can pose very threatening like more than PM2.5 and as it is
very small particles and can infiltrate in our bodies to the greater extent. So, we have to be
careful about the presence of these kind of very small particles and if they are present then we
should do something to remove them from our indoor environment.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:02)

922
When we talk about this second hand smoke which is coming from like smoking activities so
the passive smoking is there because even if you are non-smoker, somebody is smoking and in
the air those particles, those gaseous components are there you are inhaling and that way again
you are exposed to those pollutants which are dangerous to your health.

So, this kind of second head smoke sources can also be there and you can see like middle and
high school students who have never used tobacco are exposed to second hand smoke that is
the passive smoking. Around 15 percent are exposed inside a vehicle, some adults may smoke
may be smoking there so this is not good thing.

Then around 16 percent are exposed at home and more than 35 percent are exposed in outdoor
or indoor public areas where people are smoking. So, that way also now a days a lot of
regulations are coming and specific places are there for smoking and public places are

923
prohibited from smoking but still there are ways because it is difficult to control the air
pollutants, they can travel depending upon the wind direction and wind velocity.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:20)

So, in totality if we talk about like pollutants from building material and furnishing, then
different kind of pollutants may be there like asbestos, formaldehyde, volatile organic
compounds or lead those kind of things. So, these are the different pollutants and if we go one
by one again so the asbestos is basically these are coming from mineral fibers.

And that occurs in rocks and soil but they may be like from sheets wherever they are present
so they can get emitted in the air and exposure may occur when these asbestos containing
material is disturbed or damaged in some way, then the particles are released and they becomes
in the air and they can be part of our respiratory inhalation.

924
(Refer Slide Time: 14:05)

Sources of asbestos can be different sheets whatever building material which they are using the
asbestos, so those kind of tiles or sheets they may be there for these releasing asbestos. These
heat resistant fabrics or packaging, gaskets, coatings all these they are using the asbestos. So,
it is present there basically, so it can get released from there. Formaldehyde can be there like it
is a very important chemical and it is widely used in industry to manufacture building materials.

So, again it will come from the building material basically and different concentrations in
dwelling units depending upon the age of the building and the release of the formaldehyde can
decrease with the time. The temperature, relative humidity all these influence the concentration
into the air.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:00)

925
And the sources can be all those kind of household products like glues, permanent price fabrics,
paints, coatings all these finishes, paper products they are using all those kind of things where
this formaldehyde may be present and they can come out depending upon the temperature etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:17)

926
Similarly, lead is present in different kind of things like paints etc. That is why, now a days
unleaded paint is becoming popular, like unleaded petrol or unleaded gasoline. It used to have
lot of lead content but there this new policy came into existence because lead is very harmful
for this memory growth or brain growth in the children. So, it was reduced and it is now very
very negligible kind of thing.

Then sources of the lead can be like, you can see scraping, demolition, disturbance of those
paint related things. Then the lead can get emitted into the air and it can be also through smelters
or mines, old agricultural fields. So, there if it comes to the outdoor and if some from outdoor
air also it can go inside the buildings in workplaces.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:20)

927
928
When we talk about volatile organic compounds, VOC’s so they can also come from paints
etc. So, like in indoor environment it is 10 times more than the outdoors. So, this is very
dangerous because many people are allergic to VOC’s and this is not good for health. So, we
should be careful about their concentration, it should not go beyond the allowed or permissible
levels.

When we talk about like categories of VOC’s there are many like acetone, acetic acid, all those
kind of like butanol or carbon disulphide and then ethanol or methylene chloride, all these are
there which are having different kind of health impacts on the body.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:09)

And household products which include these VOC’s are like paints or wood preservatives,
aerosol sprays. So, whenever you are going to have like good spray which smells good, in the
indoor environment but it is not good for the health because it is having these toxic view
VOC’s. And then these cleanliness and disinfectants, they also have these kind of VOC’s. Moth
replants or rear fresheners, as I said, pesticides all those can be source of VOC’s and other
products like building materials and furniture, office equipment such as copiers, photocopiers,
printers, graphics and craft materials, all these can be the source of VOC’s.

929
(Refer Slide Time: 17:53)

Now, if you talk about biological pollutants which can come from humid corners or moisture
or leakage seepage etc that kind of if thing is available or present in the building that is not a
healthy sign of the building. So, the water damage surfaces, materials, humidifiers stagnant
water they can be source of biological pollutants basically and like dust mites may be there if
we are not cleaning bad sheets and the bad periodically, if we do not vacuum it properly then
these kind of dust mites may be there and they are very allergic and they have those kind of
effects.

Then if you want to prevent them, then you should go for better mattresses and pillows washing
them regularly, cleaning them properly and we should not have much clutter in the room where
we are using it for longer periods and we should not have the carpets, if we cannot maintain it.

930
Carpets can be a big source of small particles or these biological pollutants or dust mites etc.
If you do not vacuum it very regularly. So, instead of carpets it is better to have the tiles, you
can clean it regularly, very easily comfortably.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:15)

When we talk about like animal allergens so from like cats or dogs, from waste or their hair
fall all those can contribute even cockroach etc birds many people have birds also. So, if they
are in the indoor environment they can contribute these kind of allergens which come from the
their hair fall etc.

Then moulds can be there as I said from this moist corners or these leakages or seepage related
corners. So, various kinds of moulds have different kind of allergies to people. Many people if

931
they enter and this moulds kind of thing is there they start sneezing, their eyes get red and those
kind of symptoms may occur because of these VOC’s as well as these moulds kind of thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:04)

Then pesticides may be there when you are using for gardening etc. So, that can also go inside
the building because we have indoor plants also and sometimes we use pesticides etc. So, the
sources of the pesticides can be all these kind of chemicals which we are using to protect the
plants and to repel those unwanted kind of pests.

932
(Refer Slide Time: 20:31)

Radon radioactive gas can be released from the soil and rocks and this is the second leading
cause of the lung cancer in adults. So, the geological formations of that particular area can
influence this radon presence in particular localities. So, if it is present then one should take
care otherwise it can influence the health and later on even cancer related problems may also
occur.

So, the sources can be different rocks or these kind of granite or shale or phosphate, all those
kind of rocks can have these particular pollutants or radioactive entities. Well so, due to the
heavy density of the radon they typically floats downward, it is often found in the basement
buildings. So, if somebody is spending lot of time in the basement and if you find that radon is

933
present then it is better that you make it fully ventilated and flush it out otherwise it may be
very problematic.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:39)

So, all in all we can say that indoor air pollution is a big problem and there are specific sources
for some specific air pollutants which are significant in indoor environment and it can vary
from household to the office kind of setting and accordingly we have to be careful about their
monitoring and their levels and they should not go beyond those kind of levels which can be
health hazard.

So, the knowledge about these specific sources and specific pollutants of indoor air pollutants
can give us an idea how to keep our environment micro environment, indoor environments
clean and we remain healthy because now a day’s lifestyle is such that the most people live
indoors. You live inside house then you go to the office you do sitting job etc, those who are
not doing much outdoor activities.

So, most of the part of this 24 hours daily routine is inside the houses or inside these industries
or offices and if indoor air is not clean then it can result into several diseases or health related
problems. So, that is why it is very important and I am sure you will go for more information
through the additional resources like these references and you will learn about more those
indoor air pollutants which I have described.

And you can get more information about that because it is very interesting and it is directly
related to most of us. So, thank you for your kind attention and see you in the next lecture
again. Thanks.

934
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 31
Health Impacts Due to Indoor Air Pollution

Hello friends, you may recall last time we discussed about specific sources and pollutants in indoor
environment. Today we will look into health impacts due to indoor air pollution. So, you may
recall, we also discussed like general health impacts of air pollutants. But, specifically from indoor
air pollution, what kind of health impacts can be there today we will focus on that.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:56)

So, in that line we would first look into a very general kind of brief introduction on indoor air
pollution and human health, their relationship. And then we will go one by one; means those major
indoor air pollutants and their health impacts like carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, or particulate
matter, lead, volatile organic compounds, biological contaminants, and pesticides everything those
listed in this particular slide. Then, at last we will look into like a special vulnerability of children,
women and senior citizens, who spend a lot of time in the indoor environment; and at last we will
conclude.

935
(Refer Slide Time: 01:33)

So, when we go for a brief introduction, then most of the people nowadays, not only women,
children and old people, but also working population; because lot of things are going on into indoor
offices. So, the occupation hazard you can say from indoor environment, if that is exposing the
people to toxic elements, so that that is increasing; because lot of office work is being done in
indoor environments. So, there are studies which we which give this data that approximately 90
percent of their time indoors average; most people on an average, they spend approximately 90
percent of their time in the indoor environment.

And people who are most susceptible or vulnerable to the adverse effects of pollution, tend to
spend even more time because of their peculiarity; like age related peculiarity, if old people are
there, then normally they stay indoors. Children also, women who are homemakers basically they
also spend a lot of time indoors.

And they get exposed to indoor air pollutants because of cooking and so many activities which are
sources of indoor air pollutants. Then, indoor concentrations of some pollutants have increased in
recent decades due to increased use of synthetic building materials; because, the building patterns
have also changed over the years.

Now, we use a lot of chemical bond related building material, furnishing, personal care products,
they also emit lot of VOCs etc. Then, pesticides, because we have certain plants inside our houses;

936
and we use sometimes pesticides also for pest controls and other things. Then, household cleaners
are also there which are for moping etc; so they emit lot of hydrocarbons or toxic elements.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:32)

When we talk about indoor air pollution and human health, then there are short term effects as well
as long term effects. And short term effects, people may feel irritation into eyes, or nose or in the
throat, or headaches, dizziness or fatigue; means even if you are not working very hard, you
sometimes feel fatigue, very tired, those kinds of things. And the reason maybe the indoor air
pollutants. So, these things you need to keep in mind. And then there are some immediate effects

937
like kind of sneezing and those kinds of things; very quick sneezing, if some allergens are present
there.

When we talk about long term effects, then there are other diseases which can be of heart diseases
or cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, even cancer can be there because of some indoor
air pollutants. So, these things are into this category of long term effects when we are get exposed
to for long term to the indoor air pollutants. When we talk about major indoor air pollutants, then
there are several air pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:46)

And some of them are common; they may be present in outdoor also like carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, etc. But, there are certain pollutants which are more, they are
present in more quantity, or more chances are there in the indoor environment, like asbestos or
formaldehyde; they maybe also in industrial locations also. But chances of their presence in indoor
environment is also high, lead because of paint, etc. Then, biological contaminants, pesticides,
radon, Volatile Organic Compounds, because of certain chemicals we use in the washrooms, etc.

938
(Refer Slide Time: 05:24)

939
When we talk about a specific pollutants and their health impacts, then we go one by one; we take
carbon monoxide. So, what are their health effects? Their acute health effects maybe there; because
of formation of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood, which inhibits oxygen intake in the body as you
know because CO gets into the blood, and it forms this carboxyhemoglobin. And then the carrying
capacity of the blood for the oxygen get reduced drastically. And this can cause like fatigue, or
tiredness something like that, because you are not getting sufficient oxygen in the body.

So, that affects negatively to the body, the complete body system, physiological system. And then
the moderate concentrations may cause like suffocation or impaired vision; means sometimes you
feel that dizziness, you are not looking at things properly, things are not visible properly. Then,
there maybe some reduced brain function also, means your alertness, your attentiveness get
reduced, you are not very much focused; and that could be because of carbon monoxide exposure
to the carbon monoxide. When we talk about high concentration because low concentration,
moderate concentration, high concentration, they have different effects.

High concentrations can cause very acute headache, dizziness, confusion, nausea; and you can get
unconscious also, when oxygen content in the blood is very low, and even people can die. And
that is why, sometimes you might be reading some news that some people when they forget to
have proper ventilation; and they use some sort of in the winters those kind of sources of heat,
which emit lot of carbon monoxide, like coal burning those sigdi. So, those things emit lot of
carbon monoxide and because it is colorless, odourless and it does not warn you beforehand. So,

940
the people in the during sleep, they inhale lot of carbon monoxide; they get unconscious and
sometimes they die also; so that is very fatal and very problematic.

So, what we do to get the less exposure of carbon monoxide, or reduce the exposure of the carbon
monoxide. So, basically we need to keep fuel burning appliances in good working condition;
because, when the burning is not proper, then CO2 emission is less, carbon monoxide emission is
more. When the complete combustion occurs, then there is hardly any carbon monoxide; lot of
carbon dioxide get released, but incomplete combustions they emit lot of carbon monoxide. So,
when these stoves, or fuel burning appliances, or devices are in good condition, then they will
have; they will favor the complete combustion that would be better.

Then, you can check the heat systems, or chimneys, or ventilation systems regularly, so that proper
ventilation occurs, proper incoming of the air and outgoing of the exhaust gases are properly done.
Never burn charcoal indoors; because that emit a lot of carbon monoxide. So, that need to be kept
in mind, we should not burn charcoal inside the houses; because, otherwise, it will produce a lot
of carbon monoxide. And never leave a car running in a closed garage, because again this when
car is idle and engine is running; then lot of carbon monoxide is produced.

As you know, vehicular emissions are large in quantity for carbon monoxide or NOx emissions,
those kinds of things. Then, install and use the exhaust fan venting to outdoors over gas stoves.
So, proper chimney must be there, proper that kind of exhaust fan must be there; so that all these
exhaust gases whether it is carbon monoxide or other pollutants, they get out quickly.

941
(Refer Slide Time: 09:50)

942
If we talk about nitrogen dioxide, then it has also some health impacts. For example, it can increase
the bronchial this reactivity in asthmatic patients, this respiratory system, as you know. And it can
decrease the lung function because of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease COPD, which is
quite dangerous if it goes beyond certain limit.

It can increase the risk of respiratory infections especially in young children. So, the nitrogen
dioxide is also problematic inside the this micro environment. Then, when we talk about like their
health effects, like they have irritating effecting this mucosa of the eyes; mucous or those that
liquid portion or moisture which we have in the eyes and nose or throat.

So, that is natural thing for proper functioning of these organs. So, that moisture is irritation is
there in that or respiratory tract also, and lot of problem may occur. Then, extreme high doses of
this NO2 can cause this pulmonary edema and diffuse lung injury. So, those kind of things maybe
because of lot of NO2 like fire is occurring, then lot of NO2 emissions maybe there. Then, if we
get continued exposure to high NO2 levels, which can contribute to the development of very acute
or chronic bronchitis; so again, respiratory problem may aggravate and this can be very severe in
fact.

When we talk about what are the steps which we can undertake to reduce the exposure of NO2?
So again, there are certain common features in all indoor air pollution related problems, like
ventilation is good. Everything related to the ventilation when we talk about the concentrations of
indoor air pollutants. So, when we keep these appliances gas appliances properly adjusted, then

943
NO2 production is reduced. Then we can have better ventilation space is like heating devices and
un-vented corners should not be there. Then, we should use proper fuel in kerosene space heaters;
otherwise, that can produce lot of NO2.

We should install and use exhaust fan as we have discussed in last this carbon monoxide case also;
so that is important part. Then open flues when fireplaces are in use, so, that should be there. We
should not have idle cars in the garages, as it can also cause lot of these NOx emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:36)

944
When we come to the particulate matter; so these are small particles less than 10 micrometer or
PM2.5. So, they can cause problem to the lungs or our respiratory system they get into the system
depending upon their size. And they can enhance or increase the diseases which are coronary artery
disease, or congestive heart failure, or asthma or Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD).
Children and older people are at greater risk because of this exposure of very fine particles. Then,
if we talk about major health impacts, so again eye and nose irritation, throat irritation can be there.

It can aggravate this COPD as we have discussed, even premature death it can cause because of
certain heart and lung related diseases it can it can trigger. And if you want to reduce its
concentration, then again we should have good ventilation. And we should not have those strobes

945
or those kind of fireplaces which can emit a lot of particulate matter; so those things we need to
keep in mind. We should also do like for example, if we are using some wood stove, then certified
wood stoves we should use? Which are certified by some agency like in the USA it is EPA; in our
country like CPCB and other agencies are there.

We should use and trained professional inspectors should be there in indoor environment of
industrial setup. And these central heating systems must be properly managed by those skilled
people; chimneys must be proper, and the repair and leakage those kinds of things must be
maintained nicely. There should not be inside leakages which can cause lot of emissions of
particulate matter. We should also change filters if we are using some filters in the heating system
or cooling system; because if those filters are choked, then they also become the source of indoor
pollution of particulate matter. So, the cleaning of those filters is very much required time to time.

Even those as you might have heard like nowadays, many people use air purifiers, and air purifiers
use the filters. If you do not clean those filters, basically, it will add into the indoor air pollution.
So, rather than reducing it will be an additional source; so those things we should be careful about.

When we talk about their health impact, then the size is very important; like coarser particles from
PM2.5 to PM10. They can go to upper part of this respiratory system; but less than PM2.5, they can
go up to the lungs. And when they are like PM1 or so, so they can go to alveoli, which are those
parts of the lungs where this exchange of oxygen occurs into the blood and those particular parts.

And further ultra-fine particles, basically, they can go into the blood streams. And as I said earlier
also in one lecture, that if those ultra-fine particles if they are coated with some carcinogenic
elements or toxic elements, they can trigger certain diseases in the body. So, we must be a very
much alert about these health impacts.

946
(Refer Slide Time: 16:08)

When we talk about secondhand smoke, like some people are smoking and other people who are
not smoking; but they are exposed to that smoke which is coming out of because of cigarette
smoking or like that. So, they have several toxins basically, and they can affect influence or impact
the health of the other people who are in the surrounding. Not only the person who is smoking, but
to the persons of passive nature; means they are not the smokers, but they are smoking because of
this vicinity, closer proximity to the smoker. These particulate matters can be there or other toxic
elements can be there and serious health impacts can be because of those passive smoking or
secondhand smoke.

947
So, how to reduce the steps, or how to take the steps to reduce exposure? Means we should have
specified corners where a person can smoke. And in living spaces where most of the people are
there it should be kind of prohibited. If somebody wants to smoke, then he or she should go outside
balcony or somewhere where these people are not there. And in public places as nowadays lot of
awareness is there. And there are certain corners where it is written that smoking is allowed here
only; so you cannot smoke in public places except those designated places. So, that way this
exposure to the secondhand smoke can be reduced significantly.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:47)

948
Then there is like asbestos. So, asbestos as you know, it is available in several kind of building
materials or from soil those exposure is there. And it can cause several problems like you can see
these health effects like lung cancer it can cause. So, that is very problematic exposure to the
asbestos.

So to reduce that, again we should be very careful about, we should not disturb materials that might
contain asbestos; like pipes, furnace, insulations, siding, flooring, all those kinds of things. If we
are disturbing them, then we should have proper contractor who is expert in handling those things;
otherwise, lot of emissions maybe there off the asbestos.

949
And people who live in the areas where these natural asbestos deposits or near areas contaminated
by all asbestos containing products are there; they should keep asbestos levels low in the home by
using several kind of ways. For example, wet cleaning methods are there of High Efficiency
Particulate Air, vacuum cleaning can be done; or you can use door mats to remove shoes before
entering. So, in Indian culture, there are most of the houses they remove the shoes outside the
house when they enter into the house. So, these are cultural behavior, but they are very good in
getting rid of those pollutants which can come with the shoes, etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:26)

950
Then formaldehyde, again this can come because of several sources we have discussed; and the
health effects are watery eyes, or burning sensation in the eyes and the throat, nausea, difficult in
breathing, or wheezing kind of coughing kind of things may be there. And it can be when people
get exposed to levels above 0.1 ppm; so, it is very problematic.

And high concentrations may trigger attacks in people with asthma; so asthmatic attacks maybe
there, it is very dangerous. And there is evidence that some people can develop sensitivity to
formaldehyde, when they are just get exposed to, then these kinds of things happen like allergens
do something similar to those eye irritation, etc. And it is also known for causing cancer in the
human; so it is very dangerous or problematic.

Again, to reduce it, we have to do several steps those formaldehyde content of pressed wood
products maybe there, including building material and furniture before purchasing them, we can
ask that we should be having those kind of things which have minimum of this formaldehyde; or
do not have the formaldehyde content. Then, you can also go for, when in which condition they
are released, formaldehyde they release? The rate at which formaldehyde is released is accelerated
by heat, or may also be deepened somewhat on the humidity level.

So, we can do dehumidifiers, we can use air conditioning in the system to control humidity, so to
maintain the moderate temperature; and that will reduce the chances of emissions of formaldehyde.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:30)

951
When we consider this lead, lead related health effects, so depending upon the level of the exposure
of lead, it can adversely affect the nervous system, kidney function, immune system and
reproductive and developmental systems and the cardiovascular system. So, means multi negative
impacts are there okay.

It can also affect the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood like CO does. And the elevated or high
lead concentration in the environment can result in decreased growth of reproduction in plants and
animals, and neurological effects in these animals, or those kind of which are having like spines
and those kind of animals and birds, etc.

So, this is very dangerous in that sense. And to reduce the exposure of the lead, you can have
unleaded petrol in ambient environment that can reduce the lead content. But, in indoor
environment like paints, which are the sources of the lead pollution; so you can go for those paints
which do not have lead or very minimum quantity of the lead. So, and then ventilation and other
things we should go. Plus we should be careful that paint should not peeled off those kind of. If
there is a situation of not a good situation, then have a better paint; otherwise, it can be a source of
the lead pollution.

952
(Refer Slide Time: 22:45)

When we talk about volatile organic compounds, so there it can come from several sources as we
have discussed inside the houses. And the health effects are eye irritation, nose irritation, throat
irritation, many people have allergy to VOCs basically. It can also cause headache, and low level
of coordination, confusion, nausea, that kind of thing. It can also damage the liver, kidney and
central nervous system; so many negative health impacts are there. Then, some organics can cause
cancer in animals, some are suspected to be known as causing cancer in human also.

So, VOCs are of several kind and they can have different negative health effects. When we want
to reduce the exposure, so we should reduce their sources very simple; we should not use those

953
kind of room fresheners, which can increase the levels of VOCs. And also we should be careful
about good ventilation, fresh air should be there. So, we can deal with this and we can reduce the
VOCs concentration quite drastically.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:51)

When we talk about biological contaminants, then there are several sources of allergens. And the
allergic reactions are the major health effects of these biological contaminants; because some
disease like fever or these toxins can go for these like mold, or dust mines, dust mites, or pet dander
or pet droppings. They can also be source of biological contaminants. And the tuberculosis or

954
measles, or there are many infectious diseases which can be caused by these biological
contaminants.

So, again, if you want to reduce the exposure to these biological contaminants, then we should
tackle at the source level that would be better. And like, if there are pets, then we should keep them
away from our living environment; and we should keep them clean.

Similarly, like those kind of kitchen and bathrooms, the ventilation must be proper; otherwise, this
in seepage leakage is there. Then, molds and fungi those kinds of things may occur; and then that
can trigger many kind of allergic reactions. So, we should be using cool mist or ultrasonic
humidifiers, and clean appliances according to the manufacturer's instructions; refill and fresh
water daily those kinds of things we should take into account.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:19)

955
When we talk about pesticides because nowadays we deal with our kitchen garden, or we have
indoor plants also. So, sometimes we should we use pesticides; and they can be source of these
pesticides concentration, the indoor environment. And they can cause irritation to eye, nose and
throat; it can damage central nervous system also, kidney also get affected. It can increase the risk
cancer because of these pesticides. Then, symptoms may also include like headache, dizziness,
muscular weakness, nausea, all those kinds of things can be there because of pesticides.

It can also chronic exposure is there, longer exposure is there; then it can affect the liver, kidney;
and then endocrine, and nervous systems. Endocrine and nervous system means it can change even
different systems of these at the cell level, DNA level.

956
When we talk about how to reduce the exposure to pesticides, so again ventilation must be good;
and we should go for non-chemical methods of pest control rather than using these pesticides. And
we should dispose of unwanted pesticides safely; otherwise that could be source of pesticide
emissions. We should keep exposure to the moth repellents to a minimum. Then the chemicals
must be used when recommended in a recommended amounts only.

And we should not go for larger or more amount than the recommended ones; and safety
precautions are very much needed. And better is that rather than being dependent on chemical,
these pesticides etc; we should go for other organic ways to control the pest.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:04)

957
958
When we talk about health effects of the radon, so, it can have we can breath, we can inhale the
radon when it is present in the indoor air. And it can damage the lining of the lungs, and it can
gives of the radiation. And over the long period if exposure is there, then it can damage the cells,
and it can lead to the lung cancer there. So, that is very problematic because it gets exposed to the
lung because of respiratory system.

And when we go about the symptoms of this exposure of radon, then it can coughing of the blood;
blood can come out of because of it reduces the lining of that our respiratory system. And chest
pain or losing weight without trying, so those kind of things are there which are negative impacts,
health impacts of the radon.

And when we go for how to manage it, so better you can have better ventilation system, where it
can come from the underground soil; so for that special these ventilation pipes can be installed.
Then, when we also go for gas-permeable layer, or plastic sheeting or sealing and caulking; those
kind of measures are there which can be used, which can be good uses for mitigation of the radon.
You can also use these vent pipes and junction box; these are things for mitigation purposes of the
radon.

959
(Refer Slide Time: 28:36)

960
Then, when we talk about vulnerable population in the indoor environment like children; so, they
are the population because they spend lot of time inside the indoor environment, so, they get
affected. Similarly, women who are using kitchen, etc. so they can get exposed; and there are
studies that like COPD related diseases are much more in the women folks. So, then lung cancer,
cataracts, those kinds of things, they are associated with their indoor environment related pollution.

Similarly, the senior citizens breathing problems, vision problem, heart related problem. There are
health related or age related issues, and then it can also increase those kind of things like sore
throat, etc. because they are more exposed, because they do not go outside much more than the
adult population.

961
(Refer Slide Time: 29:33)

So, this is all for today. In conclusion, we can say that there is the link, very strong link between
some common indoor air pollutants like radon, particulate pollution, carbon monoxide, and their
negative health impacts. Radon is known for human carcinogen and it is the second leading cause
of the lung cancer in developed countries; or where these kind of sources are there.

Carbon monoxide is toxic, and short term exposure and the elevated carbon monoxide levels can
be there in the indoor settings; and it can be very dangerous also sometimes. Then, numerous
indoor air pollutants are there of biological nature like dust mites, mold, pet dander; and then these
smoke maybe there, secondhand smoke.

So, all the allergens are there which can trigger asthma, which can have many other negative
impacts. So, we should be careful about those things; and we should have good ventilation, so that
the indoor environment is safer or clean air is maintained.

962
(Refer Slide Time: 30:41)

So this is the references, you can go through them for additional information. So, this is all for
today. See you in the next lecture. Thank you. Thank you very much.

963
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 32
Assessment of Exposure to Indoor Air Pollutants

Hello friends, these days we are talking about sources, characterization, health impacts of the air
pollutants which are in the indoor environment. So, today in this series we will discuss about
assessment of exposure to indoor air pollutants.

((Refer Slide Time: 00:51)

The contents of today's lecture is like general aspects we will discuss in the beginning about the
exposure assessment. Then, how does sampling is done in the indoor environment, what are the
principles of the sampling, how to design the sampling that we will see. Then, active and passive
samplers; the difference between active and passive samplers, we will go through.

Then, assessment of exposure to different indoor air pollutants like nitrogen dioxide or VOCs that
is Volatile Organic Compounds, or formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, radon, particulate matter,
asbestos, secondhand smoke, pesticides, bacteria and fungi, dust mites; all these indoor air
pollutants which are very important with respect to the human health exposure and deterioration
of indoor air quality we will discuss about how to assess the concentrations of these particular
pollutants in the indoor environment.

964
And the monitoring of ventilation rates is important, because whatever sources are there within
the indoor environment or something is coming from outdoor also; because of door opening
windows etc. So, the ventilation plays very critical role to decide how much air quality is
deteriorated or improved. So, the monitoring of ventilation rates we will discuss about, then
temperature, measuring devices, and measurement of relative humidity; because temperature and
relative humidity also plays role in deciding about or determining of the indoor air quality. So, that
we will discuss and later on, we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:22)

965
So, if we talk about the general aspects of exposure assessment, then we focus on regions for
assessment of exposure. Why do we go for that basically? So, some sources based on some sources
we can say that, these surveys are initiated because of problems perceived by the exposed
individual. So, if somebody is complaining, then we conduct some survey in the particular indoor
environment offices or in buildings etc. Because of research interest also related to specific
pollutants or health outcomes of that particular situation or pollutant; researchers also go for these
exposure assessments related studies.

The most common reasons are investigations of sick buildings. You might have heard sick building
syndrome, which sometimes we talk about because of their indoor environment; and people
frequently fall sick in those buildings because of certain reasons. So, those sick building related
issues or disease outbreaks in particular indoor environments, identification of health risks, and
epidemiological exposure assessment. So, for these kind of investigations or studies, we need to
go for exposure assessment. Then, these building investigations related aspects are because the
control compliance with the existing guidelines, because there are guidelines; or, recommendations
for known pollutants or to identify the sources of these pollutants.

Although there are no well-defined guidelines, as we have for ambient air quality. But, still there
are some recommendations based on some research, and from WHO and other organizations, they
give some recommendations. So, for those kinds of comparisons, we want to study those. Diseases
outbreaks, as we have discussed there are these are kind initiated by the observation of an unusual

966
increase in the incidences of a particular disease in that particular environment. And the causal
factors, if it is not known, then we need to study it in the within the indoor environment.

And population or environment investigations are also important factors. These address exposure
to a specific pollutant under specific circumstances in a predefined population; because sometimes,
complaints come that a particular segment of population is affected by certain disease, which are
related to indoor environment. So, we have to see whether that particular segment of population is
living in a particular indoor environment, which is highly polluted.

Then, when we talk about exposure assessment in epidemiological studies, it is part of

investigations of the relationship between indoor or outdoor airborne environmental exposure and
health effects.

So, series of studies are conducted for several years, then we derive some conclusions. And the
overall goal of all these investigations is to improve understanding of the exposure; and its health
effects in the indoor environment terminology. Management of the exposure should not be limited
to avoiding toxic or otherwise harmful factors. We have to go for overall management of the indoor
air quality basically. So, it should include improving the overall quality of the indoor air, which
will improve the comfort of the occupants and their quality of life, their health; so that will be
improved and people will live the healthy life.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:00)

967
Then we talk about sampling designs, how to design the sampling? So, it depends upon the
population, size; so sample size is also dependent on population size. There are certain statistical
ways also to go for how much, how many sample population should go for observations, for
assessment, or for evaluation? Simple random sampling is done or with the help of certain,
systematic methodologies are also done; like a stratified random sampling can be there, or
systematic sampling can be there, or cluster sampling can be there. So, depending upon the
situation, we can go for either of these kind of sampling strategies.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:43)

968
When we talk about samplers, so, there are two major kinds of samplers, like active samplers or
passive samplers. Active sampling requires the use of a pumping device to actively pass air through
an air sample container; whereas, passive sampling does not. Passive sampling is like something
you have pasted at the particular wall or at a hanging kind of situation, it is there; and something
it is getting exposed to air, so some gas will be absorbed; some particles will be there. So, the
passive sampling relies on the kinetic energy of the gas molecules; and diffusion of the gases in an
enclosed space on to a these absorbent medium, absorption, adsorption, those kinds of things.

Whereas, active samplers need some type of pump when we suck the air; and then it will pass
through certain solutions or on the filter paper; so, those kind of are the active samplers. So, active
samplers requires some source of power, like electric or battery related, or energy for their
operation, whereas passive samplers are not dependent on any source of power supply. So,
depending upon situations, we can also go for active and passive sampling.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:04)

969
Plus, active samplers for short exposure, active samples are important; whereas, passive samplers
are good for long term kind of exposure assessment. Then there is assessment of exposure to
nitrogen dioxide if you want to do, then there are direct approaches and indirect approaches. In
direct approaches, the study subjects carry a monitor for a certain period to determine exposure; it
maybe personal sampler kind of thing.

So, the monitor can function either actively or passively but it should be with the person who is
who is exposed. Most active samplers collect these oxides of nitrogen over periods of several
hours; and these monitors are expensive, difficult to calibrate, are subjected to drift over time; and

970
may respond positively or negatively to several forms of interferences. So, these are kind of
limitations or challenges in case of these direct approaches.

Then consequently, most studies directly determining exposure to NO2 that is nitrogen dioxide
have used passive samplers, which provide average concentrations over a longer period of several
days to one week, or more even months. Then, the tube-type samplers are low sensitivity samplers
suitable for long term monitoring; whereas, the badge-type samplers are kind of they have faster
sampling rates, and they are suited to short term kind of monitoring. When we talk about the
indirect approach, then basically we can go through like questionnaire based surveys; so that it can
be filled by study subjects or an interviewer.

For example, we have questions; those questions would relate to the presence or absence of one or
more of the indoor NO2 sources mentioned above and the frequency, and this intensity of their use.
The next step would be to assess exposure to NO2 by measuring its concentration in the air of all
micro environments visited by the population; that is under study or of the interest of the
researchers or policymakers. And by obtaining these information on patterns of human activity, so
that we can correlate with them.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:28)

971
Then, when we talk about tax assessment of exposure to volatile organic compounds; so, again we
go for direct approach like VOCs can be sampled by passive personal tubes, or badges containing
solid adsorbents, mostly Tenax. But, these there are certain other chemicals, which are evacuated
the canisters can be used, and charcoal or multisorbent media have also been used for this purpose.
Passive samplers cannot be used for short-term sampling as you know we have discussed, because
of their very low sampling rates. So, they do not represent the surrounding concentrations of VOCs.
And the active samplers must be applied for short exposure period.

When we go for indirect approach to assess the exposure of VOCs, then basically, this indirect
exposure monitoring is based on a combination of micro environmental concentration data; and
personal time like activity data, time and activity kind of variation. Then, monitoring of VOC
concentrations in microenvironments can be easier than monitoring personal exposure directly; so,
this is very important point. Some micro environmental studies have also used passive samplers,
a technique applied particularly in the United States is grab or whole air sampling, those kinds of
techniques have also been used.

972
(Refer Slide Time: 11:54)

When we talk about formaldehyde related assessment of the exposure of the formaldehyde
assessment, then direct methods of measuring personal exposure to formaldehyde have been used
widely to occupational settings; but not non-industrial environments. A number of sampling
methods that use pumps to draw air through these impingers or solid solvents are applied. But, the
equipment can be cumbersome, very complex kinds of things; so, sometimes we avoid these kinds
of methodologies. The diffusive and pumped methods with a solid sorbent collection medium or
collecting medium containing those required chemicals, are being increasingly used for direct and
indirect measurement of personal exposure in this particular exposure.

973
The sampling duration is important because of the documented temporal variation in concentration
of the formaldehyde. And the possibility that certain activities such as the use of a product could
be carried out over a short period; but cause significant exposure because of that relationship of
the user, and the emissions of formaldehyde from that particular product.

By contrast, use of occasional short-term measurements may not provide a representative measure
of an occupant’s exposure, and this maybe of a special interest in the study of chronic health
effects. So, short-term impacts of acute concentration or long term impact of very low
concentration; both things are to be seen and differentiation has to be made properly.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:41)

974
When we talk about assessment of exposure to carbon monoxide; we have several times discussed
its health impacts as you know. Then, the personal or micro environmental CO levels can be
continuously monitored by lightweight personal exposure monitoring methods, based on
electrochemical cells. The size and weight of personal CO monitors have been reduced to those of
a portable cassette player and the operating time increased to months; so, that it is easy to use for
a longer period. And the passive CO sampling tubes have also been developed and tested. So,
active and passive both kind of sampling strategies are available for CO exposure assessment also.

The CO passive sampler is based on the principle of the diffusion of CO molecules onto the
absorbing medium. And the formed metallic Palladium can then this photo metrically be
determined by a specific reaction in the laboratory. The sampler is composed of a particular
housing related that the case is there, with an opening of 20 mm in diameter. To exclude wind and
weather related disturbances, a glass fiber supported by wire net is also attached and set up in a
protective shelter; so, that those weather and air related disturbances are not there.

975
(Refer Slide Time: 15:18)

976
When we talk about the exposure to radon, then the most frequent methods of exposure assessment
of this particular chemical is indirect basically. And the radon concentration is monitored in
various indoor space and information on activity patterns is collected using the questionnaire based
surveys.

Several biomarkers are also there of exposure to radon. It can be measured including the presence
of radon progeny in bones, or teeth, blood and hair. So, those kinds of ways are also there to
measure the radon exposure. Here you can see the sample collection and the analytical methods
for determining or detecting radon in environment air sampler.

So, this table gives a sampling preparations, analytical methods, and exposure time, and the sample
detection limit for these particular different kinds of methodologies. Personal radon monitors have
been developed using an alpha particle track film. This collection of radon progeny inside the
monitor is enhanced by an electret that covers the film.

And a screening aimed at detecting high risk buildings attempts to maximize radon readings by
collecting samplers over three to seven days to overcome any diurnal variation. Diurnal variation
means in daytime, it varies from morning to evening because of several reasons; some these
situational reasons are also there temperature, humidity also play a role.

And the sampling should be carried out for radon exposure assessment at the lowest point in the
building; because that is the place where a lot of concentration occurs, because it emits in those

977
places which are at the like, you can see kind of basement areas where a lot of emissions can be
there.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:14)

Then, when we talk about particulate matter related exposure assessment, then currently measured
using particle mass, particle mass, and particle number, and particle size distribution, all three
matrices are measured. Nowadays, several instruments are available and these particulate mass is
measured using gravimetric methods and beta attenuation methods also. Then, particle number
concentration is measured by condensation particle counters; optical particle counters are also
there and diffusion charges, charger based instruments are also there. When we talk about particle

978
size distribution, they are measured by gravimetric impactors, aerodynamic particle sizers, and fast
mobility particle sizers.

So, these are different methodologies for these three important mass, size, and number of the
particles. Then, low cost sensor networks are also available to monitor for these kinds of particulate
matter related observations. And they look promising as the solution to measuring the spatial
distribution of particulate matter indoors. However, there are important sensor or data quality
technological barriers which are challenges to address with this technology; so, we have to keep
that mind, keep in the mind.

An improved understanding of epidemiology is essential to identify which matrices correlate most

with health effects; and allowing indoor specific particulate metric standards to be developed and
to inform the future experimental applications. So, that is also very important aspects for
particulate matter exposure assessment.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:52)

979
When we talk about asbestos related exposure assessment, so basically, these human lung samples
biopsy material maybe plasma ashed or alkali digested; and the resulting inorganic materials can
be examined by light or electron microscopy coupled with elemental analysis of individual fiber.
So, that is the important technique for that particular exposure. This enables long-term exposure
to persist fibers and that persisting fibers, and short-term exposure to less persistent mineral fibers
or man made these fibers to be quantified. So, differentiation can be estimated.

The environmental concentration of the fibers is estimated by filtering air through membrane filters
followed by light or electron microscopic examination of those filters. At a low concentration
filtering large volumes of air can lead to a small fiber numbers; that is we be careful about, which
are overwhelmed by the large amount of these non-fibrous particulate matter likely to be found on
the fibers; so, the results can be affected accordingly.

The fiber content is settled dust has been used as an indicator; this does identify the sources of
exposure, but only provide a crude indication of quantitative exposure. So, those are the things
which are important in that particular exposure assessment. When we talk about exposure
assessment of secondhand smoke, then personal monitoring can be there, biomarkers can also be
used for assessment purpose.

980
(Refer Slide Time: 20:40)

981
When we talk about personal monitoring, these portable monitors can be used for sampling
particulate matter which could be of size PM2.5 or PM10. And, as a nonspecific indicator of
exposure to environmental tobacco smoke for that size span you can see. Biomarkers like nicotine
and these cotinine in this saliva, blood and urine are widely used biomarkers of recent that is within
24 hours exposure. And here nicotine is a promising new biomarker for assessing exposure lasting
several months. So, these are also developing biomarkers for assessment of exposure assessment
to the secondhand smoke.

Even if people are not smoking, they can get secondhand smoking kind of exposure. The stationary
monitoring can also be done like both active and passive methods are available. So, air sampling
pumps have been developed to collect air for the assessment of concentrations of nicotine, and
these respirable suspended particulate matter SPM that is PM10 basically. Then, nicotine can be
collected on a glass fiber backup filter treated with sodium this bisulfate; and analyzed by gas
chromatography with a flame ionization detector. Samples of respirable suspended particulate
matter RSPM can be collected on these Teflon kind of filters.

Then, there are questionnaire based information which is also important in this particular
assessment of exposure to the secondhand smoke; because relevant information on exposure to
environmental tobacco smoke includes the amount of cigarettes or other tobacco smoked indoors,
and the location where the smoking occurs. The volume of the space and the type and performance
of the buildings ventilation systems; all these variables can also affect or influence the exposure
of the secondhand smoke. The reported levels of environmental tobacco smoke exposure were

982
highly correlated with the measured indoor concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10. So, these need to
be properly recorded.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:00)

When we talk about assessment of exposure to pesticides, so the personal exposure to pesticides
can be assessed by personal air monitors, and by measuring the concentration of pesticides on their
metabolites in the blood and urine. Then, questionnaire information should also be there for
obtaining to identify other routes of the exposure, such as dermal that is through skin, dermal
contacts with pesticides, or direct methods of measuring dermal exposure are these applied in the
occupational settings.

983
When we talk about biological monitoring of the pesticides assessment, then biological monitoring
of pesticides varies with the substance of the interest. In some cases, these substances itself is
measured. And the other cases, these metabolites or changes in the different kind of these chemical
levels related to the pesticides, they are also measured and then it is related.

Pesticides and metabolites are analyzed in biological tissues using gas chromatography coupled
with electron capture detection, and the flame photometric detection or flame ionization detection,
or mass spectroscopy. So, these kind of technologies, methodologies has to be available; otherwise,
it is difficult to assess the exposure of pesticides.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:49)

984
When we talk about exposure assessment of bacteria and fungi, then for this particular assessment
in the indoor environment, we can test air samplers we can use such as impactors, or these
impingers or with sampling directly or a filter, or on microscopic slide. Because, they are they also
behave like particulate matter you can see; they can be collected on filters.

Then, the fungal mass can be determined through this ergosterol concentration and the mass of
gram negative bacteria; different characteristics related to these kinds of pollutants has to be related
to different kind of groups of the microbes, and that correlation has to be established. When we
talk about microbial measurement of indoor air includes assessing concentration and identifying
the microbes; the particular types of the microbes.

Then indirect assessment of bioaerosol exposure can also be done, such as home surveys for these
moisture or mold, it may also be used to obtain exposure indicators. If this is there, then certainly
there are chances of the exposure. For personal exposure assessment fungus specific these kind of
antibodies may be determined in these serum samples, by using enzyme-linked these
immunosorbent assay (ELISA). These kind of techniques are there which can be used for
assessment of exposure to bacteria and fungi.

985
(Refer Slide Time: 26:13)

When we talk about exposure to the dust mites, then again personal monitoring and indirect
approaches are also available. Like both the skin prick test and the prevalence of mighty specific
antibodies are used to assess sensitization to mite allergens in the individual; so, that allergy related
test can be carried out.

These measures indicate that an individual has been exposed but do not give information on the
degree of the exposure; so, that is a reliable approach in that sense. Indirect approach is there like
samples of house dust are usually collected either onto a fiber or directly into a paper bag using a
special vacuum cleaner. So, those kind of indirect approaches are also available.

986
Three types of methods are available for determining mite numbers or allergens, allergens means
those kinds of those causes allergic reactions. So, allergen levels in house dust and mite counts, or
these immunochemical assays of mite allergens; and related determination of the quantities can be
done. Then, mite allergens can be quantified in house dust extracts by a number of techniques.
And those techniques are already we have discussed like ELISA, ELISA.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:36)

987
When we talk about ventilation rate related monitoring because they influence the exposure of
those living in the indoor environment. So, that tracer-gas related decay technique can be used. So,
by far the most commonly used method of estimating air exchange rates in the trace- gas decay
technique is the most popular. In this method, a tracer-gas is released into the building space; or at
one or more points, possibly with the use of fans. And in this way an attempt is made to produce
a uniform concentration throughout the building space; so that we can see the decay rate later on.

And the air exchange rate can be obtained from the slope of this semi logarithmic plot of the natural
logarithm of the pollutant concentration versus time kind of plots; so, the correlation can be
established.

And then equilibrium concentration method is also used. In this method, a tracer gas is released at
a constant rate into the building spaces. In the steady-state condition with the perfect mixing, the
indoor concentration will reach a steady state value. Then from this and the injection rate, the
infiltration rate can be calculated. With this technique, although it is simple to perform, it often
takes many hours to reach a steady-state equilibrium; so, it is time consuming basically.

Then, we also have devices for measuring mechanical ventilations; and the methods commonly
used for this is to estimate the ventilation rate for systems that use these recirculation. And this
include pressure-measuring devices, velocity meters, mechanical gas-flow indicators, tracer-gas
techniques and heat balance techniques; all these kinds of instruments are used for these
parameters. Then, care must be taken to distinguish between the total rate at which air enters at a

988
particular zone, and the rate at which outside air enters the zone. So, those differentiation must be
made otherwise, there are chances of erroneous estimations.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:49)

Then, temperature-measuring devices are also important; because we need to measure temperature
which also play a role in indoor air quality, temperature, and humidity; humidity we will discuss.
First we will discuss about the temperature measuring devices which are suitable for continuous
monitoring include thermocouples or semiconductors and these thermistors. And typical indoor
temperature ranges from 15 °C to 40 °C; so, that kind of range this instrument should be applicable
for. Temperature gradients can be large in a building and even in the individual room. So, that
gradient must be captured by the instruments, so that kind of sensitivity must be there. And the
probe should be placed where they will sense the temperature experienced by the occupants; so,
that realistic kind of measurements can be taken.

989
(Refer Slide Time: 30:44)

When we talk about measurement of relative humidity, the easiest way to measure indoor humidity
level is by using a hygrometer. And this hygrometer is a device that serves as an indoor
thermometer and humidity monitor basically; both things can be measured. Commercially
available dew point hygrometers based on the principle that the, this vapor pressure of water is
decreased by the pressure of inorganic salt are well suited to continuous monitoring purposes.
Relative humidity can be readily calculated from dry-bulb and dew point temperature; so, these
are well established methodologies for measurement of relative humidity.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:29)

990
So, in nutshell we can say that the principle process dealt with the exposure assessment of indoor
air pollution, includes the measurements and evaluation of the pollutants into the
microenvironments of an occupant. Exposure measurements or estimates may be based on data
related to pollutant sources, environmental concentrations, personal exposure or contact, uptake or
intake of pollutants into the body, internal dose and biological tissues or fluids.

The exposure estimates always refer to a specific population; so, that relationship we should keep
in mind. In some cases, the actual exposure cannot be measured. Instead, these exposure indicators
are used such as presence of mold as an indicator of microbial exposure or the presence of gas
appliances to indicate an increase in the nitrogen dioxide.

So, emission related of those pollutants, we have to see the situation. And the temperature and
humidity of indoor air are important factors directly influencing the comfort and health of the
occupants; they also influence the concentration of pollutants. So, this is all for today related to
exposure assessment within the indoor microenvironments. So, these are the references for your
additional information. Thank you for kind attention; see you again in the next lecture. Thanks
again.

991
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 33
Indoor Air Quality Modeling

Hello friends, you may recall we discussed at certain point of time about ambient air quality
modeling like Gaussian dispersion model and so on. Today we will discuss about indoor air quality
modeling, how do we model the indoor air quality? Because, just before this lecture, we have
already discussed about various sources of the indoor air pollution; and then exposure assessment
through monitoring sampling of the indoor air quality or indoor air pollution. So, today we will
discuss how to model or simulate the indoor air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:04)

This will include introductory part, and then what are the modeling and simulation; how do we
relate these modeling issues and simulation aspects of mathematical modeling, when we do about
the indoor air pollution. Then indoor air quality related models, very simple models those kind of
models we will discuss; and advantages of the modeling means with respect to monitoring or
sampling. The numerical modeling of air flow indoor air flow we will look into, then
computational fluid dynamics related important aspects which are used for indoor air flow or
modeling, so, that we will discuss.

992
Then simple modeling tools or techniques like analytical tools, and advection model or box model,
which are quite popular for modeling indoor air quality; so that we will attach. And later we will
discuss on air quality modeling programs or tools, which are already developed by USEPA like
simulation toolkit for Indoor Air Quality and Inhalation Exposure; that is known as IAQX, Indoor
Semi Volatile Organic Compounds i-SVOC Version 1.0 and then third one is parameters or
PARAMS program, these three popular tools or easy to handle tools we will discuss, which take
care of air quality modeling in indoor environments; and then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:43)

So, when we talk about introductory part of indoor air pollution modeling, basically whatever
sources are there or sinks are there, if we do not consider them to simulate or modal; then it is
difficult to find out how much concentration will be at a particular place. And moreover, if you go
for sampling like each and every corner in the indoor environment, then it needs lots of resources
and a lot of time.

So, better we have optimum number of samples and based on the sample data, we can have certain
modeling techniques which can be used for taking these results further, for let us say health risk
assessment etc. But before that, we need to do the air quality modeling of the indoor environment;
only then we would be able to use that further in health risk assessment, and those sort of activities.

993
(Refer Slide Time: 03:42)

When we talk about modeling and simulation, so modeling as you know it is nothing but the set
of equations, which represent the reality of whatever thing we want to model. And there may be
different modeling techniques like a statistical models which are used based on certain input output
relationship, without giving much importance to physio-chemical interactions or processes.

But, there are other modeling techniques like deterministic models, which take care of physical
and chemical phenomena; and they solve those physical chemical characteristics related equations,
then they get the result. But, they are like resource consuming or time consuming; and it also needs
a skilled manpower to handle those kind of models.

And whenever we process using any sort of model, whether it is a statistical model or deterministic
model; whenever we are using a model to process the data and we are analyzing the behavior of
any real life system, then we call it as a simulation, we are doing a simulation. So, whatever
whether it is an ambient air or an indoor air, or any kind of environment we are talking about; and
we are trying to use certain model to represent that those processes which are related to that
environment, whether of indoor or outdoor. So, we are basically simulating that particular
environment of different aspects of that environment.

994
(Refer Slide Time: 05:09)

Now, if we talk about indoor air quality models, which have been developed to predict or to
estimate indoor air pollutant concentrations. And then after that dosages you can see because dose
function is important for exposure assessment and risk assessment. So, basically, three functional
parameters are important to model indoor air environment, like indoor air pollutants sources and
sinks we should know about. What are the different sources of those indoor air pollutants and water
sinks also? Because some portions will be absorbed or adsorbed those kind of sinking related
phenomena will also be there. Then, outdoor air pollutant concentration, we should also know.

The reason is because outdoor air pollution also come to the indoor environment through windows,
through other doors whenever we open. So, the concentration outside will also influence the indoor
environment like this outdoor air can enter into the inside of the house. So, we need to know how
much ambient air concentration is there, and also the indoor outdoor air exchange rates; because
they will interact indoor environment and outdoor environment. They will interact whenever door
is opened, window is opened, or any other system we are using. So, those air exchange rates we
should know.

Now, we know this system which is described in the form of developing or using an indoor air
quality model or indoor air pollution model. So, we need to begin with certain principles and the
mass balance concerning those pollutants which are of our interest in the indoor environment,
basically we will look into that. So, you might have heard about mass conservation or energy

995
conservation. So, from that perspective, mass balance related equations we use in this particularly
indoor air quality modeling efforts.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:16)

And what are the advantages? Why do we do this indoor air quality modeling? Although we have
touched upon, because we cannot go for monitoring or sampling each and every corner of the
environment, and it needs a lot of resources. So, one advantage is that whenever you have a valid
model, so you can run it and get the concentration with respect to different scenarios. So, it
provides the way or understanding to link the sources and sinks and the building factors. Building
factors which influences the air exchange rate, as I said outdoor environment, indoor environment
are interacting through those windows and doors.

So, those factors building factors they influence; so, these kind of parameters or variables are
linked through that modeling effort. Then, also it is used for investigating many IAQ or indoor air
quality related problems without any additional expenses, which are required for field experiment.
So, we can avoid field experiment, we can just create a scenario; and with respect to that scenario,
we can get or predict certain concentrations. And we can know that this will be the effect of the
changes if you want to make in the indoor environment. Suppose we want to go for some other
energy system, like heating system in the indoor environment.

Whether it will influence the air quality or not? Or we are going for another kind of furniture. And
furnitures also have certain sources of these VOCs. So, those variables can be there and those

996
variables can easily be simulated in the modeling technique. They also provide information about
the factors which are very important and they determine the indoor environment related issues,
whether not only the air quality is the final result, but before that there are many variable factors.
So, those variable factors can easily be considered in the indoor environment indoor air quality
modeling.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:23)

When we talk about numerical modeling of indoor air flow, because there are several techniques;
and one of those techniques is numerical modeling. In recent years, extensive activities and
research and development have been done through Computational Fluid Dynamics related
processes or software CFD. So, these are the special programs for room air flow movement or
contaminant transport applications within those indoor environment.

And these investigations they can range from prediction of air jet diffusion, or air velocity, or
temperature distribution in the rooms, or humidity related issues or contamination, diffusion,
dispersion within those enclosures; or any smoke spread inside the buildings. So, all those kinds
of issues can be tackled by CFD techniques.

997
(Refer Slide Time: 10:20)

So, the CFD is a computational technique or tool, which produces quantitative predictions of fluid
flow through conservation laws; like conservation of mass or momentum, conservation of
momentum or conservation of energy. So, those basic principles are used for this particular CFD
technique.

So, they govern fluid motion; so, these are the principles which are used. So, CFD is a tool for
analyzing air fluid or air flow problems. And it is used, it can provide when it is used correctly;
then it can provide useful information very quickly and with minimum resources, just you have
computer and you can run that model, and you can get the results. And it can use different methods
or procedures, finite difference method or finite volume method or finite element method. Those
kinds of popular techniques can be used for CFD models.

998
(Refer Slide Time: 11:25)

Then, there are other models which are of very simple nature. So, these simple modeling
techniques can also be used for indoor air quality modeling, and they can be related to analytical
tools or advection model or box model. So, we will those tools.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:44)

999
When we talk about analytical tools basically they are based on two concepts; when we develop
the simple models for indoor air quality calculations or estimations. So, one is well-mixed model
and another one is partially mixed ventilation model. In a well-mixed model, we assume that
concentration is uniformly distributed; because it is mixed very well in that enclosure or in that
indoor environment. In partially mixed model, the concentration is non-uniform, it can vary from
one point to another, because of poor mixing or ventilation related issues.

But in some situations, there may be kind of mix of the things; and it is relatively safe to assume
well-mixed conditions for simplification purpose, for approximation purpose; so that you can
quickly calculate the needed parameters. So, these type of assumptions just leads to the use of

1000
simple analytical models or tools. Further, there are certain assumptions. We assume that an
enclosure or that indoor environment exists in which the concentration is considered to be
especially uniform. As I said, when we assume that it is uniform, then we assume that at each point
the concentration is same.

But, the mass concentration at time t0, it is C0; then at the point at the time t it is Ct. So, maybe C
air which is the air with contaminant outdoor air; if is entering or not only in the outdoor, but
within the indoor environment also. If you are assuming certain tubes or certain small enclosures,
so from one enclosure to another air movement may be there. So, this Cair which is with certain
contaminant, if it is entering into this particular enclosure; then it can have this volumetric flow
rate Qin. And the concentration it can have Cin. Or, at the time t0, if we assume C0, then at time t
the concentration may be Ct. And then Ct can be C air when it is uniformly distributed in this
enclosure.

And that same concentration will go out, because every corner every point has the uniform
concentration in that particular space. When we talk about equations, there are several equations.
But for the sake of information, I give you this very only one conservation of mass related equation,
which is used for estimating the concentrations and solving this these equations.

So, where these parameters are concentration, then this contaminant rate which is being emitted,
V is the velocity; and then this volumetric parameter is there. Then control volumes factor can be
there, and control surface related factor can be there. So, these equations are solved by the model
and they can estimate the concentrations ultimately.

1001
(Refer Slide Time: 14:52)

1002
Then, other model is advection model. Advection horizontal movement as convection is vertical
movement, advection is horizontal movement. In many times source exist that is moving within a
confined space, like in a tunnel train is moving; or within the household activities people are doing,
and they are also moving, somebody is smoking and moving in the corridor. So, those kind of
moving sources may exist; so it is a horizontal movement. So, advection models are used to
simulate or model the effect of those sources; and to know what would be the concentration at the
point of interest.

So, we see all those parameters of course volume approach is used, control volume approach is
used; and then these ventilation related parameters are also used. You can see in this particular
figure, it is shown very nicely that this Adx is volume having length of element as dx; this much
of slice of the dx. And area is you can have this area of this tunnel, where this engine or train is
moving. U is the velocity, so you can use those equations; and you can further solve it to get the
concentration. Then advection model usage all kind of those equations, but ultimately this is the
final equation, which is used for estimating the concentrations; where different parameters are
there, like contaminant deposited internal walls Cm.

C is the concentration of the contaminant, which is c(x) at the x distance, L is the length of the
tunnel; and x wherever point you are denoting the x distance; so, that is used in this equation. Then,
U is the velocity of air inside the tunnel, U0 denotes the air at the entrance of the tunnel basically;
x is the distance from starting of tunnel at the point, where we want to estimate the concentration.
So, all these parameters are used to estimate the concentration through the advection model.

1003
(Refer Slide Time: 17:05)

1004
Next is the box model. And this box model is used when non-uniform conditions are there, when
concentration is existing in a non-uniform way, which is a reality basically. Uniform concentration
we assume in certain enclosures, but if larger enclosures or indoor environment is there, it is not
necessary that uniform concentration will be there of a particular pollutant. So, box model is based
on multi-cell well-mixed model; means the small cells are like if this is the box model creating, so
it can be divided into several cells. And those cells can have different concentration of uniform
level.

So, each cell can be termed as a uniform concentration related phenomena and then integration
can be done at later stage. So, basically non-uniform condition is existing, but that non-uniform
condition can be divided into several uniform cells. And this box model have four types of mixing,
which can occur in those cells which we have divided; for example, displacement. So, let us say if
air is entering in that way and it is coming and going outside this way; so, it is displacing basically.
So, incoming air displaces the existing air, which is in the enclosure or in the cell, it goes out.

And then cavity formation can be there if short circuit is there; air is coming and it is going directly,
so here this is the cavity. So, this cavity can form and concentration may build up rather than
forcing it out. In displacement kind of phenomena, the flushing of concentration of pollutants may
be there; but in this kind of condition or context, the cavity formation can be there. And
concentration buildup can be over the period of time can be there; and recirculation of
concentration maybe there. And then there is this mixing, if this air goes and travels a long distance
and come back.

1005
So, kind of mixing region or mixed region is produced and uniform concentration you can assume
in this particular cell. Then, there maybe another way like piston, where air is coming from this
and air is going out of this; so, it is working like a piston, and it is pushing out this air outside. So,
several kind of combinations can be there, which can be catered or simulated by box model. And
this is the fundamental equation which is used for estimating concentrations based on several
parameters, like pollution emission rate. And then the area, this horizontal area length into width;
and H is the box height.

So, box height when we are talking about the mixing height within that enclosure; mixing height
in ambient air is boundary layer height. But, within the enclosure or within the indoor environment,
it can be again the some mixing height.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:17)

But, fundamental concept in same you we use box modeling in ambient air quality modeling also.
Then we come to air quality modeling programs which are readymade tools available, because
USEPA Environmental Protection Agency has developed certain tools, which can be used by
people to simulate air in different indoor environment. And they can get easily those models are
handled or those programs are handled. So, one program is simulation toolkit for Indoor Air
Quality and Inhalation Exposure (IAQX). Another one is Indoor Semi-Volatile Organic
Compounds (i-SVOC).

1006
Then, third one is parameters or PARAMS Program Version 1.1. It was earlier 1.0 as we had
discussed; and this for indoor emission source modeling basically. So, these programs are window
based, so user friendly; and anybody who knows simple computer handling they can easily use
those tools or models.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:23)

In Indoor Air Quality and Inhalation Exposure like IAQX model, there are different standalone
programs or modules, like five modules are there; one is like GPS. So, this file can be executed or
this program, or this module can be executed for the purpose of general purpose simulation
program.

1007
When this VBX is related to VOCs, so it models to predict the VOC emissions from solvent based
indoor coating materials based on product formulation; this maybe furniture, this maybe from
walls etc. Then SPILL, this SPILL related module is there, which simulate or models for indoor
solvent SPILLs; where some solvent has been spilled out. Then it can be modeled, because it will
give some VOCs; or then this is SLAB.

So, this model gives the VOC emissions from diffusion controlled homogeneous slabs, such as
new carpet backing. So, if carpet is there, new carpet is there, lot of fumes may be there. So, this
particular model can be used for that particular emission. A model for indoor particulate matter is
PM related module.

So, if we want to run a particular module depending upon the requirement, we can run; otherwise
we can run five modules, if all these conditions are applicable. You can see this is the general
appearance of that particular tool. So, different buttons are there and because it is window based,
you can just press the button, you can go through the menu bar; and you can choose whatever
possibilities are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:07)

1008
1009
So, the next one is Indoor Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (i-SVOC). So, this is 1.0 i-SVOC
version is there; and this model the emissions and its transportation, or absorption or adsorption
and distribution or dispersion of semi-volatile organic compounds SVOCs, in the indoor
environment.

And this program is capable of covering the functions of most commonly used models for indoor
semi-volatile organic compounds. And it can also provide the user with more flexibility than the
other existing models; so, that way it is versatile. And it frees the user from numerical
computational computations which are quite resource intensive; as well as it needs a lot of skilled
manpower. So, that way it is quite easy to handle and it has versatility.

But, there are certain limitations also, like the current version of this program is for a single air
zone and a single semi-volatile organic compound. So, it cannot model the mixture of different
kinds of VOCs. The program does not support chemical reactions, so that way very simplified
assumption is there. This program ignores the interactions between settled dust and the surface,
which the dust particles are in contact with. Many indoor pesticides are there which emit as VOCs;
so, this program does not contain any mass transfer models for liquid applications, so, these are
limitations.

But as you know, even in Gaussian dispersion model when we talked about in ambient air quality
modeling, there were several assumptions. So, that because there are so many uncertainties and
complex things are there, we cannot handle everything; otherwise the model will be very complex
and very difficult to handle. So, it is fine if there are certain limitations, but if it is given good
results. But, other in this particular model, we had these five modules. So, that way this is better
model if you want to model several kind of VOCs, particulate matters, or spilled over related
issues.

But, if you want to concentrate only on semi-volatile organic compounds, then this model is fine;
but only limitations are there that because it handles single SVOC at a time. Then, it can be seen
this general appearance again similar to other one, window based model it is. So, you can just use
these buttons and you can run the model.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:47)

1010
1011
The third one is parameters PARAMS Program Version, which is of 1.1, i-SVOC was of 1.0 and
this is 1.1. So, this particularly program can be used to implement methods for estimating the
parameters in indoor emission source models. That is why it is known as parameters PARAM 1.1.
And the methods which fall in seven categories which are used in this particular program or tool,
are properties of the indoor air. First order decay rate constants for several emissions can easily be
handled; then gas-phase, liquid-phase or overall mass transfer these coefficients can also be taken
into account.

Molar volume related the parameters, then molecular diffusivity in air, liquid, or solid materials,
solid-air partition coefficients, vapor pressure and this volatility; all these things are not taken into
account with this software.

Then, users can benefit from this program in this two fundamental ways. This can serve as a handy
tool by putting commonly used methods in one place, and it can save a lot of time; because tedious
calculations are avoided; this program does all those calculations at the backend. But, there are
limitations again like earlier model also had limitations. These users are reminded that the number
of parameters that can be estimated with this particular tool is only a fraction of the total number
of parameters in the existing indoor source models.

So, not all parameters are being handled, but important parameters are being included. And these
methods for particulate matter are not included in the current version; so, that is one limitation. It
can have other pollutants, but particulate matter related if you want to model, then go for that

1012
IAQX that is fine. This is the general appearance again, all these selected methods are given. So,
anything you can choose as per the requirement and you can run the model.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:59)

So, in conclusion, we can say that the indoor air quality models are very important for predicting
the pollutant concentrations, in terms of especially from one point to another, or as a function of
time. Means over the period of time, how this variation will be there with respect to the sources;
and with respect to the variation in different influencing factors like temperature, humidity, etc.
And they are divided into three categories: statistical, or mass balance, and computational fluid

1013
dynamics CFD models. Simple modeling techniques are also there, which can include analytical
tools, or advection model, or box model as just we have discussed.

And there are three very simple programs which have been developed by USEPA like IAQX, i-
SVOC, and PARAMS. These are simple tools which can be used by any computer savvy person.
So, this software can help us putting all those commonly used modeling techniques in one place.
And we can avoid tedious calculations which are required in other complicated models; so, this is
all for today. I hope now you can appreciate why indoor air quality modeling is important, how it
is carried out. So, these are the references based on which we have presented this particular lecture.
You can go through them at leisure. And thank you, see you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1014
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 34
Technologies to Mitigate Indoor Air Pollution
Hello friends. So, in the series of indoor air pollution its effect and its sources, then assessment
of indoor air pollution. Today we will discuss about the technologies which are used for
mitigating or controlling indoor air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:53)

So, in this lecture we will include like what is the requirement of mitigation of indoor air
pollution, why do we need it? Then, what are the sources that can be controlled to reduce the
contaminants in indoor environment, and then how to improve the ventilation which is one
important aspect of improved indoor air quality.

Then air cleaning and types of air cleaners which are used for cleaning the air. Air cleaning
technologies, different kinds of technologies, like, removing particles or using ultraviolet
germicidal irradiation, UVGI air cleaners, and then air cleaning technologies which are used
for removing gases, removal of radon and its progeny and other products, practical
considerations for using these portable air cleaners or in-duct air cleaners because there are
issues means it is not always true that air cleaners will be very nice in handling to remove air
pollution.

Sometimes, if you are not maintaining them properly then they can be also sources of indoor
air pollution basically. Then by-product’s missions from some air cleaning technologies as I

1015
said that if we have to maintain them properly, otherwise, there can be additional sources from
these controlling devices. If you do not maintain, we do not repair them timely, and then we
will go for conclusions.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:10)

So, when we talk about mitigation of indoor air pollution, why it is required? So, the
development of technologies which are needed for mitigating indoor air pollution is very
important, because it otherwise the indoor air pollution can result into several kind of health
effects or adverse health effects. So, to avoid that kind of situation, its necessary to employ
certain technologies to mitigate, or to control, or to remove to reduce the indoor air pollution
levels. Then there are several techniques, but adsorption and photocatalytic oxidation these are
the current approaches which are kind of popularly they are used for removing indoor VOCs
volatile organic compounds and fine particles like PM2.5 with high efficiency.

These adsorption and photocatalytic oxidation these two processes are very popular in that
sense, but there are other approaches like lowering the concentration of indoor air pollutants
by increasing the amount of outdoor air coming indoor through ventilations. But it is a tricky
thing, because if outdoor air quality is not good, then polluted air may enter into the indoor
environment. So, we have to first see that the outdoor air must be clean, only then we can go
for this kind of situation where we increase the amount of inflow of the outdoor air to indoor
environment, then it can improve the indoor air quality. Otherwise, if the outdoor air quality is
not good, then this is not the right approach.

Usually, the most effective and successful way to improve indoor air quality is to eliminate
individual sources of pollution, or to reduce their emissions inside the indoor environment

1016
itself. There should not be any source means, at the source itself we should do something which
can eliminate these emissions of air pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:09)

So, basically the source control mechanism eliminates individual sources of pollutants or
reduces their emissions. And this is usually the most effective strategy for reducing pollutants
inside the micro environment. Many sources of pollutants in the home can be avoided or
removed for example, like if we these solid wood or alternative materials can be used in place
of the pressed wood or those ply woods or boats etc, which are basically significant sources of
formaldehyde.

And the combustion appliances can be adjusted to decrease the emissions in kitchen etc. So
those kinds of things we can accomplish through interventions of technological interventions
or some changes in the usage of different products.

1017
(Refer Slide Time: 4:49)

Well, when we talk about it improve ventilation. So, the ventilation with outdoor air is also a
strategy for diluting indoor air pollutant concentration, but, in that case the outdoor air must be
clean with respect to the indoor environment provided it is relatively clean and dry means it
should not be humid also, because humid air if it enters into the micro environment indoor
environment, then there are several issues like moles or many kind of microbes can grow in
the humid environment. So, the outdoor air is clean and dry only then it is a good strategy to
bring it inside the micro environment of indoor environment.

Well, then outdoor air enters buildings in three ways basically like small amount of air
constantly enters through various infiltration, building enclosures etc, then large amount can
enter through windows or doors whenever we open them. And then it can also be brought by
like a continuous supply or exhaust fans means that kind of mechanism can be developed where
certain fan are there only for bringing air inside the indoor environment only.

1018
(Refer Slide Time: 6:12)

But the outdoor air must be clean and dry only then it is better to improve the air quality of
indoors environment. Well, then there are air cleaning mechanism like air cleaners or these
various devices are there portable as well as you can have mounted in the ducts etc. So, this air
cleaning has proven useful basically and it is used along with the source control and ventilation.
Air cleaning alone cannot ensure adequate indoor air quality where significant sources are
present because then sources may be very dominating kind of these air pollution emissions.

So, when exhaust and outdoor air ventilation are insufficient, then alone this air cleaning may
not be so effective. So, it is a kind of integrated approach you also have those ventilation
mechanisms plus you also do air cleaning. So, using a portable air cleaner or upgrading the air
filters which are used in the furnaces, because indoor environment does not mean only the
domestic or residential houses. Indoor environments are there in factory spaces, industries,
there are these occupational spaces where workers are working. So, those indoor environment
are also needed to be clean. So, the Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC), this
system is there always for cleaning the air and to improve the indoor air quality.

1019
(Refer Slide Time: 7:44)

Well, so, there are two basic categories of air cleaners like portable air cleaners, and HVAC
these heating, ventilation and air conditioning at the furnaces and other kind of locations. So
portable air cleaners generally used where you can have these kind of filter mechanism where
it sucks air and then passes through after capturing particulate matter etc. Furnace filters are
there in these occupational spaces, in the factories etc. So, those kinds of HVAC systems can
also be used.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:15)

And within each category of these yair cleaners one or more cleaning technologies may be used
to accomplish the aims of better air quality. And, the available technologies can vary in the
type of pollutant, when some gases has to be controlled and reduced then other kinds of

1020
technology can be used, when particulate matter is the target then some other way of removal
of these mechanisms can be employed.

So, like, pollutant collection, or conversion, or inactivation, destruction, all these kind of
mechanism can be there in different technologies. And there may be some potential side effects
also, we have to see like filters if we do not change filters of the portable air cleaners, those
filters can be sources of the indoor air pollution. So, rather than cleaning the air, they can pollute
it. So, that has to be kept in mind.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:11)

Well, when we talk about different technologies of air cleaning, then you can see this is the list
like fibrous filter media can be used, or electrostatic precipitation; ESP can be used, which you
have studied, we have studied in the like industrial air pollution control mechanisms. So small
size ESPs can be used in indoor environment also.

Then ionisers can also be there. I am repeating it again that please do not feel that only the
residential rooms or those houses are the indoor environment. Indoor environment can be of
various kinds like big factories, or libraries, or museums, or whatever built environment is there
where people are working.

So those large size indoor environments can be there, and you may need these ESP etc, those
kinds of instruments. Well, then Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI) can also be used,
adsorbent media can be used, or chemisorbent media can be used, catalytic oxidation like the
three way catalytic things are used in exhaust pipes of vehicles.

1021
So, similarly, in indoor environment also some catalytic oxidation mechanism can also be used,
then plasma related technology is there. Then there is like ozone generation because ozone is
your oxidizing agent. So, for oxidizing those gases which are pollutants ozone can be generated
and that can be used.

So, for gases these adsorbent media, chemisorbent, catalytic oxidation, plasma, intentional
ozone, these are the better technologies. For microbes these UVGI, and for particles filter
media, or these ESPs and ionizers can be used most effectively.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:58)

Well the two types of air cleaning technologies are commonly used in duct-mounted, ducts are
there and then portable air cleaners to remove particles like fibrous media filters and electronic
air cleaners. So, these are the two types which are very popular. And the particle size or the
mass of the particles they influence the performance of these kind of air cleaning technology
basically, because the larger particles settle out of the air and onto the surfaces rather rapidly.
So, the air filters are not likely to remove them effectively from the home. So, that is why other
kinds of technologies are employed.

1022
(Refer Slide Time: 11:38)

Well, fibrous media air filters remove particles by capturing them onto fibrous filter material.
So, this may remind you the bag filters also. So, those kind of fibrous filter materials are there
and, depending upon the particle size or fiber thickness, then filter porosity and filter fiber
dimensions dust loading conditions, all these things influence the efficiency of the removal of
these particles.

And, these filters that become excessively loaded will tend to decrease the efficiency or
effectiveness of the filters basically when porosity is less and because of reduced airflow
through the filters and increased bypass airflow around a clogged filter can rather pollute the
indoor environment instead of cleaning it. So, these kinds of things we have to keep in mind to
do better maintenance or frequently we should do something to remove those clogging kind of
situations.

1023
(Refer Slide Time: 12:31)

Well, then flat panel air filters can also be there. So, this is again typically they have this MERV
(Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value) 1 to 4. So, different values are there depending upon
their efficiency, then thickness can also be a matter of concern. So, all those things we have to
see.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:00)

Plus at the same time, this pleating of these pleats of these filter media can also give us better
surface area and it can reduces the air velocity and better efficiency can be achieved.

1024
(Refer Slide Time: 13:15)

Well, when we talk about efficiency of these fibrous media, higher efficiency with the MERV
of 14 to 16 will typically have a higher average resistant to air flow then medium efficiency
filter, so, that again so it need more power you can say. Then HEPA (High Efficiency
Particulate Air Filters), those kinds of filters are another type of pleated filters, they have more
pleats and they also, they are very deep pleats and much larger surface area in comparison to
the conventional pleated filters. So, that is why there performance is better and they can remove
fine, ultrafine particles very efficiently in that way.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:56)

Well, when we talk about these practical considerations for using fibrous media air filters,
because if you do not use them properly, then rather than creating the air quality making air

1025
quality better they we, deteriorate it. So, the indoor particle size or size specific mass
concentrations, amount of the dust loaded on the filter, and then airflow rate, velocity and
bypass airflow that flows around the air filters, all these things have to be kept in mind and the
optimization has to be done to have greater efficiency of those filters.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:31)

Well, when we talk about electrostatic precipitators or ionizers. So, as ESPs can be used for
removing particles with high efficiency. But they can collect a small airborne particles and,
they can have efficiency varying from 60 percent to even 95 percent depending upon what is
the size of the particles and how much path is there, how many number of plates are there, all
those issues are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:56)

1026
Then ionizers can be there, ion generators. So, they also create some situation where different
of charged particles can be captured by other filters or those plates of different charges.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:09)

Well, when we talk about Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI) air cleaners, you might
have seen during COVID period these UV-based cleaning devices has come into the market.
So, similar devices are there already for deactivating microorganisms such as viruses or
bacteria. So, those are the devices which can be used for killing these kinds of microbes. And
that given sufficient exposure in terms of time and the lamp power, these UV light can penetrate
the outer structure of the micro-organism cells and they can alter its DNA so, they can prevent
its replication or further multiplication and then they can cause the cell death. So, that way the
bacteria or virus can be killed.

1027
Well the ultraviolet, these UVGI kind of air cleaners, this is the diagram which shows how it
is installed in the indoor environment, there can be different types of these UVGI cleaners, like
air cleaners designed for air stream disinfection, where those rays UV rays are passed to the air
and whatever microbes are floating into the air they will be killed, then surface cleaners like
when we put something and then in the box there is this UVGI those rays are there, radiation
are there then they kill. So, those kinds of devices which are cleaners for the surface, they are
more efficient basically, in comparison to the air stream.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:41)

So, I know more time is needed for air stream cleaning. These spores tend to resistant to UV
radiation and killing them requires a very high dosage. So, depending upon what kind of indoor
environment is there, we have to settle down with the intensity of the UV rays as well as the
time of the exposure for those cleaning purposes.

1028
(Refer Slide Time: 17:02)

Well, when we talk about like technologies for removing gases, then number of technologies
are there like gas phase air cleaning technologies can be there for like Photocatalytic Oxidation,
(PCO). Plasma-based technology can be there, or ozone generation. So, we will see one by one.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:21)

Like sorbent media means sorption can be there absorption or adsorption. So, absorption means
inside it can absorb some chemical reactions can be there. Adsorption maybe through
attraction, physical attraction it can keep on the surfaces. So, the both the phenomena are used
for removing those gaseous pollutants.

1029
(Refer Slide Time: 17:37)

Wherever, you can see the sorbent media filter’s behaviour depends on many factors like air
flow rate or velocity through the sorbent media. Then what is the concentration of the
contaminants or pollutants, presence of other gaseous contaminants rather than in addition to
the gases which we want to remove, then total available surface area for adsorption purpose,
physical chemical characteristics of the pollutants and the sorbent media.

Then pressure drop or removal efficiency, removal capacity, temperature and relative humidity
of the gas stream. All these issues are there, or factors are there which influence the efficiency
or performance of these absorption or adsorption related cleaning mechanism.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:16)

1030
So, in adsorption you can see the physical attraction of the gases which can captured on the
molecules of the surfaces. And the solid sorbent and such as activated carbon, silica gel,
activated alumina, zeolites, synthetic polymers, and porous clay minerals they are useful
because of their large surface area and the stability and low cost. So, that is why in adsorption
process they are the most popular media.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:49)

Well, when we talk about like adsorbent media can also be impregnated in thin layers on to
fibrous and filter media to remove both gases and particles. So, that way it is again versatile,
but we have to be very cautious because the activated carbon is not especially effective against
oxides of sulphur or hydrogen sulphide or low molecular weight aldehydes and even ammonia
or nitrogen oxides. So, depending upon the nature of the gaseous pollutant, we have to use
which kind of adsorption material we can use.

1031
(Refer Slide Time: 19:22)

Then chemisorption can be there where it can have gas or vapor molecules chemically it can
react with the sorbent material or with the reactive agents, this impregnated into the sorbent.
So, the chemical bond is there basically that is why we call it chemisorption.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:40)

Then there can be like photocatalytic oxidation, as I gave that example in vehicular exhaust.
Three-way catalytic converters are used so, that we also in PCOs this photocatalytic oxidation
in indoor environment. They can use a high surface area medium coated with a catalytic such
as titanium dioxide to adsorb gaseous pollutants. So, when the photocatalyst is irradiated with
ultraviolet light, a photochemical reaction takes place and these hydroxyl OH, hydroxyl

1032
radicals, they are formed on the media surfaces. And, as you know these OH radicals, or
hydroxyl radicals are very quickly they oxidize whatever they come into contact.

So, these hydroxyl radicals, they can oxidize gaseous pollutants and they can be adsorbed on
the catalytic surfaces, so, that way very quickly action occurs and this reaction which is called
PCO this converts the organic pollutants into carbon dioxide or water. So, they are harmless in
the sense they are not pollutants, but of course, both are greenhouse gases. So, from that
perspective, although things are there, issues are there, but from health point of view, at least
they are not problematic.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:55)

Well, when we talk about further in this PCO technique. So, the usefulness of these PCO
cleaners depends upon this amount of the catalyst and the amount of contact time between
gaseous pollutants and the catalyst, and the amount of UV light that is delivered to the this
catalyst surface. So, all these factors are there for influencing the efficiency or efficacy of the
PCO devices and the PCO have certain VOCs like volatile organic compounds or hydrocarbons
may create some by-products which are indoor air pollutants in itself.

So, the system design parameters are not good, rather than removing the pollutants it can
generate some other pollutants by-products, so, we have to be very careful in that handling the
PCO related techniques and so, it should clean rather than adding some pollutants, so, these
side effects we should be careful about.

1033
(Refer Slide Time: 21:48)

Plasma air cleaners can be there. So, these in thermal plasma air cleaners can be there or non-
thermal plasma air cleaners can be there. So, depending upon their voltage and then the radicals
we can use any of them. But a number of harmful by-products again in like in PCO in this
plasma technology also there may be some particles or ozone, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde,
they can be by-products if we do not handle properly this technology. So, these technologies
are good if we are handling them properly otherwise, they may be problematic because they
can also add some pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:25)

Well, according to the control laboratory tests when we use properly these plasma air cleaners
can have very high removal efficiency to some gases as well as particles as they can also kill

1034
and deactivate airborne microorganisms. So, that way plasma air cleaners are very good, if it
is, used in a controlled manner with those skilled people they can use otherwise, it can be
dangerous also.

So, if we use it in a controlled way, this can be a very good technology because it can remove
particles as well as gaseous pollutants, and it can also kill or deactivate airborne
microorganism. So, skilled people or, personnel are needed for plasma air cleaners for using
the plasma air cleaners, otherwise it can be problematic also, we should be careful.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:18)

Then there can be ozone generators and, this also needs very careful handling otherwise, ozone
itself is a problematic pollutant, but it can be used as a oxidizing agent also, as you know this
ozone has nascent oxygen, so, it can oxidize and it can clean, it can oxidize the pollutants, and
it can react with chemical pollutants to transform them into other kinds of compounds at high
concentrations and it can also kill and deactivate biological pollutants.

So, that way similar to plasma technology, it is also good technology, but the chemical
reactions produce irritating and corrosive by-products that may cause adverse health effects
and may damage building materials also or furnishing or wiring etc. So, again, we have to be
careful, and we need to handle it with the caution.

1035
(Refer Slide Time: 24:08)

Well then, when we talk about removal of radon and its progeny, so, the Environmental
Protection Agency of USA recommends the use of source control technologies to prevent radon
from entering residential structures. So, the most effective way of controlling the radon
technique is Active Soil Depressurisation (ASD). So, the ASD system uses electric fan to
minimize the radon entry by doing air from under the slab or floor and venting it outside the
building. So, it does not enter into the air, you can see here, this kind of vents are there and it
can take it out. So, from subways or those kind of locations.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:48)

Well then there are practical considerations for portable air cleaners, because indoor particle
concentrations are not constant over time. Then the placement of any portable air cleaner will

1036
affect its performance. So, we have to be careful where we need to put it. So, that efficiency is
high.

Regular filter media replacement is needed otherwise it will be source of pollutant rather than
cleaning. Replacement or cleaning of the filter media, again it needs to be handled carefully
otherwise, this will add to the pollution. Noise may also be a concern when we are using some
particular portable air cleaners. So, the noise pollution may be there. So, accordingly we need
to do something so, that less noise related portable air cleaners are used.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:35)

Well then removal of pollutants is often limited by system operation and the low system route
these runtimes can greatly limit the effectiveness of in-duct air cleaner. So, means the system
has to be designed properly so, that it has sufficient time. Then not all HVAC systems fans can
accommodate high efficiency filters without affecting system performance. So, it is a kind of
trade off you have to see where you can install it and run the HVAC system properly so, that it
also do air conditioning as well as it removes the pollutants.

Well in-duct air cleaning devices they should be installed such that bypass airflow is prevented
otherwise, efficiency will be greatly reduced, and the in-duct cleaning devices they require
sufficient access for inspection during use, repair, and maintenance. Otherwise, if we do not
have a proper access, then some kind of pollution accumulation can be there inside the ducts
etc.

1037
(Refer Slide Time: 26:34)

Well, the byproduct emissions from some air cleaning technologies can be an issue. So, we
have to see those technologies as we have seen that in PCO, or plasma, or ozone related devices.
If careful handling is not there then rather than removing the pollutants, they can add into some
other pollutants like formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, they can be generated in PCO technology.
So, those things we have to be careful about.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:01)

Well, so, in conclusion, we can say that the common indoor air pollutants, they can be removed
in terms of particulate matter or gaseous contaminants by certain technologies depending upon
particulate matter is more or gaseous pollutant is more you can select the technology. And the

1038
most economical and effective way to address the indoor air pollutant is usually to reduce or
eliminate the sources itself at the source pollutants, we have to remove.

Then air cleaning devices they can be of two general categories portable air cleaning, and
HVAC or furnace filters, which we have seen just now. And they can be mounted the duct
mounted can be there or they can be at the central HVAC system. So, they can be independently
installed or they can be part of HVAC system. And the two types of air cleaning technologies
are commonly used in-duct mounted or portable.

Then gas-phase air cleaning technologies include adsorbent media, or absorption media,
activated carbon, chemisorbent media filters. Then there are other technology like plasma or
these kind of which we have seen like ozone related but they need very skilled people to handle
it.

So, they are used only in industry related installations where indoor environment occupational
hazards related issues are there, and well-trained people are there to handle those kinds of
devices. Otherwise, we can go for simple filters and proper ventilation in residential areas. So,
this is all for today for controlling or mitigating indoor air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:40)

And these are the references for additional information. And you can go through that at the
ledger. So, thank you for your kind attention and see you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1039
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 35
Personal Exposure to Fine Particles: A Case Study
Hello friends, these days we are discussing about indoor air pollution. So, in that series, today
we will discuss about personal exposure to fine particles that is PM2.5. And this is basically a
case study based on a city.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:45)

So, this will be the contents of this particular lecture, like we will see the introduction part
means, where the study was conducted, what is the setting of the study. And then the, why
particulate pollution is important, what are the locations of sampling which were carried out
which materials or methodology was used, what was the procedure of the sampling.

Then to assure the quality what preventive measures were taken or what protocol was followed,
how data were analysed, and then the time series related to PM2.5 concentration. So, their
analysis and comparison of different groups, we will see different occupational groups, which
are considered in this study, then integrated exposure of different activities within the given
micro environments and the comparison of PM2.5 concentration with the standards, which have
been prescribed by World Health Organization and their health effects. And then we will
conclude with some recommendations.

1040
(Refer Slide Time: 1:43)

So, basically this study was carried out by, kind of joint research study by researchers of Japan
and the Mali, the country which is in West Africa and the city where this study was conducted
is Bamako, which is capital city of Mali, and the variation in PM2.5 concentrations were
measured during different activities and different micro environments, we will see what are
those micro environments.

And, this study highlights the importance of indoor air pollution, their sources then the lifestyle
or occupational related exposure, in basically developing countries. So, this study is very
important in that sense, how developing countries occupational related settings influence the
indoor air pollution exposure to people.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:38)

1041
Well, basically, why this particulate matter pollution is so important because, in developing
countries still large, large number of people use biomass fuels in their household activities for
cooking and other activities, this wood, charcoal, those are the fuels which are extensively used
in households, and they are the major sources of particulate pollution basically.

The data obtained in this present study are essential to inform the local population about the
exposure to PM2.5 and their relationship with the daily activities so, that they can change in
daily activities, if they find that at a particular activity, they are getting exposed to very high
level of concentration of PM2.5. So, awareness generation will be because of this study and also
there will be some informed decision making process for the policymakers.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:41)

Well sampling locations if we consider in that particular city. So, they are basically personal
exposure was taken up through different sampling techniques, which we will discuss later on,
but the city is basically, capital city of Mali and the sampling, duration was from September
2020 to February 2021, around five to six months, and the population of the city is around 2.71
million. So, that is basic sampling location related data.

1042
(Refer Slide Time: 4:21)

The locations if you look at are basically related to household environment that is the houses.
Then the workplace, where people are working that is the office. High traffic areas where
people move around and get exposed to particulate matter and industrial zones. So, these were
the locations where our subjects were studied as per their exposure to PM2.5.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:43)

And the materials or the technique which was used is basically the P-sensor. So, to obtain the
information about this personal exposure each participant was given this palm sized optical
PM2.5 sensor, this is also known as P-sensor. And they were specifically designed to give the
mass concentration that is microgram per cubic meter and then per unit of time that kind of

1043
unit, and PM2.5 means, as, the particulate matter which has the size of 2.5 micrometre or less
than 2.5 micrometre.

The limitation of this particular sensor is that because it is optimized for the particulate matter
which is of the size let us say PM10 or more. So, that way a little bit, less reliable you can say
means the preciseness will be affected if we consider for PM2.5 but still means for the sake of
preliminary information, this sensor base study was found quite okay.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:53)

Well, when we talk about different kinds of groups, which were taken for this study, they are
4 groups. Like office workers, and in the data analysis, we have given them this acronym OW.
Drivers, so, we are using DRI for them, COOK that is the cooks who are getting exposed in
the kitchen of hotels or wherever they work in the households also, then the student’s
community. So, ST have taken has been taken as students for nomenclature of the students.

And the study was conducted for three days. And for each group, at least three participants
were considered. So, maybe more than three, but at least three participants were there from the
each group. And this PM2.5, the data, real time data was recorded in this P-sensor and, each
five second interval, this sensor was recording the data. So, huge data set was there basically.

1044
(Refer Slide Time: 7:03)

And daily activities related to participants they were written in diaries, whatever activities they
were doing at a particular location or some activity changes were there. So, within those, 72
hours or three days, in different locations, if there were change the activities or a special kind
of exposure related possibility was there. So, time and the location and that activity was noted
down by the participants. So, those were related or associated, when data were analysed. So,
all those activities and the time of that exposure, those were associated and they were used for
analysis of the data.

And, those locations or micro environments, which were used were basically homes household
means indoor environment of the homes with the incenses and insecticides like, mosquito coils
people burn those kinds of insecticide. Then the workplace where office maybe there, and then
the classroom for students and other activities and also some outdoors like in the market, then
for cooking, driving, all those activities have been taken into account. PM2.5 exposure data for
participants total exposure were also obtained. So, integrated assessment has also been carried
out.

1045
(Refer Slide Time: 8:23)

Well, for quality assurance, all these collected data were given for collection of the data. So,
each participant were given awareness program or you can say seminar or lecture. Through
lectures, kind of training was conducted, so, that they know, how to note down the data and
how to handle those sensors. So, that way fairly good quality assurance was accomplished in
that way. And the data was downloaded when all those saved sensors were taken to a particular
for a particular sampling period, and those data were downloaded in the computer and then
they were analysed.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:09)

Well, when we talk about data analysis, then this particular relationship was used like, personal
exposure or PM2.5 for different activities. So, that is why this submission is there integration i

1046
=1 to n. So, that is the number of participants. E11 is like average exposure of office worker 1
for day 1. So, for day 2, it is E12. For day 3, it is E13. For worker 2, it is E21, E22, E23 like that,
this changes and accordingly this office worker here OW1, it may be ST1 student for students,
for driver, it will be DRI1. And then C1i and Tli are basically the concentration on the particular
day of i, that is 1, 2, 3 those particular numbers are there.

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑂𝑊1𝐶𝑙𝑖 𝑡𝑙𝑖

𝐸11 =
24

(Refer Slide Time: 10:03)

So, the days and the number of participants those have been taken into account and then the
average concentration or exposure was achieved by or calculated by this particular simple
relationship, all those, data were added and divided by the n number of data.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:22)

1047
When we talk about daily time series of PM2.5 concentration for particularly office workers.
So, you can see this table OW1, OW2, OW3. So, five these workers were there, office workers
were there, who were given those samplers or sensors and they collected the data on different
dates.

So, you can see like average value is around 9 in the homes and in driving it is around 33, in
workplaces it is 44, at home it is around 244 but the maximum values are also there in different
settings like at home it was 18 and during driving like in car or so, it was 66, at the workplace
it was 48 and at home when they were using those insecticides like mosquito repelling coils or
other things and or incense, they are using then it was very high 305 or so. Well daily average
concentrations were also calculated.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:25)

1048
So, daily time series of PM2.5 concentration for office workers give some insights like this
concentration at the home average value as I said it was 9, and the maximum value was around
18. For concentration at the office, it varies from like average value 14, and the maximum value
was 48. So, as I already explained in that table, the average and maximum values of this
exposure to the participant were maximum during these insecticides and incense usage that
were 244 average value and 305 maximum value.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:03)

Similarly, if we talk about students, so at home and then commuting means going to college or
school, and then during the school classrooms and at the home when these incenses were used.
So, all these concentrations values are given maximum value as well as average value.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:22)

1049
So, all these have been given and it has been analysed as per the data obtained.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:28)

Similarly for drivers these data were collected, so, like DRI1, DRI2, DRI3 and different dates
are there. And you can see the values, it vary values vary for home 12 to 27 means average
value 12, 27 is maximum 42 average 55 Maximum 78 average when these insecticides or
incenses were used and 139 is the maximum.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:55)

So, these values have been described here also.

1050
(Refer Slide Time: 12:59)

Well, when we talk about cooks. So, again you can see home and then cooking atmosphere
where they are doing this cooking activity. Homes with these insecticide dusts and incense,
you can see these 3 cooks were used for sensors, exposure data and homes 18 is the average
value 29 is the maximum. During cooking it varied 41 to 47. So, you can say the average value
is also quite high, when we talk about homes with these insecticides, then this varies 300 to
880. Very high concentration because of those coils burning activity or combustion of those
coils.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:35)

1051
Well, so, 3-days average concentration around for COOK1 basically 115 microgram per cubic
meter was observed average value, and maximum was 409. Otherwise, it could 880 for
COOK2. So, different cook set different atmosphere. So, they could get exposed to different
values of concentrations.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:57)

When we talk about typical daily personal profile of these office workers or students and
drivers and cooks in between that September 2020 to February 2021. So, you can see these
grey arrows indicate the rush hours where those values were varying according to that
particular activity.

1052
(Refer Slide Time: 14:25)

If we compare different groups in different micro environments, then we can see like this school
SC, and then WP is the workplace. Homes are there. So, for different activities like with or
without these incenses, all these data are given. So mean value, median value is there, then
minimum and maximum values also there. So range is also given that way you can see during
driving this range is quite high in that sense and for these open markets its almost constant kind
of value.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:01)

When we compare different groups and for different micro environments, then highest level
around 999 microgram per cubic meter was observed indoors when the combustion of these

1053
insecticides were there. And the second highest was activity to driving activity around 216,
followed by this cooking that was around 150.

So, this implies basically in Bamako occupational activities are the most likely factors of
exposure rather than the outdoor elevated sources, because it was found that the these, outdoor
environment concentrations were lower than the these indoor concentrations for anthropogenic
activities, which these participants were doing.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:51)

Well, when we talk about activities which are producing greatest exposure. So, you can see
like these when we are using incenses or insecticides, then around 1350, for cooks, they are
getting exposed to very high concentration. And these, office workers were getting around 927,
and drivers were having 320.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:18)

1054
In different setting you can see like driving for driving activity, these drivers were having the
highest exposure around 487. So, you can see different settings or different these micro
environments give different exposure.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:33)

When we talk about integrated exposure that is the combined one for different activities, then
another situation emerges like you can see here around this 425 microgram per cubic meter per
hour exposure is there when these insecticides and incenses are used. And when they are not
in the use, then this drops around up to 347. So around by a factor of 1.3 this concentration
reduces. Well, and this concentration is highest for this in the home basically 49 to 59 percent
for these students basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:14)

1055
Then, if you talk about this driver's community, then again you can see the exposure is very
high around 907. When we are using insecticides, or incenses and then it drops to 587, when
these are excluded. So, variation is there around up to 1.6 factor difference is there, and you
can see the driving is the activity for drivers which get them exposed to very high concentration
of 54 percent or 83 percent depending upon whether we are using insecticides or not into
integrated measurements or analysis.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:51)

When we talk about cooks, so, around 74 percent. You can see home these they are getting
when they are using insecticides very high concentration, but it drops to 62 percent If we are
not using that particular incenses or insecticides. So, around 4 times difference is there in values
like 477 and 1827 it makes a huge difference basically.

1056
(Refer Slide Time: 18:21)

Similarly, in case of, office workers, again very high concentration around 1268. When we are
using these insecticides, without this it is only 341. So, again by factor of 4 difference is there
into the exposure.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:41)

When we compare PM2.5 concentration with WHO standards. So, basically, with no IST, ICS
that is no insecticides or incenses in use, then drivers and cooks presented very close values to
the guideline concentrations for 24 hours by WHO that is around 25 microgram per cubic
meter.

And in present study it was observed that in all four groups, they exceeded the yearly limit of
10 microgram per cubic meter without using these insecticides or incenses and after

1057
considering the use of specific products, so, student, whether students or drivers or office
workers or cooks, they presented values around 2, 4, 5 or 7.5 times higher than the yearly
recommended limit of the exposure of PM2.5.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:40)

Well, health effects are there as we have discussed at several times that indoor environment
because of this particulate matters, lot of respiratory problems happen and basically these
mosquito coils etc . They have been found that they release lot of PM2.5. As we have also seen
in these data, so, around 75 to 137 cigarette smoking is equivalent to burning of these coils into
the indoor environment these kind of data are there. And they are also like toxic and they some
people are allergic to those smells and their fumes etc . So, we should avoid those particular
incenses and insecticides. If we have other ways of repelling those mosquitoes, etc .

1058
(Refer Slide Time: 20:26)

Well, in conclusion, we can say that there is specific relationship between the concentration of
PM2.5 and different activities in the city of Bamako. And different groups have different
occupational hazards you can say, in the sense of high exposure for different micro
environments.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:56)

And if we can remove at least those usage of insecticides or these incenses, we can really
improve in terms of less exposure, you can say, less exposure, and that way, we should give
emphasis to these kinds of recommendations.

1059
(Refer Slide Time: 21:19)

That communities once aware of the potential health effects, from their daily actions indoor
environment, they can do some things so that lot of built up of indoor air pollution does not
happen, they can have better ventilation or other things they can take into account. And local
emissions can also be, reduced by different activities, that way additional benefits can be
accomplished. So, this is all for today.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:45)

And these are the references where we have taken this case study and you can go through it
during leisure. So, thank you for your kind attention and see you in the next lecture. Thanks
again.

1060
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 36
Indoor Air Quality in Nursery Buildings, UAE – Case Study

Hello friends. So, today we will discuss again one more case study and this will focus on indoor
air quality in nursery buildings, this is a case study taken from one report of UAE. So, this will
be included like in this contents.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

So, this is the contents list according to which we will go into this presentation. Like first of all,
we will introduce the problem setting in which context this case study has been carried out, what
are the materials and methods which have been used to conduct this study? Then different
measurements of indoor air quality in terms of pollutants concentrations, we will see.

Then what are the changes in air quality, concentrations over the period of time so, that we can see
the variation as per different reasons. And then, we will see like air quality improvement
installations which can be done in those nurseries which are under the consideration or under this
study, so, that air quality can be improved.

So, whether those improvements are there or not there. So, according to the changes which have
been made in those nurseries like installation of air purifier or changing in the building finishing
materials or installing some new ventilation system. So, according to those changes, the

1061
comparison of indoor air quality will be made so, that we can see or we can find which particular
change is effective, then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:53)

So, you can see this particular data like as you know the infant our children they breathe very
frequently, if you compare our adults breathing patterns and the way children breathe, they breathe
very frequently and their speed is also higher. So, in that way, they basically inhale indoor air
around 400 milliliter per minute per kg body weight, if you compare with that. Although they are
breathing, it is a means it is a not so long as we breath, it is not so deep, but still if you calculate
or estimate how much amount of the air or how much volume of the air they are inhaling per
minute per kg weight of the adult.

Then the competition is like 400 milliliters per minute per kg body weight is inhaled by children
and adults, inhale around 150 milliliter per minute per kg bodyweight in case of this adult size
population. So, huge difference is there, that means, the inhalation is much more in case of
children. So, if air is polluted that means, most means, the large quantity of pollutants may be
inhaled by children if they are living in that polluted indoor environment.

So, the importance is very significant in that sense because like in nurseries or play schools, if
children are living there for several hours, and if their conditioning is not good, if their indoor
environment is not good, then we will see that children will be inhaling polluted air. And that can
cause certain health issues also respiratory problems or other diseases can be there even like sick

1062
building syndrome can be there or some symptoms related to eye irritation those kinds of things
may be observed in case of children. So, we need to ensure that wherever our children are playing
or living, those indoor environment must have clean air.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:00)

To reduce with the aim of reduction of these adverse effects, which is possible because of polluted
indoor air, we want to go to improve the indoor air quality. And that improvement can be ensured
or can be achieved by three methods which are quite popular like either we can control the sources
of the pollutants. Whatever sources of the pollutant to deteriorate the indoor air quality if we can
control those sources, then naturally we will improve the indoor air quality or we can improve the
ventilation.

So, in case there are some sources, the ventilation will ensure that fresh air comes and the polluted
air goes out or we can also remove those pollutants by certain devices like air purifiers. So, those
kinds of devices can be fit into the indoor environment and the air quality can be improved.

Well, so in this particular case study 16 facilities have been studied in terms of indoor air quality
of those facilities and this is the case of nurseries in UAE and after applying those some
improvement measures and before the installation of those measures, air quality have been
measured and comparison have been made. So, that before installation of some devices or carrying
out certain changes to improve the air quality, what is the air quality before installation of those
devices and what is the air quality after installation of those devices, so, that we can know the

1063
difference whether those devices or those majors are effective or not. So, that kind of study has
been conducted in this particular case.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:36)

Well, when we talk about general materials and methods to improve indoor air quality. So,
basically three major things are there as just we have seen like ventilation, control at the source or
purification, and those devices like to control the source or control the emissions at the source. So,
maybe something can be done like low emission related building finishing materials can be used,
because as like furniture or the wall paints or there are so, many sources of indoor air pollutants.

So, if you go for good quality of furniture, maybe low emission can be ensured or either you can
do some bake-out related majors or methodologies, in bake-out basically, the indoor environment
is heated.

And because of that heat, those VOCs volatile organic compounds and those kinds of air pollutants,
they went out and then very least amount of emissions are observed afterwards. Another method
is like ventilation improvement. So, ventilation improvement can be ensured either through natural
ventilation or through mechanical ventilation as air conditioning is there, exhaust fans are there
those devices can be installed. So, it can increase the indoor inflow of the air from the outdoor, but
we have to ensure that outdoor air is cleaner than the indoor air. If you are bringing the polluted
air rather than improving it can deteriorate the air quality of the indoor environment.

1064
So, if outdoor air is clean, then this works this ventilation system works otherwise other devices
can be like removal of the pollutants through air purification devices through absorption or through
filtration, decomposition of the pollutant through some catalyst devices, catalyst base devices. So,
those air purifiers can be used to improve the air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:37)

If we talk about like the studies, which have been carried out in terms of indoor air quality. So,
mostly those studies have been in micro environment of let us say like residential buildings or
maybe certain office buildings, only very few studies are they are focused on nursery where
children are living indoor. So, those indoor air quality of nurseries related studies are very few.

So, based on basic indoor air quality improvement plants, like installing air purifiers or changing
the building materials or installing some ventilation facilities or systems. Those nurseries which
were taken to consideration for this study like 16 nurseries have been taken. So, these three major
changes have been made and before making those changes, air quality was observed and after
making those changes, air quality was observed and though comparison was made. So, that it could
be seen whether the air quality has been improved or not.

1065
(Refer Slide Time: 08:42)

And the materials and methods which have been used are related, like observations made
pertaining to temperature, humidity, then carbon dioxide levels, total suspended particulate
matters, then formaldehyde and volatile organic compounds VOCs. So, how much quantity of
these pollutants are there.

So, those were measured in total 35 classRoom s which are belonging to these nurseries basically.
And for each indoor air quality pollutants, those target Room s, so, the degree of contamination
was compared with the standard values of WHO IAQ standards, which are given basically those
World Health Organization, they also prescribe some standards for the indoor air quality.

So, the observations were compared with respect to indoor air quality standards of the WHO and
based on those measurement results and taking into account the managers of those nurseries, so,
they have made some requests. So, the improvement of indoor air quality of the target facility and
certain improvements, techniques were obtained. So, this was a kind of participatory case study
where researchers and those clients you can say, or those people stake holders were they opined
and their opinions were taken into consideration to design the study.

1066
(Refer Slide Time: 10:08)

So, you can see here like measurement items which were measured like temperature, humidity or
CO2 and formaldehyde TVOC or TSP total suspended particulate. So, equipment’s which were
used for measurement of these entities are listed in second column. And sampling time is also
given like for how much frequency or sampling was, done for each kind of entity. So, this is
measured here or mentioned here.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:36)

Now, if we try to see what is the measurement data? So, this dotted line is basically the WHO
standard like in case of CO2 920 ppm is prescribed by WHO standard that should not exceed in

1067
indoor environment. Otherwise, suffocation will be there, we will be feeling suffocated because
oxygen will be less CO2 will be more in the indoor environment. So, this standard 920 should not
exceed but the measurement show that in several Room s like here you can see these points which
are exceeding these are exceeding the WHO prescribed guidelines of CO2.

So, this is worrisome issue basically you can see, but outdoor this blue line outdoor environment
CO2 is less than the prescribed one. So, that way means you can imagine if we bring the outdoor
air inside by through ventilation or some other system, there may be these kinds of concentration
can be reduced.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:34)

But if we look into the data, statistical data, how many Room s or facilities are there which are
having very high concentration of CO2. So, you can see like seven facilities which are given names
are given 01 FU, 04 ID. So, those kinds of names are given for those facilities. And 11 nursery
Room s, around 37 percent of the total facilities and Room s were found having CO2 much more
than the WHO standards.

And the source of this CO2 Pollution is because of breathing of the children and staff members,
because every time we are inhaling and exhaling. So, when we are inhaling then we are consuming
oxygen when we are exhaling we are exhaling basically the CO2.

So, that CO2 is built up the concentration built up if there is no proper ventilation that is one basic
fundamental reason. So, those you can see the sources are our own breathing, children's breathing

1068
and staff’s breathing. Now, among them in case of facility 01FU and facility 14 RO both
classRoom approached around 2000 PPM like more than twice of the prescribed standard. So that
is very worry some basically serious issue, because in those Room s a lot of suffocation will be
felt and that environment is not good for learning or playing for their children.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:05)

Now, if we look into this indoor air quality measurement results in terms of total suspended
particulate matter TSP. So, the WHO standard is 100 micrograms per cubic meter, you see this
line dotted line is 100 micrograms per cubic meter of the TSP total suspended particulate matter.
Good thing is that in all most of the facilities or Room s, the concentration observed of TSP is less
than the prescribed limit means it is not exceeding. But at certain places like this particular location,
you can see outdoor as well as indoors Room 1, Room 2, they are having higher concentration of
TSP.

Similarly, at 16 BL you can see this Room 1 is having almost a similar TSP, but the this outdoor
and the Room 2 and outdoor they are having more concentration of TSP that means this TSP
maybe coming from outdoor into the Room 2 that may be one reason means we have to look at
the real site.

1069
(Refer Slide Time: 14:03)

So, if we compare these total suspended particulate matter related data, you will find that 16 BL
facility is having high concentrations of TSP and 08 KI also they are because these facilities are
nearer to industrial and commercial areas basically. So, TSP sources may be from those industrial
activities or commercial activities. So, we have to take care maybe some measures have to be
adopted to reduce the inflow of TSP from the outdoor environment.

So the influence of the dust has to be reduced surrounding construction sites or factories may be
there and the low vehicle flow maybe they are so, those kinds of interventions are required to
reduce the TSP concentration into the indoor environment.

1070
(Refer Slide Time: 14:55)

So, in case of this total volatile organic compounds, this WHO prescribed standard is 400
micrograms per cubic meter and this is the line you can see here. So, again we find there is TVOCs
exceeding at several facilities or Room s of the nurseries, you can see here and this 02 - DO and
then 05 - KA and it is very high concentration of TVOC here both Room 1 and Room 2. Although,
outdoor air concentrations of TVOC are less than the prescribed one.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:23)

1071
So, you can see the comparison the 16 BL facility indicating higher concentrations of TVOC and
other places also in Room 1 and Room 2 you can find here higher concentrations of TVOC. If
we compare the formaldehyde with the measurement data and the WHO standards, WHO standard
is around 100 micrograms per cubic meter, you can see here this dotted line and we have observed
or measured means, we have taken from the case study. So, those researchers who have measured
these data we can compare.

So, in many facilities or sites, the concentration observed of indoor environment as well as outdoor
is less than the prescribed limit although here this outdoor is having almost a similar to the
prescribed limit, but here it is exceeding both outdoor as well as indoor environment and in these
facilities like 11 - OR and 12 - AM. So, these facilities also having higher concentrations like in
Room 2 or Room 1 as well as in outdoor particularly in this particular location and again here
also it is exceeding.

1072
(Refer Slide Time: 16:31)

So, we have to look into those facilities, whether in nearby areas some sources are there of the
formaldehyde or majority of the formaldehyde basically comes from furnishing and other indoor
environment basically. So, we have to look into those localized sources and can we do something
through purification or through ventilation can we reduce them. So, you can look into these
comparisons and at several locations it was found that formaldehyde is exceeding the prescribed
limit those kinds of you can see here.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:08)

1073
Now, we want to see in whole day how these concentrations vary for different pollutants. For CO2,
you can see like 6AM to 9AM, the concentration of CO2 is this much and then 9AM to 12AM the
concentration has increased like average value was around 798 and now, it has increased average
value around 1556. Then, 12PM to 3PM so, this has reduced up to 1198 ppm. So, basic idea of
this, CO2 variation is because when 6AM to 9AM least activities there it is opening and then when
children are coming staff is coming, then CO2 acceleration is much more. So, in this particular
time a lot of pollution built up is there and CO2 concentration increases.

Then up to 12PM children go and some staff is there. So, slowly this CO2 concentration decreases
basically. So, you can see the diurnal variation is there, there is low CO2 then it increases, then
again it starts to decrease according to the school time basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:17)

If we talk about the total suspended particulate matter, similar variation is there as it was observed
in case of CO2. It is less during morning hour 6AM to 9AM, when activities least because children
are not there at 9AM when children comes then doors are opened windows are open. So, the TSP
that may come from the outside also and that this it becomes almost double. Then again after 12PM
when children have gone only staff is there. So, the concentration of this TSP decreases.

1074
(Refer Slide Time: 18:51)

Formaldehyde having completely different pattern 6AM to 9AM very high concentration of
formaldehyde is there inside. And when a school is open, then formaldehyde concentration goes
down and further it goes down up to 3PM. The basic reason is because formaldehyde sources are
inside the those Room s of the nurseries because of furniture because of paint or those whatever
sources of those formaldehyde is there. So, there is no ventilation whole night it is closed. So, the
buildup of formaldehyde is there, and when those measurements were taken from 6PM to 9AM.
So, high concentration of formaldehyde was observed.

But later on when ventilation came into effect, because the Room s were opened and then because
of dispersion and diffusion through air movement this decrease of the formaldehyde have been
observed.

1075
(Refer Slide Time: 19:46)

The similar pattern have been observed in case of total volatile organic compounds TVOC. So,
again, VOCs are also emitted in large quantity from inside sources, whether paints or furniture and
other kinds of activities. So, the same pattern is there because the concentration built up during
night there is all things are closed, windows are closed doors are closed. So, there is no escape
route for formaldehyde and this totally VOC volatile organic compounds, that is why they are high
in concentration and then later on they goes down.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:22)

1076
Now, so then it was discussed with those nursery managers and some improvement installations
were installed inside the nurseries. So, some nurseries were taken for like installation of air purifier
so, that purification, activity could be done through certain devices. Some other nurseries were
taken to like changes in the building material furnishing material, so that we could compare if
some change is made, so, how much improvement in the indoor air quality is there.

So, some lot, some group of the nurseries were provided only air purifiers, some were not provided
air purifiers, but changes were made into building material and other group were like installation
of new ventilation system. So, three groups were divided and three, interventions were made in
terms of application of air purifier or changing the building material inside the indoor environment
and installing new ventilation system.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:26)

So, now you can see like this one was this air purifier group, then building metal related group and
new ventilation group. So, in this air purifier group, basically out of 16, 10 nurseries were provided
and out of 6 facilities, into three change of the building metrics were made, and our remaining
three and these installation of new ventilations were and showed or made.

1077
(Refer Slide Time: 21:53)

So, you can see now the effect of these air quality improvement installations. So, group A like
total 10 nurseries the number is given and then these air purifiers were run by those electric power.
And they could do like filters were there HEPA filter and odor could be reduced because of they
are having that kind of filter which has property of antivirus, you can see antivirus HEPA filters.
So, odor remover was there plus particulate matter was removed in up to 0.3 microgram fine
particles were removed basically. So, basically this air purifiers were of that nature, which could
remove odor as well as very fine particles up to 99.9 percent removal was there.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:47)

1078
Then in Group B the change of finishing materials were made inside those Room s or facilities.
So, ecofriendly building materials were used in place of the old conventional ones. So that like
least amount of these VOCs or formaldehyde could be emitted from those particular new material
which are ecofriendly.

And then the group C were related to ventilation systems. So, new ventilation system was provided
and the system was related to like this exhaust system around 250 cubic meter per hour fresh air
could be taken into the indoor environment. So, diffusion could be ensured properly and the
temperature humidity control could be also provided with this kind of ventilation system.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:41)

1079
So, means then comparison was made that the readings were of those pollutants before the
installation of any method whether air purifier or new ventilation or the building material. So, what
was the concentration of a particular pollutant before that installation and what was the
concentration of that pollutant after those measurements were taken into account. So, the
difference of that divided by the measurement results before the improvement and multiplied by
100. So, how much percentage reduction rate is there that could be easily measured.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:22)

So, you could see like around in when this air purifier was installed around 46.3 percent TVOC
highest TVOC removal was absorbed basically in certain locations and the TSP was removed or

1080
reduced around 21.7 percent CO2 was around 18.6 percent. So, air purifier was very good in case
of TVOC total volatile organic compounds. The reduction maximum was observed above 46.31
percent. Then 64.2 percent in Room 2 and 60.9 percent in Room 1 this CO2 concentration was
observed. So, that way in different facilities, different reduction of different pollutants were
observed.

The concentration of the formaldehyde and TVOC in this facility 09 AK were around 84.9 percent
86.4 percent in Room 1, 91 percent and 96 percent in the Room 2 respectively. So, showing highest
concentration reduction rate. So, different pollutants had different reduction rates, different
facilities in nurseries as well as rooms. You can see like 91.6 percent of the removal of these TVOC
highest percentage there in some percentage 64 and other like 96 to 91 you can observe.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:43)

1081
Then in building material changes, so, they again could see the average reduction rate of
formaldehyde and TVOC around 178 percent or 380 percent means. This is huge reduction,
basically, in case of formaldehyde and in total volatile compounds by changing the building
materials. Because, those are the basic sources of these volatile organic compounds and
formaldehyde. So, you can see these kinds of changes reductions were very high in the in those
cases.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:13)

1082
When new ventilation system was installed in certain groups in certain facilities. So, around this
formaldehyde reduction was 79 percent TVOC reduction was around 52.94 percent. So, different
facilities have different effects, because they were exclusive, it was not that the same facility was
provided with all these three installations at different locations, so that we could compare the
effectiveness of these systems in particular facility. But different groups were there and we could
see their effectiveness or their efficacy. You can see here this 75 percent efficacy or efficiency of
CO2 reduction is there by new ventilation system, in particular, this 15 GA 2 facility.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:00)

1083
So, in conclusion, we can say that, the nursery is indoor environment is very important to ensure
the good air quality. And there are methods, whether it is through ventilation, or through air
purifiers or changing the furnishing, building furnishing material, so that we can improve the air
quality. And this case study gives us insight that which kind of intervention could really target
which particular pollutant inside the micro environment. So, that way you can have good insight
and information based on this nursery related case study and it can be replicated into other kinds
of setups or micro environment. So, this is all for today.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:49)

These are the references for additional information. Thank you for your kind attention. See you in
the next lecture. Thanks again.

1084
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 37
Global and Regional Environmental Issues - Ozone Layer Depletion
Hello friends, welcome back. So, you may recall that we have discussed so many issues related to
air quality air pollution, like Air Quality Management, assessment, monitoring, modeling, indoor
outdoor air quality, so many issues. So, today onwards we will discuss about environmental issues
of global and regional scale. And first of all let us start with ozone layer depletion, because this is
one issue which is affecting across the world and very important because of its serious nature as,
it can affect all kinds of ecosystems and humans or all kinds of species. So, we will discuss first
of all introduction, then how ozone layer is formed basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:12)

Then what is the depletion of ozone layer what is the science behind it and the effects of ozone
layer depletion. If ozone layer is destroyed, then what kind of negative impacts we can foresee and
then what is the, mechanism of formation of so, called ozone hole. First of all we will discuss
whether it is a really hole or something else, why this ozone hole terminology came into existence.

Then we will see the timeline of this ozone depletion how it is started, what is its stage and what
are the substances which are responsible for depletion of ozone layer. And then international
treaties, which were necessary for protecting the stratospheric ozone layer. And then we will see

1085
actions several actions which have been used to protect the ozone layer and what are their impacts
like updates on the global ozone scenario and after all we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:11)

So, when we look into this ozone layer case basically, ozone is nothing but a very reactive gas
with the three atoms of oxygen (O3). And in the atmosphere basically, it is present in the
stratosphere though it is formed in troposphere also means mainly it is in the stratosphere where
this layer is there and it protects us from ultraviolet rays. But in troposphere it is produced as a
secondary pollutants, so, that that also we will see. You can see here like up to this troposphere is
there and when this about this troposphere.

1086
So, this ozone layer means ozone concentration increases ozone abundance you can see here as we
go up in the altitude and it goes up to like 15 miles or so, then again it is start to decrease. But up
to this means around five miles or so, it is quite thick layer in terms of that concentration of the
ozone which we see as a layer in the stratosphere.

And this layer basically absorbs the amount of harmful ultraviolet rays and the ultraviolet rays can
be of A, B or C that kind of different spectrum. Well this radiation has linked too many harmful
effects such as skin cancers or cataracts this blurred vision and it can also damage the crops and
vegetation and marine life. So, that is very important aspect that this ultraviolet rays protection
through ozone layer is something which is kind of building block of our life on the Earth's surface.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:59)

1087
Well when we see this mechanism how this ozone is produced in the stratosphere. So, you can see
this oxygen is there 2 atoms of oxygen, because of this ultraviolet sunlight, it dissociates into two
atoms, one atom gets attached to one molecule and then one molecule of oxygen and this molecule
of ozone is produced similarly, happens here also. So, you can say that, three molecules of oxygen
basically produce two molecules of ozone. So, from oxygen to ozone products and this kind of
reaction occurs in the presence of sunlight or ultraviolet rays basically.

And you can see here at a given altitude and latitude this is a dynamic equilibrium, because it says
cyclic reaction ozone is produced then it is destroyed. And then again ozone is produced that kind
of thing happened. And this particular interaction of ultraviolet radiation with oxygen and ozone
prevents the penetration of this shortwave ultraviolet to the Earth's surface. So, that is wonderful
mechanism in the nature which protects us from the ultraviolet rays. Because, in this process this
ozone is formed because of oxygen dissociation into oxygen atoms and then association with
oxygen molecules and creation of ozone molecules.

1088
(Refer Slide Time: 05:32)

You can see tropospheric ozone formation is a little bit different because it needs some precursors.
Precursors are those kind of compounds chemical compounds or air pollutants, you can say which
again in the presence of sunlight, because of these photochemical reactions, they produce ozone.
That is why we call them precursors like carbon monoxide or VOCs (volatile organic compounds)
or non-methane hydrocarbons, VOCs and in all those kind of pollutants, they are precursors of the
ozone.

1089
And in the presence of these OH radicals or hydroxyl radicals, HO2 and then these ultraviolet sorry
sunlight, the photochemical reactions, and then again this ozone production is there. So, we will
see the reactions, how does it occur later on.

But, basically you can see that because it is dependent on solar radiation. So basically, the variation
happens from morning to evening in the troposphere, I am talking now of the tropospheric ozone,
troposphere means where we are living troposphere is the first layer of the atmosphere just near to
the Earth's surface after that stratosphere there.

And this ozone layer is basically in stratosphere, but just for your knowledge, we are discussing
about this tropospheric ozone formation also because sometimes we get confused why it is bad
ozone, when sometimes it is present in the atmosphere in troposphere, because it is harmful for us.
But in the stratosphere it is very good, it is our friend in the stratosphere.

So, ozone layer is good in the stratosphere, but ozone products and in troposphere is very bad
because it is having several negative impacts on our life on our property on ecosystem etc.
Anyway, this is a photochemical reaction, it happens in the presence of sunlight. So, there is the
diurnal variation in the daytime.

So, ozone production becomes at peak in the afternoon or when sunlight is quite bright at the noon
time or so, because precursors are there then ozone production is there. And then, but in the
downwind directions because like in city centers, there may be many emissions of these NOx and
precursors of ozone like VOCs etc.

But, ozone production titration also happens with the this chemical reaction of ozone, because they
get like this NO, get converted into NO2 in the presence of ozone, but NO2 get, transported in the
downwind direction, and there it acts as the precursor and produces ozone again.

So, you can say that the cities, urban areas, sometimes in city centers, you will not find, so much
ozone which is at the regions of downwind direction like countryside region or rural areas and
there is no source of those precursors. But these precursors come with the wind from the cities.
So, these cities which are polluting or emitting lot of air pollutants, they also harm the nearby areas
like rural areas, etc.

1090
(Refer Slide Time: 08:59)

1091
Well, so now, if we come to the process of ozone layer depletion, how does it happens? So, you
can see this animation, how this, like chlorine or bromine atom is there. So, it takes away this one
atom of the oxygen from the ozone because ozone has three atoms of oxygen one atom it takes, it
has very fast affinity, and then it removed you can see. And one atom of chlorine or bromine can
remove thousands of hundreds or thousands of ozone molecules it can destroy basically.

So, that is why this chain reaction happens. And in wintertime it is very severe and it can destroy
so, many molecules of ozone that it happens like ozone layer depletion phenomena, starts to take
place because this layer becomes very thin and that is why we call it, although we call it ozone
hole, but it is not a hole. You can say this ozone layer is there, surrounding this complete our
atmosphere surrounding the earth and this layer wherever it is thin. So it is kind of hole you can
see like if there is a thin cloth and you can this sunlight passes very thoroughly, but if thick cloth
is there or dark cloth is there then it is difficult.

So, that way you can visualize that the thin layer of the ozone basically is because of depletion of
ozone in that layer of stratospheric ozone layer. Well, why it happens where this chlorine and
bromine etc come there, they are because of like CFCs, these chlorofluorocarbons etc.

They have this chlorine atom and they are very persistent pollutants basically, and they are like
robust, you can say or they do not disintegrate very easily. So, in several years, they go up to the
stratospheric layer because of this convection phenomena, it goes up and slowly they reach to the
stratosphere. Nobody imagined when in fact CFCs were invented people were very happy this is

1092
wonder chemical it is so inert it can be used in industrial applications and it is nontoxic is a very
good chemical that was a great discovery at that time. But nobody imagined that this a CFC can
really harm the ozone layer in the stratosphere.

And when scientists derived these relationships several kind of theories came into existence to
debunk that maybe it is because of some aliens they are sprinkling some chemical to destroy the
human race. So, many stories came like conspiracy theories etc, but ultimately, it was proved that
this CFCs and like N2O nitrous oxide etc which reaches up to the layer of the stratosphere, they
are the responsible for creating a cyclic chain reaction to destroy the ozone molecules or ozone
layer. So, basically these chlorine etc they are part of this CFCs etc, and they go to the stratosphere
by this convection phenomenon.

Well, you can see again, the same thing, that is chlorine takes away this atom of the oxygen from
ozone and oxygen is produced that way, ozone is destroyed. This is a catalytic kind of nature of
the reaction and it happens in a chain reaction for means one atom can destroy hundreds and
thousands of the molecules.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:25)

1093
Well, if we see what is the problem, if ozone layer depletes. So, we have to see the impact or the
effects, so, there are the effects on human health because this ultraviolet rays will come. If there is
no ozone layer, then ultraviolet rays will directly reach to the surface of the earth and they will
have very harmful impacts on human health, materials, plants, crops, vegetation, marine ecosystem
material etc, what kind of effect they can have, you can see here like it can increase skin cancer
related problems. And it can also cause cataracts as I discussed earlier also.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:04)

In case of, materials like polymers, bio polymers or synthetic polymers, rubber etc, because it is
very kind of reactive, so, this has energy these UV photons. So, they destroy these kinds of bonds

1094
of the polymers and these kind of metal can be destroyed in the presence of these ultraviolet
photons.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:25)

Well on plants, if we see the effects again, they can destroy the green color and photosynthesis is
affected very badly. So, the physiological effect is there and the nutrient value does not reach to
the plant properly and ultimately the crop yield is reduced significantly as well as plant live
vegetation etc, are affected negatively.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:48)

1095
If you talk about like marine system or eco system of the marine environment, again like
phytoplankton, etc, which are the basic thing for very low form of life like small fish, etc. So, they
are destroyed and they are productivities severely affected and when the food is not available for
small fish, then the whole food chain can get affected you can see.

So, this exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation is also the damage into the marine life you can see
different these developmental stages of fish can be affected. And then it can affect the reproductive
capacity also, at the larva development stage. Then a small increase in ultraviolet rays exposure, it
could result in population reduction of small marine organisms with implications of the disturbance
of the marine whole marine food chain as I said earlier also. So, that way a lot of negative impacts
are there.

1096
(Refer Slide Time: 14:42)

1097
Now, if you want to see how this ozone hole formation took place. So, as I said, this ozone hole is
not a hole basically, it is the thin layer means wherever this ozone concentration becomes very thin
we call it ozone hole. And at South Pole It was first discovered that this layer of the ozone has
become very thin ozone has been destroyed you can see 1980s this was in an Antarctic spring this
was discovered that this the layer of the thickness of the ozone layer is very thin with respect to
earlier readings.

And you can see here are the concentration of the ozone and this concentration of chlorine
monoxide, this was observed. So, when it increased the ozone concentration decreased. So, this
also again proves this reaction validation of the reaction of that this presence of these kind of
chlorine related compounds can destroy the ozone layer.

Well, when we talk about like, where it is limited, whether it is at a particular place, it is basically
has been observed this thin layer of the ozone has been observed at several places. It is not only
the South Pole, but other places also like other continents like Africa, South America, Australia,
Asia, everywhere it has been observed that there are patches where ozone layer is thin. Of course,
at South Pole it is very predominant the reason is in very low temperature, this reaction of chlorine
that cyclic reaction is very intense and winters that is why this ozone layer depletes very
significantly and this ozone hole is absorbed in that sense.

1098
(Refer Slide Time: 16:36)

1099
Well, what are the substances which are responsible for this ozone hole depletion. So, you can see
these chlorine or bromine related compounds are there which we call Ozone Depleting Substances.
So, they are like CFCs and other compounds are also there, but basically whosoever chemical is
having chlorine and bromine related things, they are responsible for this kind of depletion of ozone
at the stratosphere.

Well, you can see these the list of the substances and this oxygen depletion potential and global
warming potential. Interestingly, these ozone depleting substances or also greenhouse gas related
gases you can say or compounds. So, this chlorofluorocarbons it has around 0.6 to 1 ozone
depletion potential in respect of that, but global warming potentiality it has very high in like if CO2
has 1 it has around 5000 to 11,000 times of the CO2 you can see. Then these halons these are like
3 to 10 times oxygen depleting potential these chlorine etc, ClO and those kinds of things. And
around 1600 or 7000 times of the global warming potential.

So, you can see different kinds of chemicals which are methyl bromide and all those although these
hydro fluorocarbons which replaced these chlorofluorocarbons like they are having 0 ozone
depletion potential. But still they are having significant these global warming potential, but
because their quantity is very less so that way that has been recommended as the replacement for
the CFCs.

Well, when these ozone depletion substances they release chlorine. So, they include, as I said
earlier chlorofluorocarbons or hydrofluorocarbons or carbon tetrachloride or methyl chloroform

1100
these are basically these ODS or ozone depleting substances. So, they can release bromine and
they can include these halons or methyl bromide also.

And then you can see like in the stratosphere, they can take around 2 to 5 years. Eventually, they
go to the in the stratosphere, although how do they come into the stratosphere, this is so far they
are released at the earth surface, but because of this atmospheric circulation, so this convection,
when things go up in advection, horizontal movement, and vertical movement we call convection.

So through convection, slowly it goes up, and ultimately, it can reach, much part of it can reach to
the stratosphere within 2 to 5 years, and then they start to do this damaging job.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:43)

1101
So in 1970s, basically, lot of concerns about the effects of ozone depleting substances on the
stratospheric ozone layer. And in several countries, it was concerned were taken into account, like
including United States, and there were demand of banning these CFCs, but at the time people did
not come with such a force that it could be banned.

And later on, you can see like global production of CFCs and other these ozone depleting
substances continued to grow rapidly as new usage of these chemicals into refrigeration or fire
suppression or foam insulation or other applications got into practice. So, their utility their
application real world application in a beneficial manner they push their production in large
quantity. So, you could say this kind of debate took into the back burner.

But later on means, people continued to talk about and prove that these are the responsible and
then we will see in the timeline that Montreal protocol happened to ban these kinds of chemicals.
And not only these anthropogenic chemicals, but some natural processes, such as large volcanic
eruptions can have indirect effect on the ozone levels. Like in 1991, there was this eruption of
Mount Pinatubo eruption and this did not increase the stratospheric chlorine concentration. But it
did produce large amount of tiny particles called aerosols.

And these aerosols basically, increased Chlorine’s effectiveness at the destroy ozone, because
temperature reduction or this reaction speed or reaction kinetics it increased. And the effect of
volcanoes is short lived in comparison to those chemicals, which are responsible for reduction of
ozone layer.

1102
(Refer Slide Time: 21:39)

Well, if we talk about ozone depletion timeline, so in 1928 scientists synthesize CFCs
chlorofluorocarbons, and it was a wonder chemical, as I said, people, industries welcomed it,
because it was so inert, nontoxic, and that way, wonderful chemical. But in 1973, scientists
detected that CFCs are present in atmosphere. So that was a kind of worry some thing, because
otherwise people assumed that they will be only near and because they are inert, so, they would
not harm any in any way.

In 1974, basically, when researchers were publishing their results like Molina, Mario Molina or
this Rowland Sherwood, so they took these modeling efforts based on their lab reactions, lab based
reactions. And they found that these CFCs can reach to the stratosphere and they can destroy the
ozone layer.

At the same time in Max Planck Institute for chemistry professor Paul Crutzen, they also came to
conclusion like nitrous oxide also can reach to the, at the stratosphere, they can also cause the
depletion of ozone. So ultimately 1995 these three scientists were given Nobel Prize for their great
discovery but up to that there was great struggle to convince the community scientific community,
rather policymakers that these CFCs are responsible and we should stop their production and usage
in the industries.

1103
So in 1975 scientist discovered that bromine used in fire retarding Halons or agriculture fumigants
is also a potent, potent ozone depleting substance. So that way these chlorine, bromine and other
kind of chemicals were found to be responsible for depletion of the ozone.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:34)

In 1985 there was like this British Antarctic Survey team, they discovered Antarctic ozone hole in
7.3 million square miles, means thin layer marking the first evidence of the stratospheric ozone
depletion. And the scientific research revealed that the stratospheric ozone layer depletion has
adverse environmental mental and human health effects, which was correlated with those kinds of
effects, which were observed in those years, basically.

1104
In 1991, then international scientists agreed that CFCs are depleting the stratospheric ozone layer
in the northern and southern hemisphere. So that was kind of consensus, because of the scientific
research and publications scientific community got agreement on this particular issue.

In 2000, then Japan metrological agency reported that hole in the stratospheric ozone layer over
the Antarctic is at the largest to date in 2000 it was found it was the biggest one, more than twice
the size of Antarctica. So, that was a big kind of story in that sense, because if it goes on then the
life on Earth can be completely at the jeopardy. In 2015 this World Meteorological Organization
observed that ozone only hole is reported to be the biggest ever exceeding that of 2006. So, that
way it was increasing because there was no kind of control on emissions of those ozone depleting
substances.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:12)

1105
So, you can see through 1970s to 1980s, the international community became increasingly very
concerned about ozone depleting substances and their harmful effects on the ozone layer. In 1985
in parallel means in time story, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of ozone layer occurred
was held and then this Montréal protocol was signed in 1987 to kind of stop the production of
ozone depletion substances.

So, after the Montreal protocol was signed, new data showed worse than expected damage to the
ozone layer. So because these ozone depleting substances keep on working, it is not that you are
stopping today and the ozone, ozone depletion stops it is not.

Because as I said, this chemical reaction, which is a chain reaction nature, it goes and goes and
one molecule of that particular ozone depleting substance can destroy hundreds and thousands of
molecules of the ozone. And for years, together, it goes on as their life is managed more.

So, in 1992, the parties to the Montreal protocol decided to alter the terms of 1987 agreement to
end productions of Halons by 1994 and CFCs by 1996 in developed countries, so, that was a big
achievement in that direction. And because of measures taken under the Montreal protocol,
emissions of these ozone depleting substances, it started to fall and the ozone layer, it started to
regain its thickness.

And it is assumed that because it is having the time lag and even if the products and an emissions
of those ozone depleting substances are not there, but whatever chemicals are present in the
stratosphere, they will take time to stop their reaction. Because their lifespan is much more at that

1106
particular level and one molecule destroys hundreds and thousands of molecules of ozone, because
of this chain reaction. So, it is assumed that ultimately by mid-21st century it will be fully recovered
that thickness will be fully recovered.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:28)

1107
Now, you can see these actions to protect ozone layer in terms of timeline. So, in 1975, this SC
Johnson announces corporate phase out of CFCs as aerosol product, these propellants, so, that was
a good action in that sense. We will now see the action related timeline earlier we just have
discussed like a policy related timeline or means how this was discovered observed in terms of
observation and what kind of protocol happened.

In 1976, these United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) called for this international
conference to discuss international response to the ozone issue. In 78 US banned non-essential
usage of CFCs as a propellant in some aerosols, like hair spray, Deodorant, Antiperspirants.
Canada, Norway and Sweden followed similar ban.

Then in 1981 UNEP developed a global convention to product the ozone layer. And 1987 this
Montreal protocol as we just saw, so, that was basically in 1987, 24 countries signed this Montreal
protocol. So, in the history of this protecting in ozone layer, this Montreal protocol is very
important. So, protocol on substance that deplete the ozone layer. In 1989, these developed
countries, which were Parties to the Montreal Protocol to ban the production and consumption of
CFCs at 1986 levels. So, those kind of incremental progress was there.

In 1990, Clean Air Act amendments, including the title Six for stratospheric ozone production
signed into law so those were the progress. In 1992 US announced these accelerated CFC phase
out program on 31st December 1995. And in response to new scientific information about ozone

1108
depletion. So that was decided that up to this particular program will be taken shape. In 1993 you
can see these announcements so halt production of CFCs by the end of 1994.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:54)

Then in 1994, you can see US eliminates products and an import of the halons, so that was a big,
big milestone in that program. In 1996, US eliminated production and imports of CFCs carbon
tetrachloride, then try chloromethane and hydrobromo fluorocarbons. In 2002 all developing
countries that are Parties to the Montreal Protocol banned methyl bromide production. In 1995 to
1998 average levels, they were the benchmark kind of thing baseline data. In 2004 all developed
countries reduced consumption of these SCFCs by 30 percent from the baseline levels.

1109
In 2010 all developed countries reduce consumption of HCFCs by 65 percent with respect to the
baseline data. In 2015, all developed countries reduce consumption of HCFCs by 90 percent from
the baseline levels so that was big progress. So, this is as per the timeline, it is assumed that by
2030 all developed countries schedule the complete phase out of the ozone depleting substances.
So, means much progress has been taken place already. In 2040 all developing countries that are
Parties to the Montreal Protocol, they will be able to completely phased out at HSFC’s. So, that
way this is the timeline to protect the ozone layer.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:22)

So, there have been lot of efforts to protect the ozone layer or to recover the thickness original
thickness of this ozone layer in the stratosphere. And good signs are there that because of ban on
the production and usage of those ozone depleting substances. Now, the regaining or recovering
of the ozone layer is going on in a very nice way in a very encouraging way.

So, in conclusion, we can say that this ozone layer is very important for our life. And because it
protects the complete Earth planet with the ultra violet rays, otherwise these ultraviolet rays will
reach to the surface and it will destroy the complete life forms of the earth or it will cripple it will
have so many negative impacts and harmful impacts.

These ozone depleting substances which were primarily responsible for destruction of ozone layer
they have been now banned because of through international treaties etc. And we can see the
implications of those treaties like Montreal protocol that the production and uses of these ozone

1110
depleting substances have reduced significantly. And now it is helping us to recover the ozone
layer.

To protect the stratospheric ozone layer now new alternate substances should be developed and
they are being developed in fact which can result in co benefits in climate change and energy
efficient manner because which is, this is the need of the hour so that these chemicals are not
harmful they are useful for our daily life but they are not harmful in any sense to this ozone layer
or any other kind of climate change related issues they may produce as a side effect.

So we need to be careful about those kind of emissions, which are harmful we have to reduce them
and we have to get into those kind of energy sources or chemicals which are harmless.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:24)

So this is all for today and these are the references for additional information. And thank you for
your kind attention see you again in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1111
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 38
Global and Regional Environmental Issues – Global Warming
Hello friends, you may recall that these days we are discussing about global and regional
environmental issues. And in this series, we have already discussed about ozone layer depletion
and today we will cover the global warming related issues. So, in this particular presentation or
lecture, first of all we will very briefly discuss about what is global warming and the indicators
which are related to global warming which represented in a better way so, that we can measure it
track it.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:01)

What are the greenhouse gases although you know about this, but briefly we will touch. And then
we will see how much growth rate or contributions of different greenhouse gases is there. And
then what is the global warming potential of the greenhouse gases and the radiative forcing which
is caused by solar insulation. And then the what is the status of this global warming in terms of the
temperature global temperature and impacts of different impacts of global warming because it is
not only the global temperature increase, but other also like climate change related issues which
we will see in brief.

1112
And then we will look into like what are different mitigation measures which can work for reducing
the greenhouse gas emissions and we can curb this global warming related effects and we will
conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:49)

So, when we talk about global warming basically it is nothing but the long term heating kind of
process of the Earth's climate system, which has been observed since the pre-industrial period like
from 1815 to 1900 or so. Because before industrialization, this global average temperature was
more or less up to a particular degree Celsius and it was for centuries all together.

But now, we have seen that since, when this industrialization has occurred, so, after this James
Watt develop the steam engine, and then coal burning and other fossil fuel related burning activities
we started. So, the greenhouse gases that means carbon dioxide etc they were pumped into the
atmosphere and at the same time temperature of the global the planet temperature increased.

And we can see, here from 1880 to this to this present times the global temperature is basically
increasing. And of course, there are different schools of thoughts, sometimes I discuss with you
that some people say that this is because of just natural phenomena. But now, we have this
international government panel of climate change, and they produce a lot of scientific evidences,
which gives this evidence based conclusion that of course, the manmade or anthropogenic
contributions are much more predominant in this particular global warming related issue.

1113
So, the since, this pre industrial era, when human activities started to contribute into global
warming because of greenhouse gases emissions. So, the average temperature has increased about
1 degree Celsius, it looks very small, but basically in the Earth system, it means a lot it can change
many things basically. So, the human activities, which are basically related to fossil fuel burning
this has increased emissions of greenhouse gases like CO2 etc. And they trap the heat which is
outgoing from the planet, we will see how does this happen.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:06)

So, as I said that there are indicators like to measure the intensity and impact of global warming
like Global Warming Potential (GWP) or radiative forcing or Annual Greenhouse Gas Index. So,
we will discuss about these things later on. And they are needed because we want to study long
term relationships between greenhouse gases and their impacts in terms of temperature or the
heating kind of contribution. So, we need to measure those global warming potential etc.

1114
(Refer Slide Time: 04:40)

Well, when we look into greenhouse gases, so about this particular phenomena of the greenhouse
effect in the sense because, it covers the planet these greenhouse gases like CO2, methane, etc.
They are in the atmosphere and they basically do not allow the infrared radiation or long wave
radiation, which goes out of the earth planet into the atmosphere into the space.

Because, a lot of ultraviolet rays or solar insulation comes to the earth surface and some a part of
it is reflected some part of it is absorb and then it is emitted like a long wave radiation. So, this
heating effect occurs because that long wave radiation is basically absorbed by greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere and it acts like a blanket it does not allow it goes to pass and then heating
effect occurs in the atmosphere.

And this although naturally greenhouse gas effect is very much required because due to this effect
only we have certain temperature of the planet like around 15 degrees Celsius. And this makes the
life possible otherwise, it will freeze and it will like mass, it will be completely frozen kind of
planet which is not good for ecosystems which supports lot of varieties of life like us. So, we need
this effect, but beyond certain limit, it is not good for us we which we will see how does that
happen basically.

1115
(Refer Slide Time: 06:17)

So, when we talk about greenhouse gases, there are several gases which are having this kind of
effect to absorb the infrared radiation or long wave radiation. And causing the heating effect
basically, and these are like carbon dioxide, methane or nitrous oxide N2O, then there are certain
fluorinated gases or ozone and even water vapor these all these gaseous components compounds
they contribute into greenhouse gas effect basically.

When we talk about CO2. So, it is basically the primary greenhouse gas and it is emitted in a very
huge quantity whenever we burn fossil fuels, whether it is coal or whether it is diesel or gasoline
because these are hydrocarbons basically.

1116
And when we burn it, so, this carbon content is oxidized into CO2 and it goes into the atmosphere.
And because, the lifetime of CO2 is for centuries, and that forcing the positive forcing means,
increasing the temperature that kind of forcing occurs. And the reason is it is like, it comes not
only from natural sources like volcanic eruptions, or even forest fire, but a lot of human activities,
including land use change, when we go for deforestation or urbanization and various industrial
related activities, they emit lot of CO2.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:50)

Like, this atmospheric content or abundance of CO2 has increased around an average around 1.85
ppm per year in the past 41 years from 1979 to 2020 this has been observed basically. And if you
look into the last decade like 2009 to 2020 then it becomes rather more predominant like 2.4 ppm
per year basically.

And this anthropogenic activities which are increasing the CO2 concentration, they are like
contributing in a large way and this huge steep increase of the CO2 concentration in recent years
basically. So, that is very problematic and 50 percent since the Industrial Revolution became so,
that way the in a very small period a lot of concentration of CO2 has increased, and that is the
worrisome. Because, that has intensified this global warming phenomena, because of greenhouse
gas effect.

1117
(Refer Slide Time: 08:56)

Well, when we look into the CO2 contribution from different segments or domains, so, like fossil
fuel and industrial processes, they contribute around 65 percent and carbon dioxide from forestry
and other land use like deforestation or etc that is around 11 percent so total 76 percent from these
kinds of activities goes to the atmosphere basically. And this fossil fuel burning industrial,
processes where they consume lot of coal or gasoline, diesel, etc and they contribute a lot of CO2.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:40)

When we talk about methane. So, methane comes from even natural sources like wetlands, etc plus
these human activities like livestock and then these landfills where anaerobic digestion occurs or

1118
agriculture practices even rice cultivation etc they manure management all these activities
contribute to methane emissions into the atmosphere. And this is responsible around 40 percent of
the human caused warming means after CO2 this is very important greenhouse gas in terms of
global warming effect.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:21)

When we talk about its growth rate basically, from 1750 again we will see a lot of activities are
there of human nature. So, this there was of course, some constant or little bit decrease, the
increased rate but again from 2007 emissions of methane are increasing. So, they are related to
several kind of human activities and technologies basically.

1119
(Refer Slide Time: 10:48)

Now, if you talk about contribution, so, 16 percent of global greenhouse gases this comes in terms
of methane basically. So, 76 percent is this greenhouse gas emissions in terms of gaseous
components is CO2 and 16 percent is methane basically, and then we will see other contributions
of like nitrous oxide.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:12)

So, nitrous oxide also comes from different kinds of activities, like organic fertilizers or fossil fuel
combustion, nitric acid production, and also agriculture related activities basically, it comes from

1120
these kind of activities. And this is also very potent greenhouse gas and it contributes, although
only around 2 percent.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:40)

But, as I said, because, this is also predominant after the methane. So, the growth rate it is
increasing, because a lot of human activities are of that nature with contribution to the emissions
of N2O and it is around 1 ppb per year over the past decade, it is increasing, so, a lot of quantity of
N2O is coming out of these activities.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:03)

1121
And 6 percent around 6 percent of the greenhouse gases and is because of into this is the third
largest contribution, CO2, methane and nitrous oxide basically. Nitrous oxide is also problematic,
because it may reach to the stratosphere and it can contribute to the ozone layer depletion, you
might recall that kind of thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:26)

Then there is this fluorinated gases, they are very small in quantity, but their potency is very high,
we will see how potent they are thousands time then the CO2. So, even though their quantity is
very small, but because of their global warming potential is very high, it is kind of worrisome, and
also they contribute into this ozone layer depletion. So, it is good that through Montreal protocol,
we are reducing their production and that we are going to control it. So, the decline trend after
2020 because of Montreal protocol so, that is a good thing.

1122
(Refer Slide Time: 13:01)

1123
Well, the growth rate only this 2 percent was the contribution and it is declining, because we are
replacing it with better chemicals. When we talk about the ozone as ozone in troposphere, acts like
a greenhouse gas although in the stratosphere it is good, because it protects us from ultraviolet
rays. But in troposphere, it is not only toxic gas, but also having the greenhouse gas effect in terms
of that increasing the temperature. So, basically it is not emitted directly as this is the secondary
pollutant and the precursors of ozone are like VOCs volatile organic compounds or the NOx
emissions hydrocarbons etc.

And because of in the presence of sunlight due to this photochemical reaction ozone is produce.
So, if we can control the precursors, we can control the ozone basically, and these VOCs, NOx
etc, they come from again several kinds of human activities like industrial boilers, refineries,
chemical plants, etc. Well, this the effect of the ozone as I said, this is shown here, it gives the
warming effect in the troposphere, because of absorbing the solar radiation. Well, not the solar
radiation, exactly the outgoing radiation basically.

1124
(Refer Slide Time: 14:18)

1125
Then, we talk about the water vapor, water vapor is this is a kind of feedback effect. So, at such
because of global warming vapor occurs vapor is produced and it goes to the atmosphere and then
it also absorbed the outgoing radiation.

So, basically, it is a kind of vicious cycle, , because, as it goes, it contributes to the global warming
effect or because of greenhouse gas effect. So that way means more temperature, more vapor and
more again that this greenhouse gas effect. So, feedback mechanism is there and then the forcing
of these CO2 etc, we can look into.

Well global warming potential if we talk about so, this is one indicator which can compare which
can help us to compare the potential of the different greenhouse gases. Like if you talk about like
carbon dioxide for 400 years or so, if it is the unit 1, then the methane is 25 times then the carbon
dioxide nitrous oxide is around 300 times. So, see means like unit potential of carbon dioxide of
the same quantities 400 years is around 1, then 300 times is the this nitrous oxide. And these
fluorinated gases they are 10,000 times even 1000 to 10,000 depending upon different these
greenhouse gases, but thankfully, they are reducing in quantity.

1126
(Refer Slide Time: 15:56)

Then we talk about this global warming potential basically, as you as because different lifetime
span is there for different gases. So, it will depend it will depend upon the these kind of two things
like the trapping of the heat, how long this is stays in the atmosphere, how much intensity is it
captures that potency. So, those things are there to decide whether it is very going it is going to
intensify the global warming effect or not. Like methane stays around 12 years in the atmosphere,
where a CO2 can go for centuries. So, that will be effect, but because of their phenomena of
capturing the heat as we have seen it is 25 times the methane. So, even like smaller in quantity, it
will have more effect.

1127
(Refer Slide Time: 17:01)

Well, when we talk about different kind of scales, so, emission reducing strategies are needed for
that particular purpose. And if we talk about this GWP 100, so, total warming of greenhouse gas
compared to CO2 after 100 years, so, this one is the most widely used kind of thing. So, if you
compare like different kinds of studies have been there through IPCC, so this meeting only 21 or
so, and N2O is 296 or 310. In different reports the quantities is varying, because scientific
evidences are refining their potential that way the variation.

1128
(Refer Slide Time: 17:46)

1129
Well, when we talk about global warming potential, again, the CO2and methane around 28 times
or 25 times and these N2O can have different like 20 years or 100 years so, different values may
be there. Well fluorinated gases, we have seen like 100 years, its potential may vary from 5000 to
around 23,000 depending upon different coordinated gases. Well, radiative forcing is like how
much positive or negative effect is there for example, clouds are reflecting the solar insulation
which is coming. So, it will reflect so, it is causing cooling effect it so, its value is negative. When
black carbon or some aerosols which capture the radiation then we call it positive forcing. So, that
way greenhouse gases are having positive forcing.

1130
(Refer Slide Time: 18:41)

Carbon dioxide, methane all these nitrous oxide they are having positive forcing. Although, this
negative radiative forcing is because of these gases destroy the ozone. So, that is why some part
of these halogenated gases is having the negative impact because of contribution in destroying the
ozone otherwise it is having the positive forcing.

Similarly, these aerosols like sulfate etc they are reflecting kind of nature. So, they have this
negative and the black carbon aerosols they are having positive. So, but the net effect is positive
forcing basically, which we if we add everything then we get that all these things add up into the
positive forcing that means, they will increase the temperature because they will capture the heat.

1131
(Refer Slide Time: 19:34)

Then, if you see these radiative forcing, because of in terms of Annual Greenhouse Gas Index, so
see over the years like 1990 if we take as 1 then in comparison to that, in 2019 it became around
1.4. So, that way because their concentrations are increasing their index related values are also
increasing.

And, these various like CO2, CH4, all these are having because of human activities they are coming
and then the aerosols are also being emitted. And it is said that because of health related issues we
are reducing emissions of these particulate matter like PM2.5, PM10. So, there are some studies

1132
which say that, because these aerosols must part of these aerosols are having cooling effect. So, if
we reduce then maybe more warming effect may be observed in future.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:32)

Well, if you talk about the status of the global temperature it is increasing in 20th century it is
increasing and then 21st century the hottest these years have been observed. Like in 2016 the
hottest day have been observed or the highest temperature have been observed the temperature. So
in 2020 it ranks around second hottest year 2016 was the first one 6th is 2021 So, after 2002 the
temperature is rather very high. So, it is a very worrisome phenomena, we have to really capture
it or control it otherwise it would be difficult.

1133
(Refer Slide Time: 21:15)

Then there are several impacts of the global warming, which has been discussed like in lecture 37
you can recall like it will not only increase the average temperature. But it will also increase into
like heat waves or flood related phenomena, drought related phenomena, precipitation variation,
extreme events of the precipitation or then the storms etc sea level rise, ecosystem will be
disturbed, because temperatures are increasing in certain ecosystems, then it will disturb is
complete, that balance. And then the Health and Society are affected, because, suppose in higher
latitudes, and if temperature is increasing, then malaria related problems may also increase in those
regions.

1134
(Refer Slide Time: 21:59)

Well, if you talk about the mitigation, then the best way is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
that means, we have to change our energy sources. So, that is why a lot of efforts are being made
at the global level different countries are going for a different kind of renewable energy sources.
In India, you might have seen a lot of emphasis is there on solar radiation or other kind of
renewable resources, even mobility like we are going for e-mobility in a big way. So, that way we
are going for reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:36)

1135
Although there are issues like some people talk that if we go for in a lifecycle assessment, then
situations may be kind of different, but it is still in the mode of the research and there are two
schools of thought, but at least when urban emissions are reduced, then health effects related issues
will not be there.

But from global warming point of view, we have to see only those kind of technologies, which
really helped us in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions. So that is we have to go for and like
the concentrations have been rising since the pre-industrial era and they are increasing because of
population is increasing, urbanization is increasing, industrialization is increasing.

So, if we have to reduce these emissions of greenhouse gases, then we have to go for better energy
sources, which are not dependent upon fossil fuels, or we have to capture them, like carbon
sequestration phenomena you might have heard. So we have to avoid them to go to that atmosphere
that is the key thing.

And several agreements have been there at the global scale like earth’s summit, Kyoto Protocol,
Paris Agreement, etc. So, they are for capturing or reducing the greenhouse gas emissions so that
we do not have this global warming effect, or we do not have the climate change related issues.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:03)

So thank you for your kind attention. And these are the references for additional reading for you.
You can read it at leisure. And let us meet in the next lecture. Thanks again. Thank you.

1136
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 39
Global and Regional Environment Issues: Climate Change
Hello friends. So, these days we are discussing about global and regional environmental issues.
We have already discussed ozone depletion and global warming related issues. Today we will
discuss about climate change related issues.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:45)

So, in this presentation we will cover like what is the climate change, what are its causes,
whether it is natural regions or natural causes or there are contributions of human activities,
then climate change indicators and their impacts and impacts in terms of like heat waves or
cloudbursts etc. in different regions of the world and possible future effects, then how to
respond to the climate change if you want to mitigate or adapt with it.

So, those policy issues at the global level like Paris Agreement, etc. And then we will also see
at the India level like what kind of national action plans they are initiating for mitigating the
climate change related issues and ultimately, we will conclude on the basis of these
presentations or data.

1137
(Refer Slide Time: 1:31)

If we talk about climate change, then basically, this climate change is the long-term shift in the
temperature and weather patterns otherwise, in weather, day to day we have this change in the
temperature etc. but in long term like seasons, if you see how seasons are varying, so, like
hundreds or thousands of years, some pattern is there in weather and seasons, if they are
changing then we have to be like alarmed, because it may have implications, negative or
positive implications, we can see, we can debate, but of course, there are certain indicators
which show that there may be very negative impacts in terms of like a storm or cloudburst or
global warming and then sea level rise and there are many issues.

When we talk that what are the reasons for this shifting of these patterns of the temperature and
weather in terms of the climate change, then there are two schools of thoughts like some people
argue that this is naturally occurring and in past geological ages, some evidences they bring
out but the mainstream of the scientific body they believe with the help of evidences that this
is because of greenhouse gas emissions and it has scientific region of this global warming effect
of the greenhouse gases, emissions basically, they remain in the atmosphere and they trap the
infrared radiation which goes out of the earth and then increase the temperature. And
accordingly, there are issues and these greenhouse gases are being emitted by fossil fuel
burning activities, which are needed for energy, meeting our energy demand.

1138
(Refer Slide Time: 3:18)

And if we talk about like what are the different signs then we can see that there are several
signs or outcomes or effects of the multiple evidences we have in terms of like changing in
temperature and precipitation patterns, which we observe. Then there are increasing the ocean
temperature as well as sea level rise is there, melting of glaciers are observed sea ice is also
melting and then changes in the frequency and intensity and duration of extreme weather events
have been observed throughout the world.

And there is a shift in ecosystem characteristics like the length of the growing season, timing
of flowering or blooming and migration of birds, there are changes basically, and which are
very-very like important prominent changes.

1139
(Refer Slide Time: 4:09)

Well, so, when we talk about the causes of climate change as I said, some people believe that
this is because of natural regions like solar, change in solar insulation and the solar radiation
etc. but because of industrial revolution human activities have released large amounts of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases, this is also affect. And it has changed the global
temperature and Earth's climate there are evidences, robust evidences, and irrefutable
evidences basically.

If you talk about natural processes, then sun's energy volcanic eruptions or they can also affect
the climate change, but climate but up to that scale, which we are observing within shortest

1140
span of time, and which correlates with this industrial era and the emissions of greenhouse
gases is very-very authentic and very strong.

So, when we look at human activities which have contributed substantially into climate change,
these are through greenhouse gas emissions and also at the regional level there are changes it
is not only the global, but regional level changes are there which are because of reflectivity or
absorption of the sun's energy is different at different places, because of many human activities
which we will see in subsequent slides.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:34)

Like greenhouse gases as you know carbon dioxide or methane or nitrous oxide and there are
even water vapor is also greenhouse gas, ozone is also greenhouse gas, and they have increased
like atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has increased from approximately 280 parts per
million (PPM) in 18 century it was, and now it is 414 ppm in 2020 it has been observed. So,
within a short period of time these 280 parts per million have been for centuries all together
and soon after this industrial era, this has started to increase because of emissions of fossil fuel
burning, so, now, it is around 414 ppm in the atmosphere.

When we talk about the methane human activities also released the methane concentration like
rice paddy and other animal husbandry those activities and this concentration, it was like 722
parts per billion (PPB) in 18th century and now it is 1867 ppb, more than twice you can say in
2019 it was absorbed 1867. Nitrous oxide if you talk then its concentration was in pre-industrial
era around 270 ppb, now it is 332 ppb and these potential global warming potential of green

1141
these methane and nitrous oxide is much more than the carbon dioxide, so that we also there
problem enhances.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:09)

So, you all know this greenhouse effect, like solar insulation, short waves come to their surface,
then it is reflected, some absorbed, whatever is reflected then it is absorbed or again reflected
by aerosols etc. but when greenhouse gas is there, it has the tendency to trap this infrared
radiation, when Earth releases this infrared radiation or longer wave radiation, this is trapped
by these greenhouse gases, they do not trap these, like they are not opaque to shortwave
radiation, they allow shortwave radiation to come up to the surface of the Earth, but when
infrared radiation or long wave radiation goes into the sky, then they act as a blanket, they
capture it, they do not allow it to go outside and that way the temperature increases of the near
surface atmosphere and the Earth's surface temperature increases.

You can see this temperature degree in Celsius and from 1880 to 2000 you see the increasing
trend, very-very prominent trend is there, nobody can deny it that the temperature is increasing
and this CO2 concentration is also increasing at the same time this relationship is very strong
with the global warming because of greenhouse gas concentration into the atmosphere.

1142
(Refer Slide Time: 8:32)

When we talk about reflectivity or absorption of the sun's energy, then there are issues like we
have roads or we do deforestation, we do agricultural activities. So, we are changing the
reflectivity of the surface, like bitumen they absorb or cement concrete buildings they also
absorb these heat radiations and that way the localized area is warmed, this temperature
increases and it is known as heat island impact in fact.

When you go towards cities from countryside you will find that the temperature is increasing
as soon as we reach to the city and at the city center temperature is very high. So, like if this is
the city and you are approaching, so, temperature will increase and decrease like this, you go
outside the city then temperature again decreases. So, this is the heat island impact, which is
localized impact or at the regional scale it can be there this is because of these kinds of activities
of the anthropogenic activities or human made activities.

1143
(Refer Slide Time: 9:37)

When natural processes, we have already seen like changes in Earth's orbit or rotation that also
that is also responsible for changes in these temperature and other phenomena. The amount of
summer sunshine on the northern hemisphere, which is affected by changes in the planet’s orbit
appear to be affected the past cycles of ices, this is again very scientific evidences are there.
So, we cannot deny it that there is no natural contribution into the climate change, there are.

The Earth has experienced long periods of cold temperatures, mini-ice age, you can call them
as well as shorter in interglacial periods, like periods between ice ages of relatively warmer
temperatures. So, those kinds of natural phenomena have been there, they are well recorded,
but the way this temperature increased after this industrial era started, so, that is again also
robust evidences are there and we cannot deny it that anthropogenic responsibility,
anthropogenic activities are responsible for global warming and climate change.

1144
(Refer Slide Time: 10:48)

Volcanic eruptions are there, naturally they are part of the natural processes, they also emit a
lot of CO2 and then like sulfur dioxide then sulfate particles, maybe in the atmosphere, because
of that reaction as and then it can reflect solar radiation. So, that can also change the
temperature or solar insulation at the Earth's surface. So, those are the natural surfaces.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:13)

Also, at the same time, you can see like, over the last several 100 years, carbon dioxide levels
varied along with the glacial cycles, there is a cyclic pattern in that. During warm interglacial
periods, carbon dioxide levels were higher, naturally it was emitted from them, during cold
glacial periods, carbon dioxide levels were lower.

1145
So, the heating or cooling of the Earth's surface and oceans can cause changes in the natural
sources and sinks of these gases, because ocean is also a great sink of the carbon dioxide. So,
temperature increases then it can release the CO2, depending upon how much temperature is
there. So, the change in the greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere can vary according
to these natural changes also.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:01)

Now, if we talk about like weather and climate, I mean the climate change indicators and
impacts, then if you see weather and climate so, the rising global average temperature is
associated with widespread changes in the weather patterns also, there are scientific studies
which indicate that extreme weather events such as heat waves or storms, they are likely to
become more frequent or more intense with human induced climate change, because of these
greenhouse gases and the long term changes in the climate change can directly or indirectly
affect many aspects of the society in potentially disruptive ways.

For example, in hilly areas or where tourism is because of snow and those kinds of things, if
warming is there, there is no snow then this business will be affected, there will not be tourists
on these places. And at the same time like if sea level rises are there then again, the coastal
cities maybe at the big danger.

1146
(Refer Slide Time: 13:06)

So, you can see like in oceans, this is a big sink and at the depending upon the temperature it
can release or it can get this CO2 concentration plus also at the same time when temperature
rises the ocean kind of swelling is there or means the volume increases, so, sea level rise is
there, so, sea level rise may be there. And then you can see it is acidic nature can also be
affected by CO2 concentration, because it is acidic in nature and different ecosystems of these
aquatic systems can be disrupted because of the changes in the pH and other contents.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:48)

Well, when we talk about the snow and ice, the Earth surface contains many forms of the snow
and ice including like sea, the sea also there are icebergs and in lakes also then river ice is there,
snow cover is there, glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets, there are so many things. And climate

1147
change can dramatically alter these Earth surfaces snow and ice-covered areas, because snow
and ice can easily change between solid and liquid states in response to the relatively minor
change in the temperature. And accordingly, this the capacity to absorb the solar radiation or
to reflect it, it changes this albedo is changed and this can change the pattern of this temperature
patterns.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:34)

When we talk about health and the society. So, changes in the Earth's climate can affect public
health in a big way, because like heat waves etc. when lot of heat waves, intensified heat waves
are there old people cannot survive and those people who are susceptible to these kinds of
problems and agriculture activities or water supplies, energy production and use all these kinds
of things can be or recreation like tourist places etc. land use and development activities all
these things can be affected of the society, of the human society because of climate change.

And the nature and the extent of these effects, whether they will be harmful or beneficial will
depend upon the location. Sometimes people say that because of this global warming there may
be some negative impact at particular altitude or latitude. So, some even diseases can travel
depending upon the temperature, increases in the frequency or severity of extreme weather
events such as storms, it can cause increasing of the risk and like in terms of these dangerous
floods or high winds and other direct threats to the people and the property, which you often
see like, very intensified storms nowadays we witness near coastal regions. So, these are
because of these climate changes.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:02)

1148
When we talk about the ecosystem, basically ecosystem provide all kinds of services to us,
whether in terms of food or clean water, a variety of other services we get from the ecosystem
forest etc. And the changes in the Earth's climate can affect the ecosystems all together, water
cycle, habitats, animal behavior, such as nesting and migration patterns can also be changed
because of changes in the temperature of different regions, timing of natural processes such as
flower blooming can also change. So, that way the complete ecosystem can get changed
because of climate change.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:38)

Now, one example we will cite here, like heat wave on the Pacific coast of the US and Canada
that was witnessed recently in June 2021. And during the last days of June 2021, Pacific, this
Northwest areas of the US and Canada, they experienced temperatures, like never previously

1149
observed. The records were broken in multiple cities by several degrees of Celsius, if it was
very high then which was recorded in the past, like temperature above from 40 degrees Celsius,
which was not recorded earlier like that occurred on Sunday of like 27 or Tuesday 29 in Pacific
northeast areas of the US and western provinces of the Canada.

Well, the observed temperatures were so extreme that they lie far outside the range of the
historically observed temperature. So, those kinds of events really create kind of fear in our
mind that what will happen if such events frequently occur and they affect the life of the people,
like there are two possible sources of these extreme jumps in the peak temperature, theories
you can say opinion like, maybe it is very low probability, which occurs once in a while it is
not going to occur again and again, in the current climate. So, it will be like about 1.2 degrees
Celsius of the global warming. So, in that range, it is kind of once in a while kind of low
probability event.

The second hypothesis could be like in non-linear interactions in the climate have substantially
increased the probability of such extreme heat and much beyond the gradual increases heat
extreme that was observed up to now. So, those kinds of uncertainties are there and this creates,
again, kind of like fear that what will happen if such events occur again and again, and they
disrupt the whatever social setup, whatever infrastructure setup, we have.

More than 300 sudden deaths were reported throughout the province on one day alone, that
was never before. So, this shattered Canada's old time temperature record, basically in 2021
and the overall number of these sudden deaths represented and nearly 300 percent increase
from the average number of deaths, which was recorded over the same week every year since
2016, so, that creates a worrisome situation.

1150
(Refer Slide Time: 19:14)

Well, when we talk about like, these heat wave characteristics in the United States over the
years like 1960 to 2010, then weather this heat wave frequency or heat wave duration or heat
wave season and heat wave intensity, everything is increasing, you can see the frequency is
increasing so, drastically. So, that is again worrisome, and we need to be alert about this.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:34)

Then there are issues like cloudburst are happening in Himalayan region very frequently, which
was not so frequently earlier. In Jammu Kashmir region, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
region of India, there are clear evidences of climate change because of these cloudbursts.

1151
Every year cloud bursting events caused massive loss of life, property, infrastructure,
agricultural lands and other facilities and the earlier disasters show that the growing outbreak
of the rains and its associated flash flood kind of phenomena, debris flows or landslides, they
are important regions for damages and destructions in those regions, and they are very much
related to the climate change phenomena.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:15)

So, if you see these changes in the precipitation due to climate change, if you see precipitation
is increasing this way overall and the snowfall is decreasing, so that is clear evidence of these
kinds of drastic changes, because of climate change.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:32)

1152
And if we talk about like possible future effects, which may be because of this climate change
or temperature variation, like it is assumed or it is predicted that temperature will continue to
rise, because of these human induced warming it is superimposed on a naturally varying climate
and the temperature rise has not been and will not be uniform or smooth across the country or
over time. So, this will have uncertainty component in a very high variability.

And the Earth’s global average surface temperature in 2020 tied with 2016 as the warmest year
on record according to an analysis of NASA. So, these are very worrisome signs of the global
warming and climate change.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:18)

Well, the, this frost-free season and growing season will also lengthen because of these possible
future effects of climate change, because in a future in which heat trapping gas emissions
continue to grow, if we do not do like renewable resources or other resources, if we do not
harness, if we continue in the business as usual scenario, then their emissions will continue to
grow and it will increase, of a month or more in the length of the frost-free and growing seasons
and it is projected across most of the US by the end of the century with slightly smaller increase
in the northern Great Plains. So, that season, frost-free season can lengthen basically and the
increase will be considerably smaller, if heat trapping gas emissions are reduced, so, that is
linkages.

1153
(Refer Slide Time: 22:14)

Well changes in precipitation patterns is also very predominant. Projections of future climate
over the U.S. suggest that the recent trend towards increased heavy precipitation events may
continue, and this trend is projected to occur even in regions where total precipitation is
expected to decrease such as the southwest, so, again the worrisome situation. The increasing
amount of precipitation can also be visualized in northern part of India that is the Himalayan
range, which we have witnessed recently in a very big a very high intensity.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:49)

Sea level will rise 1 to 8 feet by 2100 that is the kind of model predictions or model estimations.
So, in coastal regions or cities have to suffer because of this if we do not control the carbon
emissions or greenhouse gas emissions.

1154
(Refer Slide Time: 23:07)

And the possible future effects also include like more droughts or heat waves may occur, and
that way, the agricultural, land or agricultural practices in the regions where population is
dependent on agriculture, that can be affected very badly. And by the end of the century, what
have been once in 20-years extreme heat days are projected to occur every two or three years
over the most of the nations. So, that is very alarming situation, we should think about.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:43)

Well, this responding to climate change, what should we do basically? So, there are two ways
basically to handle it, either we mitigate, we reverse it, like climate change means greenhouse
gas emissions, we should control, we should reduce it or we should get rid of it, that is the

1155
mitigation, reducing emissions and destabilizing the levels of heat trapping greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere. Second is adaptation, adapting to the climate change already in the pipeline.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:11)

So, the mitigation basically has like in pipeline, for example, we can reduce the burning of the
fossil fuel by shifting our energy needs towards like renewable resources like solar, etc. And
the goal of mitigation is to avoid basically the significant human interference with the climate
system, so that this greenhouse gas emissions can be stabilized.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:36)

And then adaptation is like whatever changes are there, we have to think about so that the
harmful effects can be minimized. And the goal is to reduce the vulnerability of the population

1156
in terms of these harmful impacts of the climate change, like the sea level encroachment. So,
we can have some structures which can protect people who are near to the seashore etc. It also
encompasses like making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated with
climate change, like longer growing seasons or increase deals in some regions are there, so,
regional related policies can be framed.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:33)

Well, when we talk about climate change mitigation at the global level then there have been
several initiations and several bodies have emerged over the years like in 2018 this
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) especial report on 1.5 degree of warming,
this was highlighted and it was agreed that we should control this, like temperature we should
not allow to increase the global temperature beyond this 1.5.

And these emissions will need to be peak at that 2030, beyond that, we cannot afford it. And
rapidly decrease to net-zero by 2050. So, that kind of policies technological interventions, we
have to have in different countries. So, for that Paris Agreement was signed by so many
countries basically.

Then the Global Environment Facility, they have 7-climate change mitigation strategy, aim to
support developing countries to make transformational shift towards low emission
development pathways compatible with the objectives of this UNFCC and Paris Agreement
related policy plans.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:33)

1157
Then, you can see like, there are these Conference of the Parties. So, they meet after some time
periodically, and they discuss what they can do, there are pledges, there are commitments,
every country wants to honor. So, in that sense India has done very well.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:52)

Basically, and these are the Sustainable Development Goals, which also include this global
goal number 13, which includes like to take urgent action to combat climate change and its
impacts. So, basically it has like strengthening, resilience and adaptive capacity to climate
raised, climate related hazards and natural disasters in all countries.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:16)

1158
Then integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning and
improve the education awareness reaching and human and institutional capacity on climate
change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning. So, Paris Agreement has
done legally binding international treaty on climate change and it was adopted by 196 parties
at Conference of Parties (COP 21), in Paris in 2015 and it was entered into force in 2016
basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:51)

So, with this, this has like its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius,
preferably 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels, whatever temperature it was.
So, beyond that try it should not exceed basically, if we want to keep our Earth safe. And to
achieve this long-term temperature goal, countries aim to reach global peaking of these

1159
greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible. So, in that direction many landmark multilateral
climate change processes, and has been taken into place including Paris Agreement.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:30)

Like if we talk about India's National Action Plan on Climate Change. So, scenario is very
encouraging, this government of India Launched National Action Plan on Climate Change
(NAPCC) on 30th June 2008, and outlining eight major national missions on climate change
related issues. And these include like national solar mission, national mission for enhanced
energy efficiency, National Mission on sustainable habitat, National Water mission, national
mission for sustaining the Himalayan ecosystem, then National mission for a green India,
national mission for sustainable agriculture, National Mission on strategy knowledge for
climate change. So, these are the very active national missions this government of India is
working on that.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:30)

1160
If you talk about its impact, like what is the progress from Indian perspective at the global
level, then very happy scenario is there the latest Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI)
2021. It has placed India among the top 10 countries to have adopted sustainable measures and
substantial measures have been taken into to mitigate climate change related problems.

And to rank various countries, the report looks at the four specific categories and their
benchmark limits like greenhouse gases emissions, up to 40 percent weightage was there.
Renewable energy related efforts if made then 20 percent, energy use related 20 percent, and
climate policy related 20 percent. So, in all these weightage India has figured out very well.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:09)

1161
Well, in conclusion, we can see that this climate change includes both global warming caused
by human as well as because of natural systems, but this human made or manmade or
anthropogenic regions are very predominant and we have to do something to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions so that we can stabilize this temperature of the global atmosphere. And the main
cause is because of greenhouse gas emissions, so, we have to reduce them, we have to shift our
energy needs from this fossil fuel or carbon economy to the renewable energy resources.

And as there is a direct relation between global average temperature and the concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, so, the key solution for the climate change is to reduce the
emissions of the greenhouse gases and the reduction of emissions means, shifting energy needs,
or shifting energy sources. So, like India is shifting a lot of energy sources from these fossil
fuel to solar and wind and many other renewable resources basically.

There are also plans like shifting transportation fleet to battery base fleet. So, that way the
emissions of greenhouse gases will be reduced significantly and we will have a better future,
this is something which we can foresee because of these efforts, which we are making at the
country level and at the global level.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:39)

So, this is all for today and references are given for your extra reading, you can go through that
in free time. So, thank you for your kind attention, and see you again in the next lecture. Thanks.

1162
 Air pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 40
Global and Regional Environment Issues: Acid Rain
Hello friends, so, far we have discussed about several global issues of environmental nature
that is the pollution which causes environmental issues at the scale of global level like ozone
hole or global warming, climate change, today we will discuss in that series the acid rain. And
acid rain is basically reasonable environmental issue, but it is also can be termed as global
environmental issue because of its, like continental nature or in different countries it is
spreading. So, we can call it as a global regional environmental issue, which is very important.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:09)

1163
So, today we will discuss about what the acid rain is and what causes the acid rain then a little
bit timeline of the acid rain history and pathways which are responsible for the acid rain. Then
different forms of the acid rain like wet deposition, dry deposition, how to measure the acid
rain and its effects and how do we monitor or different kind of monitoring networks which are
responsible for monitoring the acid rain, so, that it can be known about types intensity and in
which area it is more and how can we control it and then how to reduce the acid rain basically
those kinds of measures we will discuss in our class we will conclude.

So, when we talk about what is the acid rain, so, you can imagine like raining and the pH of
the rain, which is normally less than the 7 because of CO2 present in the atmosphere and that
weak as H2CO3, but if the pH of the rain is in the range of like 4.2-4.4 means less than the 5
then we can call it as acid rain because that signifies or it indicates that maybe some elements
or some compounds or some chemicals like sulfuric acid or nitric acid which is because of
presence of sulfur dioxide and NOx and when they react with the moisture of the atmosphere
and ultimately create these acids.

So, those assets become part of the droplets. So, in the precipitation it comes down and pH of
the rainwater changes. So, then wherever it meets like if it joins the water bodies or it falls on
the surfaces, then the pH of the soil is also reduced. And it can come in several forms like not
only the rain, but it can come down in the form of snow, in terms of the fog or haze or even dry
deposition like particles which are of acidic coating those kinds of things, and they can come
down and that is why this acid rain occurs this phenomena of acid rain.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:39)

1164
And the causes or the responsible reasons for this is basically those kind of emissions of the air
pollutants like oxides of sulfur or oxides of nitrogen which are emitted in the atmosphere
because of several anthropogenic activities, where we burn different kinds of fuels like the coal
burning power plants, where coal content sulfur then sulfur goes like sulfur dioxide in the air
unless we really capture it completely.

So, sometimes those captured instruments are not 100 percent that kind of efficiency and some
sulfur oxide is there and several sources maybe they are not only the thermal power plants
based on the coal, but several other sources can be there of the sulfur dioxide, the NOx
emissions can come from several other sources like automobiles or wherever we are burning
the fossil fuels.

1165
So, those kinds of emissions which are responsible for these particular acidic gases, which
comes into the air and then they react with the atmosphere, atmospheric moisture and create
these sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Well a small portion of SO2 and NOx that causes acid rain is
from natural sources also. And not only the small but quite large amount, comes out of
volcanoes. Then most of the these emissions of sulfur dioxide and NOx they come from fossil
fuel, because of anthropogenic activities, wherever we are burning fuels, we are generating
some sort of emissions of like oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:12)

Well, these burning of fossil fuels, which we do in electricity generation. So, they are
responsible like two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOx in the atmosphere it is estimated that
they come from electric power generator facilities. Then vehicles and heavy equipment’s also
burn a lot of fuels and they are also responsible for such gaseous emissions, manufacturing oil
refineries and other industries, they are also responsible for emissions of these gaseous
components.

1166
(Refer Slide Time: 5:47)

Well, when we talk about pathways for the acid rain basically when these emissions are
released into that air like these the emissions of SOx and NOx etc, then they get converted into
calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate or nitrate or something. So, the gaseous components can
be transformed into particulate nature or solid form. So, these particles can also be responsible
for transporting from one place to another or these gases components can react with the
moisture in the atmosphere.

So, all these phenomena is basically responsible for this generation of the acid rain and then it
gets transported in the downwind direction and particles can get deposited as the dye deposition
and other these sulfuric components or nitrate etc, they can get deposited as wet deposition
also. So, both wet deposition and dry deposition of acidic components are responsible for the

1167
acid rain and they can cause harmful effects or negative impacts on whatever surface they come
in contact to like weather soil, weather forest or streams or lakes, because they change the pH
of those particular ecosystems.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:04)

Now, if you talk about the history of acid rain, or the timeline when it was noticed and how it
increased, so, a basically, the first observation of acid rain was recorded in the mid nineteenth
century in Europe, because in Europe, a lot of these coal burning activities took place and the
signs of this acid rain was noticed like deterioration of the leaves, they were noticed in the
forest like black forest of Germany was completely devastated because of these acid rain which
occurred because of emissions of sulfur and other oxides in England and it was later proved

1168
and then treaty was signed between Germany and Great Britain that those emissions must be
curtailed, so, that, these black forest deterioration because of acid rain can we stop.

So, those kind of relationships or historical events are there. In 1872, an English scientist,
Robert Angus Smith, the he introduced this term of the acid rain, as he noticed this acid
precipitation damages the leaves of the plants and the forest.

In 1970 onwards, the severity of the issue increased further because acid rain increased in
several parts. And after 10 years of continuous national acidic precipitation assessment
program of the US Congress, when US Congress, notice this as per basis of this program
observation, so, the US Congress passed the acid deposition act in 1980.

And further, this was enlarged as a monitoring, site network for dry deposition, and the effects
of acid rain on monuments or freshwater bodies, or terrestrial ecosystems and buildings. So,
those were also covered, after this act was enacted.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:03)

Well, when you look into further, down the timeline, then according to this particular program,
the first assessment report published in 1991 on acid rain, and it was noticed that about 5
percent of New England’s lakes were acidic in the US in that region of the New England in the
US, and the issues such as changes in the biochemical patterns of the soil, characteristics or
freshwater bodies and damages to the manmade structures were also observed, and they were
associated with these acid rain precipitations.

1169
(Refer Slide Time: 9:43)

By 1990, the US Congress had passed amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1970. And this was
implemented aiming to decrease the total emissions of sulfur dioxide by 10 million tons. So,
those kind of vary big targets were aim to achieve. Similarly, several programs were carried
out since 1990 to reduce NOx emissions also because not only the sulfur dioxide emissions,
but NOx emissions are also equally responsible for the acid rain. So, the emissions of the NOx
from factories and automobiles they were also targeted to get reduced.

By March 2005, the US EPA that is Environmental Protection Agency of the US issued Clean
Air Inter State Rule (CAIR) to reduce the pollution from power plant emissions from one state
to another. So, those kind of transboundary pollutions were tread and it was decided that how
to control those emissions in other states which also affect the states in the downwind direction.

1170
(Refer Slide Time: 10:53)

Well, when we talk about the forms of acid deposition in what way they get deposited, so, we
briefly touch that wet deposition is there, dry deposition is there. So, if we talk about wet
deposition basically it is commonly known as the acid rain basically that wet deposition is the
acid rain because precipitation is coming and the pH of that acid rain is less than 5 it is around
4 or so, and that is the particular acid rain.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:25)

Dry deposition will also take place and there the that is because of acidic particles and then
even gases also even if it is not reacting with the moisture and the gaseous component of the
acidic nature and the particles of the acidic nature they get descend because of gravity and then
this dry deposition process happens and they can get deposited on surfaces of water bodies or

1171
vegetation or buildings and this becomes this phenomena becomes quite quick counterintuitive,
sometimes we do not feel that this may happen, so, quickly but it happens in the nature quite
quickly.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:00)

When we talk about like measuring of the acid rain. So, basically, the phenomena of pH is
important, the pH of this at the log scale this H+ ions concentration, how much it is present in
the solution. So, that is the basic pH, pH is the indicator of that those H+ Ions or hydrogen ions
present in the solution.

So, the acidity and alkalinity are measured using this at the pH scale for which we assume that
7 is the neutral and the lower the pH of a substance less than 7 the more acidic it is known as
and the higher the pH beyond the 7 like 8, 9 then we call it alkaline. So, those particularly
definition of acidic and alkaline solutions are there.

1172
(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

And the normal rain has a pH about 5.6 or so, it is not 7, the reason is because this slight acidic
is due to this carbon dioxide which is present in the atmosphere and it dissolved into these
moisture this rainwater forming weak carbonic acid H2CO3. And the acid rain usually has a
pH, between 4.2 to 4.4.

So, means up to 5.6 you cannot say that this is acid rain or so, this is natural rain. But if less
than 5 the pH is there, then you should be alert that there may be some sources of acidic nature
of gaseous components, which have reduced the pH of the rainwater and that is because of the
presence of like sulfur dioxide, NOx etc.

So, the pH scale basically, it has been shown for all kinds of things like battery, acid; pH = 0,
lemon juice; pH = 2, soda; pH = 2.5, acid rain; pH= 4.3 or so, distilled water; pH = 7, because
neutral, then blood; pH = 7.4 or so, seawater has pH = 8.1 very alkaline saline water, then this
baking soda; pH =9, ammonia; pH =11, bleaching powder; pH =12.6. Liquid drain cleaner; pH
= 14. So, different solutions have different kinds of pH according to the nature.

1173
(Refer Slide Time: 14:52)

Well, the very easy way to kind of look at that whether this pH is lower than 7 or higher than
7 Litmus test is there Litmus, that is basic thing which you might have seen in the chemistry
lab. When this paper turns to the red, the substance is acidic as we know, because it tends
changes the color and when it turns blue, then the substances basic like if it is pH is less than 4
then it turns to the red and when pH is more than 8.3 then it can transcend to the blue, those
kinds of things are there.

So, this National Atmospheric Deposition Program was launched and national trends network
was established for measurement of wet deposition in the US and nearby areas. So, this was
basically conglomeration of more than 250 monitoring sites throughout the US, Canada,

1174
Alaska, Hawaii and US Virgin Islands. So, very large area was covered to monitor these
whether acid rain is occurring or not.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:41)

So, unlike this wet deposition, if we talk about that dry deposition, then dry deposition is
difficult and expensive to measure because acid rain pH you can easily measure but dry
deposition measurement is more expensive, but still there are programs like to estimate the
nitrogen and sulfur pollutants in terms of dry deposition through clean air status trends network.
And this air concentrations are measured by this particular program at more than 90 locations.
Because it is expensive. So, the number of locations is much smaller than the number of
locations like it is around 250 networking sites, here only 90 locations.

1175
(Refer Slide Time: 16:26)

Now, if you talk about the effects of acid rain, then basically the effect can be on the ecosystem,
effects can be on the materials, when it come into contact with the materials, effects can be on
the visibility also, and effects can be on the human health or animal health.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:45)

So, we will see one by one, like, if you talk about the ecosystem, then this ecosystem is nothing
but the community of plants, animals and other organisms along with their environment
including air, water and soil. So, a particular integrated kind of thing is there, so, everything is
in ecosystem, well connected with each other. If something happens to one part, if it is harmed,
then the other parts can get affected negatively, because they are interdependent, like one like

1176
in the food chain, if one animal or plant is destroyed, then the whole chain can be completely
disturbed. So, that is the characteristic of ecosystem.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:26)

So, when we talk about the effects of acid rain, on fish and wildlife, different kinds of fish has
tolerance limits to different levels of pH. So, the ecological effects of the acid rain are most
clearly seen in the aquatic environment such as streams, lakes, and marshes, where it can be
harmful to the fish and other species like the frogs up to 4, this critical pH levels, after that, it
is very negatively affecting those particular species.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:00)

1177
When we talk about like some lakes because of this acidic nature aquatic life get disturbed, like
there is one example of one Lake in Sweden and it is quite acidic and no longer able to support
the fish life. So, aquatic life is completely disturbed, because of this acidic nature of the water
due to this acid rain. Well, some types of plants and animals can tolerate acidic waters, but
others may not because acid sensitive it may be different. So, they can get lost because of these
pH declination is there in the environment. And then they can disturb the complete ecosystem.

Generally the young and most species of the most species are more sensitive to acidic
environments than adults because they are this tolerance limit is very, very low at pH = 5 most
fish eggs cannot mature. Some adult fish die at lower pH values. So, this is kind of drastic
negative impact on the aquatic life particularly fish.

1178
When we talk about like fish or animal which can tolerate moderately acidic water, the plants
or phytoplankton bones, like fish dependent on they can be damaged or their losses can be in
huge quantity and then they can indirectly affect the fish population because then there is no
availability of the food.

Similarly, in Animal Kingdom also, if the lower level animals which are not very tolerant to
the acidic environment, if they are lost then the complete chain get disturbed and the higher in
the ladder food chain, a higher level of animals may get also affected. For example, frogs have
a critical pH around 4 but these mayflies they eat are more sensitive and may not survive at the
pH below 5.5. So, those flies are not available, then frogs may also die even if the pH is not up
to the 4.

So, at 5 if it is food is not available then frogs will also be dying. Well these on the plants and
trees, the negative impacts are there because of region they can destroy these leaves and
photosynthesis is completely deteriorated and even there is this disturbance of the minerals in
the soil. So, the growth rate is disturbed of the plants and trees. So, that is again negative impact
of the acid rain.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:47)

And at high elevations like in mountains etc. these acidic fog and clouds may deplete the
nutrients in the tree leaves resulting in brown or dead leaves and because of that, this
photosynthesis is completely disturbed, because they absorb very less amount of sunlight when
there is no green cover and there is no sufficient amount of the leaves.

1179
(Refer Slide Time: 21:07)

Like in Black Forest in Germany, this kind of negative impact was there this green color was
destroyed. So, food products and buy these leaves was completely harmed disturbed, and in
this Smoky Mountains, Great Smoky Mountains USA, these trees were affected because of
acid rain, so, their lives were destroyed and again the photosynthesis was completely disturbed.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:34)

Well, but there may be some other issues like buffering capacity of different soils are different
because of their thickness because of certain minerals available in those soils. So, if buffering
capacity is there, then sometimes that negative effect on the plants may not be translated in that
form, because that soil can do buffering kind of activity that means they absorb that acid and
they that negative impact is not translated to the plants etc.

1180
But it depends upon the quality of the soil and the different minerals or inorganic materials etc.
or calcium carbonate etc. present in the soil, which can neutralize the acid rain. So, those kinds
of buffering capacity may be available.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:24)

But it depends upon the location like in areas such as mountainous parts of the Northeast United
States, the soil is thin, and this lacks the ability to adequately neutralize the acid and rainwater.
So, negative impact is more there. So, as a result, these areas are particularly vulnerable and
the acid rain accumulate in the soil streams and lakes in those particular areas.

1181
(Refer Slide Time: 22:50)

When, at some times this episodic acidification may also occur, because, like snow melts and
suddenly, it takes with it a lot of acidic water to particular lakes, and then the pH drastically
reduces for some small period, but that small period may be quite disturbing for aquatic life in
those particular ecosystems. So, episodic acidification may also occur and then again other
rainwater neutralize this acidic component and then again life thrives, but that particular
disturbing period may be quite problematic for aquatic life.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:37)

When we talk about the impacts of acid rain on materials, then you may visualize about
different monuments, which are deteriorated whose surfaces are deteriorated by these acid rain
particles and acid rain itself like sulfuric acid etc. Because the statues or the building materials

1182
of the stone and they can get affected very severely. These acidic particles may corrode the
metals or they can cause paint and the stones to deteriorate more quickly because of their
chemical reactions.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:13)

So, like if you talk about whether Taj Mahal in India or St. Paul’s Cathedral in London or this
Westminster Abbey in England and the Sphinx in Egypt or the Statue of Liberty in the New
York or the Cathedral in Cologne in Germany, all those their surfaces got deteriorated because
of the acidic component in the air and in the rain water. So, that this is a global issue, otherwise
it is local and regional issue the acid rain. But in that way, it is kind of global issue nowadays.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:47)

1183
The consequences of this damages can be costly because then we have to repair them or are
replaced them and sometimes these monumental, they are kind of very precious because it is
very difficult to recreate them. So, not only the maintenance related but their value that
historical value or their cultural value, we cannot convert into any monetary terms and that loss
maybe for whole time and it is not affordable.

So, we should be careful that in those areas we should stop these kind of phenomena which is
known as acid rain so, that whatever emissions which are affecting precipitation in those areas,
they must be curtailed particularly the emissions of SOx, NOx etc. Well, in terms of visibility
also there is, there are issues because, these particles like sulfate etc., they are reflecting a light
and sometimes NOx emissions, they also play as a precursor role to produce the ozone and
smog is created in those areas.

So, visibility is reduced very significantly and those hazy and difficult to see kind of days are
there because of these particles and because of smog, and again these acidic components in the
air they participate in these kind of visibility problem.

1184
(Refer Slide Time: 26:19)

Like this can affect even those enjoyment of national parks that we visit for the scenic beauty
otherwise, they are clear then it is beautiful, if it is hazy that we cannot see the beauty that
aesthetic value of those particular locations may be deteriorated. And the acid for particularly
particles of sulfur dioxide and sulfuric trioxide which reduces visibility around 50 to 70 percent
in Eastern USA, it has been observed.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:49)

Well then when we come to this human health aspect, then again because of these toxicity,
nature of sulfur dioxide and NOx etc, because when we inhale they damaging our respiratory
system and those particles, those secondary aerosols etc, because of these sulfate and nitrate
particles, they are again part of these respiratory related issues.

1185
(Refer Slide Time: 27:14)

So, those people who are having health issues like lung related problems, bronchitis related
issues, if those particles are present in the air, then they can further aggravate those kind of
problems, they can damage in even the lungs, etc. So, those are the health issues.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:31)

Now, if you talk about that, how to monitor the acid rain, so, like, there may be containers
which can get these acid rain water, rainwater which the pH of which we can observe in the
laboratory similarly, there may be other container which can get these dust particles the dry
particle deposited that way we can really know how much acidity is present in that rainwater.

1186
But nowadays, these are the traditional way but they are now sensor based electrical resistance,
which are used worldwide nowadays, which can give the quick results basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:14)

And if you want to reduce the acid rain, then naturally we have to cut the burning of the fossil
fuel or we have to switch the fuel or we have to scrub that means, we have to control those
emissions of SOx and NOx kind of gaseous exhaust gases. Otherwise, if they go into that
atmosphere then they will result into the acid rain. So, there will be two broad categories of
solution like either switch the fuel which are not emitting sulfur dioxide, NOx etc or if they are
emitting then control them, scrubbed them, remove them.

So, the fuel switching includes like limiting the use of sulfur containing fossil fuels for
example, coal kind of things. And then switching to nuclear power generation or using
renewable energy sources like wind, solar, air, geothermal energy, they really help us because
they are not emitting any kind of these emissions which caused the acid rain.

1187
(Refer Slide Time: 29:15)

Then the use of solar batteries, fuel cells, natural gas, in electric motor vehicles promotion, all
these are in that direction to remove or to reduce the emissions of SOx and NOx. Huge energy,
efficient boilers and using those filters which can scrub or catch those sulfur and nitrogen
related effluents from the vehicles or industrial emissions, they are part of that reduction of the
emissions of NOx and SOx

In Europe and North America people are also using very tall stacks like 400 meter or so, so
that the local pollution get reduced completely because it goes up to very high levels of the
boundary layer and when it get diluted in the atmosphere, then at least in the local region, it is
not there. But it is kind of transferring the problem from local to regional scale because
ultimately it will come down whether in the form of rainwater or dry deposition.

1188
(Refer Slide Time: 30:17)

Well, so, in conclusion, we can say that, because of these fossil fuel burning and increase in
the emissions of SOx and NOx, this acid rain phenomena occurred since the nineteenth century
and it is increasing day by day and the coal combustion is the primary source of sulfur dioxide.
So, we need to reduce this coal combustion and shift our energy needs to other sources of
renewable nature.

Vehicular emissions and varied fossil fuel based power generation, they contribute NOx
emissions. So, if we go for those kind of energy sources like electric vehicles, etc in terms of
reduction of vehicle emissions that is also a good strategy. In most countries across the globe,
now, acid rain has become a major local or regional scale environmental issue. So, every
country needs to make sincere efforts to reduce the emissions of SOx and NOx kind of
emissions, which are responsible for acid rain.

So, the acid rain can be reduced if we can control the emissions of those cause factors like SOx
and NOx that is the basic thing in this particular lecture. So, you have seen in this lecture that
what are the causes of the acid rain and how can we deal with it. So, I hope you liked this
lecture in that term, and this is not only the local problem, but the regional scale problem and
the global network also because in most of the countries, some sort of the monuments are
getting affected by acid rain. So, this is in that sense it is also the global issue. So, this is all for
today.

1189
(Refer Slide Time: 31:58)

These are the references for additional information for you, you can go through in the free time
through these references. So, thanks to you and see you in the next lecture. Thanks for your
kind attention. Thanks a lot.

1190
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 41
Introduction to Air Pollution Control

Hello, friends. You may recall that we have studied many aspects of air pollution like monitoring,
assessment, modeling, then we have also discussed in detail about several issues of global and
regional nature. Now, we want to know how to control air pollution. So, that is very important
aspect of air pollution management strategies. So, today we will have an introduction about
different principles and control mechanism of air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:18)

So, the contents of today's lecture is like we will first of all discuss on pollution control, what does
it mean by the controlling of the pollution, and then we will also briefly overview natural self
cleansing properties of the atmosphere. Basically, like in river streams we have that capacity,
similarly, atmosphere also has, and these are like dispersion, gravitational settling, then absorption
or adsorption, washout, rain out, wet deposition, dry depletion those kinds of things. And we will
also discuss like air pollution control devices and methods with respect to whether it is a stationary
source, mobile source or area sources. And then we will see specific control mechanism or
equipments which are used for stationary sources of emissions or mobile sources of emissions and
then we will conclude.

1191
(Refer Slide Time: 01:50)

So, when we talk about pollution control, basically we can just revise the pollution-related
problem, what are the pollution is issues, what we call pollutant as it is in any environmental
component, whether it is air, water, soil, any foreign substance which is harmful to the environment
or human health and which is present in any form or quantity which can really damage our quality
of life in one way or the other aspect we call that basically pollution.

And the specific means of pollution control basically include like control systems for, emission
control systems for automobiles or electrostatic precipitators which are called like ESPs, for
impurities basically, particulate matters etc. in industrial emissions. Then if we talk about general
pollution issues, then sanitary landfills are also there, which are also sources of greenhouse gases
or other pollutants. Then sedimentation tanks in sewage system are the pollution control
mechanism basically. Then recycling, reuse, there are many ways basically to control the pollution.

1192
(Refer Slide Time: 03:09)

And when we talk about like controlling pollution involving other policy and regulatory issues,
then what we do, we basically do not to release into the environment, the kind of substance which
is like persistent which can go on for years without disintegrating and it has toxic nature, those like
persistent organic pollutants (POPs), those kinds of things, and we do not want to allow the escape
of these harmful pollutants into the environment, and we want to contain them or to reduce or
recycle these harmful substances before releasing into the environment. So, these are the basic
objectives for controlling the pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:48)

1193
When we come to like, how do we control the pollution, where do we derive this motivation and
also the principles. We see in the natural environment there are so many processes which are
naturally present there and they have self cleansing properties or capacities like you go for the lake
or revivers, whatever pollutants you dump into it, then it has its own mechanism to self cleanse.
Means, after some time you will find that that pollution is not present there, but it depends upon
the limit basically.

So, the atmosphere also has like rivers it has self cleansing capacity. You emit something after
some time the air will be clean. For some time, it will be polluted, but depending upon how much
quantity of the pollutants we have released if it is small, after some time it will be clean because it
will disperse, it will be diluted or it will be transformed into some other compounds or chemicals.

So, the natural self-cleansing properties of the environment related like dispersion of the pollutants
or gravitational settling with or without any flocculation of the particles, it could be like wet
deposition, dry deposition. Then there are also absorption like including washout or scavenging
kind of phenomena, rainouts or adsorption all these things are present in the nature.

Every day we see it into all components of the environment, whether water and like air. Even in
soil after some time whatever waste is there these biological entities like microbes etc. they eat up
and then it can be converted into the soil ingredients. So, that way in all components of the
environment, there is this property of self-cleansing or getting rid of these pollutants or foreign
materials which are exceeding the quantity which is not required in that particular ecosystem.

1194
(Refer Slide Time: 05:58)

Well, now, if we talk about each of these kinds of natural phenomena which helps us in cleaning
the environment or cleaning the environment, so like dispersion. What does dispersion do?
Dispersion of pollutants basically like in air through wind so it reduces the concentration in the
downwind direction. So, it may be so much reduced that it is not harmful for us. It could be so
much diluted. So, that is helping in removing the pollutant from the source to the receptor.

In between there is transportation, transformation of the pollutant that happens, then gravitational
settling also occurs like particulate matters which deposits on surfaces of the earth, on the buildings
etc. So, gravity settling is there, gravitational settling is there depending upon the size of particulate
pollution. Particles which are of very small size, they may hang around for longer period otherwise
they can come with the wet deposition also with precipitation and so. So, those kind of gravitational
settling is also there.

1195
(Refer Slide Time: 06:58)

Then absorption like gaseous pollutants can get mixed into the rainwater or mist, so absorption is
there on some surfaces of solvents or something like that, which can be used in devising or having
these mechanisms in artificial manner also, and then like gaseous pollutants basically removed
when in the digital state they are like in the moisture so that is through chemical changes or wet
deposition.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:21)

Then rainout, the same thing like submicron particles, they also help in condensation. So, they act
as nuclei for creation of the clouds, where is submicron kind of these particles. They are important

1196
for cloud formation. But it depends like what is the size of those particles. If they are very small,
then there will be clouds, but droplets will be so much small that rain will not be there. So, it is
called as suppression of the rain. So, that change in the rain patterns can be due to pollution also.
If the larger particles are there, large size of droplets are formed then precipitation maybe more.
So, those kinds of things also are there in rainout phenomena.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:08)

Then adsorption is there, like on surfaces, for example, like activated carbon or those kinds of
surfaces it can be absorbed. So, those things we have to see. Otherwise, in nature it is like on the
particles, for example, gaseous components they get attached to it and calcium sulfate, magnesium
sulfate, those kind of chemical, transformation of gaseous pollutants of SO2 etc. can take place.

1197
(Refer Slide Time: 08:34)

Well, so most of these control devices which we will discuss in brief are based on these principles
of natural self-cleansing properties which are present in the nature. So, like gravitational settling
with or without flocculation particles which are used in settling chambers or cyclones. In cyclones,
basically, we allow this gas to pass in a round manner with centrifugal force and then particles are
removed when they strike to the surface.

Absorption like spray towers or plate towers they are used for this absorption phenomenon, rainout
like wet scrubbers and then adsorption using activated carbon or silica gel so they use this principle
of adsorption. So, that way in this list that all these natural principles are being used to devise some
sort of equipment for reducing or capturing the pollutants from several sources.

1198
(Refer Slide Time: 09:31)

Well, now if we talk about the objectives of the air pollution control, so what is the objective, as
we know? Objectives are like prevention of the nuisance because of these pollutants or prevention
of physical damage because of these pollutants nature, then elimination of health hazards to plant
or people when they get exposed to these pollutants.

So, if we reduce pollution or control the pollution then we are eliminating those kinds of
possibilities or recovering valuable waste products sometimes. It is also important. You can
capture this sulfur dioxide in terms of sulfuric acid or those kinds of phenomena can also be there
or minimization of economic loss through the reduction of plant maintenance. Otherwise, these
pollutants like as of acidic nature, they will damage the equipments etc. and maintenance cost will
be more otherwise if we do not control, capture these kinds of pollutants. Improvement of product
quality is also the part of this objective of controlling the air pollution.

1199
(Refer Slide Time: 10:32)

So, basically, there are natural sources of air pollutants, human activities are also the sources. So,
what we do when we devise some new equipments, basically we focus on manmade activities like
industrial emissions, power plant emissions or mobile source emissions from vehicular tailpipe
etc.

So, we do intervention those kinds of technological intervention to reduce or to control the

emissions. So, that is the part of basically of this whatever air pollution control strategies we talk
about. Otherwise, natural sources are there and they are beyond our control. For example, dust
storms are there in summer. We cannot control them. That is of that size that scale.

But of course, we can intervene the same in the sense like we can be in house when this storm is
very intense or something like that. So, we can prevent ourselves, but controlling those phenomena
is very difficult. Similarly, volcanoes, they are natural sources. We cannot control those emissions,
but from industries, from these manmade activities, if pollution discharge or emissions are there,
we can control them and this talk is basically to control those kind of emission sources.

1200
(Refer Slide Time: 11:50)

So, the primary focus, of this regulation or in developed countries, it has been focused on
protecting ambient or outdoor air quality. Otherwise, nowadays, indoor air quality is also very
important. We have studied about impacts of indoor air quality. So, the controlling of indoor air
pollution sources is also very critical nowadays. Earlier it was more on outdoor side. So, more
current technologies, interventions came into existence for outdoor and ambient air quality control.
Now, both are there basically.

And when we talk about controlling air pollutants, we are trying to control like particulate matter
PM2.5, PM10 or carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, lead, and we generally
call them criteria air pollutants. What is criteria air pollutants, criteria air pollutants have certain
threshold limits. They are harmful when they exceed the standards. And if they are below those
inner limits, then it is fine means we can tolerate them.

1201
(Refer Slide Time: 12:55)

But there are toxics which are they do not have this kind of threshold limit. They may be very
harmful like carcinogenic elements or some other toxic chemicals which can change our internal
system. So, those are very kind of hazardous pollutants and we do not call them criteria pollutants.
Those are non-criteria air pollutants or health hazard pollutants. So, there may be like pesticides
etc. or those kind of things are there, which also we control, we want to control if they are being
emitted from different sources, manmade activities.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:26)

1202
So, how to control? We do whatever activity we are doing through policy measures or
technological interventions, basically, we are either reducing at the source. So, these very
important aspect like first of all we try to reduce reduction at the source through raw material
change, through operational change, processes change or modification or replacement of process
equipment. So, that you just get rid off at the source itself, rather than controlling after it is being
exhaust, after it is being emitted. So, whether it is better that you control at the source itself that is
the best policy.

Then reduction of pollutant discharge at the source by the application of some control equipments.
You can capture it. Or dilution of the source discharge using tall stacks, means if you are not able
to control at the source, then at least you control before emitting into the air. When it is coming
out of the tall stacks or chimneys, if it is taller, then chances are there it will be diluted before
reaching to the ground level. So, exposure will be minimum.

That is why these tall stacks are there. Although in early stages, these stacks were meant for to
give the draft pressure, because of pressure difference you need less mechanical energy to helping
the burning of the fuel, but later on it was known that these tall stacks also help in dispersion of
pollutants, dilution of pollutants that is why these are important in terms of controlling mechanism
also.

Then dispersion of source location through the allocation of land uses like proper planning, zoning,
industrial zones, areas, land use, land planning, those kinds of things, you can have Greenbelt in
urban areas around the industrial locations. So, those kinds of things are also there to control the,
these air pollution. And the most effective methods in that way that the reduction at the source,
whether by application of control equipment or devices or by the process control, so it is better if
possible please control at the source itself rather than controlling after it is being emitted means
before just emission to the air.

1203
(Refer Slide Time: 15:54)

Now, if we talk about like, the like devices for controlling particulate matters from stationary
sources, so what are those devices? So, important devices are like settling chambers, these are very
simplest devices settling chambers like room size depending upon how much emissions of these
dust pollution is there. These are very simple kind, means inlet is there, outlet is there, like this is
settling chamber. So, inlet is there. This pollution will come here then outlet is there.

So, when it goes up to this, the particles go by this gravity. They are collected, but efficiency is
very less and only large particles are removed by this process. But this is important activity when
we want to reduce the load on the secondary kind of devices, like you are using expensive devices
to control then better you have settling chambers if it is possible. But it requires a lot of like space.
It is not so popular in city itself where land cost is very high.

Then inertial separators are there by inertia, means by impaction inertia is there. Then we will see
what kind of those separators are. Then cyclones can be there, scrubbers can be there. And cyclones
again by centrifugal force we reduce the, this velocity of the inner particles when it strikes to the
surface and they slide down and you can collect into the hopper. Scrubbers, when some solution
is there where we can capture the pollution. These wet scrubbers they can be useful for particulate
matter as well as gaseous pollutants also.

Then for particulate matters these ESPs are very good. They are although like costly at initial stage,
but efficiency is very high, electrostatic precipitators. So, they by this ionization kind of

1204
phenomena, they can capture the particulate matter. Fabric filters are also there, but it depends
upon what is the temperature of exhaust gases. Very high temperature, it is not recommended
because of fire hazards etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:52)

When we talk about devices for controlling the gaseous pollutants from stationary sources, then
there are different equipment like spray tower, so spray is there, gas is going from down, so gas
goes up by buoyancy and thus and then spray is coming down. So, it captures the gas, some
reaction may happen depending upon the solution. But it generate wastewater. So, again it is
changing the pollutant from air pollution to the water pollution, but at some locations it is
important.

Then some plate towers maybe there or packed towers maybe there, then venture-scrubbers can be
used or use of adsorbent units or combustion or incineration equipments are also good, but it is
expensive because it needs, to generate you need calorific value and also electricity and that fire
kind of thing and there are issues. I mean, although it is good because it converts the pollutants
into the CO2 and complete the combustion is possible.

Then if we talk about emission control from mobile sources, then basically like we can use the
Exhaust Gas Recirculation system, (EGR) or the air injection system can be there, catalytic
converter could be there, positive crankcase ventilation wall can be applied, then evaporative

1205
control system can be there and they are being used in cars etc. So, we will see in detail one by
one.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:33)

Then if you talk about like we have talked about point sources, stationary sources, mobile sources,
if we talk about area sources, there are also ways to control the pollutants like from agricultural
field. So, dust and particle control can be there by maintaining soil surface cover and wind barriers
or vegetative and artificial barriers can be there to prevent the resuspension of the dust or
windblown dust those kinds of things. Otherwise it happens because of like when we are doing
some agricultural activities, lot of this dust pollution can be there.

Then crop residue burning control could be through like composting the residue or production of
the biochar. Then mechanical devices are also there like happy seeder and those kinds of straw
management unit cuts, lifts and throws the stubble, the loose straw onto the sown and this can be
basically used in a better way. So, those kind of mechanical systems are available that those can
be converted into compost also into some manure also there are also ways. So, that is a way to
control the area source of agriculture waste pollution generation sources, otherwise people burn it
and that is not good because it pollutes a lot of ambient air environment.

1206
(Refer Slide Time: 20:39)

If we talk about like area source control of forest fire etc. then there are ways like fire fighting
reservoirs are made, and if fire occurs then it can, this water can be used and there are some
systems. Then spraying fire retardants are there like 85 percent water, 10 percent fertilizer and 5
percent minor ingredients are also there. Then forest fire monitoring systems could be there
through aerial surveillance and fire watchdog could be the there. And that way at the beginning if
you control the fire of the forest then it is easy, otherwise if it spreads then it is very, very difficult
to control fires. You might have heard in several countries it occurs in the summertime and a lot
of forest areas are burned because of several reasons.

1207
(Refer Slide Time: 21:32)

When we talk now by one by one like control of particulate pollution from stationary sources, then
there may be like physical properties which we can use, because like particulates with particulate
matters or particles which can adhere to each other so they can form agglomerate large sized
particles and it is easy to remove them or they can get settled down by gravity also.

So, these are the ways. But each air pollution control project is a unique one. So, we cannot apply
one kind of device everywhere. And we have to see what kind of particle size is there, what kind
of particle density is there. So, that way you have to design a particular system to control the
particulate pollution.

1208
(Refer Slide Time: 22:23)

Well, examples are there like settling chambers can be there, cyclone collectors could be there like
this one. So, by centrifugal force, you can remove these particulate matter and it goes down then
you can collect into the hopper. And these devices are important into the sense like control
industrial dust emissions are easy and then it can also be act as like pre-cleaners, before other kinds
of collection devices we employ, because otherwise the load will be more on those sophisticated
devices. So, better you use either settling chambers or cyclone collectors.

Then wet scrubbers could be there and they are like depending upon flammable or explosive dust
etc. so those wet scrubbers can be used in that sense, like mist etc. those can be used by wet
scrubbers. Then if you talk about electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters, they are also very
popular and in particularly power plants, coal-based power plants, a lot of particulate pollution is
there and that can be controlled through ESPs or fabric filters.

1209
(Refer Slide Time: 23:33)

Well, when we talk about different factors which affect the selection of the device, which kind of
device is more applicable, then there are certain factors, like what is the size of the particle, what
is the shape of particle, density, then loading means how much milligram per cubic meter or gram
per cubic meter or kilogram per cubic meter it is being emitted that will also influence the decision
on what kind of device we need to select.

Then efficiency required, whether you want to remove it 99 percent or 95 percent depending upon
whether it is only the device or it is pre-cleaning device. So, that way you have to see the vectors.
Then there are properties of carrier gases also like what is the composition of that gas, where this
particulate matter is present in, temperature, pressure, viscosity, density, humidity, combustibility
or reactivity, toxicity, electrical and sonic properties, all these things really help us to decide or
device what kind of equipment is necessary. Then flow characteristic like flow rate, variation in
the flow rate, if it is very fluctuating then again simple devices are better, otherwise it would be
difficult to employ the sophisticated devices to control when fluctuation rate is very high.

1210
(Refer Slide Time: 24:55)

Then there are like specific properties like contaminant phase, solubility or combustibility as we
have seen earlier. Then what is the pressure drop or contaminant disposal and then ease of the
maintenance and reliability all these factors influence which kind of device we have to select.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:14)

Then if we talk about control of gases from stationary sources, so we see like absorption or
adsorption or incineration any kind of thing is applicable depending upon the properties of these
gases pollutants like these are hydrocarbons or volatile organic carbons or air toxics. So,
combustion can be there if air toxics are there. It is better to burn them completely. Then these

1211
techniques can be employed as a single device or a combination of different devices basically. And
the fourth technique like carbon sequestration is also emerging to control or to capture the CO2
emissions, carbon dioxide emissions, because of this greenhouse related problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:56)

Well, when we talk about controlling mobile sources, then there are three main sources of gases
or emissions from cars etc. like engine exhaust or crankcase or the fuel tank and carburetor. So, at
these points different kind of mechanisms are employed for controlling the emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:15)

1212
So, in engine exhaust like the exhaust pipe discharge, which are like burned or unburned
hydrocarbons are emitted, carbon monoxide is emitted or oxides of nitrogen and sulfur are also
emitted, then traces of various acids and alcohols and phenols. The crankcase related emissions
could be like secondary source of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. So, that is from
the crankcase. Then fuel tank and carburetor could be responsible for emissions of hydrocarbons
due to evaporation and this, these are minor but significant contributing factor in pollution. So, we
have to control them also.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:59)

So, variety of systems for controlling emissions from all the mentioned sources have been
developed. And the control exhaust emissions which are responsible for two-thirds of the total
engine pollutants, two types of systems are used basically like the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
system or the airline injection system.

1213
(Refer Slide Time: 27:20)

So, we will see what is the difference in EGR or Exhaust Gas Recirculation system basically what
happens. This specific portion of exhaust gas is directed back to the cylinder head and this exhaust
gases are then combined with the fuel-air mixture before entering into the combustion chamber.
So, they are again burned. So, the recirculated exhaust gases serve to lower the temperature of
combustion and which helps in reducing the production of oxides of nitrogen though at some losses
of the engine efficiency. But it is a kind of net you know beneficial kind of activity that happens.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:01)

1214
In air injection system what we do basically, the air combines with the unburned hydrocarbons
and carbon monoxide at a high temperature and in effect continues the combustion process. A
large percentage of formerly discharged pollutants through the exhaust system which is burned
through the, with no additional generation of the power, but it is burned, so that it is converted into
carbon dioxide and those final products of the complete combustion.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:30)

Then there is another way of controlling these emissions from engine exhaust and that is basically
the catalytic converter. So, these are, catalytic converters are consisted of insulated chamber which
contains ceramic pellets or a ceramic honeycomb structure which is coated with a thin layer of
metals such as platinum and these palladium kind of thing. They are like catalyst to convert gases
into, these harmful gases into non-harmful gases.

1215
(Refer Slide Time: 29:00)

So, these metals basically induced the harder hydrocarbons, the carbon monoxide and nitrogen
oxides in the exhaust to convert to water vapor or carbon dioxide or nitrogen so which are
presenting that most well which are not harmful for us. So, these are carbon monoxide or NO X
related emissions can be converted or hydrocarbons are etc. can be converted into water vapor,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen that way.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:29)

Then in crankcase, the portion of the engine block below the cylinders where the crankshaft is
located, the lead combustion gases basically which are combined with the ventilating air and then

1216
it is returned to the intake manifold times for reburning in the combustion chamber. So, this device
basically performs the function like a Positive Crankcase Ventilation valve or PCV valve it is
known as. So, that way again it helps in reducing those kind of leak related emissions and they are
burnt and converted into harmless products.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:09)

Well, in fuel tank and carburetor there are like evaporative emissions can be there. Earlier there
were no subsystem, nowadays subsystem is available. So, these evaporative emissions are also like
they are taken into these particular chambers where they are captured. And the sealed fuel tank
caps and evaporative control system is employed for removing these particular emissions which
could be because of evaporative emissions. So, that kind of evaporative emission system is
developed to capture those hydrocarbons etc.

1217
(Refer Slide Time: 30:47)

Well, this computer control fuel injection system can be there which ensures more precise air-fuel
mixture basically and it creates greater efficiency in combustion process and lower the generation
of pollutants. So that way it is a win-win situation. You are capturing the pollutants, you are also
helping into having better combustion process.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:08)

So, all in all, we can say that these kind of devices controlling equipments of air pollutants, they
are based on natural phenomenon which is known as self-cleansing principles of the nature. So,
various equipments are designed on the basis of those. So, the only pollution which are caused by

1218
human activities such as industry or transportation, they are subject to the mitigation and control.
Basically, when we are talking about air pollution control, so we are talking about only the
controlling air pollution emissions from human activities.

And the best way to protect air quality is basically to reduce the emission of pollutants at the source
itself. And means having cleaner fuels or application of control devices and process control at the
source itself so that you do not need to clean the air afterwards when it is coming out from stacks
etc. Then the selection of control device can play very important role in controlling the pollutants
efficiency.

So, depending upon the nature of the pollutant, nature of the industry, you have to see which kind
of pollution control device you have to employ or design, maybe you have to design specific
pollutant control equipments depending upon that unique facility. the natural self-Tcleansing
properties of the environment has been employed in revising or designing these particular
controlling devices.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:40)

Well, this is all for today. These are the references for additional information. Thank you for your
kind attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1219
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 42
Air Pollution Control Devices- Part - 1

Hello, friends. You may recall last time we discussed about introductory part of air pollution
control. Today we will discuss about air pollution control devices. And within that, first of all we
will discuss like how to control particulate matters.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

So, in this lecture after introduction we will see these removal mechanisms, collection efficiency
related issues, then types of air pollution control devices, for example, settling chamber or inertial
separators like baffle walls related or louver type or dust trap kind of devices, separators, cyclonic
separators and then we will conclude. And after in next lecture again we will continue, how to
control the air pollution through these controlling devices. Well, so, in introduction, we can say
that this control of their pollution is very important. And in a most effective way, if you want to
control the pollution then it is better to control at the source itself.

1220
(Refer Slide Time: 01:31)

And one of these methods which are prominent or effective to control the air pollution emissions
is by the application of control equipment or devices at the source itself. And appropriate air
cleaning devices are required to collect the particulate pollutants, because whenever there are a
number of pollutants are emitted. So, as per the nature of the pollutant, whether it is particulate
pollutant or gaseous pollutant we have to install some equipment or controlling devices.

So, today we will discuss about particulate pollutants, concentration, reduction or control of the
particulate pollutant emissions basically. So, we will see how particulate matters of different sizes
or different densities we can control. So, these control devices we will focus only on particulate
matter concentration or collection basically.

1221
(Refer Slide Time: 02:37)

So, if you talk about like different pollutants removal mechanisms which are used for removal of
these particulate pollutants, then basically we list like gravitational settling or centrifugal
impaction or direct interception those kinds of things. So, in gravitational settling basically only
the gravity, it acts like there is a mass of the aerosol or particles so gravity pulls and it settles down
because of simple gravity. Then we can also mimic this pulling force or gravitational force by
creating centrifugal force.

So, if you rotate by some device, the particulate matter, then there will be centrifugal force and it
will strike to some surface and then there it will lose the velocity and it will be collected or we can
also do like impaction through barriers, whenever we change the course or this direction of the
flow, then what happens like these particles which are having mass so because of this momentum,
they just go in a straight line. They do not quickly change the path right like the guests. So, they
will have the tendency of striking to the particular that barrier and then again they can lose the
velocity and they can be trapped or collected.

1222
(Refer Slide Time: 03:38)

Then there may be another way like electrostatic attraction. Electrostatic attraction force is created
by kind of ionization. So, we have different kinds of field, we have particles pass through so they
get charged, and then on the opposite charge there is one device where they are collected, then
they lose again the velocity and slides down. Inertial deposition can be there as these baffling kind
of things maybe there or Brownian diffusion. So, ultimately, they get attached to some surface and
slide down or get collected at the hopper at the bottom.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:17)

1223
So, if we want to collect, then as an engineer we also want to know what the efficiency of collection
is. So, in a general we can say, like this efficiency related to a particular, let us say, diameter
particle Dp, if we want to calculate the collection efficiency of particulate pollution of the diameter
Dp, then 1 minus number of particles of that diameter Dp only per cubic meter of the gas going out
divided by the number of particles of diameter Dp only per cubic meter in the flow gas coming in.
So, that is the simple relationship.

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡

η (Dp) = 1 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡

η=1− 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡

ηm (Dp) = 1 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛

If you want to just the overall efficiency then rather than this particular diameter we consider
number of all the particles. So, number of all the particles going out per cubic meter remember this
and number of particles coming in so that division deducted from the 1 so that is the particular
efficiency of overall efficiency.

If you want to see the collection efficiency based on particulate mass, this eta m (ηm ) mass related,
then it can be defined it like, defined like mass of particles of diameter Dp per cubic meter of gas
going out divided by the mass of particles of diameter Dp per cubic meter of gas which is coming
in that device. So, that is overall efficiency related relationship which we generally use, because it
will be used later on to calculate the efficiency that is why we discussed just now about this.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:47)

1224
Then if we talk what kind of devices are there which are available in industrial pollution control,
so the list of common types of these air pollution control devices or collection devices of aerosols
or particulate matter is like settling chambers or inertial separators or cyclones. These three types
of devices we will discuss today. Then there are like bag house filters or filters, fabric filters,
electrostatic precipitators or scrubbers or wet collectors they are known as we will discuss in the
next lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:32)

So, if we start our discussion on settling chamber that is the simplest device. Basically, this is
simple chamber, length, width, height, so this kind of device. So, there is inlet, gas, lead and by

1225
pollutants goes into this and it comes out of this particular outlet. So, there is a distance this length
L, this has to be traveled by this gas particles, particles are there in the dirty gas and this particle
has the mass so it has tendency due to gravity to go down.

So, when it travels to this distance this should be of such a speed or velocity that these particles
comes down before going out through the outlet that is the fundamental thing very simple
understanding we have to develop that it should be removed only then it will come down and we
will remove from the hopper.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:26)

So, this is the chamber, settling chamber of the length L and height h and this gas which is full of
these particulate matters is going inside and this velocity of the gas is V simple V. And the Stoke’s
velocity of the particles, which takes it down is Vs. So, this Vs should be says that with this Vs
this height will be traveled, this length of the height. For that particle this path is of the length
height and this gas the path is length L. So, with V when this particle comes to this stage, this
should basically come down.

ℎ 𝐿
=
𝑉𝑠 𝑉

So, that h divided by Vs equals L divided by V. So, the time taken by one particle which it travels
from this point to this in the horizontal direction, in vertical direction it should have the velocity

1226
of Vs and it should come down. So, that particular diameter of the particle we have to design for
that how this Vs can be achieved so that it does not go out with the dirty gas rather it comes down.
And this L is length of the chamber as you know, V is the horizontal velocity of the carrier gas and
Vs settling velocity of particles and h is the height through which this particulate matter travels
following the Stoke's velocity. So, this Vs is nothing but this hV divided by L. So, that way we
can calculate the velocity.

ℎ𝑉
𝑉𝑠 =
𝐿

(Refer Slide Time: 09:06)

This Stoke’s law you can represent it by this Vs g into rho p (𝜌𝑝 ) minus rho D square divided by
18 mu. So, D is the diameter of the particle, g is acceleration due to gravity as you know, rho p
(𝜌𝑝 ) is the density of the particles and rho (𝜌) is the density of the gas carrier, mu is viscosity of
the gas. So, when we determine D using this equation, so you can just play with it and the square
root of 18V h mu (18𝑉ℎ𝜇) divided by L into g rho p (𝜌𝑝 ) minus rho (𝜌). So, that way this is the
diameter which is basically the minimum size of the particle which can be removed in a settling
chamber.

𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)𝐷2
𝑉𝑠 =
18𝜇

1227
 1⁄
18𝑉ℎ𝜇 2
𝐷=[ ]
𝐿𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)

So, this will decide that this will be the minimum of size. Beyond that size they will have more
than Vs. So, they will automatically come down. But this is the minimum size of the particle which
will be removed almost completely. So, that will be the design parameter for settling chambers,
like particulate matter of different size exist in the exhaust gas. So, we have to design the settling
chamber to remove these particles which are mostly coarser particles, coarse sized particles and
these are used for cleaning of the gas when it is passed through other instruments. So, that on those
instruments load is less in comparison.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:32)

Then there are certain important aspects. So, like for example, the gas velocity must be sufficiently
low. If it is more, if it is speedy, then short circuiting will be there and gas will directly pass through
this taking the pollutants out. So, that is not effective. We want to calculate those particles. So, this
gas velocity must be slow or it should not be more than 3 meter per second (m/s) and so that it can,
otherwise it is speedy, it will short circuit as well as resuspension of the dust particles may also
occur because of this high speed so that we have to avoid. Less than 0.5 meter per second is the
velocity which gives very good results. So, 0.5 to 3 meter per second we have to maintain it.

1228
Then to minimize the turbulence and ensure uniform velocity sometimes curtains or rods or wire
mesh those kinds of things can be applied by suspension so that this inertia kind of things occur.
And the pressure drop through the settling chamber is usually small, not most, not much and
consists mainly of entrance and the exit losses only. So, that way it is very simple way.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:36)

Then if we talk about the efficiency then it can be improved by the height, improved in the terms
of height as traveled by the, this particle. When efficiency is improved if the height traveled by the
particle is less, otherwise there are other problems. So, this is less. So, diameter related to height
can be calculated. Horizontal trays or shelves can be incorporated to reduce this height part,
otherwise there will be large height. So, you can install more horizontal plates so that effective
height can be reduced for several diameter particles.

And to this increase in efficiency obtained by these insertion of horizontal trays directly
proportional to the number of trays, basically that efficiency can be covered by the number of
trays. And the minimum particle size which can be removed after installation of these trays can be
up to 10 micrometer, otherwise, generally it removes up to 40 micrometer or so. But by these
manipulation of this settling chamber through horizontal trays etc. you can improve the efficiency
in terms of the size of the particle so that you can remove even fine particles up to 10 micrometer
which is PM10 or RSPM, respirable suspended particulate matter.

1229
(Refer Slide Time: 13:00)

So, this is used for removing the particulate matters of size equal to or more than 40 micrometer.
For that, it is very good. And if you want to reduce further then you have to apply certain those
original trays etc. Then these settling chambers are used widely to remove large solid particulate
matters from natural draft furnaces, kilns, etc. And also, it is used in process industries like food
and metallurgical industries as the first step to dust control, so that the load on the secondary device
can be reduced significantly and it is widely used as pre-cleaners for high efficiency collectors.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:37)

1230
Then there are advantages and disadvantages. In advantages that it is low initial cost, simple
construction. The construction is very simple kind of chamber you can divide. But in terms of
disadvantage it requires large space. So, in countryside it can be okay fine, but in urban areas it is
difficult because land cost is much more.

When we go for another additional advantages that it requires very low maintenance, because there
are no moving parts etc., low pressure drop is there, then dry and continuous disposal of solid
particles can be achieved by these settling chambers and it can be constructed out of almost any
material whether you construct by simple chamber of some metal or even bricks etc. that is also
possible. Temperature and pressure limitations imposed only by material of the construction use.
So, that way you can also control of which high temperature if you want to use then accordingly
material of those valves can be used.

If you talk about the disadvantages, it requires large space. So, the land should be cheap in that
particular location, otherwise it is not advisable. Then relatively low particles collection efficiency
like beyond 40 micrometer or 50 micrometer if it is less than that then it is difficult to trap them
unless we provide those horizontal trays etc. It is good for 40 or 50 micrometer. Then trays in
multiple tray settling chambers may warp during high temperature. They can undulate. They can
get D shaped kind of things. So, those are the issues with this settling chamber.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:29)

1231
Then we come to another device which is known as inertial separators. So, these inertial separators
basically utilize the relatively greater inertia of the, these dispersoids, those fine particles to affect
the particulate gas separation. And they employ continuous changes of the direction of the carrier
gas stream to exert the greater inertial effect on the dispersoid or particles, because impact will be
more if we changed its direction, we provide some baffle walls or those kinds of things. So, the
types of inertial or impact separators can be like baffle type separators or louver type separators or
dust traps.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:12)

So, the principle, basically the inertia related, inertia when you change the direction by baffles etc.
inertia occurs and they strike to the surface then they lose the velocity and slide down. And we,
these solid moves along the chamber with the velocity of the gas gaining momentum and it strikes
at the barrier and get settles down when air changes the direction because of losing the velocity.

1232
(Refer Slide Time: 16:40)

When we talk about baffle type separators, these kind of deformed kind of valves we take so the
direction changes continuously and the suitable for removing particles larger than 20 micrometer
in diameter. So, that way it is better if we compare with the settling chamber. So, certain change
direction is to be ensured by these staggering kind of plates etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:09)

Whenever this high impaction velocity often leads to severe abrasion, so those are the issues
basically. Efficiency is dependent on degree of impaction which occurs. So, those things we have
to ensure if we want to remove more particles.

1233
(Refer Slide Time: 17:24)

And these baffle chamber efficiency is a function of four variables basically, like number of papers
we have provided, length of the baffle, spacing of the baffle, configuration of the baffles, the types
etc. So, these things will influence the separation of the particles basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:44)

You can see like this louver type of separators where these kind of louvers are installed. So, that
there is the change of the velocity, like air is going like this, but nearer to these kind of insertions
this air changes its velocity and then this it causes rapid reversal of the gas flow direction and
thereby it causes the particulate matter to impinge on the louvers and lose the velocity and get

1234
down in the hoppers basically. So, these type of, louver type of separators can operate at the
velocity of like 12 to 15 meter per second at the inlet. So, that way you can have more efficiency.
And its efficiency depends upon like closer spacing of these louvers which we have seen in the,
these kind of configurations.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:36)

And it is suitable for removing particles larger than 30 micrometer. So, that way again it is better
than the settling chambers, but baffle walls are better than these.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

1235
Then if we talk about the dust trap, like gas comes down and then it changed direction because the
outlet is above so it will go 180°. So, in this change of the direction it again have this tendency of
striking to the walls and losing the velocity and getting down and it is useful for dust loading when
it is very high like 100 gram per cubic meter or so. And this gas velocity at the inlet is like 10
meter per second in the chamber and it is reduced about 1 meter per second afterwards. Then again
collection efficiency is about 70 percent of the particles greater than 30 micrometer. So, it is
comparable with those earlier one.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:31)

Then the applications of these inertial separators can be widely it can be applied to the particulate
matters removal like in power plants or rotary kilns or it is sometimes used as the pre-cleaner as
settling chambers also use so that way also these are devices which can be used for pre-cleaner
before better devices like ESP etc.

1236
(Refer Slide Time: 19:57)

Then advantages and disadvantages if you want to discuss about inertial separators then advantages
are like it is again simple low-cost device and construction is also very easy, simple to operate as
it has no moving parts, then moderately low pressure drop for the degree of removal obtained. But
there are disadvantages like clogging of the baffle was louver with the corresponding reduction in
efficiency occurs after some time. So, you have to clean that after some time. Then excessive
abrasion because of high impaction velocity also occurs. So, maybe you have to change those
baffle walls or louver kind of structures.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:34)

1237
Now, we come to the cyclonic separators. So, in cyclonic separators basically it is nothing but a
structure without moving parts in which the velocity of an inlet gas stream is transformed into a
confined vortex that circular motion from which centrifugal forces tend to drive the suspended
particles to the wall of the cyclone body. So, like for example, this inlet is there and this gas goes
downwards basically, it goes downwards in circular motion.

So, in circular motion because of centrifugal force and tangential force it restricts to the wall and
loses its velocity and gets down to a hopper. Then when it goes up, because outlet is in this
direction, so it goes up again, in circular motion it goes, there also again it is trapped and whatever
remaining particles, smaller particles, they can be again give their velocity to zero and come down
so that way cyclonic separators work.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:46)

So, its principle basically have influence of the mass of the particles, inlet gas velocity or radius
of the cyclone, because the centrifugal force generated is like this Mp into vi square upon R, where
mass of the particle is Mp and the radius of cyclone is R and the inlet gas velocity is the vi. So,
this particular relationship will work to get the particle separate from the cyclonic separators. And
the design factor having the greatest effect on the collection efficiency is the cyclone diameter
basically, this radius. For a pressure drop, smaller the diameter higher the efficiency, because
centrifugal action increases with the decreasing radius of the rotation because it is in the
denominator. So, that is the very simple thing.

1238
 𝑣𝑖2
Fc = 𝑀𝑝 𝑅

(Refer Slide Time: 22:25)

The principle is again the minimum diameter, if you want to calculate for a particle that can
theoretically be removed completely from the cyclonic separator then this is the relationship Dp
can be calculated by this equation, 9 mu B (9𝜇𝐵) divided by pi V Nt rho p minus rho
[𝜋𝑉𝑁_𝑡 (𝜌_𝑝 − 𝜌)], where Dp is the minimum diameter of the smallest particle which can be
removed by this particular mechanism, mu is the viscosity of the fluid that is the gas or so, and the
B width of the cyclone inlet duct when it is coming and then the V is the average inlet velocity, Nt
is the number of turns made by gas stream in the cyclone when it comes down and go up, so rho p
(𝜌𝑝 ), density of the particle so is the density of the fluid.

1⁄
9𝜇𝐵 2
Dp, min. = [𝜋𝑉𝑁 (𝜌 ]
𝑡 𝑝 −𝜌)

1239
(Refer Slide Time: 23:14)

Important aspects like it consists of vertically placed cylindrical apparatus that has an inverted
cone kind of attached to the base. And the particulate laden gas stream enters tangentially, at the
inlet point here and then it goes down. And the dust particles are collected at the bottom in the
storage hopper.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:39)

The gas path generally follows a double vortex. Once it comes down then it goes up inside. So,
double part is there. So, that way there is a possibility of collection of smaller particles also. During

1240
cyclonic separation carrier gas rotationally rotational velocity exceeds several times the average
inlet gas velocity. So, that is the very important point for removal of these particles.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:07)

So, cyclone efficiencies are like for particulates of the order of 10 micrometer also greater than 90
percent. A particles are of the size of 20 micrometer or so, then efficiency further increases 95
percent. So, coarser particles naturally mass is more, removal efficiency is more. And it can be
operated at the high temperature like 1000 degrees Celsius, pressure of the 500 atmospheric
pressure. It can handle gas volumes ranging from 0.85 to 700 cubic meter per meter minute. So,
means good flow rate can we handled. A 15 percent gas leakage can bring down the efficiency to
virtually zero. So, the leakage should not be there that is very important aspect in this case. So,
wherever leakage it should be handled properly and promptly, otherwise efficiency will be
drastically reduced.

1241
(Refer Slide Time: 25:02)

In this graph the efficiency, collection efficiency depending upon the size of the ratio of the
particle, this D and D, particulate diameter D and diameter of smallest particle that can be removed
Dp. So, if it is like 10 up to 100 it can be removed. So, the ratio and you can decide the efficiency.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:21)

Well, the important aspects like the collection efficiency increases, if there is an increase in like
dust particle size or dust particle density or gas inlet velocity or inlet dust loading or cyclone body
length, number of gas revolutions because it will ensure more gas revolutions, then ratio of the
body diameter to the gas outlet tube diameter. And the collection efficiency decreases with the gas

1242
viscosity or density or cyclone diameter or gas outlet diameter, inlet width or inlet area. So, these
very kind of thumb rules. These aspects can be observed or taken care when we want to design
cyclonic separators.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:08)

And then another set of important aspects are there like different size of the particles are there, less
than 5 micrometer or 5 to 10, 15 to 40, more than 40. Efficiency, conventional and high efficiency
kind of separators maybe there. So, in conventional like less than 5, less than 50 percent efficiency
is there, high efficiency can ensure 50 to 80 also. And like 40 micrometer or so, 95 to 99 in
conventional and in high efficiency also. So, that is the limit up to the 40, otherwise the basic thing
is difference in this 5, 20 and 15, 40 that is the efficiency difference. And based on the efficiency,
two classes of cyclones have been categorized like conventional and high efficiency.

1243
(Refer Slide Time: 26:54)

If you want to see the design parameters basically, based on several design exercises or practices
or observations there are certain relationship, empirical relationships which have been decided like
this De equals Dc upon 2, Zc equal equals Dc upon 2. So, these are the dimensions in this cyclonic
separator cross section and those particular relationships are taken into consideration when we
design so that become better or efficient way of designing.

• De = Dc/2

• Hc = Dc/2

• Sc = Dc/8

• Lc = 2Dc

• Zc = 2Dc

• Bc = Dc/4

• Jc = Dc/4

1244
(Refer Slide Time: 27:33)

Well, operating problems are there, like it can eroded by particulate matter because it strikes to the
surfaces, corrosion maybe there if those gas, carrier gas is having like acidic content like SO2 etc.
then material build-up can be there at the inlet, outlet or some surfaces also. So, at some surfaces
sometimes people use those kind of like rim kind of thing and it can be removed, otherwise regular
cleaning is needed.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:01)

And corrosion-related means the carrier gas is taken into at the temperature where dew point is not
achieved only then it would be better, otherwise corrosion problem may be there.

1245
(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

And metal build-up can be taken into consideration and it can be removed by this rim provision or
by regular cleaning.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:30)

Well, applications can be there in many cases, like it can be used as the multiple cyclones or
cyclones in series depending upon what kind of pollution load is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:42)

1246
For example, to increase the efficiency in row and parallel rows as well as this kind of system
maybe there where smaller cyclones can be put together and multiple cyclones we can call it so
that more cyclones are available to remove the particles.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:59)

Well, this can consist of different rows two or more and depending upon their distance and
collection efficiency can be calculated.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:07)

1247
If we go into series only one after one then dirty gas goes to one particular this separator then
cleaner gas goes to another separator that way you can ensure very high efficiency or very clean
gas at the outlet depending upon how many cyclone separators you have installed in series
basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:32)

So, if you want to calculate the efficiency in cyclones installed in series, then this is the simple
formula like eta equals eta p plus this eta s 100 minus np [
𝜂 = 𝜂_𝑝 + 𝜂_𝑠 (100 − 𝜂_𝑝 )]. So, this is basically this eta (𝜂) efficiency of the combination of

1248
both the cyclones, eta p (𝜂𝑝 ) is efficiency of the primary cyclone that is initially, then efficiency
of the secondary cyclone based on the inlet dust load in it so that can be used.

𝜂 = 𝜂𝑝 + 𝜂𝑠 (100 − 𝜂𝑝 )

(Refer Slide Time: 30:01)

Then advantages are like low cost, initial low cost, simple construction and operation, low pressure
drop or low maintenance requirement, dry collection and disposal is very easy, temperature and
pressure limitations are only dependent on the materials of the construction. So, that way you can
have different kinds of metal if there are issues with the temperature. Relatively small space
required, because vertical you can design it. So, horizontal space may not be a big problem which
is a problem in the settling chamber.

Disadvantages like low collection efficiency for particles below 10 micrometer in diameter,
equipment is subject to the severe abrasive deterioration and depending upon the particle size, its
sharpness etc. then decreasing collection efficiency for decreasing dispersoid concentration in the
gas system. So, those are the issues of the disadvantages.

1249
(Refer Slide Time: 30:53)

Well, so, overall, we can say that the settling chamber is mostly used for coarser particles because
it is very simple device. It works on gravitational force. So, there is no other external forces we
are using. So, only coarse particles can be removed very efficiently and it is used that is why for
primary collector devices before some other devices are placed.

Then inertial separator uses the principle of inertia as we have seen to help separate particulate
from the gas. And cyclonic separators basically use this centrifugal impaction because of
centrifugal force to remove the particulate matter.

And the use of collector devices in series increases the collection efficiency. It also increases the
operational life of the individual devices. If some devices more problematic at the primary stage
you can remove it, replace it so that you can increase the life of the other devices which are on the
downward side. So, this is all for today's lecture on particulate matter collection devices. We will
continue this lecture of air pollution control devices.

1250
(Refer Slide Time: 32:03)

So, these are the references for additional information. And thank you for your kind attention. See
you again in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1251
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 43
Air Pollution Control Devices: Part – 2

Hello, friends. So, these days we are discussing about Air Pollution Control devices. In the part 1
we discussed about particulate matter control devices. And part two is also related to particulate
matter control devices like fabric filters, electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers or wet collectors and
then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:55)

So, if you recall the last lecture like what is the way of controlling air pollution and we kind of
agreed or concluded that the most effective method for reduction of pollution or controlling air
pollution is reducing it at the source or controlling it at the source itself. And there are several
devices which can be used for controlling air pollution at the source basically.

1252
(Refer Slide Time: 01:17)

And these control devices are based on different principles which we go one by one and different
mechanism like gravitational settling, in this, the particles when they contain gas or aerosol
particles. So, mixed, mixture of, it is introduced into a device or a chamber where the particles can
settle down with the force of gravity.

And in centrifugal impaction basically the gas is allowed to follow a circular path and which causes
a particulate matter to impact on the outer periphery of the device and lose the velocity due to the
centrifugal force. They go outside and impact on the wall and then slide down to get collected into
the hopper. Then direct interception can also be there, like the particles having less inertia, like
barely follow the gas stream lines around the fiber and gets into intercepted by the fibers itself
those kinds of interception occurs.

1253
(Refer Slide Time: 02:13)

Electrostatic attraction is also one way of controlling these air pollutants or collecting these air
pollutants of particulate nature. The particles containing gas stream is introduced into a device in
which the particles are charged and then they are subjected to an electric field which is causing
them to migrate from one of the surface of the device to another surface where the opposite charges
are there then they lose the charge and again slide down and get collected into the bottom hopper.

Then there is one mechanism like inertial deposition in which gas stream changes direction as it
flows around an object in the path and suspended particles tend to keep moving in the same
direction and they strike to, with the inertia strike to the that particular object and again lose the
velocity. Then there is Brownian diffusion also, like particles they are suspended in the gas and
they always in Brownian motion. They go from one direction to another. And in that movement,
they again get impacted on the surface and then get reduced to the, like velocity get reduced to the
0 and then they slide down.

1254
(Refer Slide Time: 03:24)

So, in that way, we have discussed three devices like settling chambers or inertial separators and
cyclones in the last lecture. Today, we will cover filters, electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers
or wet collectors.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:45)

So, when we go to the fabric filters basically, in fabric filter this flue gas which is containing
particulate matter is passed through a tightly woven or like cloth or fabric bag or something like
that, that causes particles in the flue gas to collected on the fabric by like sieving kind of thing,
because it passed through the pores and then it gets attached to those surfaces. And these are

1255
capable of efficiently collecting these particles over the size range of 0.1 micrometer to 1000
micrometer. So, very good range is there for fabric filters. They are very good devices in fact to
control or to capture very small particles and even large particles. So, that way it is very good. And
then a collection efficiency is also very high, like 99 percent of the particles can get collected by
these fabric filters.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:42)

Now, if we talk about the principle how does fabric filters operate, then basically we should know
about the concept of like overall pressure drop. When something is coming then they pass through
some inertia or some kind of obstacle, then they loses this force or pressure. So, overall pressure
drop is causing in the, across the fabric filter that we should know. Then this conditional residual
pressure drop delta PR (𝛥𝑃𝑅 ) that is also to be known. Then pressure drop due to dust cake, cake
means the dust particles which will get collected on the surface. So ultimately, they will form some
layer or we call it cake. So, that because of that also pressure drop will be there.

The thickness of the filter that fabric baghouse filter and then permeability of the filter layer,
thickness of particle layer which will deposit over the period of time and permeability of that
dashed cake or the particle layer that should be known and superficial gas velocity through the
fabric filter when gas is passing through with certain velocity and gas velocity that this gas
viscosity mu g (𝜇𝑔 ) that should also be known in addition to the gas velocity. So, those things

1256
these all parameters can be put in this equation and we can get this delta PT (𝛥𝑃𝑇 ) that is the
overall pressure drop by using these particular values.

𝑥𝑅 𝑥𝐶
𝛥𝑃𝑇 = 𝛥𝑃𝑅 + 𝛥𝑃𝐶 = 𝑉𝜇𝑔 { + }
𝐾𝑅 𝐾𝐶

(Refer Slide Time: 06:08)

Well, when we talk about like resistance due to cake deposition that can be calculated further with
this empirical relationship and where K2 is basically dust resistance coefficient that is also
calculated by this empirical relationship which has density of the particulate, gas viscosity, then dg
is there this geometric mass median diameter, because particles are of different sizes. So, we
calculate the mean or median diameter of the, those particles that is to be used for this calculation
purpose.

0.6
0.00304 𝜇𝑔 2600 𝑉
𝐾2 = 1.1 (𝜇 )( )( )
(𝑑𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ) 𝑔,700 𝐹 𝜌𝑝 0.0152

1257
(Refer Slide Time: 06:42)

Then, when we talk about like air-to-cloth ratio that is also very important governing factor for
efficiency of collection of particles through fabric filters. So, this is basically you can call like this
is ratio which is defined as the actual gas flow rate at the maximum operating conditions divided
by the total fabric area in the baghouse. So, that is the air cloth ratio which is a parameter and this
is air cloth ratio the gross is Qmaximum divided by Atotal.

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
(𝐴⁄𝐶 ) =
𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

So, A, this gross of the air to cloth ratio is calculated by this particular relationship where Qmaximum
is maximum actual gas flow rate, the actual gas flow rate of the maximum value because it may
fluctuate. So, the maximum value we will take. And the Atotal fabric area, the complete fabric area
through which this gas will pass so that area has to be taken, means including the pores.

1258
(Refer Slide Time: 08:25)

Well, then there is another concept of the net air-to-cloth ratio and this is basically defined like in
multi compartment fabric filters, where one or more of the compartment is isolated from the gas
flow due to like cleaning purpose or maintenance purpose. So, there may be multi filters or bag
filters. So, one can be for maintenance purpose, others may be in operation. So, in that case this
net A / C, air cloth ratio in terms of net, so that is Q maximum divided by A net. Earlier we used A total,
total area, now this is the net area which is in operation and in A total basically we are, we use all
kinds of these cloth area. So, in this, this bag area is calculated by pi DL(πDL), where D is the bag
diameter and L is the bag length and A is the bag surface area. So, this is the relationship which is
used for calculation of this air-to-cloth ratio of the net, not the total. Total was earlier one.

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
(𝐴⁄𝐶 ) =
𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡

1259
(Refer Slide Time: 08:51)

Now, there are different important aspects in filter, this fabric filter operation, like particle
collection mechanism is important in the sense that these multiple mechanisms are responsible for
particle capture with the dust layers and fabrics like impaction, Brownian diffusion, electrostatic
attraction. So, those things are important aspects basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:20)

And then if we talk about the efficiency during this pre-coat formation that is before cake formation
of the particle layer formation on the bag, so then it is less efficiency, but after this layer is formed,
then efficiency increases, because then more it is like pore is less in size or less area is available

1260
to go through the empty area. So, the efficiency increases basically when this pre-coat, in
comparison to the pre-coat there is this dust increases and that air resistance increases because of
less pore size. So, the cake information is also important in this case basically.

And this normal velocities of airflow through bag is 0.4 to 1 meter per minute. So, that kind of
velocity has to be there, otherwise like particle size and this removal efficiency that can vary
basically for different sizes, but this kind of drop is there for some particle size which can be again
overcome when cake formation is there. Those particles this like 0.1 to 10 so their efficiency is
less initial stages, but after cake formation the removal can be better.

So, in continuation to the important aspects we also consider like pre-coat formation. Before this
cake formation is there efficiency is less especially in the range of these particles 0.1 to 10
micrometer. When this coat formation or cake formation is there, then resistance is more for
passing the air and then the efficiency again increases and this like, for example, it is around 75,
then it becomes like maybe 85 or 90 or something like that. So, that way the efficiency increases
after this cake formation. And the normal velocities of the airflow through these bags has to be
like 0.4 to 1 meter per minute. So, that way we can collect a lot of particulate matter with good
efficiency.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:20)

Then if we talk about like efficiency of bag filters, how they decrease or increase, so they may
decrease on account of following factors like excessive filter ratios or improper selection of the

1261
filter media. So, those could be the reason basically. When we talk about excessive filter ratios,
basically this filter ratio is defined like carrier gas volume to the gross filter area per minute flow
of the gas. And this excessive filter ratio lowers particulate removal efficiency and result in
increasing the bag wear and tear. So, that way life of the bag also is reduced. Therefore, low filter
ratios are recommended for high concentration of particulate matter to be removed.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:11)

Then we talk about like improper selection of filter media. So, improper filter media can reduce
the collection efficiency also. While selecting filter media, properties like temperature resistance
means because the guests these emissions could be of different temperature basically. So, what is
the range, which range of the temperature this filter media can afford, so that has to be taken into
account. Then resistance to chemical attacks, because some gases may be of acidic nature like SO2
etc. maybe, dew point is achieved then the sulfuric acid formation maybe there because of moisture
etc. and this can attack the filter media if it is not resistant to chemical attacks. Then abrasion
resistance or all these kinds of things should be taken into consideration basically.

When we talk about operating problems, means operational problems, then cleaning, rupture of
the fabric. So, cleaning is required because otherwise when these pores are packed, then pressure
drop increases very high and efficiency decreases. So, regular cleaning has to be there. Then
rupture of fabric can be there because of shaking during the cleaning process. So, it is very difficult
to locate that rupture and it can decrease the efficiency very significantly.

1262
(Refer Slide Time: 13:48)

Then temperature also, like if temperature fluctuation is there and very high temperature occurs
maybe fire can also can be caught by the filter media if it is not a very high temperature resistant.
Bleeding like penetration of fabric by some fine particles. Double layer material or thick woven
fabric is used to counter these bleeding problems.

Humidity can be there like moisture free condition is required for maintaining good efficiency
within the baghouse, otherwise particulate matters of hygroscopic nature they will catch the
moisture and they will deposit to the pores. It will be difficult to take them out and the efficiency
or the removal efficiency and this pressure drop will increase and efficiency will decrease.
Chemical attack, the possibility of chemical attack due to corrosive chemical present in the
particulate matter and gas can be there.

1263
(Refer Slide Time: 14:33)

Then if we talk about like different characteristics which are important, different properties of the
filter media, which are important for these baghouse filter or fabric filters these are like carrier gas
temperature, carrier gas composition of SO2 etc. there then we have to take care those kind of filter
media we have to select which can resist the chemical attacks, gas flow rate, size and shape of the
dust particles and its concentration because accordingly the pore size will vary, efficiency of
removal vary, all these things will vary.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:06)

1264
So, if we see this table, this gives the physical properties of some common baghouse fabrics like
cotton. Cotton is there then the maximum continuous operating temperature could be 82 degrees
Celsius. Beyond that fire will be there. So, we cannot increase the temperature beyond 80 or 82
degree Celsius. Acid resistance is poor for cotton. They can attack by resist, acidic component of
the gases and their life will be very less. Alkaline resistance is good for the cloth, this cotton. And
then flex abrasion resistance is very good in that sense. And tensile strength is around 4900
kilogram per square centimeter. This is better than the wool.

But wool’s temperature resistance is better 10 degree Celsius. It is wool is good for acidic
resistance, then it is fair to good for these abrasion resistance, but this tensile strength is like only
1755 much less than the cotton one. Nylon has similar properties as wool when temperature is
taken into consideration, but acid resistance is not so good in comparison to the wool or then alkali
resistance is excellent and this abrasion resistance is also very nice and this tensile strength is better
than the wool and is even better than the cotton.

Then other metals are there. The best one is fiberglass which is having very high temperature
resistance like up to 290 degrees Celsius it can resist. And, but acid resistance fair to good
basically. It is not excellent like polypropylene. So, it is fair to good. Similarly, alkali resistance is
also fair to good and flex abrasion resistance is fair not excellent. This polypropylene has excellent
properties for abrasion and resistance to acidic and alkaline components and tensile strength is
maximum for this fiberglass. But second best is this polypropylene material.

So, means depending upon which industry is there, what kind of gas it is coming, what is the
composition of the gas, what is the temperature, what kind of resistance we need depending upon
that we can choose which fabric we should be using in that baghouse filter basically.

Then if we talk about like types of the fabric filters, then there are numerous types like envelope
type fabric filter can be there. It is in the form of cloth envelope supported on a wireless screen
frame and the individual units range from around 0.6 to 1 meter wide and 3 to 5 centimeter thick.
And gas is introduced on the outside of the each envelope and this passes through the fabric into
that frame of the unit and then it goes out of the collector. And then, but it is not suitable for very
fine particles. It is good for coarse particles.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:21)

1265
Then there may be multi-compartment type baghouse filters also where different compartments
are there like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. And for, continuous operation is necessary then these kinds of
arrangements are very good because if one compartment is under maintenance then other
compartments will continue to work. So, those kinds of things can be there. And then shaking,
cleaning are needed for time to time. So, some compartments will not be in operation, but other
compartments may be in the operation.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

Then if we talk about like applications where they are good these fabric filters, so we can see into
metallurgical industries or foundries or cement industries, even chalk and lime plants or ceramic

1266
industries, then flour mills etc. So, those are the kinds of industries where these fabric filters are
mostly used.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:00)

And the advantage is if we talk about then they are having high collection efficiency even more
than 99 percent of particles can be collected by fabric filters. And these are effective for a wide
range of dust types and this can operate over wide range of gas flow rates also. So, fluctuation it
can also afford to resist. Then reasonable low-pressure drop is there. It is not very high pressure
drop like other kind of devices have. Good efficiency to small particles also depending upon the
pore size and then this flow rate etc. Dry collection and disposal is very good in that sense.

1267
(Refer Slide Time: 19:45)

But there are some disadvantages also. Like there are limitations in terms of high temperature of
carrier gas or high humidity and other parameters because it cannot afford, otherwise very high
temperature can generate some fire related hazards, high humidity can very tight cakes may be
formed and it is difficult to remove them so efficiency decreases. High maintenance and fabric
replacements cost can be there. Large size of equipment is needed for, depending upon their flow
rate. Then it requires dry environment basically. Moisture is not good for fabric filters.

And fire or explosion potential can be there depending upon the temperature. Problems in handling
dust that may like corrosion kind of thing or clogging the cloth. So, those kind of problems are
there. It is not free from problems. But if we can get rid of this with highly skilled people and if
we have a lot of good money to operate, then this is a good suggestion to go for fabric filter
depending upon if there is no very high hot gases there.

1268
(Refer Slide Time: 20:49)

Now, if we talk about electrostatic precipitators, because fabric filters is a different device, electro
precipitator is different device. So, if you talk about the electrostatic precipitators, they are used in
mainly like industries of very high efficiency collection of particulate matter. We will see that they
are very costly to install, but their efficiency is very good. It can remove particles even less than
10 to 20 micrometer from a dust emission using electrical energy to charge particles and then go
for the other kinds of charge of the plates where they are deposited because of opposite charge
basically. So, one plate is there, through which particles go through and they get charged into that
particular kind of electric charge and then they move towards the opposite charge plate where they
lose their charge.

1269
(Refer Slide Time: 21:53)

So, the charged particulate particles are attracted to the collector plates basically carrying the
opposite charge. And the speed at which they migrate from this charging plates to the collector
plate can be known as the drift velocity basically, and this can be calculated by this particular
empirical relationship where we know like this dielectric constant for the particles which is
between 1.5 to 2.4 and then this Ec charging field is strength is there, Ep collecting field strength
is there, dp is particle diameter this one and the Kc is correction factor, mu g is gas velocity, so, all
these, sorry, gas viscosity. So, all these parameters are used for calculating the drift velocity.

2.95x10−12 𝑝𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝑝 ⅆ𝑝
Drift velocity (m/s), 𝜔 = 𝐾𝑐
𝜇𝑔

1270
(Refer Slide Time: 22:45)

And so these parameters as we have seen these are calculated by another set of empirical
relationship where the meaning of different parameters are given like free path of the particle,
mean free path, particle diameter, viscosity and gas density, mean molecule speed, all these, then
molecular weight of the gas, temperature in Kelvin and the universal gas constant is also used for
calculation of this mu m (𝑢𝑚 ).

(Refer Slide Time: 23:14)

Then if we talk about efficiency of the collection, so that can be calculated by this formula eta
equals 1 minus e to the power of minus this omega A upon Q. So, this omega (ω) is drift velocity

1271
and eta (ƞ) is fractional collection efficiency, A is the available collection area of the plates
basically, if it is plate, if it is circular cylinder then we can calculate the surface area basically,
volumetric flow rate Q is there. So, the particle size basically play a very important role in the
determination of drift velocity as we have seen earlier and has the modified this Deutch-Anderson
equation is required for calculations.

𝜔𝐴
(− )
𝜂 = 1−ⅇ 𝑄

(Refer Slide Time: 23:57)

And then this is the modified the equation where you can use this omega (ωi), this is the drift
velocity of the ith particle. So, different particle related calculations can be there and then we can
do integration. So, overall collection efficiency is there. This integration can be there for different
type of particles and you can get the net collection efficiency.

𝜔𝐴
(− 𝑖 )
𝜂𝑖 = 1 − ⅇ 𝑄

𝜂 = ∑ 𝜂𝑖 𝑓𝑚𝑖
𝑖=1

1272
(Refer Slide Time: 24:24)

Again, if we see like efficiency, so different particle size, collection efficiency is there and there
are very high collection efficiency above 1 micrometer of the size of the particles when we talk
about these electrostatic precipitators, but the increased diffusion charging causes collection
efficiency to increase for particles smaller than even 0.1 micrometer. So, that kind of efficiency
also increases here as we have seen in the bagfilter or fabric filter kind of devices.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:57)

1273
Well, there is difficult-to-control range between this 0.1 to 1 micrometer due to the size dependent
limitations. So, these precipitators are least effective when, for this particular size range. But as
we have seen little bit improvement can be there depending upon this diffusion charging kind of
phenomena.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:25)

When we talk about like corona power and efficiency, so you see this is operating power
consumption in electrostatic precipitator which comes from the corona power where this some
blue light is there where this passes through gas and particles pass through we call it corona. So,
this corona power can be calculated by this particular relationship where Ic is corona current and

1274
this V average is average voltage basically. So, this adjustable constant is there, surface area of the
collecting plate is there. So, you can calculate this omega k dash Pc divided by A and this ratio Pc
by A is called power density here in this particular relationship.

𝑃𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑘 ′ 𝑃𝑐
𝜔=
𝐴

(Refer Slide Time: 26:11)

When we see this corona power ratio and collection efficiency, there is one good range we are 98.5
percent efficiency can be achieved. So, with this relationship we can calculate the, this net
collection efficiency and as it is given in this particular figure that the collection efficiency above
98.5 percent this required corona power increases rapidly for an increase in collection efficiency.
So, up to this it goes very rapidly, but after that it is slightly slow.

1275
(Refer Slide Time: 26:51)

So, if you talk about like working, how does it work basically, so the gas stream is passed between
two electrodes across with a high potential difference is maintained between those two electrodes,
one is a discharging electrode and the other is collecting electrode where these particles go and
lose their charges and the potential as high as 100 kilo volt are used. Usually 40 to 60 kilo voltage,
the voltage there, but 100 can also be there. Because of the high potential difference and the
discharge system, a powerful ionizing field is formed where these particles get ionized basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:30)

1276
So, ionization creates an active glow zone like blue electric discharge, that is why we call it
discharging zone and this is called the corona or corona glow. So, as the particulate matters pass
through this carrier gas with the particles when it pass through this particular field, they get
charged, these particles get charged and then it goes to the collecting electrode where they lose the
charge basically and slide down to the bottom where hopper is there and it is removed periodically.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:06)

There are some important aspects, for example, the charged particles are attracted to collector
plates carrying the opposite charge. The collected particles may be removed from the collector
plates and this dry material that is dry ESPs or they may be washed from the plates with water wet
ESPs. So, two kind of ESPs maybe there, dry electrostatic precipitators or wet electrostatic
precipitator depending upon how we remove the particles. So, these ESPs are capable of correction
efficiencies greater than 99 percent, even 99.9 percent sometimes those kind of efficiency can be
achieved by electrostatic precipitators.

1277
(Refer Slide Time: 28:51)

And the design parameters which affect the efficiency of ESP are like volumetric flow rate,
composition of the gas and particles, temperature, dew point. If dew point is there, then some
acidic formation is there. They can attack the plates etc. Then there are like relating to the dust
particles, for example, concentration or size distribution of the particles, resistivity, then the bulk
density and composition or hygroscopic nature like moisture can be contained or tendency to
agglomeration those kind of things are there.

Other factors affecting the efficiency of ESP are like velocity distribution at the entrance of the,
this precipitator, then design of this dock work and collection electrode areas and ionization related
potential those kinds of issues can be there which are important when we do design of the
electrostatic precipitators.

1278
(Refer Slide Time: 29:36)

And these can be either single-stage type or two-stage type basically. In a single-stage type
precipitator and this gas ionization of the particulate matter and collection are combined with
single, within the single chamber. At one corner it goes, another corner they get collected and goes
down. In two-stage one chamber is for like this kind of ionization of the particles, other is for this
collection or deposition of the particles. And almost all industrial precipitators are of the single-
stage design basically. Two-stage is used for like lightly loaded gases and the single-stage is for
heavily loaded gases. So, those are the basically differences.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:25)

1279
Then different types are also in terms of their shape like pipe types can be there these kind of
formation maybe there, different pipes, gas passes through these pipes and then up to their wall
they trapped and then go down, then these may be plates type. So, different kind of shape may be
there. So, the collecting electrodes are formed by a nest in parallel pipes in the pipe type
precipitators which may be rounded or square or octagonal in shape basically. So, there may be
long pipes of different shapes. Plate type are like they are in parallel. They are parallel plates which
are at equal distances they are kept and accordingly that gas laden with particles are passed through
those openings.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:12)

Well, when we talk about applications, so they are very popular in industries like cement factories,
cleaning the flue gas from cement kilns or recovery of the cement dust from the kilns those kinds
of things can be done by these ESPs. Pulp and paper mills or soda fume recovery in craft pulp
mills again ESPs are very good. Steel plants where cleaning blast furnace gas to use it as a fuel.
So, fuel recovery is done by ESPs. Removing these tars from coke over gases or play these cleaning
open hearth and electric furnace gases that can be done by ESPs also. Non-ferrous and metal
industries also use in a significant manner or large manner these ESPs.

1280
(Refer Slide Time: 32:03)

Chemical industries, petroleum industries, carbon black industry or electric power industries all
these industries are using these ESPs in a popular way.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:12)

When we talk about the advantages then high collection efficiency is one of the big advantage of
this ESP. And, even 0.1 micrometer can be removed. So, this is great range in that sense. Low
maintenance and operating cost or low pressure drop and then it can be handling large volumes of
the gases basically even up to high temperature, treatment time is negligible, very quickly it
removes basically, cleaning is easy by removing units of the precipitator from operation.

1281
(Refer Slide Time: 32:46)

But there are disadvantages or limitations because initial cost is very high. So, those industries
which do not have good funds for that, they cannot afford this kind of device. Space requirement
is also more because of the large size of the equipment and the possible explosion hazard can be
there, collection of combustible particulates can be there because of this ionization and sometimes
ozone is formed in that. So, these kind of problems maybe there. Poisonous gas, ozone is produced
by the negatively charged discharge electrodes during the gas ionization. So, very skilled person
must be there to handle it or to operate it.

1282
(Refer Slide Time: 33:24)

Now, we talk about the wet scrubbers. This is third kind of device in today's lecture basically. So,
these are the devices or scrubbers which are diverse set of control devices which can be used for
collecting both particulate matters as well as gases. So, particulate scrubbers are designed to
generate high inertial forces or electrostatic forces or particles to drive them into some kind of
droplets or sheets of the liquid where liquid is dropping in a kind of sheet so they can get attached
to this and removed.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:04)

1283
And the principal if you talk, then there are these certain mechanism like Brownian diffusion,
inertial impaction, direct interception, electro-scavenging and phoresies. All these kind of
mechanism can be used for wet scrubbers basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:19)

So, these are like random which we have seen in earlier also Brownian diffusion, direct
interception, depending upon where you are targeting that particular stream. So, these kinds of
mechanisms are used very frequently.

1284
(Refer Slide Time: 34:33)

If you talk about different types of wet scrubbers then there can be like spray towers or venturi
scrubbers or cyclone scrubbers or packed discoverers or mechanical scrubbers.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:45)

So, if you go one by one in spray towers this kind of tower is there and spray means some water
spray can be there or some solution can be sprayed depending upon what kind of gases are there,
what kind of removal efficiency is needed. So, this is the device which is known as spray tower
scrubber. And it can effectively remove particles even greater than 5 micrometer in size, up to 5
micrometer size it can remove.

1285
(Refer Slide Time: 35:12)

This is the overall efficiency which is calculated this relationship for spray towers, where this
tower height z and then droplet’s terminal settling velocity, then falling drops diameter, the upward
gas velocity, efficiency due to impaction all these parameters are used on right side in the empirical
relationship.

3 𝑄𝐿 𝑧 𝑉𝑇
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 1 − ⅇ𝑥𝑝 [− 𝜂𝐼 ]
2 𝑄𝐺 𝑑𝐷 𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉𝑔

(Refer Slide Time: 35:36)

1286
Then you know terminal velocity how to calculate. Earlier we have seen in case of that settling
chamber also. And the efficiency of impaction can be calculated by Reynolds number, viscous
flow efficiency, potential flow efficiency, gas viscosity, gas density. All these kinds of parameters
are used in this empirical relationship.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:55)

And then, specific impaction number is calculated by this kind of relationship or graphs or charts.
So, you put those values and you can get this N1 that is the specific impaction number.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:09)

1287
When we talk about different scrubber like venturi scrubber, then there we use very narrow throat
to push liquid, these particles with high speed and at the same time liquid also after certain distance
so this velocity like 60 to 100 meter per second very high velocity through the throat. And water
sprays are introduced just ahead of the venturi throat. So, this inertial impaction is occurred and
that can remove these particles and this mean size like 50 to 75 micrometer particle of the size
particles can get removed very easily.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:47)

These are the empirical relationships for calculation of efficiencies. Again, this liquid density, gas
viscosity all those parameters are used basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:58)

1288
When we talk about cyclone scrubbers then there is modification like we have dry cyclones for
particulate matter, in this some liquid is also sprayed. This water spray can be in this tube when
gas goes up or it can be at the side also depending upon which kind of design you are taking into
account. So, for impingement and the inertial separation these kind of mechanism are used with
cyclone scrubbers.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:31)

Packed scrubbers are using some sort of materials to provide large surface area where the particles
can get attached as well as spray is also there of the solution. So, the packed material must be there
and it can remove up to 3 micrometer of the particles.

1289
(Refer Slide Time: 37:47)

And this packing material here and liquid is taken into like a spray. So, this arrangement provides
the best collection of gases and vapors and lowest collection efficiency for particles basically. So,
they are more into removal of the gaseous emissions basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:06)

When we talk about mechanical scrubbers, so these are mechanically aided scrubber, basically.
Spray nozzle can be there and this fan-type mechanically aided scrubber can be there. So,
efficiency is increased in that sense and it can go up to 1 micrometer size to remove the particles.

1290
(Refer Slide Time: 38:27)

Well, applications of wet scrubbers are like it is useful for both gas as well as particulate removal.
And it must be cooled for some reason so then scrubbers are needed not other kind of devices. So,
that way scrubbers are good for that purpose where hot gases are there and we need to damp on its
temperature before removal of other particulate matter or gases. When the particulate is
combustible or any flammable gas is present then also wet scrubbers are better because they will
not have this fire related problem.

Where a wastewater treatment system is available on site with adequate reserve capacity to handle
the liquid effluent, otherwise we will have to have this wastewater treatment plant because wet
scrubbers are producing wastewater basically. So, air pollution is converted into wastewater. When
gas absorption and reactions are required simultaneously with particulate control, so those where
applications are more popular.

1291
(Refer Slide Time: 39:29)

Then there are advantages like it can be capable for handling flammable and explosive dusts
because wet scrubber is there water and those kind of things. It can handle mist and in the process
of exhaust. Then relatively low maintenance is required. Simple in design and easy to install.
Collection efficiency can be varied depending upon different size and nature of the particle.
Provides cooking for hot gases, so neutralizes corrosive gases and dust, so those kind of advantages
are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:03)

1292
But of course, limitations are also there, like effluent liquid can be in the form of some water
pollution. So, another problem has been created. So, we have to deal with it. Waste product
collected like in wet, nor dry. So, handling is difficult. Dry, it is very easy to handle. You can just
go and dump it somewhere or you can use in some other form. High potential for corrosion
problems can be there, because this moisture and acidic gases are there.

It requires protection against freezing because water is there so in very cold regions it is difficult
to run. Final exhaust gas requires reheating to avoid visible plumes, otherwise even if water vapor
is coming out people think its lot of pollution, perception can be there. Collected particulate matter
maybe contaminated and not recyclable, dry could be better. Disposal of waste sludge maybe very
expensive. So that way means it can be costly affair after all.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:05)

So, overall, now we can conclude that this filtration is considered to be most reliable and efficient
and economic methods for particulates removal. An electrostatic precipitator is one of the best
devices to remove even up to the small, very small size of 0.1 micrometer size particulate matter
without significant drop in the pressure. And wet scrubbers can remove both gas as well as
particulate matter basically. Spray towers are mostly used as coolers and primary cleaners. So that
way different devices are available. And according to the different situations we can recommend
what is the optimum or the best possible device to remove the particulate matter.

1293
(Refer Slide Time: 41:50)

So, this is all for today. Thank you for your kind attention. These are the references for your
additional reading. Thanks again. See you in the next lecture. Thank you.

1294
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 44
Air Pollution Control Devices: Part – 3

Hello, friends. So, these days we are discussing about Air Pollution Control devices. And in that
series we have already discussed the devices which are used for capturing or controlling the
particulate matter. And today we will start about the devices which are used for capturing the
gaseous pollutants. So, in two parts we discussed about air pollution control of particulate matter,
now in two parts we will discuss about gaseous pollutant control techniques. So, today we will
discuss like adsorption, absorption and biofiltration and then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:14)

So, when we talk about gaseous pollutants, how to capture them, so whether it is criteria pollutants
of gaseous nature or volatile organic compounds that is VOCs or other gaseous toxic, air toxic all
these are controlled by means of the following techniques and which can be listed like adsorption,
absorption, biofiltration. So, these three today we will discuss. Then there are oxidation and
condensation, so that we will discuss in the next lecture.

1295
(Refer Slide Time: 01:40)

So, when we talk about adsorption, so this adsorption is nothing but basically it occurs because of
interaction between gaseous contaminants or pollutants that we call it as adsorbate, and the surface
of a solid adsorbent. So, that is the basically interaction or the process of that interaction is the
adsorption. So, the adsorbent can be in a wide variety of these materials like pellets in a thick bed
or small beads in fluidized beds or fiber pressed onto a flat surface.

So, basically two mechanisms are used in adsorption, one is physical, other one is chemical. So,
this is adsorbate which is captured or which is deposited or chemically adhered and this is the
surface area, this is the adsorbent where they stick to it. So, this phenomenon could be like physical
process or chemical process.

1296
(Refer Slide Time: 02:54)

In chemical adsorption process basically, a chemical reaction occurs between this adsorbent and
the gaseous contaminant or the adsorbate. And in physical process what happens, the gas or vapor
molecules is weakly held on to the solid surface by intermolecular cohesion. So, the characteristics
when we talk about this chemisorption or physical absorption, so like in chemisorption or chemical
adsorption this releases high heat, this chemical process, because of chemical process like 10
kilocalorie per gram of the mole.

And in physical adsorption basically releases low heat like 0.1 kilocalorie per gram of mole. If we
talk about like it forms chemical compounds, this gas is retained by dipolar interaction. It does not
change its state or nature. In chemical process, chemical adsorption, this can form some sort of
chemical compound. And desorption is difficult means it is very difficult to get back that particular
adsorbate which has been absorbed chemically. And this desorption is easy, means you can get
again if you want to resource recovery is to be done then this is the physical adsorption is a good
process. Then in chemical process adsorbate recovery impossible and adsorbate recovery is easy
in this physical process. So, that is the consequence basically.

1297
(Refer Slide Time: 04:25)

Now, if we look into like types and components of this adsorption system, then basically when we
talk about adsorbents, which kind of adsorbents are available, so during this adsorption process
basically these upper phase compounds in the gas stream which is called adsorbate, as we have
already discussed, this passes through a bed or layer of the highly porous material, which is called
as adsorbent.

So, the porosity is something which is very helpful to give the characteristic of adsorbent. So, the
types of absorbent depending upon their porosity we can see different materials like activated
carbon which is the excellent adsorbent basically, because the surface area is very high 600 to
1600 square meter per gram. See the activity carbon surface area is very high. So, the lot of porosity
exists there and this lot of surface area is there where gases and other things can stick to or this
cohesion can occur.

Then zeolite if you talk, these molecular sieves, they have also good surface area, but it does not
go beyond 700, 590 to 700 square meter per gram of the mole. Synthetic polymers the surface area
is around more than 1000 square meter per gram. So, this is also a good in that sense. It is
comparable to the activated carbon. When we talk about the silica gel, it has again surface area
similar to zeolite like 750 square meter per gram also. Activated alumina is also another adsorbent
which is aluminum oxide and, but its surface area available for this adsorption process is not more
than 200 to 300 square per gram. So, that way activated carbon is the best sort adsorbent.

1298
(Refer Slide Time: 06:30)

When we see different physical properties or characteristics of these major type of adsorbents like
this is the list of the adsorbent and here are internal porosity. So, the maximum porosity is of the
activated carbon as we have seen because of this surface area. Then zeolite is the second one in
that sense 40 to 55. Third one is activated alumina. But the surface area basically, even if surface
area again synthetic polymers have 1080 to 1100, 600 to 1600 is activated carbon depending upon
its quality and 600 to 700 zeolite molecular sieves which we have already seen.

Pore volume maximum like 0.8 to 1.20 cubic centimeter per gram in case of activated carbon, then
the second one is this one 0.94 to 1.16. So, it is comparable. Activated carbon and synthetic
polymers are almost same in terms of pore volume. When we talk about the bulk dye density, so
the activated carbon has 0.35 to 0.5 gram per cubic centimeter, activated alumina has 0.9 to 1. So,
this is maximum in that sense, after that this zeolite 0.80 or so.

Then we talk about the mean pore diameter, so the maximum is basically of this activated alumina
and the second one is the activated carbon. So, that way different physical properties, which
influence behavior of this adsorption process in totality.

1299
(Refer Slide Time: 08:13)

When we see about this adsorption system, non-regenerative adsorption system basically, so these
are the absorbent bed which are discarded when it approaches saturation with the contaminant and
is termed as non-regenerative. We cannot regenerate it. So, we have to discard it after saturation
state is there. If regeneration is possible, then we can regenerate it and reuse it again. But that is
not possible in case of non-regenerative type of adsorption systems. And they are designed
basically for odor control or some low contaminant concentrations applicable like less than 10
ppm or so.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:00)

1300
Well, when we talk about regenerative adsorption systems, so adsorbent is treated and placed back
in service after regeneration. So, these adsorption process are termed as regenerative because of
this property and this can be used for large scale applications like contaminant of high
concentration 10 to 10,000 ppm or so. Then types of regenerative adsorption systems further can
be subdivided in terms of like fixed bed designs or moving bad designs or fluidized bed designs.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:34)

Like operating principles if we discuss, the adsorption steps are basically in these three figures it
is shown like Step 1 diffusion to absorb surface. So, diffusion occurs at the adsorb surface and
contaminant molecules are visible here. Then the migration into pores, the secondary stage is these
molecules start to migrate into the pores which are available in these adsorbents. Then this
monolayer buildup of adsorbent at the, means the pores are packed and this kind of layer starts to
build-up at the surface.

So, these Step 1 and Step 2 are diffusional processes that occur because of the concentration
difference between the bulk gas stream passing through the adsorbent and the gas near the surface
of the adsorbent. And the Step 3 is the actual physical bonding between the molecules and the
absorbent surface. So, this step occurs more than, rapidly than Step 1 and 2. The third stage is kind
of having the fastest speed.

1301
(Refer Slide Time: 10:41)

When we see like absorption forces, which are responsible for this adsorbent and adsorbate
sticking together, so this is basically electrostatic nature in physical adsorption. In chemical, this
is the chemical interaction between the gas and the solid. So, both these two things are different in
that sense in fact. So, these adsorption forces of physical adsorption and chemical, this
chemisorption has different way, because the physical adsorption uses this electrostatic force kind
of thing and in chemical absorption, chemical interaction occurs basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:24)

1302
Then the capacity, the adsorption capacity relationships again depend upon equilibrium. So,
adsorption equilibrium is the set of conditions at which the number of molecules arriving at the
surface of the adsorbent equals to the number of molecules leaving, so that kind of steady state
equilibrium state has to be achieved and the adsorbent bed become saturated with the vapors and
cannot remove any more vapors from the exhaust system that kind of state happens to be there. It
determines the maximum amount of vapor that can be adsorbed at a given set of operating
conditions and three types of equilibrium graphs are used to describe these absorption capacity
basically, like isotherms or isobars and isostere.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:15)

So, these are the partial pressure versus this capacity weight. So, when we talk about isotherms
these, isotherm is a plot of the adsorbent capacity versus the partial pressure as it is shown in the
figure. Though the title is not shown in the figure, but basically this is the isotherm. And for a
constant temperature basically this adsorption capacity increases as the partial pressure increases.
The partial pressure increases so the capacity also increases with the fixed temperature whether it
is 212 or 140 means whatever temperature you take if it is constant then with respect to the partial
pressure the capacity of adsorption also increases.

1303
(Refer Slide Time: 13:01)

When we talk about isobar, when this pressure is constant, in that case, when you increase the
temperature, this adsorption decreases. The capacity of the adsorption decreases. It decreases like
this. So, that is you know kind of inversely proportional or so.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:18)

When we talk about these isosteres, these are the plots of the natural log of the pressure versus the
reciprocal of the absolute temperature. So, again the slope of the isostere corresponds to the
differential heat of the adsorption and the, this total heat of adsorption is determined by the

1304
integration over the total quantity of the material which is adsorbed. So, more is the slope more is
the material which can be adsorbed.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:54)

Well, when we talk about the bed depth, so the sufficient depth has to be there of the adsorbent,
because it is important for achieving the efficient gas removal mechanism. And because like you
want to remove these VOCs etc. so this particular principle has to be taken into account. The
minimum depth is based primarily on the length of Mass Transfer Zone, MTZ and that is related
to the rate of adsorption.

And this Mass Transfer Zone or MTZ basically depends on six separate factors which are like
adsorbed particle size or gas velocity or adsorbate concentration, fluid properties of the gas stream,
temperature of the system and pressure of the system all these factors really govern the efficiency
of this adsorption process.

1305
(Refer Slide Time: 14:44)

So, bed depth if you want to calculate basically this is the empirical relationship which can be used
like MTZ equals 1 upon 1 minus Xs D into 1 minus CB upon CS [1/(1 − 𝑋_𝑠 ) 𝐷(1 − 𝐶_𝐵/𝐶_𝑆 )].
CB is breakthrough capacity in percentage, CS is saturation capacity in percentage, MTZ already
given length of the MTZ here acts as degree of saturation.

1 𝐶
𝑀𝑇𝑍 = 1−𝑋 𝐷 (1 − 𝐶𝐵 )
𝑠 𝑆

1306
So, this breakthrough capacity is basically defined as the capacity of the bed at which unreacted
vapor begins to be emitted. And the saturation capacity is the maximum amount of vapor that can
be adsorbed per unit weight of the activated carbon determined from the adsorption isotherm.
From this we can determine these values.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:37)

So, in summary, we can say the adsorption summary can be like general applicability of adsorption
is like acid gases and organic compounds can be removed by these adsorption process. So, the
typical concentration range can vary like it can be less 1 ppm and up to 25 percent of LEL. LEL is
Lower Explosive Level. So, that range can be easily handled.

And the typical gas temperature which it can handle is said to be like less than 130-degree
Fahrenheit. It can be applicable for control of multiple contaminants that is possible and the
applicable for control of gas streams with particulate matter. So, the pretreatment often required
for removal of the particulate matter in that case basically.

1307
(Refer Slide Time: 16:27)

Now, if we go for absorption, so adsorption is over, now we go for absorption, both are thing, two
different things. Adsorption means at the surface, absorption means like liquid or so. So,
absorption refers to the transfer of gaseous components from the gas phase to the liquid phase
basically like these gases are there, SO2 or so. So, they go into the liquid and there is a liquid film
and ultimately this liquid phase turbulent mixing can be there for removal purpose and the liquid
surface area available for mass transfer and that time available for the diffusion of the gaseous
molecules into the liquid are basically important to factors affecting the performance of the system.

And the gaseous contaminant being absorbed must be at least slightly soluble in the scrubbing
liquid, otherwise it would not possible, termed to the absorbent. The mass transfer to the liquid
continues until the liquid approaches the saturation level. And at saturation equilibrium is
established between the mass transfer rate of the contaminate into the liquid and the mass transfer
rate of the dissolved species back into the gas phase. So, up to that stage this process can go that
saturation level is achieved at certain point of time.

1308
(Refer Slide Time: 17:48)

Different types of components of absorbers are like spray tower absorbers or packed bed absorbers
or tray tower absorbers or venturi and ejector absorbers. Some of them already we discussed during
second part of the particulate matter removal if you recall.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:09)

Then we can have this mechanism of absorption. So, this gas film is there, liquid film is there, and
then bulk liquid phase is there. So, this is the particular important design and operation part. This
provides sufficient liquid so there the dissolved contaminants do not reach their solubility limit.
And chemically it can react to the dissolved contaminants so that they cannot return to the gas

1309
phase. So, that is why it is important when we are designing and we are operating that absorbers
so that the equilibrium conditions are not reached so that we can remove more and more of the
required those pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:52)

Well, these mechanisms of absorption basically the relationship between this gas phase
concentration and the liquid phase concentration as you know it is governed by Henry's law. here
p* equals Hx. The partial pressure of the contaminant in the gas phase of equilibrium, Henry’s law
constant, Hx, mole fraction of the contaminant dissolved in the liquid phase at the equilibrium. So,
we can use this particular relationship to see how much it can be removed by this process of
absorption.

𝑝∗ = 𝐻𝑥

𝑦 ∗ = 𝐻𝑥

1310
(Refer Slide Time: 19:23)

When we talk about like alkali compounds in contrast to the acidic such as soda ash, caustic and
limestone etc. so the scrubbing liquid, the dissolved acid gases species are neutralized in this
process basically. So, the alkali compound is to be used for that purpose. And like calcium sulfate
can be produced in that particular process.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:58)

Then the size if we look into liquid to gas ratios basically that determines the size of the particular
this device. So, the liquid to gas ratio is defined as the quantity of recirculation liquid used in the
absorber divided by the outlet gas flow rate. So, the liquid to gas ratio is important for two reasons

1311
like there must be sufficient liquid to avoid mass transfer equilibrium and there must be good gas
liquid contact within the absorber so that determines the size of the particular the system.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:34)

Well, again, this material balance calculation minimum liquid to gas ratios can be seen here with
these empirical relationships, where this gas flow, molar rate, mole fraction of contaminant in
gases stream or liquid molar flow rate, mole fraction of the contaminant in the pure liquid all these
parameters are to be used for calculation purposes.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:57)

1312
Then this alkali requirement basically when we talk about absorption systems they sometimes need
alkali additions as we have seen if we are removing these acidic gases. So, these alkali
requirements are usually calculated based on the quantities of the acidic gases which need to be
captured. So, these molar ratios necessary for reactions can be used in these particular equations
and you can determine that quantity.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:28)

In summary, for the absorption we can say that this is applicable for removal of acid gases, organic
compounds. And the concentration again 1 ppm to 100,000 ppm it can go. Wide range is there.
So, that is wonderful thing in that sense. Less than 150-degree Fahrenheit temperature typically
we go for. And then this is applicable for control of multiple contaminants. And yes, it is applicable
for control of gas systems with particulate matter that is possible because of this scrubbing process.
So, that is advantage, double advantage of this particular process.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:22)

1313
Now, the third one we come to the biofiltration basically. So, the biological treatment systems
which are termed either biological oxidation or biofilter systems, the fundamental process involved
in this particular process is a collection of these pollutants on the surface media of which contains
viable microorganisms some surface media has to be there where microbes can, microorganisms
can grow basically. The layer can be of microorganisms there.

The contaminant is metabolized by these organisms and the carbon dioxide and vapor, water vapor
are emitted into that process. So, that way they can remove those particular contaminants or
pollutants. And accordingly, this biofiltration can be classified as a special type of absorption
system using irreversible processes to control the gaseous contaminants because those gaseous
contaminants will be like food for those microorganisms which are there in this particular system.

1314
(Refer Slide Time: 23:21)

Well, when we talk about operating principles, so this after absorption into the thin water layers
surrounding those packing materials which are the habitats for microorganisms, the metabolic
system occurs there. So, they are dissolved organic compounds which are the food of those
microorganisms and the rate of destruction of the organic compounds which is available that is
independent of the concentration in the waste gas stream, because that is governed by the number
of microorganisms basically, and their kinetics. The rate of destruction or consumption is usually
measured in terms of the grams of pollutant per unit volume per hour and this rate depends on the
type of pollutant and the prevailing temperature only.

1315
(Refer Slide Time: 24:01)

Then if we go into this operating principle for the general operation considerations, so the Empty
Bed Residence Time (EBRT) or the True Residence Time (TBRT) they can be calculated by these
relationships, where medium porosity between 20 percent to 80 percent, volume of given space,
volume of solid support, then volume of the biofilter bed and airflow rate all these parameters have
to be considered for these relationships.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:31)

Well, when we talk about volumetric mass loading, then this Af into CI divided by Vf, where CI is
concentration of influent, Af air flow rate, Vf volume of the biofilter unit, C0 concentration of

1316
effluent where this is used for removal efficiency calculations. Elimination capacity can be
calculated by this empirical relationship. So, all these you know relationships are there depending
upon these variables which are available in the system which we can measure and accordingly we
can determine the systems efficiency.

𝐴𝑓 × 𝐶𝐼
𝑉𝐿 = ( )
𝑉𝑓

𝐶𝐼 × 𝐶0
𝑅𝐸 = ( ) × 100
𝑉𝑓

(𝐶𝐼 ×𝐶0 ) × 𝐴𝑓
𝐸𝐶 = or 𝐸𝐶 = 𝑅𝐸 × 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑓

(Refer Slide Time: 24:59)

Well, in summary of the biofiltration we can say that it is applicable for organic compounds
removal basically. And the typical concentration range 1 ppm to 1000 ppm it can go but, means
the range is not as wide as of the absorption if you can remember. Typical gas temperature around
110 degree Fahrenheit applicable for control of multiple contaminants, yes, it is possible, and
applicable for control of gas streams with particulate matters.

Pretreatment often required for removal of the particulate matter like adsorbent. So, absorbance in
absorption, this was not the limitation, but in adsorption and biofiltration, you have to first remove

1317
the particulate matter only then gases component will be removed efficiently. So, that remember,
please remember that difference.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:02)

In conclusion, we can say that the activated carbon is the most used adsorbent because of the high
internal porosity and high surface area where they can capture the gases, those pollutants.
Minimum bed depth for the adsorption is based primarily on the length of the mass transfer zone
that is related to the rate of adsorption. And sometimes these alkali addition is required in
adsorption systems if we are treating the gas streams which are having acidic gases. And

1318
biofiltration is the most cost-effective technology for dilute large volumes of air stream serving
these organic compounds as we have discussed like this. So, this is all for today. In next lecture
we will discuss about oxidation and condensation processes to remove these gaseous contaminants
or pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:52)

This is the reference list. You can go through at your free time to have more information about
these processes which we have already discussed. So, thank you for your kind attention and see
you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1319
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 45
Air Pollution Control Devices: Part – 4

Hello, friends. You may remember that we have already discussed in three lectures regarding
controlling particulate matters and gaseous pollutants also. So, today will be the last lecture on
these controlling devices especially on gaseous pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:48)

So, today's lecture contents include like, we will see what we have covered so far and what we will
do in this lecture. So, today's focus will be on gaseous contaminant control techniques based on
oxidation and condensation.

1320
(Refer Slide Time: 01:00)

So, we have already discussed adsorption, absorption and biofiltration related devices which have
been used for gaseous pollutants control or capturing, because these gases criteria pollutants or
like VOCs and even gaseous air toxics they can easily be controlled by these techniques, like
adsorption, absorption, biofiltration, oxidation and condensation. So, three of these adsorption,
absorption and biofiltration in the last lecture we have covered. Today we will focus on oxidation
and condensation.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:37)

1321
So, let us see what the oxidation is basically. So, all chemical oxidation systems are really for
destroying organic compounds in the effluent gases stream which comes out of after some
combustion process or burning process of the fuel. So, that is why they are used when the economic
recovery of the compounds is impractical, otherwise we try to recover the resources, whether it is
some chemical compound or something like that. So, the oxidizers can be used to destroy a wide
variety of organic compounds. And the categories, the broad or main categories within this
oxidation process are high temperature gas phase oxidation systems and catalytic oxidation
systems.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:22)

And these high temperature or gas phase oxidation systems are, can be divided into four main
categories basically, like recuperative thermal oxidizers, regenerative thermal oxidizers, boilers
and flares. And all these four processes can be used for controlling or destroying very high gas, at
very high gas temperature those gases pollutants and they can convert combustible materials to
carbon dioxide.

Because when complete oxidation occurs basically what happens, the carbon dioxide, water and
other combustion products are really produced by this particular combustion process or oxidation
process and it can operate at a range of temperature basically like 540 degrees centigrade to 1100
degree centigrade. So, this gas temperature range is also important because only up to that
temperature if we can operate the system, then it will be able to oxidize all these kinds of pollutants

1322
which are possible to burn and oxidize fully so that it can be converted into carbon dioxide and
water vapor ultimately.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:36)

Well, these both thermal oxidizers or catalytic oxidizers are used to treat or oxidize effluent gases
or exhaust gases from the surface coating industry or gasoline storage industry or distribution
terminals or synthetic organic chemical plants basically. So, there are some vapors or some those
effluent gases which need to be controlled, otherwise they will go to the atmosphere and they will
create several other problems according to their chemical characteristics.

However, flares, burning, the flares are used primarily to treat emergency vent gases in synthetic
organic chemical plants or petroleum refineries, because it is not practical to recover that so it is
better to, those vapors, those fuel vapors or fumes to burn them directly. In the flares technology,
we do that particular burning kind of process.

1323
(Refer Slide Time: 04:35)

Well, when we talk about this recuperative thermal oxidizers in this figure it is shown like waste
gas inlet at around 120 degrees Celsius, which is much colder than the system of this oxidizing
system. So, it goes into this particular system and it passes through heat exchange that particular
chamber where exchange of the heat is there so that the higher heat of those burning gases goes to
this waste gas inlet then it is again taken after this heating process when temperature increases, it
is taken around like 351 degrees Celsius, it goes to this chamber where it is burning or oxidizing
happening. So, it is around 700 degrees Celsius where it is oxidized or burned and it goes again
and then it comes out of this exit, this pipe.

So, the waste gas inlet basically relatively cold this one and then it goes to the heat exchanger
system and around heat recovery of 40 percent to 60 percent happens. So, that is another advantage.
When these burned gases pass through then they are taking lots of heat with them. So, the heat
recovery happens in this heat exchanger system, part of this particular system. At the higher
temperature when this waste gas is taken to this chamber fume incinerator basically, so there it is
burned or oxidized completely and then it is taken to the exhaust pipe. So, the fume incinerator is
very important in that sense. And then these oxidized gases exit after passing through the heat
exchanger basically. So, at the point of heat exchanger, they exchange the heat from higher
temperature to the lower temperature.

1324
(Refer Slide Time: 06:15)

Well, regenerative thermal oxidizers are there, another set of regenerators. So, these regenerator is
a set of refractory packed beds that store heat basically in direct way. So, this is heat exchanger
and ceramic media is used for this exchanging of the heat. They are first, they take the heat into
that and then they keep the sheet for longer period and these are the walls to control. So, this is the
particular device where heat recovery efficiency as much as 95 percent are possible in this
particular kind of regenerative thermal oxidizers.

It was only 40 to 60-degree heat recovery, but here now up to 95 percent you can recover the heat.
So, even heat when it is wasted to the atmosphere, it is also kind of wasting the energy. If you can

1325
recover the heat in the process then it is basically we are helping the environment, otherwise you
might have heard about heat island impact those things happen because of these kind of extra heat
which goes to the atmosphere. The contribution is there I mean to say.

The inlet gas stream is passed through a large packed bed composed of ceramic packing that is
shown here and which is preheated by passing the outlet gases which has a lot of heat from the
combustion chamber and through the bed prior to the exposure to the inlet gases stream so that we
heat exchange is possible.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:51)

So, in this particular device there are at least three beds required for the complete process. The first
one is used to preheat the inlet gas stream basically. Here first, second and third all these have
ceramic media and they can exchange the role also and this is the exhaust gas ultimately.

Second is used for transferring the heat of the combustion from the treated gas stream to ceramic
bed. So, the treated gas means the burned gas or oxidized gas. So, it has a lot of heat. So, that heat
is taken by these ceramic bed media, ceramic media that bed layers is there, lot of pebbles are
there.

And in this purge cycle happens in the third one and they can change the role. So, the purge cycle
is basically needed to prevent emission spikes, each time the gas flow is reversed through the

1326
regenerative beds, because then beds are regenerated in that sense when they are changing the
rules.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:53)

The third one is boilers basically. So, this is one another alternative to installing a thermal oxidizer
and which is like burning the waste gases as the fuel. Like these are the burners and this is the gas
outlet and air goes inside this. So, that way these inlet gases which are kind of we can use as the
fuel and they are burnt.

So, some calorific value is recovered by this particular process of oxidization or the burning and
this process and the plant boilers are normally designed to operate with the combustion chamber
temperatures in excess of around 980 degrees Celsius and with flue gas residence times in excess
of 1 to 2 seconds. So, within that small period that particular heat exchange happens in that
particular device.

1327
(Refer Slide Time: 09:48)

Well, flares are there. These are used for disposal of intermittent or emergency emissions of
combustible gases from industrial sources which are not economical to recover basically. So, using
flares to prevent direct venting of these emissions can eliminate the safety issues or health hazards
which can be because of these toxic gases which can come out of these exhaust pipes.

So, flares are used mainly at the oil refineries and chemical plants that handle large volumes of
combustible gases. And if we do not, in a controlled way, this is a controlled way of burning them,
oxidizing them. If, otherwise if we emit into gases at some places if concentration is very high then
it can catch fire or there may be other dangerous situations also. So, they can have organic
compound destruction efficiency exceeding 98 percent. So, that way it is quite efficient way of
doing away with these gases. But of course, we do not recover in that particular process. We just
burn it. Even we are not recovering heat here.

1328
(Refer Slide Time: 10:58)

Then when we talk about flue gas flow rate like how to design those particular instruments? So,
there are certain parameters which are important to know about like the flow rate. So, the flue gas
flow rate maybe there, emission stream flow rate can be there, natural gas flow rate, dilution air
time, requirement all these, this emission, natural gas and dilution air time requirement these are
basically making the total flue gas flow rate so that we should know.

This flue gas sometimes also called like exhaust gas or stack gas is the gas which is originated
from the combustion plants and which contains the reaction products of the fuel and combustion
air and residual substances so they are waste gases. So, we need to know these flow rates to design
the particular device.

1329
(Refer Slide Time: 11:51)

So, combustion chamber volume we need to know before designing the combustion chamber. So,
how to know the volume? So, the combustion chamber volume can be determined using the actual
flue gas flow rate and the desirable residence time. So, residence time tr and this is the actual flue
gas flow rate. So, this is the empirical relationship which is used. Tc is here combustion temperature
which is known and because it is in Fahrenheit so we can convert into Celsius, then this Vc is the
combustion chamber volume which can be computed by using this particular formula.

(𝑇𝑐 + 460)
𝑄𝑓𝑔,𝑎 = 𝑄𝑓𝑔 [ ]
537

𝑉𝑐 = [(𝑄𝑓𝑔,𝑎 ⁄60)𝑡𝑟 ] × 1.05

(Refer Slide Time: 12:33)

1330
Well, catalytic oxidation system is another way, means we have seen the oxidizing systems and
then catalytic oxidation system where catalyst, the substance which accelerates the chemical
reactions about the, without changing itself. So, the waste gas is passed through a layer of the
catalyst and it causes the oxidation reaction to proceed at a much lower temperature that is the
advantage of this catalytic bed where we pass through the gas and it passes through this catalytic
bed and at lower temperature we can have this oxidation of these gases then gas exit is there.
Auxiliary fuel burners are also there.

So, it can achieve basically this catalytic oxidizing operation system it operates around 320 degree
to 450 degrees Celsius. So, this is much lower than the oxidizing device which we have seen which
operate in the range of 540 degrees Celsius to 1100 degrees Celsius. So, that way this catalytic
oxidation system is much advantageous in that sense. It can achieve organic compound destruction
efficiency even more than 95 percent. So, that is another advantage. And it is used for inlet
concentration ranging from approximately 100 ppm to 10,000 ppm. So, that way range is also very
good depending upon different industries.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:54)

1331
Well, when we talk about the flue gas flow rate, when we want to design the system, thenb for
calculation purpose again this Qe + Qf + Qd that is emission stream flow rate, natural gas flow
rate and dilution air requirement in the same unit so that constitute the flow rate of the combined
gas stream which is entering to the catalytic bed. So that we can calculate by this. And we also
assume that which is the flow rate of the incoming gas is equal to the outgoing after the catalytic
bed. So, that is the way of calculation.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:34)

Then we also know this flow rate at the actual condition. So, again similar equation is used which
we have seen in oxidation. Then we can calculate this volume of the catalytic system. So, that way

1332
these are the parameters which we should remember which are used for designing purposes
basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:52)

And high temperature gas phase oxidation systems which we are talking into this particular general
form then this is the basic oxidation when we convert it into CO2, S2O basically and some if sulfur
products are there in this particular fuel, so that SO2 will also be there and some other products of
the nitrogen related. So, the gas temperature is sufficiently high which is very important for the
combustion reactions to go for completion, complete oxidation for that we need the gas
temperature adequately high.

So, temperature is one variable. Another is turbulence, because it ensured the combustible
materials and the oxygen should be well mixed. So, the turbulence must be adequate. Similarly,
there is sufficient oxygen we have to ensure, so air must be there, proper flow of the air must be
there. The residence time of the combustible gases is relatively long so that the whole system gets
into this oxidation process the completion occurs. So, the time is also issue. The time, air,
turbulence and temperature all these factors we have to ensure that they are there for the complete
combustion.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:03)

1333
Then what happens like for example to achieve the complete combustion the sufficient supply of
oxygen goes for like this oxidation system like methane if it is there. So, when complete oxidation
occurs then CO2 is there and water is there, water vapor is there. And how to calculate the residence
time that can be calculated with the chamber volume and the gas volumetric flow rate. So, V/Q.
So, this is the residence time Q. Some authors use T, R some use Q so that we do not get confused.
This is the concept is very simple that the volumetric chambers volume divided by gas volumetric
flow rate can give you the residence time.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:52)

1334
This operating principles, so in the catalytic oxidation systems the temperature of the catalytic
oxidizer is set at a level at which the controlling factor is the mass transfer of oxygen and organic
compounds to and fro the catalytic surface and we have to remember the temperature necessary
for catalytic oxidation varies for the different organic compounds in the waste gas stream and the
characteristics of the catalytic bed. So, depending upon the gas which we want to oxidize at the
catalytic oxidation system and it is temperature and other properties. Those things we have to keep
in mind.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:34)

So, in summary, we can say that this oxidation system can work for organic compounds and it can
typically the concentration range for which we use it so it is 1 ppm to 25 percent of lower explosive
level and it can 320 degree to 1100 degrees Celsius that can be there depending upon whether we
are using this catalytic or thermal system. It can be applicable for controlling multiple
contaminants because the range of the handling with the temperature range as well as other ranges
are quite larger.

Applicable for control of the gas streams with particulate matter is also and pretreatment often
required for removal of particulate matter, then it is possible to use this system, otherwise with
particulate matters like scrubbers we could use. In this system we do not want this particulate
matter, otherwise system efficiency will not work properly. So, the particulate matter with the

1335
pretreatment we can remove and then let us oxidize the gas or burn the gas that way this system is
good for.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:47)

Now, next is condensation. So, condensation system basically like condensation means to reduce
the temperature and recover something which is in the vapor form so that we can convert into
liquid form. So, the condensation systems is used for exclusively for the recovery of organic
compounds present at moderate to high concentrations in the industrial processes in effluent gas
systems and which are of kind of valuable, means they are expensive to buy. So, it is better to
recover them rather than releasing them into the atmosphere.

So, there are three main categories of condensation systems based on the general operating
temperature range like 5 degrees to 25 degrees Celsius. This is conventional waste based direct or
indirect. And the condensers of other type are like refrigeration condensers or cryogenic
condensers. So, they have different ranges, like refrigeration condenser has the range of –45
degrees Celsius to –100 degree Celsius and this cryogenic condenser can have –75 to –195 degrees
Celsius and for normal temperature like 5 to 25 we do conventional kind of thing, but their
efficiency will vary.

The most common condensers use cooling water in direct contact or indirect contact vessels and
the refrigeration and cryogenic systems are used primarily for the high efficiency recovery of high

1336
value contaminants. When they are variable then we have to recover them rather than releasing
them into the atmosphere because it will be economical to recover them.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:25)

Well. So, types of these systems could be like conventional system as we have just discussed. So,
conventional condensers are simple, relatively inexpensive devices and normally use the water or
air to cool and condense a vapor stream. So, the high removal efficiencies are obtained only for
organic vapors. Two basic categories of this particular conventional system could be like direct
contact condensers or surface condensers.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:51)

1337
So, the direct contact condensers, this coolant is there. So, coolant kind of spray is there and this
inlet gas system goes. So, as you have seen in scrubbers the same system is here. And then because
of temperature difference, this below dew point the vapors get condensed. So, in this particular
process the coolant and vapor stream are physically mixed that is why it is known as the direct
contact condenser.

If the vapor is soluble in the coolant or absorption like in water it occurs, then increasing the
amount of contaminant that can be removed at the given conditions. Advantages are like they are
flexible and very low-cost kind of system. Disadvantage because like mixing in the water then it
is creating the wastewater stream. So, we are converting one pollutant into another one. So,
wastewater treatment cost is to be added into that system of this organic recovery cost.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:53)

1338
Then if we talk about surface condensers then this gas inlet is there and these coolant outlets and
this condensate outlet is there and gas outlet is there, gas inlet is there, coolant inlet can be there.
So, this coolant passes through those surfaces get cooled and in direct contact they do not come
coolant and this gas, because through pipes it goes through the system. So, the coolant is separated
from the vapors by these tubes kind of system, tubular heat transfer surfaces.

The coolant flows through numerous small tubes inside the shell, these tubes are there. And vapors
contact the cooled surface of those tubes and condense and then convert it into liquid portion and
then it is collected. So, the coolant and condensed vapors leave by separate exits. This coolant exit
and this is condensate outlet because they have separate you know flow regimes. And the
commonly called like shell and tube heat exchanger or indirect condensers because of this process
of indirect recovery.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:04)

1339
Then we come to this refrigeration system. The refrigeration systems achieve low operating
temperatures by using coolants and compressors. So, the heat is absorbed from the organic vapor
laden stream because they are hot in the, this operation section. That heat vaporizes the coolant
liquid. And the coolant vapor leaving the operator section is then compressed.

And then superheat vapor stream is condensed to expel the heat from the coolant. So, that system
is shown in this particular schematic diagram you can go through. And the coolant liquid passes
through an expansion wall to reduce the pressure to the level necessary for the operator. So, that
can be controlled by depending upon what kind of vapor it is.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:48)

1340
When we talk about cryogenic systems, so cryogenic control systems use liquefied gases such as
nitrogen or carbon dioxide to cool the waste gas stream to temperature approaching the freezing
point of the solvent so that they can be condensed. So, this can collect much lower VOC
concentrations then refrigeration condensers if we compare.

Primarily used for single compound gases streams. And to be economical, the organic vapor
concentration must be more than 500 ppm, otherwise of course it can go for low concentration but
it depends basically. Then three general types of cryogenic systems are there, like indirect contact
single exchanger or indirect contact dual heat exchanger, indirect contact single heat exchanger
and indirect contact dual heat exchanger and the third one is direct contact.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:46)

1341
So, that way we can see this indirect contact single heat exchanger in this particular system, where
this liquid nitrogen storage is there and control valve so that you can control the flow rate of this
liquid nitrogen, then it passes through this particular system gaseous nitrogen to the atmosphere
and this solvent laden air gas goes to this and then it condensate because it converted to liquid it
goes down and exhaust to atmosphere can be there those gases.

So, the liquefied nitrogen basically it flows through the tubes of the heat exchanger while the, this
waste gas passes through the shell side. Then cryogenic system shell and tube heat exchangers are
not well suited for the large gas flow rates and are used primarily for a small system. So, that is
the limitation of this particular system.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:38)

1342
When we talk about the indirect contact dual heat exchangers, so basically this is used for
overcoming the freezing problems. So, there are two chambers there. So, the liquefied gas is used
in this case in a casket type arrangements to cool a heat transfer fuel that in turn is used to heat
exchanger for the organic vapor laden gas handling the system and the capacity of the dual heat
exchanger system is limited by the size of the heat exchanger and dual heat exchanger systems are
generally applicable for the gases streams like less than 5000 actual cubic feet per minute. So, that
is again the limitation of this particular system.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:21)

1343
When we talk about the direct contact of cryogenic systems, then again this is similar to the, this
scrubber kind of thing. So, here it is coming into the direct contact. Solvent goes this particular
liquid gas is there. So, it is in this particular system then exhaust gas goes afterwards there but the
liquefied those vapors which we want to extract that goes like a condensate. So, in direct contact
system the VOC laden gas stream is contacted with the spray of liquid nitrogen droplets.

So, droplets have larger surface, they come into contact and cools down those vapors which we
want to collect as a condensate. So, the outlet gas temperature is controlled by the flow rate of the
liquefied gas and the liquefied gas is dispersed using spray nozzles like spray. And in this upper
areas of the contacting chamber, the chamber is insulated to maintain the gas temperature as cold
as possible so that this condensation process is not disturbed by the outer temperature.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:25)

When we want to go for design aspect then we have to see like molar flow of the these hazardous
air pollutants, maximum flow rate, molar flow of the HAP outlet, then this partial pressure and the
vapor pressure, system pressure all these things in these empirical relationships which are there
for calculating moles of the hazardous air pollutants in the inlet emission stream and to calculate
most of the HAP remaining the outlet emission streams. So, these are the particular relationships
which we use.

1344
(Refer Slide Time: 28:01)

Similarly, the condenser heat load if you want to calculate then Pvapor is equal to Ppartial this pressure
of the vapor Pvapor and this partial pressure. So, this is again estimated by using this empirical
relationship and ultimately moles of hazardous air pollutants condensed is calculated by this
particular relationship.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

Well, when we talk about this enthalpy change associated with this condensed hazardous air
pollutant system and enthalpy change associated with the non-condensable HAP then also there
are certain relationships which can be used where temperatures and other parameters which you

1345
can know here like T is entering emission extreme temperature, Tcon is Tcondensing the condensing
temperature all these terminologies are used here for calculation purpose.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:52)

Similarly, the condenser heat load can be calculated and then how much area is needed of the
condenser, this condenser heat exchanger surface area, because only then we will be able to design
the particular system, how much area is needed, how many tubes will be required for ensuring that
much area. So, this area can be calculated by H load this condenser heat load divided by U delta
TL and U is here, overall heat transfer coefficient and that delta TLM is logarithmic mean
temperature difference. So, that way you can use these empirical relationships to estimate these
parameters.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:34)

1346
Ultimately, we flow rate of the coolant is calculated like this and refrigeration capacity can be
calculated by Hload /1200. Recovered product can be estimated by this relationship.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:48)

So, in summary we can say that these condensers are very good for recovering the organic
compounds and typical, this concentration range for them is more than 100 ppm then it is efficient
to recover them. And the typical gas temperature is around –195 degree Celsius to 25 degrees
Celsius as per the system. And it can be applicable for controlling multiple pollutants and
pretreatment is required for removal of particulate matter for efficient way of working of the

1347
condenser system. So, that it work only for that gas, otherwise it would be difficult or the efficiency
will be reduced and system may also be disturbed.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:38)

Well, this is all for today. So, in conclusion, we can say that the oxidation techniques which are
adopted when the contaminant concentration is significantly less and it is not economical to
recover the contaminant so oxidation is used, burning is used in simple words. Condensation
technique is used when contaminant is precious or has value so that we can recover it or recovery
is feasible and economical. Then refrigeration and cryogenic condensation systems are primarily
used for the high efficiency recovery of high value contaminants.

So, that way now it is clear I hope that oxidation for which particular organic compounds we would
like to use and condensation for which kind of vapors or these organic compounds which we will,
we would like to use. And refrigeration and cryogenic condensation will be used primarily for high
efficiency recovery of high value contaminants so that efficiently we can recover them because
they are precious in that sense, valuable in that sense. So, this is all for today and that way we have
covered for lectures on controlling these, controlling devices for removing particulate matters and
removing gaseous air pollutants.

1348
(Refer Slide Time: 31:51)

So, this is all for today. This is the reference for your additional information which you can go at
leisure time. So, thank you for your kind attention and see you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1349
 Air Pollution Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 46
Practice Examples on Particulate Emission Control Devices

Hello friends. So, as you know we have already discussed several Air Pollution Controlling
devices, for example, electrostatic precipitators, baghouse filters or cyclones, even for gaseous
air pollutants also. So, today we will have some practice examples related session on particulate
emission controlling devices so that you can know how to calculate the size of the particle
which can be removed easily or what is the efficiency of a particulate device with a particle
size or distribution those kinds of things you will see.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:04)

So, we will have this practice example session based on particulate emission control devices
like settling chambers, cyclones, fabric filters, electrostatic precipitators, wet scrubbers and
then we will conclude.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:14)

1350
So, as we go for settling chambers as you know the minimum size of the particle diameter
which can be removed in a settling chamber is given by this particular relationship where D is
the diameter of the particle and then there are other parameters like horizontal velocity of the
carrier gas which contains the particulate matter.

Then height through which the particulate matter travels before settling down in a settling
chamber, because it moves horizontally and it also moves vertically, when it settles down due
to gravity. So, we have this height h also like this is settling chamber. So, particle goes like this
so this is the height and this is the length which it travels horizontally and this is the height
vertically .

Then there are other parameters like viscosity of the gas where it will settle down, then the
length of the chamber, this one and the acceleration due to gravity plus density of the particles
and density of the gas and number of the trays, where we have settling chambers with different
trays so that height can be manipulated and the particle diameter is there then Q is gas flow
rate.

So, those kind of relationships are there for calculating efficiency and calculating the diameter.
So, these are the particular relationships which can be used for calculating the diameter of the,
minimum diameter of the particle which can be removed, that particular size of the particle can
be removed efficiently and the collection efficiency of the settling chamber which can remove
this particular diameter of the particle. So, that way this relationship is there between diameter
of the particle and the collection efficiency.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:00)

1351
So, we go for understanding this particular relationship how to calculate the size of the particle
which can be removed. So, here is the example that we have to calculate the minimum size of
the particle that can be removed fully, 100 percent, in this gravitational settling chamber.

Under the following conditions like horizontal velocity, v is 1.2 meter per second temperature
is 75 degrees Celsius, particle specific gravity is 1.5 and chamber has the length of 10 meter
and height of the 1.5 meter and the 75 degrees Celsius this viscosity at the 75 degrees Celsius
viscosity of air is given like 2.1 into 10 to the power minus 5 kilogram per meter second.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:42)

So, we use this particular relationship to estimate or to calculate the minimum size of the
particle which can be removed fully. So, this is the relationship, we have all these values, v, h,
mu, Lg, rho p(𝜌𝑝 ) rho (𝜌) all these values are there. So, we can put these values in this
particular relationship and calculate the diameter.

1352
 1⁄
18𝑉ℎ𝜇 2
𝐷=[ ]
𝐿𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)

(Refer Slide Time: 04:04)

And this diameter is like around 67.9 micrometre. So, we can say that up to 67.9 micrometre
size of the particles will be removed fully in this particular chamber of a given size with all
these values, these values is governing like this rho p or the viscosity or the length of the
chamber, height of the chamber all these within this particular condition, this is the diameter
of the particle which will be removed completely.

Beyond that some percentage will be there, not 100 percent, but up to this means this is the
minimum size of the particle which can remove fully, otherwise larger particles will also be

1353
removed but up to this size we can remove. Smaller particle will be difficult to remove in that
way.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:56)

The next is estimate the collection efficiency of 75 micro diameter. If we say that 75
micrometre diameter is their sides in the particular particulate matter emission, so what would
be the efficiency of the collection of this particular size diameter particle, in simple settling
chamber where 10 feet is the wide and 10 feet is the height and 30 feet is the long one.

So, this is the chamber like 30 feet long, 10 feet wide and 10 feet is high. So, those are the
dimensions. 5 feet per second is the velocity of the gas in the chamber and the particle density
is around this 120 pounds per cubic feet, So, gas system conditions at 68 degrees Fahrenheit
and 1 atmospheric pressure all these conditions are given.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:49)

1354
So, we use this particular relationship which we have seen that this efficiency is 1 minus e to
the power of these parameters and these parameters are already given like diameter of the
particle is 75 micrometre and we calculate or we convert it into feet because all other
dimensions are in feet. So, that particular unit you have to use.
2
𝑔𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑊𝑁𝑐 𝑑𝑝
−( )
18𝜇𝑄
𝜂 = 1−𝑒

Either you convert all those units into this meter, etc. or you can calculate only this diameter
of the particle is in micrometres. So, it is easy to calculate it in feet and then other dimensions
are given in feet. So, we go for this like length 10 feet width is 10 feet height is also 10 feet
through which the particles travel before settling down.

Then other parameters are there like Nc is number of the plate is 1 only because there are no
other plates in between, 10 feet is only the single size of the this particular chamber and V is
the velocity, horizontal velocity of the carrier gas which contains the particles.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:54)

1355
So, we put all these values and we calculate this efficiency and it comes around 47.5 percent.
So, you can say that the fractional efficiency of 75 micrometre particles is around 47.5 percent
or 48 percent. So, that much it is removed others may just bypass you can say like that short
circuit kind of thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:15)

Well, then there is the example 3 for cyclone. So, a cyclone has been given which has inlet
width of 10 centimetre and four effective turns like before this settle down, so, number of turns
of the gas or this particle laden gas goes on before it goes up within the cyclone. So, these are
number four. The gas temperature is around 350 degree Kelvin and the inlet velocity is 10
meter per second.

And the average particle density is 1.5 grams per cubic centimetre. So, what is the cut diameter

1356
particle size collected with 50 percent efficiency that is known as the cut diameter. So, you
have to remember this particular this is not the minimum size which we have just seen. This is
cut diameter which has the efficiency of 50 percent removal and the velocity of the air at 350
degree Kelvin is, this is viscosity of the air at 350 degree Kelvin is 0.0748 kilogram meter per
meter per hour. So, this is also given.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:23)

So, we use these values in this particular relationship, diameter cut, we calculate, we put these
values of the density which is air density is negligible in comparison to the density of the
particle which is 1500 kilogram per cubic meter. So, you can put here and you can ignore this
parameter basically and all other values are given here.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:48)

So, you use these values in this particular relationship and then calculate the cut diameter and

1357
this is around 7 micrometre. So, the cut diameter of the given cyclone is 7 micrometre, 7.204
7 micrometre. So, this particular diameter of the particle which will have the 50 percent
removal efficiency.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:01)

Well, next example is like a cyclone has an inlet width of around 10 centimetre and four
effective turns. The same example is there the gas temperature and other parameters are already
given. So, what is the correction efficiency for particle diameter 8 micrometre? Another
viscosity again the same value is given.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:36)

1358
So, we go for calculating this using this particular relationship where this is the diameter cut
diameter and then other values are their width etc. So, we put all those values and this is 7.04
micrometre cut diameter and the given average particle sizes 8 micrometre. So, we see the ratio
how much this particle size ratio between D and Dcut. Dcut we already calculated 7.04. So, 8
divided by 7.04 is around 1.14. So, this is the ratio of the particle size which is to be removed
and the cut diameter.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:17)

And with this we use this particular graph to calculate the or to estimate the efficiency. So, 1.14
is given here in this particular particle size ratio and we go up and then go left and we calculate
that this is around 55 percent. So, you can see 7.04 diameter particles is having 50 percent
efficiency. When it is 8 micrometre, then the efficiencies 55 percent. So, expected collection
efficiency is about 55 percent in this case.

1359
(Refer Slide Time: 10:49)

So, that way means as this particle size ratio goes up and then the collection efficiency increases
of that particular size particles because size particular increases and it is easy to remove it. Then
we come to fabric filter related example. So, this is one particular example where a fabric filter
has around 2000 square meter of the filter area, total filter area and it treats 15 cubic meter per
second of here carrying a dust concentration of 0.015 kg per cubic meter.

Assume these parameters like K1 = 25 kilo Pascal second parameter K2 = 10^5 per second. If
the filter must be clean when the pressure drop reaches around 3 pascal kilopascals then what
period must be there for cleaning these filter, baghouse filter or fabric filter you can call. So,
that we need to estimate.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:46)

1360
So, what is given? Filter area is given 2000 square meter air flow rate is also given 15 cubic
meter per second, then filtration velocity we can calculate easily because 15 cubic meter per
second divided by this area. So, this is around 0.0075 meter per second. This is the basically
filtration velocity. So, overall pressure drop across the fabric delta Pt, delta PR is conditional
residual pressure drop, this is the air Delta Pc pressure drop due to dust cake.

So, these particular parameters we use. Delta Pt delta PR Delta Pc, then this is particular
relationship which we use and it can be written in simple way K1 V + K2t. So, we can use this
particular relationship because K1 and K1 are given.

𝑥𝑅 𝑥𝐶
𝛥𝑃𝑇 = 𝛥𝑃𝑅 + 𝛥𝑃𝐶 = 𝑉𝜇𝑔 { + }
𝐾𝑅 𝐾𝐶

(Refer Slide Time: 12:39)

1361
So, you can see here this given value is 25 kilo Pascal second per meter so, we can write it as
25,000 Pascal. Similarly, delta Pt is 3 kilo Pascal. So, it is 3000 Pascal basically. So, these
values we can use in this particular relationship.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:57)

And we can calculate that way this t means how many what will be the time gap before this
particular filter needs cleaning because otherwise it will choke and the pressure drop will
increase. So, for the given pressure drop this relationship can give us the time, the frequency
where it needs to clean.

So, this is around 9.26 hour. So, every 9.26 hour we need to clean this fabric filter otherwise
its efficiency will decrease because pore size will be clogged by the particulate matter and the
pressure drop will be very high that way energy will also be need more to push the air which
is polluted air with the particles.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:37)

1362
Next example is like if the process gas exhaust rate is given around 4.72 into 10 to the power
6 cubic centimetre per second, around 10,000 cubic feet per minute and the filtration velocity
is 4 meter per second and the air cloth ratio is 4 to the 1.

So, what would be the cloth area? Then the next problem is like further calculate the number
of bags required in the baghouse filter that fabric filter. If the bag diameter is given like 0.203
meter or 8 inch and back height is 3.66 meter or 12 feet. So, both units both systems are given
for the units, but you can use whatever system is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:22)

1363
So, the air cloth ratio is this (A / C)gross is Qmaximum /Atotal. So, A gross you it is given 4 centimetre
per second or 4 is to 1 you can use this particular relationship then 4.72 this value is given for
Qmaximum is this one. A total fabric area we need to see.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:47)

So, we can calculate because this ratio is given air to cloth ratio 4 and this Q maximum is given.
So, the A total can be easily calculated with this relationship. It comes around around 118
square meter. So, the required cloth area for that particular flow rate with that ratio is around
117.98 or 118 square meter.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:16)

1364
Well, next is the number of bags we need to calculate. So, here is the relationship of bag surface
area, this A = πDL and then diameter is there 0.203 meter of the bag diameter that is used in
the fabric filter, then length is around 3.66 meter of the bag and area this relationship can be
used. So, diameter is given, length is given area can be calculated that is 2.33 square meter.

So, the number of bags required because the total area we have calculated already how much
it is around 118 square meters. So, this 118 square meter 117.98 divided by area of one bag.
So, number of bags can be calculated this is around 50.65. So, the number has to be full, we
cannot have fraction half bag or like that, so the 50.65 means 51 bags we can have.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

1365
The next is the baghouse filter is having around 20 compartments and 360 bags per
compartment. So, this is a huge setup and each bag have diameter 11 meter and the bag length
is 30 meter with a gas flow rate of 1,200,000 cubic meter per minute. So, we need to calculate
the gross and net air to cloth ratio and we need to assume that two compartments are out for
service when calculating the net air to cloth ratio. So, that is also given, that condition is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:48)

1366
So, given gas flow rate is there and then there are 360 bags per compartment number of bags
is given and the 20 compartments are there. Within one compartment 360 bags are there, then
bag diameter is also given. So, diameter is twice of the radius bag length is given. In circular
fashion when bags are there, so if we open that bag basically the width will be the 2 πr or you
can say πD.

So, that is why this height will be the length you can say. So, πD into h will be the area. So,
this is h and this is πD. So, πD into h will be the area of the one single bag, this is around
1036.73 square meter, then total fabric area because 20 compartments are there one
compartment has 360 bags, so 20 into 360 into 1 bag’s area which just we calculated. So, it is
around this 7.46 into 10 to the power 6 square meter.

Now we calculate gross air to cloth ratio. So, (A /C)gross = Qmaximum /Atotal. Qmaximum is given we
already know, so divided by this total area which we calculated. So, how much is there? This
divided by this particular value it is around 0, 0.161 meter per minute. So, the gross air to cloth
ratio is around 0.161 meter per minute.

Now, we want to calculate the net air to cloth ratio, the net fabric area is calculated by
subtracting out the those compartments which are not in filtering service as , this is given that
two compartments are out of service for service purpose. So, we can say that 20 minus 2 will
be the net area, 20 minus 2 into 360 into this 1 bag’s area. So, this is the net area.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:44)

1367
So, again we calculate this A/C. So, A net rather than A total we use A net. So, this value
divided by this net area it arrives around 0.178 meter per minute. So, the net air to cloth ratio
will be 0.178 meter per minute. So, that way we can calculate.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:17)

Now, next is how to find the collecting plate area and the number of plates which are used for
that surface area which can be used in a horizontal flow single stage electrostatic precipitator
which is handling an average gas flow of 2.5 cubic meter per second from a pulverized coal
fired boiler. The required collection efficiency is also given of that electrostatic precipitator
which is 98 percent and the drift velocity is also given 12 centimetre per second.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:32)

1368
So, we use this particular relationship for calculating this area, available collection area
because this omega value is given Q and efficiency is also given.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:43)

1369
So, we calculate area is around 81.5 square meter. Then, since the width of the ESP plate is
generally between 0.5 to 1 times of the height, so, let us consider the plate. It will be of 4 meter
wide and 5.2 meter height. So, the collecting plate area of the one surface is around 20.8 square
meter and the total area we calculated is 81.5 square meter.

So, if we divide this total area with the area of one plate is this is 3.92 or you can say the four
surfaces are needed because one single surface could be of the full value. So, the four surfaces
we need and four surfaces can be here like one surface and the two surface of this plate two on
either side; or the inner part inner side of the plate three.

So, the total four surfaces are there and the number of plates for this particular requirement of
the four surfaces could be (4 – 1) = 3.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:45)

1370
Now, the next example is related to collection efficiency of a horizontal flow single-stage as it
is given for this ESP and consisting of two sections found by plates of 4 meter wide and 6 meter
height on 25 centimetre centers holding a gas flow of around this 2.5 cubic meter per second
and we have to assume migration velocity is 12 centimetre per second.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:14)

So, we know these values, 12 centimetre per second is the given this value omega and then A
is 4 x 6 x 2 because those dimensions are given and then Q is we can calculate it flow rate per
section 2.5 per by 2 because two sections are there. So, 2.5 / 2 = 1.25 cubic meter per second
in each section.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:42)

1371
Now, we go for the efficiency. So, the efficiency relationship as , we give those values of the
area like 48 which we calculated here and then 1.25 is the Q value which we already calculated
here. And then we know this efficiency by this particular relationship this is around 99 percent.
So, the collection efficiency of this particular device is around 99 percent.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:07)

Now, if we find this migration velocity of an existing ESP or electro precipitator in which
collection plate area is given 110 square meter gas flow rate 2.5 cubic meters per second
collection efficiency is 99.5 percent.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:24)

1372
So, again we use this particular relationship which is very simple. Eta equals 1 minus e to the
power minus omega A by q. So, given 99.5 percent efficiency is given. Q is already given 2.5,
cubic meter per second. Area is given 110 square meter. So, we put those values efficiency and
this Q value A value, so we can calculate this migration velocity or drift velocity omega. So,
omega is around 0.12 meter per second.
𝜔𝐴
(− )
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄

𝜔 × 110
(− )
0.995 = 1 − 𝑒 2.5

(Refer Slide Time: 22:55)

So, now, next example is around this ESP again but we need to calculate the corona power that
due to potential corona power for an electrostatic precipitator which is designed to treat around
9000 cubic meter per minute of the gas stream which is having this pollution of particulate
matter with a collection efficiency of 99.8 percent.

1373
(Refer Slide Time: 23:18)

So, we go for this value Q is given 9000 cubic metre per minute. So, it can be estimated like in
cubic per meter because this particular graph is given in corona power ratio which is having W
per 1000 cubic feet per minute and then efficiency relationship is given. So, we need to
calculate first in cubic feet per minute, we can convert this.
Collection efficiency 99.8 percent is given. So, using the below graph for this 99.8 percent we
go to then come to this. So, around 330, 330 watt per 1000 this cubic feet per minute. So, this
is there. Then this Pc / Q, so 330/1000 and into this particular value we can use. So, around
110,000 watt or 110 kilo watt Corona is required for this, Corona power is required for this
particular device of ESP.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:22)

The next example is how to collect the collection efficiency of 5 micrometre diameter particle

1374
with a density of 2 gram per cubic centimetre in a counter current spray tower, spray tower we
have used a spray tower for even removing gases and for particles. Here we are removing the
particulate matter that is why this diameter is given.

The tower site is 2.5 meter high and the gas flow rate is around 200 cubic meter per minute and
the water flow rate is 150 litre per minute. Gas velocity is also given 100 centimetre per second
and this droplet diameter is also given around 800 micro meter. So, that droplet diameter is
also given. We need to assume the temperature of 20 degrees Celsius. And this factor correction
factor is there 1 and flow to be a potential use droplet terminal settling velocity around 327
meter or 327.5 centimetre per second.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:24)

So, this is the relationship for this collection efficiency of single size particle which was
developed by this Calvert for counter current spray tower scrubbers. So, overall efficiency is
given like this 1 minus exponential of these particular parameters these parameters are given
here. So, those values we have taken from the given example.
3 𝑄𝐿 𝑧 𝑉𝑇
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− 𝜂𝐼 ]
2 𝑄𝐺 ⅆ𝐷 𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉𝑔

(Refer Slide Time: 25:47)

1375
And then the relationship is there, impaction number and impaction collection efficiency that
also we will use because impaction number first we can calculate why this relationship. So,
this relationship can be used for calculation of impaction number when we know the efficiency.
Eta 1 which we have efficiency due to impaction which we can calculate from this graph when
we know the N1. N1 can be calculated by this particular relationship.
ⅆ𝑝2 𝜌𝑝 𝐾𝐶 (𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝐷 )
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑁𝐼 =
18𝜇𝑔 ⅆ𝐷

(Refer Slide Time: 26:14)

So, first we calculate the N1value. This is around 0.439. So, from 0.439 we go up and see this
sphere experimental potential flow go to left side and around 31percent is the efficiency of this
particular spray tower.

1376
(Refer Slide Time: 26:32)

So, then we put those values and eta overall because this relationship eta overall here this

1377
particular. So, eta 1 you have calculated from this particular graph. So, we put these values of
eta 1 here and other values VT VG etc. and we calculate the overall efficiency around 79.2
percent. So, that is the collection of overall efficiency of this spray tower to remove those
particulate matter of the given size.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:01)

So, this is the way to calculate either efficiency of a device or a particular size of the particle
which can be removed efficiently. You can play with those values and you can learn this is the
application of those relationships which are given for different parameters for a particular
device, whether it is efficiency, whether it is diameter of the particle to be removed or the size
of the device like the baghouse filter or number of plates required surface area required all
these things you can estimate by using those kinds of relationships.

So, this is just to give a feeling that how we calculate different parameters when we are given
certain values. So, we can see that using appropriate relationships which we have just discussed,
the removal particle size collection efficiency of device and useful dimensions of particulate
matter controlling devices such as number of bags in a fabric filter, area of the plates in
electrostatic precipitator all these can be calculated when other values are given and some
unknown values are there. So, this is all for today.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:09)

1378
Thank you for your kind attention. These are the references for additional exercises which you
can practice in your free time. So, again, thank you and see you in the next lecture. Thanks
again.

1379
 Air Pollution Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 47
Practice Examples on Gaseous Emission Control Devices

Hello friends. Last time we discussed about practice examples related to particulate matter
control devices. So, today we will discuss upon several examples which are related to gaseous
emission control devices.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

So, basically we will include the mechanism which governs the control devices or on the
mechanism on which it is based those devices like adsorption, absorption, oxidation or
condensation. These are basic physico-chemical principles on which gaseous emissions are
controlled. So, those devices are based on these particular principles.

So, we will look into one by one and before that I would like to highlight some data which
can be used here because we have taken several examples from FPS system.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:29)

1380
So, basically if you want to convert them into like this SI units, International Systems units or
metric system then these are the basic conversion factors which can be readily used.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:34)

Well, so for example, we go for a dry-cleaning process exhaust means exhaust emissions are
there and that air stream is having like a standard cubic feet per minute exhaust emission of
15,000 SCFM that is Standard Cubic Feet per Minute air stream exhaust and that contains
around 680 PPM this carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 carbon tetrachloride.

So, we need to determine the saturation capacity of the activated carbon which will be used in
this adsorption system. So, these adsorption isotherms for carbon tetrachloride on activated
carbon which we use, so we have to determine what is the saturation capacity and we have to
assume that the temperature and pressure of exhaust stream are approximately around 140

1381
degrees Fahrenheit and 14.7 this psia ( pounds per square inch in absolute terms). So, these are
the values which are given.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:36)

So, basically you can see the given values are of the exhaust system, exhaust stream system.
Flow rate is around 15,000 SCFM that is a standard cubic feet per minute, volume of the carbon
tetrachloride is 680 PPM, temperature and pressure is given. So, we need to convert first of all
the mole fraction that is because 680 PPM is given. So, basically you can call it 0.0068 fraction
in fraction volume it is in percentage or in PPM we have to convert.

So, in percentage volume 680 PPM will be known as 0.0068. So, this is the fraction basically.
Then we can see this partial pressure. So, partial pressure we convert this 14.7 pounds per
square inch which can be multiplied by this fraction that is 0.0068. So, we get this partial
pressure of CCl4 that is the carbon tetrachloride and that is around 0.010 pounds per square
inch in absolute terms.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:48)

1382
Then, we have this plot which can give us the value of percentage, this capacity weight in
percentage per 1000 pound of the carbon. So, we go for this value which we have determined
0.01. So, 0.01 we go for 140 degree Fahrenheit this particular plot and go on the left side and
we get this value is around 40 percent and that is per 1000 pounds of the carbon. So basically,
we can say that 40 gram of the vapor per 100 gram of the carbon is the saturation value up to
that only it will be removed.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:32)

1383
The next example is related to dry-cleaning process, the same example basically which we have
seen. So, here values are same 15,000 SCFM that is standard cubic feet per minute of the stream
flow and 680 ppm of carbon tetrachloride is there. We need to estimate the required amount of
carbon which will adsorb in 4 by 4 cycle.

And this exhaust stream is again operating with the same temperature pressure. Here, we have
to note that the saturation capacity of the activated carbon is 30 percent by weight this is given.
Then molecular weight of CCl4 is 154 this pound mole you can say like gram mole we represent
in SI system or metric system similarly, this is pound mole.

Then we need to use working capacity of 25 percent of the saturation chemistry. So, we need
to use these values to estimate the total requirement of the carbon which will adsorb this total
carbon tetrachloride.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:34)

1384
So, again those are the values which are given fraction 680 ppm we can be present into 0.0068
then temperature is given pressure is given. Now, we need to calculate flow rate of this carbon
tetrachloride. So, flow rate means you have to multiply this flow this SCFM into the fraction
which we have done 10.2 SCGFM of the CCl4 that is the standard cubic feet per minute. Now,
we can convert it into this like pound mole per hour.

So, what we need to do? We need to multiply this value of 10.2 SCFM with this pound mole
in how much cubic feet pound mole is aerated. So, your value is given. To convert SCF that is
the cubic feet to pound mole we have to use this particular factor basically because this cubic
feet is per pound mole it is used. So, we have to multiply that and then we can convert minute
into hour.

So ultimately, we can say that this is the pound mole of the carbon tetrachloride per hour in
this particular flow rate. So, a 4-4 cycle, four-hour cycle four hour cycle, basically you need to
multiply this value with 4 hour because that was the per hour value. So, 4 hour means 980
pound mole of carbon tetrachloride will be absorbed or removed.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:04)

1385
Now, what we need to see the saturation conditions. The activated carbon which is using this
particular mechanism and removing around 30 pounds of the vapor for every 100 pounds of
the activated carbon that is the 30 percent. So, with that value, you can use the 30 and 100 value
and convert this 980 pound mole into total pound mole activated carbon.

This was the value of carbon tetrachloride. So, for removing that particular value, we need this
much of amount of the activated carbon. So, given the working cycle of 25 percent of the
saturation capacity, only 25 percent it is working. So, you divide by 0.25 then we get total
amount of the activated carbon. We divide by 0.25. So, we get this much amount of this carbon
per hour, 4-hour cycle of the adsorber basically.

3270
The actual amount of activated carbon required = = 13,100 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 −
25%

ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟

(Refer Slide Time: 08:10)

1386
Next, we have to see this regenerative carbon bed system which has three beds in parallel
basically and it is removing the gas flow rate of this 9000 SCFM, temperature is given, gas
pressure is given in terms of water column. Now, please always pay attention to the units. It is
very important when we are calculating something then we have to give proper attention to the
units. If we do not use proper units, then calculations will be erroneous and our design of the
instrument will be totally wrong.

And we will not achieve those objectives or goals we want to achieve for removal of the air
pollutants. So, barometric pressure is around 30.3 inch of the mercury. So, what is the minimum
cross-sectional area of the each bed if the gas velocity must be maintained below 100 feet per
minute? So, those values are given and we have to estimate this minimum cross sectional area.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:01)

So again, first of all, put all the values which are given in the problem, problem statement. So,

1387
the given gas characteristics are flow rate is this much then temperature is given gas pressure
is given in terms of water column, barometric pressure 30.3 inch mercury gas velocity is also
given. Now we estimate this absolute static pressure, SP absolute.

So, you can convert this 4 inch of this water column plus 30.3 inch of the mercury convert into
water column again, 29.92 of the mercury 407 inch of the water column. So, we get the value
of 416 inch of the water column. Gas flow rate 9000 SCFM given, temperature is given. So,
you can convert and you get this value of ACFM (actual cubic feet per minute). And that is the
value of 9,340 of the actual cubic feet per minute. This is the value.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:02)

Now, this value basically velocity how to represent velocity? Flow rate divided by the area and
area we need to calculate basically. So, velocity is given 100 feet per minute, this is given
basically, gas flow rate you have just calculated 9340 SCFM. So, put these values and area is
the unknown. So, we take area here 100 here and ultimately we get this value 93.4 square foot.
So, this is the minimum cross-sectional area of the each bed which will be required to adsorb
that amount of particular gaseous pollutant.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:38)

1388
 Next is related to absorption. So, we need to compute the minimum liquid flow rate of pure
water required to remove 90 percent of the sulfur dioxide from a gas stream of 85 cubic meter
per minute or 3000 ACFM in FPS unit containing 3 percent of the SO2 by volume that is gallon
per minute and the temperature is given 293 degree Kelvin and pressure is given 101.3 kilo
Pascal. Henry's law coefficient or constant is given as 43.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:15)

1389
So, we need to use these values. These are the flow chart and you can use those values it will
give easy visualization. So, the given values flow rate is given SO2 concentration by volume is
given. Now, in gas phase 0.03 percentage 0.03 fraction basically 90 percent of SO2 is to be
removed remember it and 10 percent so basically remaining SO2 concentration 10 percent in
the inlet 0.003 is the fraction.
These values we have to use and 43 value varieties coming from? You can see 43 is the constant
value and these coefficient you have to use. So, you can use those values and get these
minimum liquid gas to ratio (Y1 - Y2) equals this moles water and per gram moles of the air.
So, these equations are used very simple relationships which you can put those values and get
the value of around 38.7 gram mole water per gram mole of the air basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:17)

1390
Then given the flow rate how much? 85 cubic meter per minute. So, at 0 degrees Celsius this
101.3 kilo Pascal pressure is given. So, there are these kinds of cubic meter per gram mole
those ideal gas values. Then at 20 degrees Celsius you can convert those values that is 0.024
cubic meter per gram mole. Now, we have to use this again relationship so 38.7 we just
calculated 85 cubic meter per minute that is 3540 gram mole per air per minute that value is
there.

So, we multiply both and we get this value into gram mole water per minute that is this 137000
gram mole water per minute. So, then you can convert it into cubic meter per minute by this
particular relationship. So, that way you can this is the value basically we wanted to calculate
we wanted to calculate minimum liquid flow rate. So, this much is the minimum liquid flow
rate which is needed to achieve that particular targeted value.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:23)

1391
Next is related to calculation of amount of calcium hydroxide or lime which is needed to
neutralize the HCl absorbed from a gaseous stream having 50 ppm HCl and a flow rate of
10,000 SCFM, standard cubic feet per minute. Assume this HCl removal efficiency as 98
percent. So, these are the given values.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:48)

You can use this particular equation which 2 HCl plus Ca OH hydroxide calcium hydroxide
plus 2Ca plus 2Cl minus and plus 2 H2O. So, basically you can see one mole of lime or calcium
hydroxide is removing two moles of HCl. So, that we need to remember. So, the HCl
concentration 50 ppm that is 50 into 10^6.
2𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 → 2𝐶𝑎 + + 2 𝐶𝑙 − + 2𝐻2𝑂

This pound mole of the HCl flow rate is given, 98 percent is the removal efficiency. So, use

1392
these values and multiply and you get values of the HCl in terms of mole, this pound mole of
the HCl per minute. So, these values can be put in this particular very simple arithmetic and
relationships are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:34)

Then you get this value of just got 0.00123 pound mole of the HCl per minute. So, they are the
same value. Now, how much calcium hydroxide is required? So, we know basically this pound
mole per minute you can convert it into the pound the 74 this value, particular calcium
hydroxide and you got this 0.0455 pound per minute that is the 2.73 pound per hour because
you can multiply it by the 60. As the amount of calcium hydroxide lime needed to neutralize
the HCl absorbed as 2.73 pound per hour. This is the molecular weight in terms of this.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:22)

1393
Now, next example is related to thermal oxidizer. So, we have seen adsorption and absorption
related mechanism devices we need to design based on those principles. Now, oxidation
processes there. So, a thermal oxidizer, a thermal oxidizer is there which controls emissions
from a paint baking oven and the cylindrical unit is there which has a diameter of 5 feet or
you can say radius is 2.5 feet and a length is 12 feet.

So, we need to remember when we calculate the volume of this particular cylinder with all
combustion air supplied by an auxiliary source and the exhaust from the oven is 8000 SCFM,
(standard cubic feet per minute) and the oxidizer uses 300 SCFM of natural gas and operates
at a temperature of 1400 degree Fahrenheit.

What is the residence time in the combustion chamber to remove that particular pollutant?
Assume the fuel is 100 percent methane and there the burner is being operated at 125 percent
of the stoichiometric requirement. So, those values we will be using in this particular problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:30)

1394
So, we have this combustion reaction methane it oxidized by oxygen and converted into CO 2
and 2H2O. This water so stoichiometric oxygen requirement is 2 moles of oxygen for each
mole of the methane. We have to remember that. You use this particular values which are given
300 SCFM and this 385.4 cubic feet per pound mole is used for conversion into SCF that we
have already earlier also used.
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂 2 → 𝐶𝑂 2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

So, convert that into pound mole of the methane per minute, these values and because we know
3 moles of oxygen required. So, twice of this particular pound mole of the methane will be
required as oxygen and you can convert that value into this pound mole of the oxygen per
minute because this value is to be used as per CH4 and those molecules.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:28)

Next is the total oxygen requirement because 125 percent is the stoichiometric requirement it

1395
does not go like purely 100 percent, you need more. So, 1.25 times of the stoichiometric
requirements you multiply by 1.25 you get this value 1.95 pound mole of the oxygen per
minute. Now, how much nitrogen will be there in the air?

The relationship around 21 percent of the oxygen and 79 percent of the nitrogen is there. So,
you use this particular relationship and you get how much nitrogen this is 7.37 pound mole of
the nitrogen per minute will be there.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:13)

Next is like this flue gas flow rate. So, flue gas flow rate is basically the exhaust gas which is
heated plus product of the combustion plus nitrogen and excess of the oxygen which we have
calculated. So, exhaust gas is given 8000 SCFM, products of the combustion are CO2 plus H2O
after this oxidation. So, CO2 you can calculate by this particular relationship, the relationship
H2O.

So, the total of the CO2 and H2O is around 2.34, around 1.56 plus that 0.77 or 2.78 you can
say. So, 2.37 pound mole per minute of the total exhaust is there of the CO2 and water vapor
you can say. So, 2.34 you can convert into this SCFM again by multiplying this particular
factor, so 902 SCFM is the value.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:11)

1396
Now, next is the oxygen consumed, how much oxygen is consumed as per stoichiometric
requirement? We have calculated already around 1.56 you can see here 1.56. Then amount of
oxygen remaining so total minus consumed so 1.95 minus 1.56 so around 0.39 is access
Nitrogen excess total N2 + O2 remaining.

So, total is around 7.76. So, 7.76 will be the excess that can be converted by multiplying by
385.4 SCF that factor, so SCFM that is 2990 standard cubic feet per minute. So, the total flue
gas flow rate is the 8000 which is given plus 902 which we have calculated just now here and
then this excess one 2990, so total is 11,900 SCFM.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:11)

1397
Now, step five is conversion of the flue gas flow rate to the actual conditions ACFM actual
conditions. So, this 11,900 SCFM you can convert into ACFM. So, you can have these
temperature values, so you can convert into like 41,900 ACFM. Now next is calculation of the
volume of the combustion chamber.

So, we remember the radius 2.5 feet was the diameter so 2.5 feet is the radius so 2.5 square pi
r square is the area and into length . So, this is the volume length is 12 feet it is given so 235.5
cubic feet is the volume of that chamber. So, residence time very easy now, the chamber volume
the volumetric flow rate.

So, divide this volume of the chamber by volumetric flow rate you will get the residence time.
So, this value is divided by this flow rate that is the actual one and you get around 0.00562
minute. You can convert it into milliseconds around 337 millisecond very quickly this process
happens. So, that is very efficient you can say. So, 337 milliseconds is the residential time in
that particular combustion chamber and you get the results.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:29)

1398
Next is like now condensation. So, we have seen adsorption, absorption and oxidation. Now,
the processes condensation. So, in condensation what is the maximum toluene removal
efficiency? This is one problem. Possible in a refrigeration type condenser operating at 100
degree Fahrenheit if the inlet concentration is around 10,000 ppm and the given outlet partial
pressure error at this temperature 100 Fahrenheit is almost 0.015 millimetre of mercury.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:04)

The conversion of those systems. So, need not to worry you can use those. So, inlet
concentration is 10,000 ppm, given the outlet pressure at 100 degrees Fahrenheit is given this
much. Now assuming the outlet gas stream is in equilibrium with the toluene condensate. So,
the outlet partial pressure determines the outlet concentration and the conversion of outlet
concentration to ppm can be done easily.

1399
So, the outlet concentration by this you can convert this 10 to the power 6 ppm and these you
have values you can convert that that is around 19.7 ppm. Now, removal efficiency in minus
out inlet outlet divided by in and multiplied by 100. So, 10,000 is inlet outlet how much this
we have calculated 19.7/10,000 multiplied by 100. So, around 99.8 percent is the removal
efficiency, wonderful efficiency basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:09)

Next is determination of the following for a condensing system to remove VOCs, volatile
organic compounds from an air emission stream. So, determine we need to determine the partial
pressure of the HAP that is hazardous air pollutants in the condenser effluent. Assuming the
pressure in the condenser is constant and at atmospheric level. Determine the condensation
temperature from the given plot.

So, plot is given these are the values maximum flow rate is given temperature is given what is
the hazardous air pollutant which we are dealing with it is also given this is tiling, then this
concentration is also given 13,000 ppmv by volume corresponding to saturation conditions.
Moisture content is negligible we can just neglect it. Pressure is given 760 mm, removal
efficiency is 90 percent.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:10)

1400
So, we have those values basically. So, partial pressure you can calculate easily and you get
this value around 13,000 ppmv already given.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:20)

1401
So, use those values and calculate partial pressure around 1 mm of the mercury. So, that
would be the partial pressure.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:27)

And using that particular partial pressure you can get the value of the temperature. So, that is
basically from this graph and it is around 20 degree Fahrenheit because 0.00208 is this is
logarithmic graph. So, basic value is 20 degree Fahrenheit.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:45)

1402
Next is determination of different design parameters like the moles of the HAP in the inlet
emission stream then moles of the HAP in the outlet emission stream HAP outlet. This is
emission stream moles of the HAP condensed and in heat of the vaporisation HAP, hazardous
air pollutants heat of the vaporization this enthalpy change associated with the condensate
condensed HAP that is also be determined.

Then enthalpy change associated with the non-condensable vapours that is air that we have to
calculate. Then condenser heat load that is the load we need to calculate and the values which
are given are these one this flow rate is there, temperature is there, name of the hazardous air
pollutant is also given all these values are given as the earlier one.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:38)

So, this given data is there then simple relationships again you can just calculate those values
multiply with those keep in mind the proper units. So, these values are given, you just multiply

1403
by the respective coefficients and the conversion factors and you get the values.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:00)

Similarly, like here you got this value and similarly, this moles of the HAP outlet you can
calculate. So, all those simple calculations are there.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:11)

So, I can just quickly go and then heat of the vaporization is there can this can be taken from
the chemical engineers handbook because these design parameters are there which will be used
for designing of the instrument. So, as an engineer you have to be very much convergent of
these design parameters you got this value from this engineers, chemical engineers hand book.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:38)

1404
Then enthalpy you can calculate with these relationships which are simple calculations, plus
minus addition subtraction those similarly, the enthalpy change associated with the non-
condensable vapours also can be calculated in the similar fashion.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:46)

And the condenser heat load again same those emission factors and those values are there and
heat and this energy per minute of the values are there. So, you can multiply and add those
values and you can get that total value.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:59)

1405
Similarly, in this example, next example is to determine those parameters like logarithmic
mean temperature difference, condenser heat exchanger surface area, then coolant flow rate,
refrigeration capacity, then quantity of the recovered product we need to go for recovery. So,
these are the given values and we have to use and determine these coefficient.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:27)

So, again use these given values and convert them into the desired parameters.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:33)

1406
And you can calculate whatever like condenser heat exchanger you can calculate by these
kind of simple empirical equations.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:41)

Coolant flow rate also you can calculate by this particular relationship ultimately 14,700
pound per hour the coolant calculation is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:51)

1407
Refrigeration capacity so this much value we know because this Hload is there, so that you can
use and this capacity divided by 12,000 and this 20 tons is the estimated value then quantity of
recovered product so you can use other those values and ultimately you can get this 373 pound
per hour.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:17)

1408
So, in conclusion, basically we can say that all these principles which we have seen like
adsorption, absorption or oxidation and condensation, these simple principles are there and of
thermodynamic kind of relationships are there which we have to use and we need to calculate
whatever desired parameters are there so that our instruments can be designed properly and
they can function on the desired efficiency.
Like in the given examples, we can see that the absorption of the saturation capacity of the
activity and carbon was around 40 percent by weight. Removal efficiency of the gaseous
pollutant in the absorption we could see around 98 percent it was there. Residence time was
very less 338 kind of milliseconds which is very rare. So, it can show that it is very efficient
mechanism and the condensation removal efficiency greater than around 99.8 percent could be
achieved.

So, these are the examples practice examples, when you go at ledger properly in a focused
manner, you read the statement problem statement very calmly and then go step by step so that
you can calculate those parameters and that way you will be like design engineer for designing
the equipments or processes or mechanism which are required to remove the gaseous air
pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:40)

1409
So, this is all for today and these are the references wherefrom we have taken these practice
examples for you. So, I advise you please practice these examples whenever you get time. So,
you will learn and you will appreciate how these design parameters are really helpful for
removal of gaseous air pollutants. So, thank you for your kind attention. This is all for today.
See you in the next lecture. Thanks.

1410
 Air Pollution Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 48
Air Quality Standards

Hello friends, today we will discuss about air quality standards. You might have heard about
ambient air quality standards which every country basically has like in our country, we have
national ambient air quality standards. So, they are prescribed by CPCB central pollution
control board which is the nodal agency for having environment related regulatory things in
entire India and we have then these state pollution control boards also.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:56)

So, in this particular lecture, we will first of all discuss what are the air quality standards, why
they are so important? What are different components of the air quality standards? How they
are developed? Which are the factors which are taken into account when we develop or set the
air quality standards?

And then which are the national air quality standards in India at present which we are following
what is their little bit history and then WHO, World Health Organization related air quality
guidelines because WHO also prescribes certain guidelines. The reason is because not each
country has national air quality standards because it needs a lot of resources to develop ambient
air quality standards.

1411
So, WHO prescribed guidelines and those who are under developed countries or who do not
have their own ambient air quality standards, they can follow those guidelines basically. Air
quality standards for different countries we will compare then some emission standards we will
look into which are at present prevalent in India and then the timeline presenting representing
the emission standards in India and then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:09)

So, when we talk about this introductory part of ambient air quality standard so basically this
is nothing but a kind of threshold level of air pollution which is acceptable and acceptable
because of certain scientific reasoning certain rational not just arbitrary.

So, this is an acceptable threshold level or quantity of air pollution in terms of potential health
effects that means below that the quantity of ambient air quality standards it will not be very
much adversely affecting the health of the people or ecosystem depending upon which kind of
air quality standards.

And these standards are adopted and enforced by your regulatory body like, we have central
pollution control board for that and every standard that every air quality standard should have
a stand-alone definition that means they are exclusive.

It is not like that SO2 to have certain quantity and we can apply it for NO2 also no. Every
pollutant has certain guidelines or the reasoning behind the definition of their value is of the
threshold level which is justified because of certain reasons.

1412
(Refer Slide Time: 03:23)

Well, when we talk about the components of air quality standards, so there are basically four
basic components like the indicator, indicator means some pollutant like SO2, NO2 or carbon
monoxide, whatever pollutant we are talking about that is the indicator and we also know
whether it is primary pollutant or secondary pollutant.

So, this is the part of the indicator, then the second is averaging time means it is defined whether
it is for 8 hour average or 24 hours or 1 hour or annual average. So, that span that duration has
to be defined. So, this is another important component of air quality standards. Then the level
means how much threshold level is there beyond that it should not exceed in the ambient air
otherwise, it will be problematic it will affect our health negatively.

So, that level that threshold level has to be defined like 9 ppm for 8 hours in carbon monoxide
1 hour 35 ppm, shorter duration higher concentration may be. But for larger duration small
concentration must be there, ultimately what is important dose? Dose means concentration
multiplied by the duration of the exposure.

So, that dose should not be of that extent or level which can affect our health in a very negative
way. Then the fourth is this one is this form. Form means what is frequency whether once in a
year or three times in a quarter when it can exceed or not exceed those kinds of statistical
parameters are related to these components of the air quality standards.

1413
(Refer Slide Time: 05:07)

So, these pollutants are the indicators which are defined in terms of measurements which can
be measured properly and the averaging time can vary from 1 hour to 8 hour 24 hour and
annually also or monthly also the form is basically statistical method defining their accidents.

And the frequency and the level is basically that threshold quantity that threshold level which
should not exceed or below that this pollutants concentration will not affect us very negatively
it will be reversible if something happens otherwise, we are means adaptable to that particular
quantity.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:41)

1414
So, when we talk about in detail to the about the indicator let us say so like ozone or sulfur
dioxide or NOx. So, these indicators are basically pollutants and these pollutants have
characteristic of some chemical composition. Some chemical characterization is there, like
ozone had some kind of chemical characterization.

SO2 has or NOx, has they are having some particular chemical composition or characterization
but PM particulate matter it says that which is defined by mass by their mass per unit of volume
concentration or size and say physical parameters irrespective of their chemical composition.

Although these days people also talk about some presence of the chemical coating on the
particulate matter because then it will further cause very negative consequences to the health
basically otherwise, this mass concentration or they are even nowadays number concentration,
that is also very important because very small particles which may have very less mass
concentration but their number is very high.

And they can go into our respiratory system they can go into our body and they can damage
our health in terms of some diseases. Well, when we talk about averaging time, so this is
basically the exposure time. It depends upon the exposure and the intensity like for very acute
effect very small duration also can cause very acute effect if concentration is very high but if a
span is more, then a small concentration can also be tolerated.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:31)

So, these averaging times are 8 hours or 1 hour or 24 hours something like that.

1415
(Refer Slide Time: 07:36)

Level we have seen these values like 9 ppm 35 ppm or in case of SO2 or NO2 different values
are there. So, those levels are basically depending upon several studies of health-related lab-
based studies which scientists conduct and then they come to these values that this is the
threshold value. So, below that, there is no problem if we can have if we have that pollutant in
the atmosphere.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:05)

When we consider several other factors for setting these air quality standards, then like adverse
health effects are taken into account and then these special populations at risk means, like,
some are diseased people, old age people or children, those kinds of things, maybe they are so

1416
if they are at risk, so in that sensitive area, we should have different kinds of air quality
standards. So, that is taken into account, dose response curve.

So, these are the scientific reasoning how they are taken into account when we want to set some
air quality standards. Exposure characterization, again that duration and some people can get
exposed to very high concentration depending upon their occupation, like if somebody is
working in hazardous pollutant related scenario like some or mining area or where extraction
of some heavy metals are there.

So, those kinds of issues may be there. Risk assessment so again, we have to assess the risk,
what is even concentration high, but risk is not there, because of certain meteorological
parameters when we calculate the risk, then it's fine in that particular area, but if a location is
such that even small concentrations are emitted and then they build up over the period of time
because of some peculiar metrological conditions or topographical conditions, then, in those
locations, we should have different kind of air quality standards.

It is not that the same standard we should have although, to begin with, we are having uniform
standards across country, but several researchers, several policymakers also argue that we
should have air quality standards as per the context as per the atmosphere or the environment
where people are working and of course in these industrial areas, people have different kind of
air quality standards.

Like indoor air quality standards are nowadays being developed, then acceptability of the risk.
Risk factor is very important to consider because, we get exposed to several kinds of risk like
traffic accidents or we also have health risks due to some consumption of other material or
there are issues people talk about like people get exposed to occupational risk people get
exposed to other kinds of risks which are not in our control like earthquake.

And so the estimate how much risk is there in the background, whether that is acceptable or
not, if some industry is coming and some emissions will be added and that will add some risk
in that particular environment. So, whether that risk is acceptable or not because trade-off is
there, we get some benefit like economic growth will be there, we may have better health
facilities, education facilities because of some industrial developments.

So, those risk benefit analysis is to be done and what is acceptable that is also considered for
setting the air quality standards.

1417
(Refer Slide Time: 11:21)

So, adverse health effects that can be we have already discussed at several locations, like they
can have respiratory related problems, they can have eye irritation, because of certain
pollutants, and you can go into blood, they can cause asthama also. So, there are several ways
air pollutants can affect our health. So, we have to see those health effects and we have to
consider which is important and which particular pollutant is causing a peculiar kind of health
effects. So, accordingly we have to take those considerations into account.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:39)

When we talk about dose response curve some dose is there, so dose means duration and the
concentration both these. So, this is the relationship, dose increases and response also increases

1418
some relationship is there and we can get but there is some threshold quantity also below that,
there is no effect and another way of looking at this problem is like potentially susceptible as
people are ill or they are elderly or very young, they are more sensitive even to small
concentrations of pollutants.

Then there may be occupational related exposures like and like somebody working outdoors.
So, higher concentration of pollutants can get exposed to that person, some occupational related
issues may be there, some people may be unaware of some issues of pollutants hazards and
they might be working in hazardous situations like landfill emissions maybe there, there may
be different kinds of waste material and people are not aware of those harmful effects which
they carry because of exposure. So, those reasons may also be there. So, that thing has to be
taken into account.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:01)

This is the sigmoidal dose response relationship as we have also seen earlier. So, this A is the
threshold of the response below that there is no problem means below this level, there is no
problem. When this increases, then of course, problems start to occur some responses there in
terms of health effects.

So the point of maximum sensitivity at this most of the people have problem related issues,
health related issues, C is the region near saturation response means kind of it has exposed to
most of the population and maximum response is occurred at this particular level. So, these are
the based on the studies scaling up those dose response curves.

1419
(Refer Slide Time: 13:49)

And also there are certain levels, there is no effect after this below this level. Then clinical
effect have been observed at this particular level, but, the same concentration will have
different effects on different kind of segment of population like sensitive people, even smaller
concentration will have some response, whereas, high concentration of this population means
average population can expose to higher concentration.

And resistant individual who have good immunity, good health, they can even get exposed to
higher concentrations. So, depending upon the segment of the population, again different
standards may be there but we have to take here worst case scenario. So, we go for sensitive
population, we have to protect them.

1420
(Refer Slide Time: 14:38)

Then exposure characterization because of monitoring like air quality monitoring must be
there. Otherwise, how can we implement our air quality standards if we do not have monitor
data? So, we have to have monitor data or modelled data of the concentrations at several
locations. So, monitoring capability also restrict air quality standards.

Suppose some country or some particular organization start arguing that we should have very
stringent air quality standards fine but what is the huge with they do not have any instrument
to monitor to compare whether the concentration is there of that nature or not. So, those air
quality monitoring capabilities, skilled manpower, then resources to support that particular
monitoring network, all these issues economic factors are also there.

Means whatever policy can be implemented, those air quality standards can be properly
implemented, regulated only then it is making sense otherwise having those regulations or these
air quality standards and not having infrastructure to support those guidelines, then there is no
fun. So, that is why this monitor network related issues are also important.

1421
(Refer Slide Time: 15:53)

And in risk assessment, there are various issues like hazardous components identification,
development of exposure and response related relationships, then we analyse the exposure
assessment and the regulatory risk assessment is also taken into account and it is carried out.
In New Zealand, Canada, Australia, those countries, they basically have this risk based related
processes to set these air quality standards.

Other countries have other ways to go for threshold quantities for criteria pollutants. So, several
countries have different kinds of methodologies.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:31)

1422
And as earlier also I said that acceptability of risk is very important, how much risk we can
accept by trading with the benefits or by trading with other kinds of risks which are every day
we face like traffic accidents are there and there are several kinds of risk basically, so you have
to compare which kind of risk is more and already if we are having some more risk in terms of
background concentration, then we should not allow other industries to come up.

Like emissions adding there to exceed those standards but the standards when we set the
acceptability of the risk is also primary factor because if you can afford more risk in terms of
exposure, then you can have higher level of standards. Otherwise, if some situations are there
where you do not want to get exposed to even very small concentrations because of certain
regions like in that area maybe school children are there or maybe hospitals are there in that
case in that particular area, we cannot go for normal standards.

So, we have to specify sensitive standards air quality standards as per sensitive zones sensitive
areas, we will see those kinds of situations.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:54)

Well, if we look into timeline for the setting of national ambient air quality standards for India,
so in 1970 basically this interest grew in management policies, spheres or circles and then in
1972 after this Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, it became very clear that
we need, uniform environmental law and then as a result or as a consequence of that year
prevention and control of pollution that was passed by Parliament in 1981.

1423
And with the goal of providing for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, the
first ambient air quality standards were adopted in 1982 by the CPCB central pollution control
board and they were revised in 1994 and 2009, we will see how much values are changing
according to that.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:53)

Like in 1994 this was basically the national ambient air quality standards. So, concentration
defined in industrial area, residential, rural and other areas and sensitive areas. So, three
particular categories were defined and then as per pollutant, the time weighted average like
annual average or 24 hours average depending upon the pollutant like for carbon monoxide it
was only 8 hour and 1 hour because of the toxicity level.

Ammonia annual at 24 hour. So, mostly those were suspended particulate matters, these were
around 100 this micrometre respiratory particulate matter RSPM that is basically PM10. So, for
that annual and 24 hours are there and different values are there. For industrial area it was
higher like 80 annual and residential area 60 and sensitive area 15 very less.

Similarly, 24 hours for industrial area of sulphur dioxide it was 120, for residential area it was
80 and for sensitive area it was 30. So, different areas have as per the time exposure or average
time different values but then researchers had better perspective over the years.

1424
(Refer Slide Time: 20:12)

And in 2009, then they were revised. People argued that even if people are living in industrial
area, they have equal to clean air. So, industrial areas, residential areas, rural areas, all these
areas were clubbed and the standards were defined uniformly for those areas but of course,
ecologically sensitive areas which are notified by central government of India.

So, those were taken as a separate entity and standards were prescribed differently. Sulphur
dioxide annual 50 earlier it was 60, residential area 80 was in industrial area, then 24 hours 80
ecologically sensitive 20 and 80. So, 24 hours, almost say exactly same but for annual average
because of, regular exposure and their harmful effect. So, it was taken as 20. Different values
like PM10 then PM2.5 was also added in 2009 and then this benzene and arsenic nickel all other
additional pollutants were added in the list.

1425
(Refer Slide Time: 21:21)

So, if we compare 1994 and 2009 air quality standards, so like concentrations were divided
into three categories earlier industrial, residential, rural other and then sensitive area and in
2009 only two categories, this industrial, residential rural in one and ecologically sensitive in
the second.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:44)

Different values who have different variations are there earlier, like for annual, this is 80 and
60 and it was fixed as 50 then when these were club, so little bit more stringent we have become.
Sensitive area, it was earlier 15 for sulfur dioxide now, it is 20.

1426
So, means more evidence based literature was there to afford get to getting exposed for higher
concentrations annually while other this 80-80 values are same for 24 hours earlier it was 120
and 80 in residential areas. And it was 30 sensitive areas. So, that way a lot of difference means
in residential industrial areas values were reduced, it became a little bit stringent and for
sensitive areas depending upon the definition more concentrations were allowed.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:44)

So, everywhere whether it is nitrogen dioxide, lead, you will see that kind of variation.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:50)

1427
Suspended particulate matter was there then PM2.5 was added. So, that is also again new
addition the reason is because it was found that PM2.5 is more dangerous because it can go up
to our lungs and it can result into several kind of problems basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:08)

Then, if we talk about other parameters like ozone, arsenic, nickel, these benzo pyrene all these
have been added and their standards have been defined.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:20)

Well, then carbon monoxide, ozone there this time weighted average is 8 hour and 1 hour
because of their toxicity.

1428
(Refer Slide Time: 23:28)

Then as I said, because not every country has that much resources to develop their own air
quality standards. So, better they go for WHO air quality guidelines and they try to follow
them.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:44)

So, WHO has produced certain guidelines like in 2005 there were some values in 2021 they
have given more stringent values like from PM2.5 annual this was 10 this is a microgram per
cubic meter and this is 5, then in PM10 annual it was 20 earlier, now it is 15. Sulphur dioxide it
was 20 earlier, now it is 40.

1429
So, means, when we have like new evaluation methodology, new values new scientific data,
so change can be on either side, but mostly we go for more stringent depending upon the
situation, but in this particular case concentration rather than reduce it increased means air
quality standards increase.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:33)

When we talk about of different countries air quality standards, so they vary as I said because
of their technological capabilities because of their economic status, all these things influence
how much a standard they can afford to apply or implement.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:45)

1430
So, we have taken from different sources and compiled this data. So, WHO, European Union,
United States, California they have different set of standards. Japan, Brazil, Mexico, South
Africa, India, China all these different for different pollutants, we have tried to compile and
compare air quality standards.

Different values are there for different countries and the reason is means if some country is
capable to monitor in a big way they can have stringent standards they can apply they can
execute those standards, some other countries which do not have that much capability so
accordingly their standards are a little bit different like Brazil 80 is there. South Africa having
50, India 15, 60, 80 depending upon different situations, like sensitive and those residential
areas.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:48)

Now, we come to emission standards. So, basically air quality standards are the concentration
of air pollutants into the ambient air, indoor air quality standards are also nowadays people are
talking and they are in the process of development but as such ambient air quality standards
are very popular till now, then where these concentrations come to the air because of certain
emissions.

So, there must be some emission standards also so that we can prevent to build up more
concentration. So, like from tailpipe emissions or from stack emissions. So, all those emissions
are also regulated.

1431
(Refer Slide Time: 26:26)

And some standards are given by the government, like Motor Vehicle Act 1988 was there. So,
for petrol for diesel, different cars or different vehicles are there and different standards are
there.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:40)

Like 2000; BS-I, Bharat Stage-I, so they were borrowed from European Union standards like
Euro-1, Euro-2. 2005; we implemented BS-II that is Bharat Stage-2. And similarly, like we
came to BS-IV in 2017. But then we did like leap frogging. And in 2020; we went directly to
BS-VI Bharat Stage VI that is equivalent to Euro-6. So, we did not go for BS-V and that way

1432
big jump or big leap has been achieved. And that is a great contribution to reduce emissions
because as we grow in this term, the emissions become very less.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:21)

So, in conclusion, we can say that the air quality standards are very important and individual
countries develop their own air quality standards depending upon the scientific evidences as
well as their capabilities in terms of economy, technology, etc.

And these are important because of health risk related issues or other like sensitive areas
production those kinds of things. And emission standards are also needed, so that we can meet
those air quality standards, we can curb the emissions at the source itself. So, emission
standards for that purpose is very important to set to achieve the ambient air quality standards.

1433
(Refer Slide Time: 28:05)

So, this is all for today. Thank you for your kind attention. And these are the references for
additional information. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1434
 .Air Pollution Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 49
Air Pollution Legislations and Regulations

Hello friends, you may recall last time we discussed about air quality standards. So, basically
whether it is air quality standards or legislations or regulations or policies, they contribute in
air quality management in an effective air quality management. So, today we will look into air
pollution legislations and regulations because they are the backbone of any kind of
notifications, acts or policies which government prescribes and which we follow and we meet
those standards which are based on those legislations basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:12)

So, in this content, you can look into this introduction part will be there. Say, why we need
these lessons, legislations or regulations what are their back bearing, then timeline of air
pollution legislations and regulations in context of India, like which acts have been introduced
up to 1960 from 1900 to 1960. Then which were the acts which were developed or enacted
during 1961 to 2022. So, we will see major or most important acts and notifications in this
particular presentation and then we will conclude.

1435
(Refer Slide Time: 01:43)

So, when we talk about legislations and regulations, basically, they are the tools, soft tools for
air quality management. So, these components serve as foundation for national policy
framework on enforcement of air pollution mitigation plans or efforts and for the reinforcement
of air quality management plans.

So, legislations basically help us or enable the citizens to establish processes and
methodologies or programs for monitoring or enforcement or public participation in air
pollution control which could like have significant impacts on improving the ambient air
quality or if those legislations are related to indoor air quality, then they will improve the indoor
air quality.

1436
(Refer Slide Time: 02:33)

So, this is the timeline in brief in 1905, Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act was enacted. Then in
1912, Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act was established. In 1939 Motor Vehicles Act was there
and Factories Act was enacted in 1948. Then in 1951, the Industrial Development and
Regulation Act has been enacted, basically, we are looking into only those acts which directly
or indirectly influenced the air quality.

In 1952, the Inflammable Substances Act was enacted and the Mines Act was established or
passed in 1952. Then in 1962, we had the Atomic Energy Act and in 1963, Gujarat Smoke
Nuisance Act was formulated.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:21)

1437
In 1981, we had, very important this act which is known as Air Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution Act or simply Air Act in 1981. Then in 1986, we had one umbrella kind of act this is
known as the Environment Protection Act, EPA in 1995. Then afterwards, we had National
Environment Tribunal Act, NETA.

In 1997, we had National Environment Appellate Authority, NEAA Act and 2000 is related to
the Ozone Depleting Substances Regulation and Control Rules. So, in 2010, then we had
National Green Tribunal Act and in 2021, we had Commission for Air Quality Management in
National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act 2021. So, last year, we had basically and
this year just a few days before, we had this draft notification for e-vehicles in NCR that is
national capital region.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:27)

So, if we look into one by one of these acts so that we can know, in what, background these
apps were enacted, and what was their scope or how they really helped us to improve the air
quality. So, if we come to the first act which was Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act in 1905. So, at
that time, it was enacted to curtail the smoke from furnaces and other kind of burning activities
in and around Kolkata.

So, this Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act 1905 was introduced basically to protect the Victoria
Memorial and other issues were also there. So, the West Bengal pollution control board and
Victoria Memorial Hall Kolkata arranged for a ceremonious meeting to mark this centennial
of this Bengali smoke nuisance act 1905 afterwards.

1438
(Refer Slide Time: 05:26)

Then this act for the abatement of nuisance arising from the smoke for furnaces or fireplaces
in the towns and suburb areas of Kolkata and Howrah and other areas of the Bengal so this was
the kind of periphery or the area where it was impacted.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:47)

Well, then, it was very kind of stringent acting at that time because it was stated in this
particular act that if a smoke is emitted from any furnace in greater density or at a lower altitude
or for a longer time period, then what is permitted by the rules made under this particular act,
the owner of the furnace shall on conviction be punished for the first offense with fine which
may extend up to 2000 rupees.

1439
2000 rupees at that time was very big amount and for a second or subsequent offense with fine
which could be even 5000 and but later on in 2018 recently, so this act was repealed because
it was no more relevant due to this enforcement of air prevention and control of air pollution
1981 Act. So, it was repealed basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:46)

In 1912 we had this Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, so it was on the line of Bengal Smoke
Nuisance Act and here this fine amount was a little bit less in comparison to that amount. So,
250 and 500 were kept in this particular act and this was applicable in the greater Bombay area
basically or extension in other areas of the Maharashtra. So, this Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act
was enacted in 1912.

1440
(Refer Slide Time: 07:20)

And then in 1939, we had the Motor Vehicle Act. So, this was for regulating vehicular pollution
or emissions and according to the amendment in Motor Vehicle Act in 1988, this is mentioned
that any person who drives or causes or allows to be driven in any public place a motor vehicle
which violates the standards prescribed in relation to the road safety, control of the noise and
air pollution shall be punishable for the offense with a fine. So, in 1988, it was categorically
mentioned.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:56)

Well, then in 2019, we had this Motor Vehicle’s Amendment Bill. So, this latest bill basically
recalls vehicles if a, it has provision for recalling these vehicles which are defective in nature

1441
and they cause damage to the environment. So, the manufacturer either has to recall those kinds
of vehicles, they have to refund the customer the total cost or they have to replace the defective
vehicle.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:27)

In 1948, we had Factories Act. So, this was a national act that included the management of
activities involving dust and fumes from industrial complexes so that we again it is related to
air pollution. And this is the first act of independent India, indirectly focusing on air pollution,
this Factories Act 1948 and this Act was enacted for occupational safety, health and welfare of
workers at the workplace.

So, occupational related issues, it was included and at the chapter third and sections 13, 14 and
15 of this particular act focused on ventilation and dust, fumes and humidity related issues
pertaining to the health of labour. So, occupational related hazards included all these kinds of
things.

1442
(Refer Slide Time: 09:29)

So, in 1951, we had this Industrial Development and Regulation Act and this Act was enacted
to provide for the development and regulation of certain industries. So again certain industries
means those could contribute to the air pollution and the extent was limited to the purpose of
conserving any resources of national importance which could be utilized in that particular
industry along with the regulation of production and industrial development. So, that way
indirectly it was also regulating the air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:54)

The Mines Act of 1952 consideration air pollution was again limited to the ventilation actions
to be taken in respect of the dust, fire, inflammable and noxious gases including precautions

1443
against a spontaneous combustion and underground fire, the coal dust. Again related to
occupational hazards as such.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:19)

In 1952, the Inflammable Substances Act was enacted and again because it was related to air
pollution through safety issues indirectly and the solitary purpose of this act was to declare
certain substances to be dangerously inflammable and regulating them for under this Petroleum
Act of 1934 but indirectly it could also relate to the air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:49)

In 1962, afterwards, we had this Atomic Energy Act. So, this act was basically addressing only
the health impact and safety from the radioactive substances. So, radioactive substances can go

1444
from one place to another, and it is hazardous and very toxic. So, this substances with the sole
purpose of control over atomic energy and radioactive substances, this act was focusing on
especially.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:17)

Then in 1963, Gujarat Smoke Nuisance Act was enacted. So, this act aimed at the abatement
of nuisance arising due to the smoke which was coming out of furnaces in the city of
Ahmedabad and in the adjacent area of that Gujarat state and how to identify whether this is
nuisance or not. So, this Ringelmann chart was used as a device for determining whether
emissions of the smoke are within the limits of the standards or they are violating.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:55)

1445
And like this kind of chart was used which was prepared by Professor Ringelmann. He devised
a visual assessment method. So, like light grey, then darker than black those kind of color
schemes were there and this used to be placed into eyesight at a particular distance and it used
to be matched with the color of the smoke.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:18)

So, one could easily judge whether how much intensity of the pollution is there. So, basically
there were five grading 0 to 5, 0 – white, 5 – black and in between, there were different shades
of the grey.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:34)

1446
Well, then we had this very, very important act, this was known, especially Air Prevention and
Control of Air Pollution Act or simply Air Act in 1981 this was enacted. So, it was completely
exclusively was focused on air pollution and this is the first act which was formulated with the
sole purpose to prevent and control and , having the abatement of air pollution to improve the
air quality.

In 1987 it was amended basically giving the central and state pollution control boards the
authority to deal with severe air pollution related emergencies.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:18)

And the Air Act amendment this has mandated through CPCB (Central Pollution Control
Board) and the State Pollution Control Board as SPCBs they were given these rights or
authority to establish national ambient air quality standards for criteria pollutants, you may
recall those standards we have discussed.

So, this is the act which has given the authority to central pollution control board and SPCBs
to have the ambient air quality standards and to apply them across India and to assist the
Government in planning future environmental prevention and control strategies. So, these were
clearly mentioned in this act.

Then carrying out research to better understand environmental issues and undertake nationwide
air sampling to ascertain the ambient air quality in India and identification of the related
problems in those areas and to conduct air quality inspection in areas of the concern and the

1447
state pollution control boards were allowed to set more stringent standards then what is
prescribed by the central government through CPCB.

Those air quality standards and the network is now you see of air quality monitoring across
India is basically routed in this particular act.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:41)

Then 1986 then we had this Environment Protection Act. This is an umbrella Act which covers
many rules and laws and this notification on lead free petrol and catalytic converters for
vehicles in metropolitan cities all these many other acts were routed or offshoots of this
particular Environment Protection Act.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:09)

1448
Well National Environment Tribunal Act, NETA 1995 this was established to this act is to
provide basically strict liability for damages arising out of an accident occurring while handling
any hazardous substances or the establishment of this particular tribunal for effective and
expeditious disposal of cases arising from such accidents with a view to giving relief to people
who are victims of those kinds of accidents and the property or the environment and related
issues to handle legally and properly and in a fast mode.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:03)

Well, then in 1997, we had this National Environment Appellate Authority. So, this act was
legislated to create this authority to deal with complaints involving environmental clearances
within the restricted areas, not simple areas but the restricted areas.

So, this is basically an act to provide for the establishment of this particular authority to hear
appeals with respect to restrictions of areas in which any industries or operations or processes
shall not be carried out or if they are carried out then with the subject to certain safeguards
within the guidelines of the Environment Protection Act of 1986. So, those have to be
incorporated which basically.

1449
(Refer Slide Time: 16:43)

Well, then next is the ozone depletion or ozone depleting substances regulation and control
rules 2000. So, this act was for dealing with prohibition of new investments with ozone
depleting substances and regulation of import export and sale of those products which have
these ozone depleting substances because as Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 and then
some time was given to developing countries.

So, in that process this in 2000, we had this particular act, so that this could be phased out
properly. So, the ozone cell established by Ministry of Environment forests and climate change,
this has been given the responsibility for carrying out all tasks relating to phasing out of the
ozone depleting substances.

1450
(Refer Slide Time: 17:37)

So, you can see this particular site is there where it can be seen and it was related to Montreal
Protocol.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:44)

Next is National Green Tribunal Act 2010. This is very important to hear any kind of complaint.
So, this tribunal was established in 2010, it has a specialized judicial body basically equipped
with expertise solely for the purpose of resolving environmental cases in the country. So, as
environment related cases are heard in this NGT.

This is very important judicial authority. The Tribunal is tasked with providing effective and
expeditious remedy in cases relating to environmental protection or conservation of the forest

1451
and other natural resources and enforcement of any legal relating to the environment. So,
whatever activity is harming the environment, one can complain to NGT and they will give the
judgment after hearing all parties.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

Well, Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region and adjoining areas
Act 2021. So, this is to provide basically the constitution of the this commission of Air Quality
Management in this NCT, this National Capital Region and adjoining areas for better
coordination, research identification and resolution of problems which are surrounding in this
area related to poor air quality index or which are matters related to whatever your quality
related issues are there.

1452
(Refer Slide Time: 19:21)

So, the objective of this particular Commission has been to plan and execute the program for
this region of NCT to prevent control and abatement of the air pollution. And it was also given
the s to laying down the parameters for the quality of air in its various aspects. So, that in a
comprehensive manner, air quality can be studied and managed.

Then it was also for laying down parameters for emissions or discharges of environmental
pollutants from different sources whatever they are and their implications in terms of air quality
in this particular region.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:01)

1453
And next like to restrict the areas in which industries are operating or having the processes
which can harm the environment in this particular region also to carry out and whatever
investigations are needed and to do research relating to the problems of environmental pollution
and which are having the implications of air quality in that region and preparation of manuals
or guidelines, codes related to the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution in this
particular region.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:36)

Well then only a few days before draft notification of e-vehicles in NCR has been issued. So,
this is basically for privatization, which can include early electrification of public transport as
Government of India is giving much encouragement for e-vehicles so that we can have zero
emission kind of transport sector.

So, these feeder services or transit related vehicles, large delivery fleet vehicles owned by
government, so they have to be in this particular act and the mandate of this particular
notification is related to certain percentage to remove those petrol or diesel driven vehicles,
fossil fuel driven vehicles and to convert them into e-vehicles at a particular percentage and to
for doing the enhancement of this percentage after a certain period. So, long term plan is that
we can have more and more e-vehicles basically.

1454
(Refer Slide Time: 21:43)

So, this particular direction has been given to the transport department of Government of NCT
that adaptation of electric vehicles like in terms of two wheelers or four wheelers. So, within
three months after this notification was passed, so 10 percent of two wheelers have to be
converted to this vehicles. And up to 31st March of 2023. So, only within one year it has to be
encouraged up to 50 percent similarly, the four wheelers 5 percent in next three months, and
within one year 25 percent.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:21)

So, we can conclude that there are several legislations. Over the years, those legislations and
regulations have been formulated and enacted by the government, for effective management of

1455
the air quality and to ensure the sustainable growth of industrial economy in our country and
to safeguard the occupational related issues of the labour and people and also have safe
environment in urban areas or in suburban areas.

And now, we talk about the entire country basically. So, there are several legislations have
been enacted, but still we are having the problem. So, the basically it is not only important to
have the legislations or regulations but we should also go for their proper implementation.

So, that is the key that of course, we should have timely the required legislations or acts or
notifications related to air pollution control and mitigation but also their enforcement should
be proper and in an effective way, so that we can have the improve air quality and we can have
a healthy life.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:33)

So, thank you for your attention. And these are the references we have taken much material for
this presentation you can go through these references in leisure time. So, thanks again. See you
in the next lecture. Thank you.

1456
 Air Pollution Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 50
National Policies for Managing the Ambient Air Quality

Hello friends. You may recall we were discussing about emission and air quality standards.
Today we will discuss about national policies and programs for managing ambient air quality.
Because besides technological interventions which sometimes come through open market or
market economy or free market economy because of voluntary decisions of the people, there
are also interventions of national level bodies like Central Pollution Control Board or Ministry
of Environment and Forests and climate change.

They regularly update their policies and programs for targeting a specific issue or aspect of
environmental pollution. So, to improve or to manage the ambient air quality they have been
there have been several national policies and programs time to time which have been proposed
by the government and implemented by different agencies. So, today we will discuss about
them.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:44)

And this lecture will cover like introduction about these policies and programs, then the Clean
Air Planning the timeline, which policies have come at which year. So, those timeline we will
discuss, then we will discuss about major government initiatives in terms of like national
ambient air national air monitoring plan or national ambient air quality standards or air quality
index, those kinds of things.
And then other initiatives also we will discuss for example, handling of public complaints,

1457
there are new systems and then field inspections and feedback related system, auto fuel policy
that was implemented entire throughout the country and later on we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:10)

So, when we go for the introduction as, this ambient air pollution we have several times
discussed about its impact and there are thousands and millions of deaths which are attributed
to the exposure to the air pollution basically with estimated figures.

According to this, World Health Organization estimated figures or based on their reports, like
13 to 14 Indian cities have been ranked into top 20 worst polluted cities in entire world
basically. So, in order to address air pollution in the country during the year, over the years
Government of India has undertaken several kind of policies and programs. So, we will discuss
about them.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:59)

1458
Like for example, if we start from the beginning in 1974 basically the Central Pollution Control
Board that entity was established very legal entity focused entity on environment related issues.
So, it was established under the water prevention and control of Pollution Act in 1981, then the
air prevention and control of Pollution Act was enacted.

In 1986, Central Pollution Control Boards added additional provisions for environment
protection act. And in 1994, National Ambient Air Quality Standards were introduced for
criteria pollutants and so on.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:40)

In 1997 Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change prepared an action plan for
controlling pollution in Delhi. Basically, earlier it was used to be known as Ministry of
Environment forests. Now, it is known as Ministry of Environment and forest and climate

1459
change.

In 1998 the environment pollution prevention and control authority EPCA was established to
address air pollution in Delhi particularly because mega city Delhi has been in the news because
of its peculiar situation and in winter time very high pollution loads etc. The national ambient
air quality standards were revised in 1998.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:21)

And in 2003, in order to reduce this respirable suspended particulate matter that is nothing but
the PM10 the particulate matter of the size equal to or less than 10 micrometre. So, to reduce
the level so RSPM or PM10 the Supreme Court issued directives ordering for preparation of
clean air plans for the cities of Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Sholapur, Lucknow, Bangalore Chennai
and Hyderabad because there were studies and observations that these cities are having high
levels of air pollution exposure to this citizens.

In 2009 Central Pollution Control Board introduced the comprehensive Environmental

Pollution Index (CPI. So, accordingly different industrial clusters were categorized and then
national ambient air quality standards were revised and PM2.5 was added to the list of air
pollutants for which the ambient air quality standards were prescribed by the government.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:26)

1460
So, in 2014, the National Air Quality Index AQI methodology was established. So, that
communication easy communication can be established between the public because the air
quality index gives some range and color schemes those kinds of things. So, that even a layman
can understand whether the air quality in and around the city is good or bad, moderate or poor
or something like that.

In 2015, the Central Pollution Control Board issued directives under the Air Act 1981 for the
implementation of 42 action points containing control and mitigation measures for major cities
like including Delhi mega city, Delhi and the National Capital Region in and around Delhi.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:09)

In 2016 PM2.5 was included for all manual stations under the National Ambient Monitoring
Program (NAMP) because several monitoring stations were established across India so that in
particularly in cities that the air quality ambient air quality can be known for that particular

1461
areas. In 2018 then again the Ministry of Environment and Forests and climate change
circulated a draft concept note for the National Clean Air Program (NCAP).

NCAP and that proposed multiple time bound strategies for reducing the air pollution. The
NGT National Green Tribunal as that directed the states and the union territories with non-
attainment cities under the NCAP program to prepare action plans. Non-attainment cities
means those cities which are violating the ambient air quality standards in terms of basically
PM2.5, PM10 those kinds of particular air pollutants.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:07)

In 2019 then ministry launched the National Clean Air program, NCAP as a time bound
national strategy to tackle increasing air pollution this was the big issue basically, separate
funds were allocated for this particular Pan India activity, a three member Central Committee
examined and approved the Clean Air plan.

So, it was very serious and focused activity. Then the following the NGT’s intervention 20 new
non-attainment cities were added. So, the entire number of cities were increased, so that they
could have the city action plans for improving air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:49)

1462
So, if you look at you can if you do overview of different major government initiatives, then
like NAMP; National Air Quality monitoring program or NAAQS; National Ambient Air
Quality Standards or National Air Quality Index, AQI High Level Task Force HLTF then CAP
that is Comprehensive Action Plan GRAP; Graded Response Action Plan, NCAP; National
Clean Air Program, all these kinds of initiatives have been made by the government for
improving the air quality in and around ambient cities, towns etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:23)

So, if we talk about this national air quality monitoring program that is NAMP then we have
to know that CPCB initiated this NAAQM basically in 1984 that is National Ambient Air
Quality Monitoring Program, NAAQM in the year 1984. And in 7 stations in Agra and this
Anpara. Then subsequently the program was renamed as national air quality monitoring
program or NAMP.

1463
And in year 2019, the number of restrictions was raised to 804, covering 344 cities or towns in
28 states and 6 union territories on 31st December 2019. So, serious efforts serious activities
have been or serious attempts have been made by the government to improve the air quality
through monitoring of the air quality through observing them analysing them and reporting and
then doing some intervention in terms of technology and policy.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:34)

So, if you talk about this NAMP program, the objectives were very clear like to ascertain
whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are met or violated in a particular region
because when we are monitoring only then we will know what is the air quality there, how
much concentration of a particular pollutant is there in the ambient air so that we can compare
it with the standards air quality standards.

Then with the help of this program basically it can also help to identify non-attainment cities
that is, the cities are not attaining the ambient air quality standard that is violating they are
violating the ambient air quality standards. Then to obtain the knowledge and understanding
necessary for developing preventive and corrective measures for improving the air quality
because this monitoring data only can help us in that direction.

To understand the natural cleansing processes undergoing in the environment through pollution
dilution or dispersion or wind based movement dry deposition wet deposition that is
precipitation and chemical transformation of pollutants generated because whether you do the
exposure study or source apportionment study or any other kind of environmental impact or
risk assessment related to studies, basically the monitor data are the key.

Without monitor data, we cannot really know where this pollution is coming from, even if you

1464
are doing some modelling, they have to be validated by monitored data. So, the air quality
monitoring program is the key or fundamental thing for implementing any kind of policy or
program to improve the air quality.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:19)

Well, in this particular program, three air pollutants like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and
particulate matter particularly size less than or equal to 10 micrometres, that is PM10 or it is also
called RSPM - Respirable Suspended Particulate matter because it can go into our this system
respiratory system. So, these have been monitored regularly by CPCB or Central
Pollution Control Board at all locations under this particular program.

And here PM2.5, PM10 and this has been the perspective or with this human hair. So, this PM10
sizes this one if you compare with the thickness of the human hair and PM2.5 is further very
less so it is very difficult to see them with naked eyes because of our limited bandwidth of our
visibility or so.

So, the monitoring of metrological parameters such as wind speed or direction, then relative
humidity temperature, were also integrated the in this NAMP program basically because only
then we will be able to know whether some contribution is coming from a wind direction or
not, how long it is taking the pollution load towards in downwind direction. So, all these
monitor these metrological data were also monitored along with the pollutant data.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:39)

1465
Then CPCB adopted the first ambient air quality standards on November 11, 1982 as per the
section 16(2) in the year Prevention and Control Pollution Act 1981 and these standards were
revised by CPCB in 1994 and then again in 2009. So, it is a continuous improvement program
or evolution has to happen based on different results which comes like earlier PM2.5 was not
there later on it was added.

In fact, in the beginning only SPM was there suspended particulate matter, that is basically the
particulate matter of size around 100 micrometre later on PM10 more jaded then PM2.5 added
because research came into existence that no this coarser particles 100 micrometre size but fine
particles are more responsible for health impacts negative health impacts, so those were added.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:34)

Now, if you see this comprehensive list of national ambient air quality standards NAAQS,
around 12 pollutants have been listed here. So, whether it is SO2, NO2 lead carbon monoxide

1466
all these are like criteria pollutants, some toxic pollutants are also there like Benzo Pyrene,
BaP, carcinogenic, then you will see like annual and 24 hour standards are there, short term 24
hours long term annual standards.

So, we will see the annual standards values are less because you are getting export continuously
for one year. Short term is more like 80 or so the difference. And these basically how these
data are monitored or different areas like for industrial area, different standards are there for
ecologically sensitive area, different standards are there.

In fact, earlier there were three zones residential, industrial and sensitive. Now, the industrial
residential, rural and other areas have been combined into one and ecologically sensitive area
has been in different categories. So, two categories are there. Then if we talk about annual
arithmetic mean. So, basically, what is the mean?

How many these samples should be there, how many days monitoring should be there? So, it
has been properly documented in statistical terms. It has a statistical significance, annual
automatic mean of minimum 104, 104 measurements in a year at a particular site taken twice
a week, 24 hourly at uniform interval. So, that is the minimum number of samples or
measurements we should have otherwise the annual mean will not be established properly.
If we talk about 24 hourly then it is basically it can be like three 8 hourly or 1 hourly then you
can have different for 24 hours, these monitored values can be there they can then you can have
the average value of 24 hours basically. So, as applicable it shall be compiled and with 98
percent of the time in a year, 2 percent of the time may exceed the limits but not on two
consecutive days of the monitoring.

So, these are the statistical things which should be met otherwise, our data will be erroneous.
So, 2 percent time it can exceed but not consecutive days, it can be like today it can exceed
then it should not exceed tomorrow, it should exceed after two days, three days something like
that.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:06)

1467
Well, when we talk about National Air Quality Index, these are the indices which are good for
communication to the layman people , they do not know they are not scientist on engineer, they
want to know whether it is good or bad, very simple thing, they do not want to go for
concentration 80 micrometre or 80.5 or 90 scientists and engineers maybe for them.

It may be those values important for health risk assessment etc., but the layman or the common
public want to know whether it is good or bad for me. So, for that, this air quality index is a
very good thing for communicating purpose. So, the AQI was launched by the Prime Minister
in April 2015 starting with 14 cities and now extended 71 cities in 17 states.

So, that way the scope has increased and Air Quality Index or category like dark green 0 to 50
range is there, then it is Good 51 to 100, lighter green Satisfactory then yellow 101 to 200 it is
Moderate, it is fine, like that satisfactory. 201 to 300 it is Poor air quality. So, those sick people
should avoid those situations otherwise healthy people can tolerate but 301 to 400 Very Poor.
It should be avoided and 401 to 500 it is Severe or very dangerous kind of thing and we should
not get exposed to such a polluted ambient air.

So, the AQI is a tool for the effective communication of air quality status to the people in terms
of easy to understand. So, in color schemes, if they know, then they will avoid. So, for example,
in a city center, a particular city center, you are saying and there are now tools to also predict
the air quality and if you if AQI is giving signal that air will be very bad tomorrow it will be
worst severe then people can avoid to visit that particular place. So, those kinds of things are
there.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:13)

1468
Then this graded response action plan. So, in January, 12, on January 12 2017, this was notified,
this is again very interesting thing because for prevention control and abatement of air pollution
in Delhi and NCR which has been affected very seriously because of several reasons local air
pollution as well as transportation of pollution from the wind direction. So, in winter,
especially, it gets worst air quality.

So, like it comprises major such as prohibition on entry of trucks into Delhi. So, government
monitors and then these agencies suggest to the government what should be done like, you
might be reading in newspapers recently those construction activities were banned or schools
were closed because there was very poor air quality in Delhi.
So, similarly what kind of action plan can be there depending upon the situation or quality of
the air. So, the closure of high schools or brick kilns or mix plants, all those kinds of things can
be taken and for particular period they can be banned, so that those emissions can be
suppressed.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:24)

1469
Well, then there is this High-Level Task Force (HLTF). So, this was constituted in November
2017 under the chairmanship of principal secretary to the Prime Minister of India. So, this gives
the seriousness about the government seriousness about the air quality. For managing the air
pollution in Delhi and NCR. This particular, committee is very much serious.

So, this HLTF is closely monitoring implementation activities related to air pollution
mitigation in Delhi and NCR and recently Supreme Court also took the note, honourable
Supreme Court also took the note. So that way our agencies are very serious about air quality
issues and they want that air quality should not be poor status and the citizens have the right
for the clean air basically.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:17)

And then this regular review meetings are held during the year with all concerned central
government ministries and state governments which are concerned about in that region, NCR

1470
National Capital Region, under the chairmanship of Honourable Minister of Environment and
Forests and climate change, as well as the secretary of this environment forest and climate
change ministry to ensure that various measures for prevention control and mitigation of air
pollution in Delhi NCR are taken in coordinated and effective way so that all agencies are
working in a very cohesive and cooperative way.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:58)

Then this Comprehensive Action Plan CAP, the central government notified a comprehensive
action plan that is CAP in 2018 for identifying timelines and implementing agencies for actions
identified for prevention control and mitigation of air pollution in Delhi and NCR. So, very
focused programs and policies have been there.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:25)

1471
Then this CAP also did like total 55 agencies have been directed under this CAP under Section
3 and 5 of Environmental Protection Act 1986 to ensure a strict implementation of this CAP
program, they include like Ministry of Petroleum and National Gas, Ministry Of Road
Transport And Highways, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Delhi Police, Delhi NCR
Chief Secretaries, Environment Departments, Transport Departments, Urban Local Bodies,
Industry Department, so that every concerned agency or departments, they work together in an
integrated way and like, no stone should remain unturned for reducing the air pollution.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:08)

Well, then, we come to this NCAP, National Clean Air program NCAP. So, Ministry of
Environment and Forests and climate change launched National Clean Air program NCAP in
2019 under the Central Sector of control of pollution is scheme as a long-term time bound and
national level scheme or strategy to tackle the air pollution problem across the country.

So, now, it is no more a city specific plan, the entire India has been under this particular
program. So, this include 23 states and union territories 122 non-attainment cities, 92 action
plans submitted as of 2019 November 25, non-attainment cities in Maharashtra, 18 so like this
is the state which is having maximum number of non-attainment cities one of the maximum
numbers.

Total number of action points listed in the action plan are 4711. So, very detailed very
exhaustive kind of a study has been or program has been established through NCAP.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:06)

1472
And the goal of this NCAP is to meet the prescribed annual average ambient air quality
standards at all locations in the country, NAAQS which are prescribed by CPCB under MOe
FCC, the tentative national level target of reduction of 20 percent to 30 percent of PM 2.5 and
PM10 particulate matter concentration by 2024 it has been proposed in the end cap and the
comparison or baseline year is 2017 basically, so in comparison to the air quality, that levels
of 2017 we have to reduce 20 to 30 percent by 2024.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:06)

And in a midterm five year annual action plan this will be reviewed and then further it can be
progressed or extended the program may be further extended, up to 20 to 25 years in the long
term after a midterm review of the outcome. So that you look at the seriousness so that we can
ensure that air quality is not deteriorated by any means.

1473
Overall objective of the NCAP anticipate comprehensive management plan for prevention,
control and abatement or mitigation of air pollution. Besides augmenting the air quality
monitoring network across the country. So, monitoring, modelling, implementing, capacity
building, so many things are there in this particular program.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:28)

And the collaborative multi scale and cross sectoral coordination between the relevant central
ministries, state governments and local bodies have been planned and may manage streaming
and integration integrating these existing policies and programs including the National Action
Plan on Climate Change (NAAPC) and other initiatives of the GOI has been integrated.

So, this framework the Smart Cities frame work has also been used launched for NCAP in 43
Smart Cities. So, all these kinds of programs have been integrated and all these 122 non-
attainment cities have been under this particular program.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:12)

1474
There have been many other initiatives basically, besides those policies programs which we
have discussed. For example, handling of public complaints. So, there have been new app in
NCR like Sameer app and emails through which or social media networks, people can register
their complaints, if there is issue related to air pollution or so then every complaint loss is
immediately forwarded to the concerned agency. So, that kind of integration has been achieved
or known.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:44)

Then this inspections and the feedback. So, 52 CPCB teams have been constituted to monitor
and to give kind of feedback as well as to do something for stopping if there is like burning of
refuge or waste thing, those kinds of things, then, there are like scoring methods which have
been developed for assessing the effectiveness of action which has been taken and reported to
the incident, so that we can know which kind of strategy has done very well.

1475
(Refer Slide Time: 26:22)

Then auto fuel policy which was in 2003, it was published and it was aimed at addressing issues
of vehicular emissions and vehicle technologies by applying fuel quality standards and the
objective of this particular expert committee was to draw a roadmap so that this auto fuel
quality up to 2025 can be properly maintained.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:48)

So, now, like from Bharat Stage-IV or Euro-III we have leaped from directly to Bharat Stage-
VI or Euro-VI directly, we did not go for BS-V. So, that way like BS-IV standards or norms
for diesel vehicle petrol vehicle and BS-VI norms are very stringent. So, that way fuel quality
has been improved and with effect from first April of 2020, the BS-VI norms have been
implemented for new vehicles and the fuel quality has been ensured from different refineries.

1476
(Refer Slide Time: 27:20)

Then if we talk about like national electric mobility mission plan which has been launched in
2013 and it aims to achieve national fuel security by promoting hybrid and electric vehicles in
the country because otherwise, we are dependent on import of the fuel, then we need to achieve
total electric vehicles sales of six to seven millions units by 2020, this was the figure earlier
when this program was launched.

And by 2030 basically this India's transition to electric vehicles has to be completed. So, that
is a very ambitious plan and along with it like electricity generation from solar, wind, etc. have
been also in parallel loans.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:17)

So, that way for air quality and for climate change, India is very serious and they are going to
extra efforts. Then the commercial vehicles, there are other policies like vehicle, this scrappage

1477
policy 2021. So, recently a few months back, it was implemented that the commercial vehicles
of more than 15 years or passenger vehicles of more than 20 years will not be allowed on the
road.

So, they have to be mandatory scrapped, so that their fuel efficiency when it goes down because
of certain years, then the new vehicles come with the stringent those norms and vehicular
emissions are very less. Then on October 1, 2021 rules for fitness scrapping centres were
released and thereby like up to 2024 Fitness Test rules will be rolled out by for other categories.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:10)

Well, when other initiatives we talk then there are like introduction and enhancement of the
metro rail, bus based public transportation systems in selected cities like Delhi, Kolkata, etc.
then there is in parallel like Ujjawala scheme which has been launched which was launched in
2016 in Ballia Uttar Pradesh.

And now, it is entire country where poor people are given cooking, LPG related, stoves and
these cylinders, so that they get rid of those like cow dung or wood kind of uses for cooking,
otherwise, they are very highly emitting highly emitting sources. So, these are the cleaner fuels,
so that way again, very serious efforts have been made in entire India.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:01)

1478
So, other initiatives also include like introduction of energy efficient these labelling programs
for energy intensive home appliances like air conditioners, you might have seen three star four
star five star those kinds of things, refrigerators also India's national hydrogen mission 2021 to
cut down the carbon emissions and increase the use of renewable sources of energy. So, those
kinds of initiatives have been made.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:28)

So, in conclusion, we can say that several policies and programs are have been undertaken by
the government of India to reduce the air pollution in a serious way and the National AQI, that
is the Air Quality Index, this takes the weighted values of industrial air pollution related
parameters, for example, pollutant concentrations into a single number or set of numbers.

To that and, then represented into color scheme, so that easily it can be communicated to the

1479
general public. National Clean Air program NCAP proposed stringent norms and mitigation
measures for abatement of air pollution across the India like 122 non-attainment cities and so,
more cities are included and serious efforts are being made. State Pollution Control Boards,
they should develop measures for implementation that are both state wise and the city specific
and clean air plans should reflect the this distinction.

So, that has been integrated into these kinds of initiatives and policies and programs. So, this
is all for today. I hope you get I know this visualization of serious efforts in terms of policies
and programs which have been implemented by the government of India in collaboration with
the State governments and urban local bodies and all other agencies. So, thank you for your
kind attention.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:51)

These are the list of references which you can go through in your leisure time, so this is all
for today. Thank you for your attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1480
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 51
International Environmental Treaties to Reduce Air Pollution and GHG Emissions
Hello, friends. As you know this air pollution is no more a local problem, it has crossed
boundaries of even nations also. So, it is a global issue and at the national level, each country
has certain air quality standards or programs, acts, policies, which can tackle air pollution
related issues. So, in the same way, at the international level, there have been several treaties
or agreements and policy frameworks, which have been ratified by most of the countries to
deal with the pollution problem, which is global in nature.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:09)

So, this is the content of today's lecture. Basically, we will look into what is the importance of
global level treaties or agreements and which are the international treaties means major, there
are several, the list can go in several pages, but, we will discuss only major international treaties
or agreements like Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution which was signed
in 1979, then Vienna Convention of 1985.

After that, this Helsinki Protocol, which was signed in 1985, again, and Montreal Protocol of
1987, Sofia Protocol of 1988, Geneva Protocol of 1991, Earth Summit, which was held in 1992
and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which was offshoot of Earth
summit, so in 1992 itself, this UNFCC was established, Kyoto Protocol of 1997, then
Gothenburg Protocol of 1999, Stockholm Convention of 2001.

1481
And latest this Paris Agreement of 2016 to deal with climate change related issues. So, all these
major treaties, we will discuss one by one, and we will also see their constructive effects,
means, what positive effects were as a result of these conventions or treaties.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:31)

So, if you set the problem as an introductory remark basically at the global level air pollution
is estimated as the fourth highest risk factor for premature death after this high blood pressure
or tobacco or dietary related risks.

So, this is the fourth highest risk factor for the premature deaths basically, so that way it is very
important aspect to deal and to look into, so that we can reduce the air pollution levels and that
way we will reduce the premature mortality or we will increase the longevity of the people,
indirectly.

1482
(Refer Slide Time: 03:09)

What are the international environmental treaties? Basically, these treaties or agreements or
conventions or protocols are signed by a number of countries to control or mitigate or manage
anthropogenic emissions of air pollution as well as greenhouse gas emissions, so that we can
protect the environment and that way, we can also protect the human health.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:37)

Well, so, the importance of international treaties or agreements can be seen in terms of these
activities which have been over the years in the form of industrialization, urbanization and
which has resulted in several global level issues or problems of environment like climate
change, ozone depletion, acid rain, or global warming, deforestation, all these issues which are
of regional and continental and global scale, basically.

1483
So, to deal with those issues, it is not possible that only one country can make efforts and
address those issues. No, we have to do collective efforts at the international level. So, we have
to come on the same table, we have to discuss, we have to compromise, we have to collaborate
only then these things can be tackled. So, for that these international treaties are required. And
that is why it is very important that we should look into these treaties and their effects.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:41)

Then if we talk about these major international treaties, one by one. So, the first one is
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, which was signed in 1979.
Basically, the background of this convention was that in 1960s, when it was found that the
northern hemisphere emissions from coal based thermal power plants etc like sulphur dioxide,
so they were damaging forest and harming the water bodies in the downwind direction.

1484
So, several countries suffered from this particular kind of pollution, transboundary
transportation of the pollution. And then so several European countries and United States and
Canada, they brought into this convention and they agreed that we should control those
particular emissions.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:32)

So, basically 32 countries signed this particular convention and it came into force in 1983 after
4 years. This was the first international treaty to deal with air pollution on a broad regional
basis, if you want to look into in that frame work, basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:54)

So, the effect of this convention was quite encouraging. These trends like 40 to 80 percent
reduction or in the emissions of these harmful substances, like NOx or non-methane volatile

1485
organic compounds, VOCs, sulphur related or ammonia related, carbon monoxide related
emissions, they are showing this decreasing trend and that decreasing trend is because of this
convention, because, then they put into place several policies and technological interventions
to reduce these emissions. So, dropping those emissions were the result of this particular
convention.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:33)

And not only these emissions of other gaseous components, but also particulate matter and
sulphur it decreased around 30 to 80 percent in Europe and 30 to 40 percent in Northern
America between 1990 to 2012. So, this convention gave very fruitful results.

1486
(Refer Slide Time: 06:55)

Next is Vienna Convention of 1985. And this, it was the convention which was signed by every
country taking into effect in 1988. And this ratification was done in 2009, universal ratification
means, all countries agreed to follow this Vienna Convention.

And the commitment was there to do, to make efforts, so that this ozone layer related issues
can be tackled properly. So, some observations were made and these corporations were initiated
and the legislative and administrative measures were also taken into account, so that the
activities which were, having adverse effect on the ozone layer, which could be curtailed.

1487
(Refer Slide Time: 07:41)

So, effect of this Vienna Convention was in the form like Montreal Protocol in 1987 was
signed. So, that was the real action, and that was the offshoot of this particular Vienna
Convention. So, that is a very, encouraging and inspiring protocol, because after that ozone
layer related problem was properly addressed and it was found that up to mid-21st century, this
ozone hole related problem can be addressed properly, completely.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:11)

1488
So, then this in 1985, this Helsinki protocol was also signed, and this was the framework within
the European this Economic Commission, and on 8 July 1985, this Convention on the Long-
Range Transboundary Air Pollution, which was initiated in 1979. So, they had meetings
periodically. So, in this 1985, this particular protocol was signed, and they included the
reduction SO2 emissions basically, by at least 30 percent in comparison to 1980 levels. And as
soon as possible like by 1993, it was estimated that this target could be achieved.

So, the parties which were into this protocol, they were required to take most effective measures
to reduce sulphur emissions, like to go with better quality of coal and other technologies. So,
that efficient burning of coal can be achieved to reduce the sulphur emissions and like
scrubbers, the usage of different technologies, so that it does not go into the atmosphere.

1489
So, those technologies plus shifting from fossil fuel-based energy to renewable energy, those
measures were also adopted. And a very visible effect is there around 20 to 30 percent emission
reduction of SO2 within the 5 years was achieved.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:44)

Well, then, this Montreal Protocol, which is very, very important protocol in terms of
addressing the ozone hole related issue, ozone layer related issue. So, it was signed in 1987,
and it was entered into force in 1989. And it was, this is the protocol which was ratified by 197
nations and this is the first agreement in the United Nations history to achieve this universal
adoption that because the problem of ozone hole was such a grave problem, it was the problem
of humanity, like climate change.

1490
So, it is widely recognized as the most excellent effective global environmental action, which
has been success story. So, this protocol was later amended, because many new things were
found by scientific investigation. So, different pollutants or though emissions were taken into
account to reduce and those like, these HFCs, earlier other chemicals were there like CFCs etc,
but as HFCs were also considered to phase down, means to reduce their emissions basically,
because they are also climate change related greenhouse gas effect they cause.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:56)

Then the effect of Montreal Protocol has been quite visible and it is estimated that by 2050, we
can get rid of this ozone hole or we can get back that ozone layer which was originally there to
protect us from ultraviolet rays.

1491
(Refer Slide Time: 11:16)

1492
Then Sofia Protocol in 1988, so this was drawn in 1988 and again during this Convention on
Long-Range Transboundary Air and it came into force in 1991 basically, within the framework
of economic emissions for Europe, this was taken into account.

And this is especially focused on nitrogen oxide emissions, they are transboundary, flux
transboundary, movement, because these NOx emissions are also again responsible for several
problems related to acid rain or even like acidification of lakes etc.

So, all these stationary sources or mobile sources, wherever these NOx emissions were their
technologies were suggested to reduce these emissions. And the general reference here was
1987. And after 5 years, it was targeted to lower the emissions of NOx by 11 percent and within
10 years, this reduction was around 17 to 18 percent.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:29)

1493
Then we came to Geneva Protocol of 1991. So, this was related to the reduction or control of
emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds, VOCs, they also have this tendency of
transboundary fluxes or like movement across the nation.

So, in 1997, this was, signed in Geneva and major air pollutants, responsible for formation of
ground level ozone is VOCs, in addition to like other hydrocarbons or CO etc, even NOx is
also a precursor of the, this ground level ozone or troposphere ozone, tropospheric ozone. We
want ozone in stratosphere, but we do not want ozone in troposphere as you know, because in
troposphere, it is toxic, it is also greenhouse gas.

Well, so, this particular protocol gave several initiatives to reduce emissions of volatile organic
compounds like around 30 percent in comparison to 1984. So, between 1984 to 1990, 30
percent reduction was achieved because of this particular protocol.

So, that way, these protocols have been really implemented, and real reductions in those
emissions have been achieved. So, 15 to 18 percent was initial five years reduction, and 19 to
21 percent it was within the next 10 years reduction in comparison to 1990 or so.

1494
(Refer Slide Time: 13:59)

Then this Earth Summit, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,
UNCED which is highly popular, because they set the agenda at the global level with a big
force, because 117 countries, heads means Prime Ministers, Presidents, they attended this
conference in, Brazil, in Rio de Janeiro. And 178 nations participated, they are representatives
in terms of NGOs or other institutions, which are very much concerned about environment and
development issues.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:36)

So, the primary agreement on during this Earth Summit was like several new initiatives were
made. For example, Convention on Biological Diversity. This was legally this was established

1495
as a legally binding agreement so, that the endangered species can be protected. Each country
has to make efforts very focused efforts or very intensive efforts in that direction.

Then global warming convention, UNFCCC, United Nations Framework for Climate Change.
So, this was also established to legally binding the countries to reduce GHG emissions so, that
climate change related issues can be tackled.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:17)

Then this Rio declaration has published 27 broad and non-binding principles like guidelines
for environmentally sustainable development. And Agenda 21 was also established worldwide
initiatives for environmental cleanup and development. So, it was a huge success in that way.
The Statement of Principles on Forest aimed at protecting the world's fast disappearing tropical
rainforest was a non-binding statement in that, so, that means, even if it is not binding, but the
importance was established in that way.

1496
(Refer Slide Time: 15:54)

1497
So, the UNFCC 1992 came into existence because of that 1992 Earth Summit. So, this
international treaty was in several countries joined for UNFCC means all countries which
participated, they joined and 197 countries ratified this in 1994 with respect to UNFCC.

So, that means, the greenhouse gas emissions inventories were brought into legal framework.
So, each country was bound to submit their emission inventory to the UNFCC. So, that
everyone, those who are researching in that or those who are related to policy framework, they
can download emission inventories, they can compare, they can see what progress is there.

So, then, but there were some differential commitment also, differential means developed
countries were made to go for higher reduction of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases
and developing countries were encouraged to take initiatives towards that great goal plus, these
domestic GHG emissions, there was a process and several countries they generate and share
data. So, this is a common framework, all parties are required to submit their national level
GHG emission inventories.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:29)

1498
So, this Kyoto Protocol in 1997 was established or signed as a next step of UNFCC related
efforts. So, the commitment was there and in 2005, it came into force, so, it was recognized
that developed countries are emitting lot of greenhouse gas emissions and they are primarily
responsible for these climate change related issues.

So, the six gases like CO2, methane or nitrous oxide or HFCs, these gases were, it was written
that 5 percent reduction in respect to, with respect to 1990 level will be achieved by the
developed countries within the period of 2008 to 2012. And later on, this was given that maybe
this is not so, good.

So, in 2012, when this Kyoto Protocol was amended in Doha, Qatar, so, the parties committed
that we can go for reduction of GHG emissions for at least 18 percent below the 1990 levels,
otherwise, we will not be able to catch up this speed of climate change, as a second commitment
for the 2013 to 2020 period, this was established.

1499
(Refer Slide Time: 18:39)

1500
Then the application of the Kyoto Protocol was, can be seen in three market-based mechanism,
that was the application oriented or ground level action plan, like international emissions
trading, clean development mechanism, and joint implementation, these three initiatives were,
taken into force with the help of Kyoto Protocol.

And they have been very successful, you will see just now, like international emissions trading,
if we talk about so, this is part of Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol. And this emission trading
allows countries to sell their excess emission units, like 1 unit equivalent to 1 ton of CO2 to
those countries that are over their target. So that kind of business activity in terms of CO2
market economy-based CO2 reduction initiatives were made, and that is why it is called as
carbon trading, very simple in simple terms, we call it carbon trading.

Then clean development mechanism, which was the part of Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol.
This mechanism basically allows a country with an emission reduction on emission limitation
commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to implement and emission reduction projects in
developing countries. The reason is in developed countries the same amount of reduction of
GHG cost more.

So, they can go for reduction in developing countries where with less amount of money
investment of less amount of money, they can achieve more reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions, but as you know, greenhouse gas emissions have global effect. So, it does not matter
whether you reduce in the developed country or in developing country. So, this makes sense
that economically you can reduce greenhouse gases in developing countries projects. So, that
was very successful in that way.

1501
Joint implementation this mechanism is the part of Article 6 of Kyoto Protocol and this
mechanism allows a nation within emission reduction under the Kyoto Protocol to earn
emission reduction units. So, those trading can be very helpful in that from an emission
reduction or emission removal project. So, that way, they can generate several credits and
exchange of credits can also be allowed.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:02)

So, these three mechanisms were integrated, each mechanism helped other one, and that way
big achievements were made in reduction of greenhouse gases and carbon trading. The effect
the effect is very, very encouraging, 7 percent, this greenhouse gas emissions reduction of the
7 percent in non-Kyoto Protocol scenarios were estimated or achieved.

So, fabulous results of Kyoto Protocol soon after, when it was implemented or came into force,
the reduction can be seen in a significant way. So, around 7 percent reduction in GHG
emissions was observed after this Kyoto Protocol was forced in 2000 later part of the 2005. So,
between this grey area, the significant reduction is there in greenhouse gas emissions.

1502
(Refer Slide Time: 21:55)

1503
Then came this new protocol of Gothenburg in 1999. And that was basically for reduction of
SO2, NOx, volatile organic compounds and ammonia, these particular pollutants. So, to limit
these values, combustion related plants or electricity production, related mechanism or dry
cleaning, those standards were given a stringent value, so, that reduction can be achieved in a
nice way.

So, those VOCs which come from several products like paints or aerosols, those kinds of
sources, maybe there, and then farmers were also expected that they can control ammonia
emissions, because from agriculture or animal husbandry, those ammonia emissions are also
there. And these parties, should report as per this protocol that emissions once in a year that
this much of amount has been reduced or those kinds of policies they have implemented.

So, this was amended in 2012, 1999, it was established, but in 2012, it was amended to include
national emission reduction commitments to be achieved by 2020 and beyond. So, that way
more commitment was expected from different countries. Then the revised protocol, it was,
binding agreement included for emission reductions, commitment was taken for fine particulate
matter also. So, this was also included in that reduction of other pollutants.

So, reducing particulate matter, including like black carbon, through the implementation of this
protocol initiatives was a significant step reducing in air pollution, because particulate matters
are responsible for several, respiratory diseases, as you know, and you can relate it with our
this uncap program when we are targeting reduction of PM2.5 those fine particles.

In 2012, this European Union, EU member states, they jointly required to reduce SO2 emissions
by 59 percent, NOx emissions by 42 percent, VOCs by 28 percent. So, that way, different
targets were given so that upto 2020 this could be achieved.

1504
(Refer Slide Time: 24:14)

Next convention was the Stockholm Convention of 2001. And this is the global treaty basically,
to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants, POPs, that is
also very important because those POPs, these are persistent, by name, they do not degrade and
their life span is very high, and they can travel throughout the globe.

So, the disposal of these agrochemicals or industrial chemicals or POPs nature, are the
chemicals which can remain for longer periods so to reduce them is very important, to control
them is very important because several of POPs are carcinogenic and they are very toxic to
humans and wild life basically. So, it was adopted in May 2001 and 152 countries ratified this
convention and it was brought into force in May 2004.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:11)

1505
Stockholm Convention of 2001 basically the five essential aims were like POPs, 12 worst POPs
like aldrin or DDT all those you might have heard about those because even DDT is as a one
theory DDT is associated with the reduction in population of vultures. So, these are very toxic
chemicals and they have severe harmful impacts on the environment and animal kingdom and
human health.

It can support safer alternatives. So, that was the part and it was the target that POPs has to be
reduced as soon as possible. So, this Stockholm Convention basically, now targets around 29
POPs, at this particular time, and to eliminate those POPs by some alternatives are the part of
this convention.

1506
(Refer Slide Time: 26:12)

1507
So, now, we come to the very important treaty Paris Agreement of 2016. And you can recall
this lecture on global and regional environmental issues, where we have discussed it in a very
detail. So, this agreement was signed by 196 parties, and during the COP 21, Conference of
Parties, recently COP 26 was there as you can recall.

So, on 12 December 2015, this was signed and in 2016, it was brought into force. And the goal
through this Paris Agreement was that the global warming, to limit below 2 degrees Celsius,
preferably 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels of global temperature. And
this agreement, this particular Paris Agreement aims to improve capabilities of nations, abilities
of the nations to deal with the climate change related all activities.

And this agreement provides enhanced transparency framework of action and support, so that
they can support each nation and technologies can be transferred. So, that reduction can be
achieved very fast and also we can see from carbon economy to green economy, or fossil fuel-
based economy to green economy, so, that renewable resources can be harnessed and we can
have energy sources which do not emit a lot of emissions.

This agreement for 5 year cycle and it has ambitious climate actions from all the countries
which are the signatories and this requires in all parties to put forward best efforts, so, that
nationally determined contributions can be achieved.

And like India is very much committed and we are going towards solar power, wind power,
those renewable resources, we are harnessing at a fast pace also, we are going to shift our
transportation from fossil fuel to waste to like electric vehicles. So, this will have a very positive
impacts in later on and these are the part of climate change related policies and programs.

1508
(Refer Slide Time: 28:16)

This agreement strongly emphasizes on climate related capacity building for developing
nations especially, so, that developed countries can support them in various ways like capacity
building to train their people, as well as to exchange the technologies. And low carbon solutions
like, solar and wind etc.

And zero carbon solutions could be competitive in industries accounting for more than 70
percent of global emissions by 2030. These kinds of ambitious targets are there, which will
definitely, will help us to address the climate change related issue, as we collectively have
addressed through Montreal Protocol this ozone layer related issue. So, this is very much
encouraging.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:19)

1509
In conclusion, we can say that this air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions are the global
environmental issues basically, they are no more national or local issues. And various attempts
are being made, you can now appreciate like through these treaties, which we have seen, these
major treaties, that all countries are concerned and they come on the table to talk, to commit,
to initiate several initiatives or activities or actions so that emissions can be reduced
significantly.

And the problem which is in the form of climate change or in the form of toxic emissions or
POPs they can be addressed timely. So, there are evidences that these treaties have given
positive results. So, we should go for these kinds of treaties and we should implement their
targets to achieve in time.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:16)

So, this is all for today, these international treaties of environment nature, and you can go
through if you want to know more through these references. So, thank you for your kind
attention and see you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1510
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 52
Impact of Lockdown on Air Quality
Hello, friends. Today we will discuss about impact of lockdown on air quality, because this is
a unique opportunity because of COVID-19, several countries had lockdown and that
lockdown, stopped all kinds of energy related emissions or transport related emissions or
industrial emissions.

So, this is a unique opportunity to see whether some air quality improvements were there, some
special decrease or increase trend were there, because emissions come from natural sources as
well as manmade sources. So, manmade sources were greatly affected by the lockdown. So,
this is a unique opportunity for atmospheric scientists, for environmental engineers to look into
the trends of the air quality in urban areas as well as at the regional scale.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:21)

So, we will look into the effect of lockdown on air quality in different countries and regions,
like, Sao Paulo in Brazil, we have gathered some data basically. So, this is a kind of indicative
or illustrative presentation and taking some inspiration from this, you can further review some
literature and you can get more insight basically.

So, we will include the Sao Paulo, Brazil, then Northern China related data, European data we
have, then this Italy, Lombardi, Barcelona, Spain, USA, India, and we will try to learn some
lessons from these studies that can we relate those emissions and air quality with respect to

1511
some sources, because basically, it will give us an indication that which source is more
important.

Air pollution comes from various sources and air pollutants have characteristics like transport
has CO emissions or NOx emissions in large quantity. Power plants, coal-based power plants,
they emit lot of particulate matter and SO2, so, that way some signatory pollutants we can try
to relate.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:29)

So, you remember this COVID-19 pandemic, this is one of the biggest global public health
emergencies in recent centuries as we know in our memory. And the threat of this COVID-19
is spread caused various governments to do lockdown in cities as well as in entire countries
sometimes they did for certain period.

So, this particular phenomena led to massive economic losses of course, but sometimes we say
that human beings are so creative, they try to look into some positive aspects or positive side
of any tragedy or whatever happens. So, this was a kind of relief in terms of the impact to the
environment. People first time saw blue skies, very clean air and many ecosystems got
rejuvenated, there were some evidences of that nature.

1512
(Refer Slide Time: 03:26)

So, during lockdown these visual effects basically, like, because vehicles movements were
restricted, industrial production was not there, then other activities were also completely
stopped. So, the emissions which were related to those activities went or vanished, or went out.

And this visual impact like, before this New York City before the lockdown this was the kind
of picture, after this was so much clearer, before this Barcelona before the lockdown was this
kind of hazy picture, and then it was very clear. Similarly, New Delhi this before and after. So,
those pictures reveal their, story or tells their story that how this emission related air quality
and the poor air quality can be addressed by if we reduce the emissions from various sources.

1513
(Refer Slide Time: 04:21)

Now, we will try to relate which kind of air pollutants were reduced significantly, and which
polluters did not have much effect on that. Now, like one example is Sao Paulo of Brazil. So,
there were these four air quality stations where air quality data were borrowed, and these were
like urban roads in this particular Sao Paulo, this crosses the Sao Paulo, another road is there,
then city center data and then another city industrial location of Cubatao. So, within Sao Paulo
state, these Sao Paulo city as well as a nearby city but Sao Paulo is also a state basically, in
Brazil, this is the name of the state as well as the city.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:05)

Now, for each station what kind of data they obtain daily data 24 hours from February, March
and April for the year of 2015 to 2019. So, 5 years data was taken for these three months,

1514
February, March and April. And these were the months for this lockdown, in between some
months were there, some days were there. So, comparison was made.

Similarly, like February 25, 2020 to March 23, 2020, so four weeks before partial lockdown
this data was obtained, and then from March 24, 2020 to April 20, four weeks during the partial
lockdown. So, those data were available so that comparison could be established.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:51)

Now, NO2 concentrations reductions were observed. And 27 percent, this comparison with the
four week before the partial lockdown and 45 percent, if we look into the observatory data,
observation made during the partial lockdown. So, those background tropospheric NO2
concentrations were made available.

1515
(Refer Slide Time: 06:23)

So, effect of lockdown in various ways you can interpret like, there are reduction, significant
reduction in CO concentrations, carbon monoxide like 64 percent, NO concentration 77 percent
reduction is observed, NO2 around 54 percent, but ozone, there is no decrease in ozone rather
it is increase. And ozone as you know, this is not primary pollutant, but secondary pollutant
which is produced due to photochemical reactions in the presence of its precursors like NOx,
CO, hydrocarbons, VOCs etc.

So, in this before partial lockdown there is increased, but very interesting phenomena you can
look here like industrial site were observed, when there is some decrease in the ozone and there
is increase in the ozone at some sites of like traffic one and city center. And then in during
partial lockdown there was not so much increase, but overall increase was observed in the
ozone concentration and why this was the increase trend in the ozone that is something to look
into.

1516
(Refer Slide Time: 07:24)

So, basically there are various theories as you know, these precursors if available, only then
ozone is produced. So, if precursors are not there, like NOx emissions have been reduced
drastically, and especially this titration phenomena happens when lot of NO is emitted by
transport sector, if ozone is produced, then it reacts with the NO and it produces NO2 and then
oxygen.

So, ozone is reduced by this reaction NO. So, if NO is not there, then ozone concentration will
increase, because there is no NO to consume ozone and like in city centers, you will not find
much ozone, but in countryside you will find much ozone in comparison to the city center and
this is the reason.

Because, in city center these emissions of NO is much more due to vehicle activities and that
NO consumes ozone and NO2 is produced which goes into the downwind direction of the cities
and when they find lot of sunshine and that NO2 again take part into production of the ozone
that cyclic reaction of ozone production.

Well, so, these are the issues that if NOx is not there, NO is not there to consume the ozone
then ozone can increase because there is no this titration reaction. Another story, another theory
is that this ozone production is related to whether NOx driven or VOC driven or NOx limited
or VOC limited.

So, at some places it is NOx limited, then if you reduce the NOx then maybe ozone reduction
will be there, if it is VOC limited and you reduce the NOx then ozone will not decrease rather
it will increase because you are not targeting the VOCs. So, that is phenomena also that if

1517
VOCs, hydrocarbons are not addressed and they are being emitted by several sources, ozone
increase maybe observed. So, several assumptions are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:24)

Here we are just looking into data with the simplified observations and analysis. If you want to
go into detail then better you go through those papers and try to find out what are the exact
regions. We are here just trying to link the possibilities.

So, in Northern China, this is another observation, Northern China, this lockdown effect was
there. And it was observed that impact on AQI, Air Quality Index or sulphur dioxide, then
PM2.5, PM10, NO2, and CO, daily weather data, real time human mobility data, all these data
were gathered for 44 cities and for the span of period of 1st January to 21st March 2020 it
covered 81 days.

1518
(Refer Slide Time: 10:19)

And then there was this drop in human activities or mobility related activities around 70 percent
and that resulted into AQI decrease around 7.80 percent, and reduction in concentration of SO2
like around 7 percent, PM2.5 around 6 percent, PM10 around 14 percent and NO2 around 25
percent and CO around 5 percent. So, because their sources are different and different activities
are there, that is why non-uniformity of reduction is observed basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:54)

So, the results suggest that implementation of those travel restrictions have resulted in
reduction of NOx emissions or CO emissions even fine particles like PM2.5 and PM10.

1519
(Refer Slide Time: 11:07)

If we talk about the Europe, then the impact of these control measures for the COVID-19 from
15th March to 30th April, for one-hour daily data of nitrogen dioxide and ozone these two data
were observed to see what was the impact on the air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:29)

So, in Europe basically, if you look into this entire region of several sites, it was observed that
NO2 concentration decreased in a big range like 5 percent to 55 percent in 80 percent of the
sites of the observations. But in case of ozone basically, there was at a particular site of this
Iberia, the decreasing trend was observed otherwise, in entire Europe increasing trend was
observed for ozone as it was observed in like Brazil or elsewhere.

1520
(Refer Slide Time: 11:59)

So, this is something which we have to look into, like there was a concentration of NO2
decrease was there, but decrease, maybe, somewhere less, the reason could be like a stable
weather, if that stable weather was not there, if we do not account for those metrological factors,
then the decrease could be much higher, but it is still, there is a good range 5 percent to 55
percent at different locations.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:22)

But at a particular site of Iberia, this ozone decreasing was observed and that was because of
some metrological effects, because it is a photochemical reaction it needs not only the
precursors, but also the sun shine and those kinds of issues are there. So, because of this

1521
meteorological variables, there is variation in trend of the ozone whether it is decreasing or
increasing like humidity temperature, solar radiation, all these play a role.

But, entire Europe except this Iberia the increasing trend was observed that was quite natural,
because NOx is not there that is the precursor or maybe VOC related limitation, limited the
kind of phenomena may also be the reason.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:07)

If you look into this Lombardy of the Italy, due to this rapid rise of infections, there from 23rd
February, 2020 new ordinance was passed for the closure of all schools and other restrictions
were applied basically in that region. And on 8th March 2020, the government declared a partial
lockdown and 23rd March onward, it was a total lockdown.

So, this all like factories or industries were closed except, some important like food related
those kinds of supply chains. So, those were kept free otherwise, total lockdown was there. So,
this again resulted into emissions reduction, because sources are not there.

1522
(Refer Slide Time: 13:46)

So, the trends of the 9 pollutants were observed during this lockdown period that is PM10,
PM2.5, black carbon, benzene, carbon monoxide or NOx emissions. And it was found that SO2
there was not big change, SO2 remained unchanged in this peripheral area. So, that was maybe
like residential related activities or coal burning related activities. The part of ozone increase
was probably because of lower of NO that we have tried to establish in previous slide also.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:27)

Then if we look into the CO reduction, so, that was because of this traffic, vehicular traffic
reduction was there and CO comes in large quantity from vehicular emissions, the emission of
power plants, heating systems are main sources of the SO2. So, this SO2 reduction in Milan can
be partially attributed to the decrease in heating related activities.

1523
Because, workplaces are closed, there are no people to go factory, those they are also closed,
so, those offices which were requiring this heating, so, that requirement is not there. So, in that
sense the heating requirement was lessened, so, reduced. So, SO2 reduction was also observed.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:18)

Well, if we talk about this ozone, so, the significant lowering of this NO concentration which
consumes ozone due to titration kind of reaction so, this low NO resulted into increase in the
ozone concentration because there is no NO to consume ozone and ozone buildup was there
because other factors were available to produce the ozone.

So, higher average concentrations of this benzene was also observed in Milan. So, these VOC
limited in environment or VOC driven environment, ozone may increase, because then NOx
related titration may not play a role in producing or decreasing ozone. So, VOCs including
benzene they are mainly produced by though vehicular traffic, but incomplete combustion
processes and other they also play a role, but they come from other areas or other activities
also.

1524
(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

In Barcelona, Spain, then another study was observed. So, lockdown was there from March
14th and like restricting social contact or these reducing public transport or closing businesses,
so, the data were available from 16th March to 30th March 2020 for PM10, NO2, SO2, and ozone
for this city of Barcelona.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:44)

And there is a reduction in PM10 or NO2, SO2 and BC there is because emissions are less. So,
that significant decrease not observed, but in case of PM10 and NO2 is visible. In case of ozone,
it is, like whether it is urban background or the traffic related background, it is increase is there,
ozone production the same trend, because NO is not available or maybe it is VOC driven or
VOC limited.

1525
(Refer Slide Time: 17:15)

So, the levels of ozone markedly increased in the city as the consequences of three factors, this
is a possibility like decrease of NOx emissions, in VOC limited environment, where VOC
governs the production of ozone. So, if VOC is not reduced, so much as NOx is reduced, then
there will not be influence on the ozone production, ozone production will continue.

Or secondly this NO consuming ozone that reaction is not going on in a predominant way
because NO is not there, it is reduced very much. Then this increase in insolation of
temperatures from February to April. So, lot of sunshine is there. So, ozone production related
these photochemical reactions were enhanced. So, these three factors may be responsible for
ozone increase in the atmosphere.

1526
(Refer Slide Time: 18:06)

Well, then this PM10 related background origin or secondary particulate matter which was
because of other pollutants, so, that is also not there due to this low SO2, sulphur dioxide, which
was related to shipping activities, which was also reduced. So, the secondary sources are also
not there, as well as these SO2 sources are also reduced. So, the concentration is reduced.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:35)

Well, in USA, from January 8th to April 21st 2017 to 2020, this data was available to get
comparison with the, this lockdown period. So, this COVID-19 period March 13th to April 21.
And pre-COVID period this January 8th to March 12th. So, these data were compared with the
same kind of period for 2017 to 2020. And those data, although it is difficult to call it historical
data, but it is still because they were of earlier nature so, they called it historical one.

1527
(Refer Slide Time: 19:03)

And then they were compared with the data which was observed during pre-COVID and the
COVID period. So, NO2 and PM2.5 like pre-COVID period, there was reduction around 5 to 6
percent and PM2.5 that was reduced around 4 percent whereas, in COVID period, basically the
reduction of NO2 was quite significant around 26 percent, because in USA a lot of
transportation activities goes on when people try to work, they travel long distances, so that
was not there. So, it was reduced, PM2.5 observed around 5 percent or 4 percent reduction in
USA.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:52)

So, the decrease in NO2; reduced vehicular traffic. So domestic travel and those working
remotely they were limited and working remotely was closed that was not there, only limited

1528
domestic travel could be there. So, that was responsible for reduction. The percent of PM2.5 is
not as large as NO2 and the reason could be like these multiple non-transportation sources of
PM2.5 including emissions from like food industries or biomass burning. So, those emissions
were there, even when people were living in their own residential areas.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:35)

Now, if we come to India, then this overall impact was observed locked down in big mega
cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and Bangalore and there are periods like March
to April 2019 and March to April 2020 and then 10th to 20th March 2020. So, before locked
down, that data 25th March to 6th April 2020 during the lockdown. So, these data have been
compared basically.

1529
(Refer Slide Time: 21:03)

So, the timeline of different activities like Phase 0, that was the pre lockdown, it was 1st March
to 24th March around 24 days of 2020. So, at that time, there were no restrictions, all activities
were going on as Business-as-Usual scenario. In Phase 1, 25th March to 14th April, so, 21 days,
again, all transport and industrial establishment commercial and private establishment, these
hospitality services, all these activities were closed basically.

In Phase 2, 15th April to 3rd May, 19 days so, these farming operations, some industries or
movement of cargo that was allowed, because then logistics support was needed for medicines
or food supply etc. In Phase 3 for 14 days, 4th to 17th May, then different zones were classified
like red zone, orange zone, green zone and according to the number of patients of the COVID
those zones were defined and red zones were having, again, the same kind of restrictions, but
the green zones and other zones were given some freedom.

Then 18th to 31st May the movements of vehicles without any special conditions doing with
like opening of the industries etc, they were allowed. So, in phases, things were closed and
things were uplifted.

1530
(Refer Slide Time: 22:34)

Well, the impact is clearly visible, like in Delhi, PM2.5 reduction, highest reduction of the PM2.5
was observed around 41 percent in Delhi and 52 percent reduction was observed for PM10. In
Mumbai reduction of NO2 was the highest of 75 percent, CO around 46 percent. In contrast to
other pollutants, ozone increased as we have seen except in Bangalore, the ozone reduction is
there, but in all other cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata increase of ozone is there,
maximum is in Kolkata.

So, these are cities specific characteristics of emissions and air quality. So, more studies are
needed to know the reasons, but if we look into like very simple hypotheses and simple
guesswork, then in Bangalore maybe the ozone production is VOC limited rather than NOx
limited because due to this lock down, mostly NOx emissions went down and there may be
some VOCs from different sources, maybe natural sources, maybe also there because,
Bangalore is quite green and a lot of VOCs may be there because of that.

So, but in Kolkata and other we have to see what were the reasons this variation is there that
Kolkata observed maximum increase in ozone, whether it was metrological factors or some
other factors.

1531
(Refer Slide Time: 24:05)

So, in India the increase of ozone was observed and there was reduction in NOx emissions 30
to 50 percent. And in VOC limited environment, that may be one theory and we do not know
which city has this kind of, whether Bangalore has the VOC limited or there are other regions.
So, more studies are needed in that sense.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:27)

Now, if we look into like sector wise sensitivity analysis, then more information can give us
better insight so, that we can look into the relationship of reduction of different emissions and
impact on the air quality.

1532
(Refer Slide Time: 24:47)

So, these PM2.5 levels or NO2 levels, then secondary particulate matter is also there because of,
some gases get transformed into solid, so those relationship may be there and it was also
observed that a stubble burning was there in several places in southern part of India. So, at that
places different kinds of air quality was observed in comparison to the northern part.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:14)

Now, if we look into what are the learnings we can learn from or take away lessons from the
lockdown period basically, because it has given unwarranted situation and the closure of
different sources and their impact on the air quality? So, can we look into those source specific
emissions and their impact on the air quality so, that we can address those sources?

1533
Of course, more source apportionment studies are needed to exactly relate the air quality impact
of emissions from those specific sources, but still as we have seen like NOx emissions
reduction, and then ozone increase or PM10, PM2.5 reduction, so, that gives a good lesson to
learn basically, and so that in agriculture emissions or industrial emissions or different other
emissions, we can relate with that.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:15)

So, in conclusion, at last, we can say that this spread of COVID-19 was a kind of indirect
opportunity to see whether there are certain sources, which can be closed and which can be
addressed. For example, nowadays, we are going for e-mobility or turning towards renewable
resources. So, source specific impact on the air quality can be related with different
observations of that period.

And this is a once in a lifetime opportunity, we had just accidentally, but still, we can get some
positive lessons and we can learn and we can apply those lessons into the practice so, that we
can improve the air quality. So, this is all for today.

1534
(Refer Slide Time: 26:57)

And these are the references and I request that please go through, there are several publications
based on this period in observations of air quality and their relationship with sources and
emissions. So, those publications may give you more information about why ozone is
decreasing at some place or increasing at most of the places or reduction of like NOx or
reduction of PM10 and PM2.5, how much it is related to transport sector, how much it is related
to the energy resources or power plants or industrial sector.

So, those kind of information can be gathered from these resources. So, this is all, thank you
for your kind attention and see you in the next lecture. Thanks, again.

1535
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 53
Sector Wise Mitigation Measures to Control Air Pollution
Hello, friends. So, you may recall so far we have discussed so many issues about air pollution
and its control like policies then specific control to sources. Today we will discuss the sector
wise mitigation measures to control air pollution means, broadly speaking, what are the
mitigation measures which can be implemented to a specific sector.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:08)

For example, urbanization sector or transportation sector those kinds of things we will today
discuss. So, the mitigation measures for major sectors which have been included in this
particular lecture are like urban centers or in urbanization what kind of things we should take
care so, that emissions are less and air quality is better, than transportation sector related
emissions, how to control or how to deal with it, then industrialization, power generation,
agricultural activities, then some other mitigation measures and then we will conclude.

So, basically, like in power generation, we have seen the ESPs etc. or baghouse filters, but
today we will see the complete sectors related policies and mitigation measures basically,
policies, programs and mitigation measures. So, what are those mitigation measures or the
strategies which can be implemented in an overall sector?

So, that is today's focus means, you should not get confusion, like we have discussed several
other control mechanisms already, but today we will see the sector specific broadly mitigation

1536
measures. So, that way you will have a holistic viewpoint about these sectors and their
mitigation measures.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:01)

So, when we talk about like Indian cities, in recent reports and even for several years, we have
been seeing that some of the Indian cities are figured out as most polluted cities in the world
and several Indian cities violate those standards of ambient air quality which are prescribed by
CPCB or MoEF and the multiple sources contribute to the problem of air pollution.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:45)

Therefore, the sector specific strategies and technological interventions are required to regulate
and control the air pollution emissions in overall sense basically. So, the sector's which have

1537
been considered in today's lecture for mitigation measures, are like urbanization, transportation,
industrialization, power generation and agricultural activities.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:06)

So, let us start with urbanization. So, when we talk about city planning and management
focusing on city planning. So, when we adopt a balanced sub regional approach for regional
and metropolitan development with integrated mass transit, you might have heard TOD, this
term is Transit Oriented Development. So, when we have these kind of integrated mass transit
systems, then it has been observed there these are the systems which are helpful in reducing
the trip lengths as well as motorized travel and urban sprawl is reduced basically. So, that
emissions are also reduced ultimately.

Well, land use planning with plans of reduced population density around industrial areas or
industrial zones or in downwind direction of those industrial zones can help in reducing
exposure to the pollution released by industries. So, we have to be careful that the population
should not be in and around the industrial zones or in the downwind direction, because the
pollution emissions will travel to the downwind directions.

So, when we talk about like supply of cleaner fuels, in the stoves, which are used in rural areas
and urban slums, I am sure you might be knowing that in the rural areas, a lot of dung and
woods etc are used for cooking purposes and they emit lot of smoke, lot of air pollution.

1538
(Refer Slide Time: 04:25)

So, the government schemes like Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana these schemes have been
designed to increase the LPG access across India to the poor people also and this has
successfully enhanced the use of clean fuel in rural as well as urban areas in urban slums
especially those are the poor segment of the population. So, it has resulted in very less of air
pollution emissions, that way the indoor air quality has been improved.

Also, the energy has this, the total energy utilization has increased and when we go for usage
of biomass, or biofuels or biomass as a fuel, then we have to see what kind of cooking stoves
we are using. Basically, the traditional way of cooking they are using only to 8 to 10 percent
of that, this energy which is available in the biomass. So, to enhance that efficiency, we have
to have better efficient stoves and Nirdhum Chulha those kinds of terminology you might have
heard, so, that we can have less smoke or less pollution in the household activities.

1539
(Refer Slide Time: 05:28)

Well, when we talk about solar lighting options to rural areas and urban slums, then for lighting
purposes around still 7 percent of the urban households using kerosene in India for lighting
purposes. I recall that in my childhood in whole village, we did not have the electricity. So,
these kerosene lamps used to be used for lighting purposes, but slowly this development
phenomena has gone to the rural areas also. So, a lot of change has been there.

Now, solar lanterns or they are needed for promoting the households in urban slums, in urban
and unelectrified regions. So, these solar lanterns are becoming very popular, because you can
charge during the daytime and in the nighttime you can use and these kind of solar lanterns are
there.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:25)

1540
So, the next is like in urbanization, in urban areas, if we can enforce strictly the complete ban
on refuse burning, then also we can improve air quality because this is a very bad habit, many
people just collect the refuse or the waste material and they just burn it rather than disposing at
the proper place. So, the burning the refuse, this refuse burning needs to be strictly enforced
with the substantial like penalties or non-adherence. So, the implementation is very important.

Then, for that purpose like State Pollution Control Boards, in collaboration with city
corporations can develop some mobile apps nowadays, this digital age, mobile apps are quite
popular, and so that people can bring in these major refuse burning events to notice for
particular people in a particular region. And that community can be sensitized about these kinds
of activities.

And these state governments, they need to set up winter shelters with the heating arrangements
for homeless people otherwise, the people who are roaming around or they do not have proper
homes, they have to warm up themselves by burning these waste materials here and there and
a lot of air quality deterioration occurs because of that. So, it is our responsibility that we should
as this urban local bodies or government, they should provide them some shelters.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:48)

Then we talk about like waste to energy options. So, you might have heard like waste to wealth
or waste to energy. So, the proper segregation of high calorific value materials and non-
recyclable and non-biodegradable waste can be burnt basically, which have high calorific
value, but that is the condition. So, waste to energy option can be utilized in that sense.

1541
And it needs to be explored on public private partnership mode, initially on pilot basis and then
it can be applied at the larger scale at the city levels. So, that means, the segregation is very
important and like I recall, in Germany when I was doing postdoc, there is lot of segregation
of the waste like these papers, newspapers will go in a different bin and this kitchen waste will
go differently and bottles or toxic waste will go differently, though all those kinds of things are
there, plastic will go in different bin so, that segregation at the source itself happens.

So, that way we can take the things like recyclable things can go to recycle flowchart or those
are like for composting purpose, biodegradable things can go to those places where this
anaerobic digestion occurs and like papers or some waste material, which has high calorific
value, but they are not recyclable in a proper way, then they can be burned and you can have
this steam, you can generate the steam and through steam you can generate the electricity, there
are such plants in developed countries and they are using their cities waste for generating lots
of energy.

Like in Sweden there is a Linköping city, the whole city this public transport system is running
through this biogas they are generating from slaughterhouse, related waste and other
biodegradable waste. And those waste which has high calorific value, which is not
biodegradable then they take it and they burn and then they generate steam. So, steam is used
for running turbines, electricity is produced and then the hot water is circulated in entire city
for warming up their houses because in Sweden a lot of cold seasons are very long and that
way they use this hidden energy.

And our country which are energy deficit and we have so much waste, but because we do not
have proper segregation and that is the reason we are not segregating the calorific value related
waste from biodegradable waste and other recyclable waste and all things are mixed and then
it becomes very difficult to recycle them or to go for converge into energy.

1542
(Refer Slide Time: 10:35)

Well, then we come to this maintaining quality and cleanliness of roads. So, we can have better
mechanism like this, nowadays vacuum cleaning devices are there which can be used and
several cities are using these kinds of devices nowadays, unpaved roads need to be paved
because otherwise resuspension of dust occurs, and then we can cover them with gravel or
maintain, we can maintain them on annual basis so, that this dust pollution is significantly
reduced.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:11)

Then another way of controlling the dust from these construction sites could be like using trees
or shrubs or wind barriers to control the dust emissions here and there and fogging system is
also sometimes used for trapping the dust particles. Then there is also one possibility that if we

1543
use prefabricated material rather than constructing in-situ then also we can avoid lot of dust
emissions basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:40)

Then, there is another way of for transportation if we talk like we have discussed all those
measures, mitigation measures, which are city focused or urban areas focused, if we focus on
the transportation sector, then the first thing comes like AVOID, SHIFT and IMPROVE. So,
this very thumb rule of AVOID, SHIFT, IMPROVE is like we should not unnecessarily travel,
whatever things we can do through telephone or other ways of communication rather than
going somewhere that should be done like that only.

So, we can reduce the travel demands basically, then we can also shift from private or
motorized modes to public transportation or non-motorized modes of transportation so, that we
also gain per capita emissions reduce very much. Then we can improve the strategies to
enhance the quality of fuels or technologies and like we will discuss like BS-IV, BS-VI those
kinds of quality of fuels and technologies like two stroke to four stroke engine those kinds of
things, we can always go for innovation and improvement in the technology.

1544
(Refer Slide Time: 12:45)

When we talk about Travel Demand Management, TDM then basically this ministry of urban
development has suggested planning and implementing travel demand management system.
These measures as part of the comprehensive mobility plans in India. And the vehicle
ownership, control can be implemented through vehicle quota system and taxes and insurances.

Like if you are having vehicle and if you want to buy more vehicle, more number of vehicles,
then there should be some sort of policy so that ownership of vehicle does not go just without
any control. So, there are other ways also like vehicle use control can also be in the form of
road space rationing, you can have congestion pricing or parking management or high price for
parking at the those critical zones, where there are chances that more traffic may rush to that
particular location. So, that way a smooth movement of traffic can be management.

1545
(Refer Slide Time: 13:51)

Then the public transportation, the use of public transportation can lead to 90 to 95 percent
reduction of emissions of carbon monoxide and VOCs it has been studied and 50 percent
reduction in CO2 and NOx emissions. So, that way great benefits are there, if we can shift to
the public transportation system, but people can have incentive to shift towards public
transportation system, when it is reliable in time we can have it and then comfort level is also
there or wherever we want to go there some connectivity is there. If there is no connectivity,
then people will not feel encouraged to use the public transportation system.

Well, we also need to enhance the public transportation system to shift people from their private
modes, but that is just when only when this public transportation system will provide the
comfort, high comfort level journey and reliability and punctuality all those kinds of things are
there.

1546
(Refer Slide Time: 14:49)

Well, the non-motorized transport system promotion can also be there basically, because it is
not emitting any kind of emissions. So, for shorter distances also, when, if we have good
infrastructure dedicated lanes for cyclists or pedestrians then people feel motivated otherwise
it is difficult to walk on the road where all kinds of traffic is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:12)

Then if we talk about like fuel quality and vehicle emission norms, then over the years this like
BS-I, BS-II, BS-III, BS-IV and now BS-VI we have jumped from BS-IV to BS-VI. So, that
way these concentration of regulated pollutants from commercial vehicles it has decreased so
significantly and from regulated pollutants, from cars and gasoline vehicles, it has also reduced
and cars light duty diesel vehicles, it has also reduced.

1547
So, over the years basically emission norms have been better in terms of BS-I to BS-IV and
now BS-VI. So, that way, emissions are decreasing, but the number of vehicles are increasing
that is the problem. So, the total emission grow day by day when population also grow in the
city centers.

And if you look into perspective of the policy related timeline, then the auto policy in 2003 by
Government of India laid the roadmap for introduction of cleaner fuels, and by 2010, 13 cities
moved to BS-IV norms, that was within 7 years it was achieved. An auto fuel vision committee
set up 2030 to recommend future roadmap for advancement on BS-IV standards.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:35)

And now, like this Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has decided to move directly
from BS-IV to BS-VI and it is already implemented in 2020. So, this is a great leapfrog or
achievement in that sense. And we can say that because of this lot of reduction of emissions
will occur.

Basically, this is an important move because it is estimated that it will be able to reduce vehicle
this particulate emissions from vehicle segment to the lowest possible levels like 55 percent in
2030 with respect to this business-as-usual scenario. And if technology grows, then more
emissions will be reduced.

The use of bio-ethanol and this compressed natural gas promotion is also in the plate of our
government policies as alternate fuels and this bioethanol is a renewable fuel because it is
produced from the biomass and ethanol also burns more cleanly and completely then gasoline
or diesel that means, complete combustion process occurs in this bio-ethanol more quickly

1548
basically. And this is also possible to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, if you blend it with the
conventional fuels.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:54)

Well, then, we talk about inspection and maintenance programs, which is, if we do not maintain
our vehicle, then they emit lot of emissions. If we keep on doing regular maintenance, and that
way we can keep the vehicle fit and it emits less.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:11)

Then there are other ways like we can go for odd-even scheme so, that traffic is less in number
on the roads, but it also has some other issues linked with it, because sometimes people need
and then they use their old vehicle with the other number plate which is even or odd as per the

1549
need and rather than reducing the emission it can increase. So, it can backfire also, so, we have
to implement these kinds of schemes very smartly or with the proper care.

Well, then there are other ways like converting two-way traffic to one way traffic and imposing
left right related turn restrictions on two-way streets so that this traffic movement is very
smooth and when traffic movement is smooth and at higher speed then emissions are lower,
when we apply a lot of brakes and the speed is slow, then lot of emissions occur and that
deteriorate the air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:06)

Then congestion, similarly, if congestion occurs then basically in idle conditions, lot of fumes
come out of the engine, basically carbon monoxide and other. And so, it can be, it can also
result in traffic jams or accidents etc. So, to avoid that, we can use this IT-based applications
or other means for like carpooling or work for, work from the home those kinds of things can
be there to reduce the traffic and to reduce the chances of congestion. Then purchase of new
vehicles could be made conditional on an older car being scrapped. So, nowadays, even this
scrapping policies also is in force.

1550
(Refer Slide Time: 19:49)

If we talk about like transit bypasses so that vehicles do not enter these trucks or those are
people who are going on long distances so, they do not need to enter in every kind of city, if
there are bypasses for those particular cities. So, they go with the same speed, they bypass the
city, they do not enter into the city and if a lot of vehicles enter into the city then of course,
they will emit lot of emissions. So, that way those emissions can be avoided in the city.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:21)

Then this road to rail freight improvement is also needed, because over the years it has been
observed that a lot of freight has gone to on through the trucks basically. So, we need to shift
this load to the railways, that way we can reduce lots of emissions, otherwise, these trucks are
responsible for huge emissions of greenhouse gases as well as air pollutants.

1551
And even this inland waterways also has a lot of scope to increase the freight transportation
through inland waterways, that is also very environment friendly and very cost effective way
in fact, and government of India is investing a lot of money to develop infrastructure related to
inland waterways.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:07)

Well, then this electric mobility related policies also has been in our government has
implemented or adopted this National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) in 2020, and
the aim is to promote electric mobility, battery-based mobility. So, the public transport system
also need to be planned on hybrid or electric modes so, that these vehicular emissions can be
get rid of from the cities basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:34)

1552
Then, but it needs a lot of incentives, some subsidies, so that the production and marketing and
selling of these electric vehicles becomes good and mass production, when it will happen then
the prices will also go low, right now prices are high. But as you know in case of like bulbs,
we have seen these LED etc, it was expensive, initially, even mobiles were expensive initially,
but when the utilization became very large and the mass production happens, then prices got
reduced, it is very simple economics of the demand and supply.

Well, then environment related taxes and fees can also be implemented, higher registration
taxes can be used for promoting on those vehicles, which are more polluting in comparison to
these electric vehicles. So, the differential taxation can also be there. And some policymakers
argue that maybe we can make free these electric vehicles, free from the taxes basically for
certain years.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:38)

Well, then vigilance and enforcement, it is also very important and the inspection and
monitoring of industries need to be in a random manner like I have heard that in Germany,
these inspectors from pollution control boards, the same inspector does not go to the same
industry twice, some other inspector will go. So, those chances when people can get into
agreement of shortcuts kind of things that can be avoided. Then there may be online reporting
system where this personal contacts is avoided. So, those possibilities can be ruled out
basically.

1553
(Refer Slide Time: 23:24)

Then if we talk about like cleaner gaseous fuels, so, we can have better fuels and we can switch
over to cleaner fuels, which are available and like from solid fuels to liquid fuels, liquid fuels
to gas fuels, those kinds of things are related in the industries basically. So, now, we are talking
about industries, transportation has been there already. So, industrial sector is now under our
focus.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:55)

Then we can go for online monitoring basically. So, the online continuous emission monitoring
system have been there in the market, but it is expensive, and again, if we promote it with some
sort of policy incentives, then it can be there and it would be very easy to monitor those kind
of emission streams.

1554
(Refer Slide Time: 24:23)

These stack emission standards are also need to be improved, because for certain pollutants,
they are not there like for PM emission standards for PM10 and PM2.5 they need to be revised
and there are certain pollutants for them, these stack emissions standards are not there. So, they
need to be developed. So that we can implement those based on those.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:37)

Now, we come to the power generation, power generation, we have seen those ESPs etc. Now,
we go for the power sector basically we were at that time focusing on particular coal-based
power plant also. So, we are now talking about the complete power generation sector. So, we
need to make this generation of power sufficient, cleaner and sustainable.

1555
This is the need of the hour. And that is why a lot of policies are there for generating power
from solar, from hydro and those kinds of renewable resources and slowly going away from
coal based thermal power plants, so, that these polluted ways of generating power can be
replaced by nonpolluting ways of power generation.

Plus, at the same time like some places or in the towns or small cities if power supply is not
continuous then people start using DG sets, diesel generator sets and sometimes they are quite
polluting if they are not a very good quality and very good quality they need a lot of money.
So, people go for those kinds of DG sets and they are polluting. So, it is better that if we supply
24 by 7 electricity, then there is no this possibility of using DG sets unnecessarily and that way
again, this is one way of getting better air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:05)

Then tackling emissions from coal-based power plants. So, we can go for better coal quality or
processing of those coal so that ash content can be removed, there are already technologies
which are in use in our country. Then a strict monitoring of maintenance and this electrostatic
precipitators ESPs which we use, which is also necessary so that it is working. Otherwise
sometimes if it is not working then the whole pollution goes out without controlling it through
ESP.

1556
(Refer Slide Time: 26:34)

If you talk about like, these coal-based power plant, then there are other ways also like wet this
flue gas desulfurization FGDs units. So, those things we have already seen in a scrubber kind
of mechanism, which we discussed about controlling of air pollutants from different sources.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:58)

Well, then if we talk about like agriculture activities, so, you might have heard that lot of
agricultural waste is burnt or like this paddy fields after this harvesting season, when they want
to prepare it for another crop, then they burn the waste. So, rather than burning it, there can be
some technologies, although people are doing research and they are giving ways to use that
particular biomass for generation of fuel or converting into value added product.

1557
So, there are many ways but that needs lot of efforts, cooperative efforts at the village level at
the Panchayat level and at the government level also. So, those kinds of things are needed and
that can be even linked with the MNREGA or those kinds of schemes which are already there.
So, that it is very easy to implement those particular things.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:54)

Like these agricultural waste can be converted into these briquettes and pellets, which are kind
of concentrated energy source and it is, efficient burning can be ensured by these kinds of
things. So, this is generation of electricity is one way of attractive options for utilizing farm
waste, and there are certain plants in fact, and certain industries also need these kinds of waste
for like making boards etc, but the constant supply is the issue.

If government and these cooperative societies can make this they can ensure the supply,
constant supply to the industries, then they can really dependent upon these kinds of local
supply. Otherwise, I have heard that many industries import these agriculture waste from
Malaysia etc, it is very funny to, or strange to look into that kind of matter that we are burning
our agriculture waste and people, those industries are meeting their demands by importing the
waste from outside, that is not a good thing. So, better policies and their better implementation
is the need of the hour basically.

1558
(Refer Slide Time: 29:05)

Then dedicated policies can be there for these crop residues, power generation as we have
discussed, private sector and the government R&D and other agencies can join hands for that.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:20)

Then there may be other mitigation strategies for example, monitoring networks can be
expended, air quality improvement is dependent on several things, including monitoring,
modeling etc. So, nowadays, there is impetus on expanding these monitoring network to
countryside also rural areas also otherwise, only in cities, lot of monitoring stations are there.
So, those kinds of issues, we can tackle.

1559
(Refer Slide Time: 29:46)

Then Air Quality Management Plan and then state or the city level department of environment
and these state pollution control boards they can be the nodal agency for implementing those
strategies which are related to air quality management plans. And the public participation is
very important basically. So, the urban local bodies can play a very important role in that sense.
And in NCAP lecture you might have heard about all those aspects which are necessary for
tackling these kinds of issues, to improve urban air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:18)

Then, there are other ways like to control the concentrations of particulate matter and the dust
particles various types are there like a green buffer around the cities in and around the industrial
zones and 33 percent green cover in urban areas, those kinds of things if we can ensure and we

1560
can install like open fountains, water fountains across the cities but it is very difficult, it needs
a lot of resources etc. So, better to go for eco-centric developments where we can use the trees
and greenery as a buffer zones in between industrial zones and the residential zones.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:04)

So, in conclusion, we can say that this comprehensive approach for reducing air pollution
emissions is required for success of the mitigation measures, comprehensive means integrated
manner, not only one sector but all sectors with better policies. And the mitigation measures
must be combination of like effectively implemented scientific policies and technological
interventions.

So, as to support the economy and have public support also, because sometimes we go for
stringent air quality standards or stringent emission norms, but if we do not have technology to
control the emissions then industry people get frustrated, they say that you are giving us those
type of targets but how to meet them.

So, the public support will not be there, because economic development needs are much
primary these days. So, they want the real solutions. Unless we have good solutions, it will not
be effective. So, we should have this public participation according to the local needs. We
should develop those technologies which can be implemented properly. Otherwise, if we
import and if it is very expensive, the industry people will not like it.

Then control measures used for converting air pollution must be long term in nature, it should
not be a short-term issue, it should be properly planned and implemented. And citizens need to

1561
be encouraged to participate in environment friendly activities, which, when combined with
mitigation measures can result in healthy environment.

And there are so many advantages in terms of better air quality and better health and better
living conditions.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:41)

So, this is all for today. And these are the references for your additional information. Thank
you for your kind attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1562
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 54
Challenges and the Way Forward

Hello friends. So, far we have discussed various aspects of air pollution and how to control it.
So, like different kinds of sources from different sectors, how dispersion of air pollution occurs,
how do we monitor air quality, how do we model it, what are its effects, all aspects of air
pollution and control we have discussed.

So, today's lecture is basically concluding lecture, but in that lecture, we will also look into
various challenges to address the issues related to air pollution and also the way forward means
the new solutions which are coming up to deal with the air pollution related problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:16)

So, in this lecture basically, this is the content, which we will discuss today like brief
introduction about the problem. And then, we will look into several challenges which are in
terms of policies or programs focused on air quality improvement or reduction of air pollution
emissions.

So, in that context, we will look into Limitations of the National Clean Air Program which is
a big national level program in India. And then we will also look into some strategies which
are needed to overcome those challenges which are related to NCAP. Then we will see some
initiatives which have been taken by private sector to improve the air quality and to reduce the
air pollution.

1563
Then we will focus on challenges and innovation solutions or innovative solutions, which are
focused on different sectors like transport sector or crop residue burning or industrial sector,
then residential and commercial sector, then related to energy demands what are the new
challenges and how to tackle those challenges. Then we will see into like emerging innovative
technological solutions to curb the air pollution and after that we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:21)

So, if we look into this year pollution as this is a problem not of the local scale, but regional
and global scale also and if we look into this air pollution related problem and link it with the
health risk, which we have discussed in detail in several lectures basically. So, this is one of
the key critical parameters or important parameters, which is related to human health as well
as the environmental issues.

So, it has been like this air pollution has been ranked as one of the top five global risk factors
of mortality by the health effects of this the data which was analyzed by the Health Effects
Institute in Boston, Massachusetts, and the global ranking of risk factors by total number of
deaths from all causes in 2017 are given in this particular chart. And you can see at the fifth
location or fifth rank, this air pollution is there, which has significance in terms of human health
effects and environmental health effects.

1564
(Refer Slide Time: 3:28)

If we talk about like, what is the region and the region is so, many emissions from fossil fuel
burning and continuous degradation of air quality, because of those emissions from various
activities, which are related to burning of fossil fuels and using those kinds of sectors based on
fossil fuel burning.

So, if we look into the regions in Indian context, there are several regions for this air pollution,
emissions and degradation of air quality and they may be related like infrastructural facilities,
which are quite limited in terms of quality, although slowly as economy is growing, so,
infrastructure facilities are also growing, but over the past several decades, the regions which
are linked with air pollution, emissions and degradation of air quality are linked with
infrastructural facilities.

1565
And in inadequate amount of financial resources, which are required to do something to
intervene in terms of better technology, better policy measures, implementations of several
programs to improve the, this ambient air quality.

And there are difficulties in relocating industries from, cities to other places, because it requires
a lot of resources and there are limitations in resource allocation. So, there are several regions
which are in terms of challenges, you can perceive that and can we address those challenges in
a very judicial way so, that we can do those interventions and improve the air quality.

If we look into policies and programs related challenges so, one example is National Clean Air
Program (NCAP) basically and before that government of India and state governments as well
as other agencies, which are concerned about air quality improvement, they have taken they
have taken so, many steps to curb the air pollution basically like National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) were prescribed time to time then CNG LPG or ethanol blending related
policies were implemented.

There are like leapfrogging from BS-IV to BS-VI that was great decision. So, that rather than
going from BS-IV to BS-V we could go directly to BS-VI so, that we can have stringent norms
and that way very less amount of air pollution emissions from transport sector to improve the
air quality then there was like burning of this biomass and air quality indices related issues or
ways to manage the air quality in and around urban areas.

So, there have been several ways and policies and programs, but an advanced approach which
could be focused on time bound initiatives, so, that we could fulfill those requirements in a
time bound manner. And for both cities and rural areas, we could address the air pollution
related problem. So, that need has been felt basically.

So, in this context the need for National Clean Air Program (NCAP) India as a national level
strategies for reduction in air pollution levels at both regional and urban scale, it was felt very
seriously.

1566
(Refer Slide Time: 6:50)

So, that is the reason this National Clean Air Program (NCAP) was launched in early 2019
with the focus on reducing these emissions or these PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 20 to 30
percent reduction to achieve this target by 2024 with respect to the their levels in 2017. So, this
was decided and it was implemented at a larger scale.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:18)

But several limitations have been observed in case of NCAP like according to the report, which
was published by Observer Research Foundation (ORF) on September 2020. The following
limitations were observed in this particular program, which is of national scale like lack of
legally binding targets are there means targets are there.

1567
But if suppose, we do not achieve those targets then is there any penalty or other legal issues,
those things are missing basically, then absence of a compliance mechanism that how to see
whether it has been compliant or not or how to achieved those compliance then data related
implementation hurdles are also felt, then urban and rural disparity in terms of air quality
monitoring is there.

So, many air quality monitoring stations are concentrated in only urban centers or urban areas
in cities, but rural areas are not covered by them. So, there is a big disparity in that sense. So,
you do not know what is the air quality of rural area is basically, if you look into rural and
urban air quality. Then there are inadequate financial resources for doing for implementing
certain programs or having certain technological interventions to improve the air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:43)

So, there are limitations which have been, discussed here, like one by one absence of legal
mandate, because of this absence of a legal mandate, there is a delay in implementation of
NCAP action plan to achieve this target because, it is not a kind of legal binding.

So, if even if it is delayed people feel okay we can look into in another way around. Absence
of compliance mechanism is also there like lack of accurate or independent and easily
accessible data on emissions, which create hurdles in ensuring compliance to standards and
law enforcement. So, this is also one gap or limitation.

1568
(Refer Slide Time: 9:25)

Then there are data related implementation hurdles. Because this includes like lack of
appropriate methodology to monitor real time data for reporting several trends and data
cleaning methods to fill the gaps, which are related to missing accurate data in the monitoring
system.

Of course, there are ways like statistical tools are also there and various agencies are using
them, but it is still it was felt in this report they say that data related implementation hurdles
are there. Then, urban and rural disparity in terms of air quality monitoring is huge and it
requires a lot of resources to put in air quality monitoring stations in rural areas. So, that this
disparity can be filled in or addressed properly.

1569
(Refer Slide Time: 10:12)

Then inadequate financial capacity are there because like various policies and programs are,
framed and implemented, but to achieve the targets sometimes there is a need for that much of
financial resources which are not available.

For example, allocation of control of pollution have increased the funds for control of air
pollution, from 460 Crore last year of 2020 to 2021 budget to 470 crore. So, this is a very slight
increase otherwise, this need or estimated budget was like 660 crore in 2021 and this 550 crore
in 2021-2022. But it was not met means there is a little bit gap in those projected amount of the
financial resources and the allocation which was given.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:05)

1570
Then we can look into now strategies to overcome the challenges or some other challenges.
And like there have been several initiatives in terms of let us NCAP tracker. So, this is basically
carbon copy and raspier living sciences both have joined hands to launch the NCAP tracker.
So, this Tracker basically compiles and analyze the information on air quality and budget
allocation to tackle the air quality related programs. So, that is available publicly and they
process those data and then they give some information about that.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:52)

Apart from government initiatives private sector has also come forward with several initiatives
to improve the air quality basically. And this private sectors role is very important in designing
and financing also those programs, cutting edge innovations and unique technology solutions,
which can be used for addressing the challenges in air pollution. So, those initiatives are also
very important and we will discuss a few of them.

1571
(Refer Slide Time: 12:20)

For example, IKEA which is a Swedish multinational group, which is having a specialization
in furniture and home accessories, it has launched better air now, initiative with the aim to the
turn rice straws into raw material for making furniture. So, this particular new initiative of
IKEA, it has kind of showcase the potential re-purposing a waste product otherwise which if it
is burned, then it will emit a lot of emissions.

So, economically viable resource and it can reduce air pollution. So, both ways means
financially it is beneficial as well as it is affecting very less amount of the environment because
it is reducing the air pollution emissions. Then similarly, like Siemens mobility Limited has
partnered with the air quality experts Earth Sense to provide this Zephyr. This is an air quality
measurement system basically, related to traffic.

So, the sensor based system you can see here sensors and different kind of pollutants which it
measures. So, that traffic related air quality measurements in real time live to identify the
pollution hotspots so, that traffic can be diverted, if a particular hotspot is there so reduce the
air pollution or improve the air quality there you can divert the traffic. So, this traffic
management system, Air Quality Management System has been launched.

1572
(Refer Slide Time: 13:51)

Then, there are other examples like through corporate social responsibility CSR, many
industries are coming forward to invest money for innovative solutions basically and there are
guidelines of the CSR you might be knowing that like the companies with a net worth of 500
crore or revenue of 1000 crore rupees and net profit of 5 crore they have to spend 2 percent of
their average profit.

So, that they can support or sponsor the programs for several activities like education, health
care, poverty alleviation and environmental sustainability also. So, within the framework of
environmental sustainability initiatives can be taken into improving the air quality.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

1573
So, in that way one more example is very good in terms of like CSR contribution, one company
Cummins India Limited in Pune. They have invested lot of money through CSR to create
oxygen hubs. Basically, these oxygen hubs are nothing but converting non forest land into
forest area so, that the greenery can absorb the CO2 and they can produce oxygen. So, those
kinds of initiatives are coming in a very innovative way.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:10)

Now, then there are like tree plantation related initiatives in Bangalore, some companies are
coming up. So, to build oxygen hubs in that way means when we increase the greenery naturally
capacity to absorb or sequestration of carbon increases, and to emit lot of oxygen is also one
way with these kinds of initiatives. So, this contributes towards creating a carbon sink basically
and increasing the green cover as well as producing a lot of oxygen.

1574
(Refer Slide Time: 15:42)

Then there are sector based challenges like if we consider transport related sector. So, there are
several challenges for example, privately owned vehicles are increasing, we have discussed in
several policy measures like how to reduce privately owned vehicles and promote the public
transportation system.

Then there are like deteriorating air quality which is a big in urban areas, big issue related to
air pollution emissions from transport sector. Then increasing greenhouse gases as well because
greenhouse gases and air pollution emissions are together. So, they are related to this
transportation sector because congestion increases, then emissions also increases. So, we have
to address those transport sector related challenges.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:23)

1575
And like 90 percent of greenhouse gas emissions is emitted from road transportation basically,
if we consider within the transport sector related GHG emissions. If we focus on road
transportation emissions, we can really help in improving air quality by reducing air pollution
emissions from the road transportation or vehicles which are applying on the roads.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:50)

So, like declining share public transport is a worry some issue because it is just 18.1 percent of
the total work trips basically in 2015 number of daily trips using a motorcycle for commuting
was 35 million excluding personal trips. So, more people use motorcycle then they travel by
bus.

So, that means there is a huge scope if you can transfer that population from two wheelers to
these public transportation of buses etc that way we can reduce lot of emissions which are
coming from two wheelers basically.

1576
(Refer Slide Time: 17:27)

Now, the way forward if we look into in transport sector, so, Government of India has launched
this full indigenous retrofitted electric buses and with hybrid technology also which are
converted existing conventional fuel buses into electric buses. So, this is a new policy, but main
hindrance is there to this adoption of new technology and this is because of less availability of
financial resources basically and capital cost is also very high.

Because, if you compare like the average cost of the hybrid bus in India is at present around 23
million rupees compared to 9 million for premium digital bus. So, huge difference is there. But
it is expected that the way fuel prices are increasing and the way government is investing lot
of resources to increase the renewable resources of electricity. So, that way maybe in future we
can reduce this gap and popularity of buses can increase, electric buses.

1577
(Refer Slide Time: 18:33)

Then, there are like scope, huge scope is there to motivate people to go for non-motorized
transport like walking or cycling or using this rickshaw, cycle, etc, which emit zero emissions
basically only you need to have those infrastructure which can help them to have a comfortable
journey in that way like dedicated lanes etc.

But, unfortunately these NMTs or non-motorized transport are still neglected as a mobility
option in favor of capital and infrastructure intensive modes of transport, like lot of investment
is there on metros etc but very less investment is there in these low hanging fruits which are
related to NMTs non-motorized transport sector.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:29)

1578
But if you look into like in foreign countries, huge infrastructure has been developed. So, we
should learn because, there is nothing wrong in learning from best practices around the world.
In Netherland separate bus and bicycle lanes are there through even these intersections.
Exclusive cycle lanes are there in Amsterdam and Netherland.

Then separate cycle path at highways also means people who can go for longer distances using
their bicycles or other means so, they are dedicated cycle paths are there so, that people feel
motivated, they are not scared that accidents may happen if mixed traffic is there on the
highways and highways of course, it is not allowed in our case highways are dedicated for
certain kinds of vehicles only.

So, if we can have for few kilometers people are nowadays having like they want to cycle
because of health benefits also and they are environmentally sensitive many people like to use
the cycles, but if there is no dedicated lane or path for cycling, then it is difficult to use those
kinds of NMTs.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:40)

Then there are way forward in transport sector in terms of electric vehicles for example hybrid
bus and electric bus. Now, lot of focus and emphasis is on E-vehicles whether in terms of four
wheelers or in terms of two wheelers also and only the challenge is that where this electricity
is coming because those who are opponents having opponent views they always challenge that
this electricity is coming from coal based power plants.

So, you are shifting the air pollution rather than reducing but catch is here because the
emissions which are coming from motor vehicles or transport sector based on fossil fuel is

1579
basically at the level of inhalation our respiratory system. So, if we can get rid of emissions of
vehicles exhaust emissions that way we can improve, we can have the health benefits because
that emission is not there.

So, improving air quality in urban areas, which are because of this transport sector is also a
great benefit because coal thermal power plants or any thermal power plants, which are
emitting emissions at very high these chimneys or stacks, then it gives dilution of the pollutants
when it reaches to the ground level.

So, there is a big difference in that even if those emissions are coming to produce the electricity,
but at the same time, government is enhancing and promoting generating the electricity from
renewable resources like wind or solar etc. So, that way slowly I am very hopeful that this E-
mobility will give great benefit in terms of cleaning the environment, having better air quality
in urban areas and having health benefits.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:24)

You can see like types of electric vehicles here, fuel cell electric vehicles are promoted, then
hybrid electric vehicles as I just talked about that bus, then plug in hybrid electric vehicles
PHEVs, extended range electric vehicles, battery electric vehicles, and several kinds of electric
vehicles are coming and new technologies are coming. So, that way a lot of focus is on there.

1580
(Refer Slide Time: 22:46)

Also from NITI Aayog electric vehicles related initiatives have been there through electric
vehicle emission basically. You can see like this state EVs policies have been there since 2017.
And those areas are related to regulatory is basically at the state level. So, it has inspired around
25 states to come up with the EVs policies and 16 have already notified. So, this is a big huge
motivation in that sense.

Skill development programs and establishment of dedicated centers, which can give better
training how to go for this EV related infrastructure. So, 9 IITs have started these dedicated
programs for EVs basically. Then setting up national mission for transported this
transformative mobility and battery storage.

1581
Because battery related issues are there huge issues, that we need to have lightweight battery
and which can capture a lot of energy and it can be long lasting. So, those kinds of batteries are
needed. So, that way several initiatives and programs have been launched by government of
India through NITI Aayog. And these are giving boost in E mobility.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:05)

Then there are also focused on alternate fuels like ethanol, which is considered to be one of the
most suitable alternative blending in this transportation fuel due to its better fuel quality and
environmental benefits. So, on the occasion of this World Environment Day 5th June of 2021,
Government of India released one report on the expert committee of the expert committee on
road map for ethanol blending in India for 2025. This report was launched basically.

1582
So, according to this report 20 percent of ethanol blending can be easily achieved basically.
So, this E20 ethanol related policies are there and roadmap has been prepared how to go there
like a lot of investment is there and this to produce 700 to 1500 Crore litre of the ethanol for
this particular purpose.

Then E10 by April 2022 means 10 percent of the ethanol blending, 20 percent by April 2023
and availability by and this April 2025 means rolling out by 2023 and making it available by
2025. So, those kind of targets or step by step initiations have been promoted by the
Government of India.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:22)

Then there is Bio-CNG related focus also, recently basically this in Indore Bio-CNG plant was
inaugurated and this plant is expected to process 550 tons of organic solid municipal waste per

1583
day to produce around 17,000 kilogram of the Bio-CNG and around 100 tons of the organic
compost will also be a byproduct.

So, that way win win situation is there to clean the city as well as using the waste material into
producing this biogas and compost material also. So, there is but little problem like in the way
of Bio-CNG the waste segregation at the source is a big challenge. So, if we can change the
behavior of the people and at the source itself we can segregate, this inorganic and organic
waste and biodegradable waste, it can help a lot to achieve the targets basically.

So, you can see this plant in Indore, basically it is giving way we can replace basically about
50 percent of our current total diesel usage in the transport sector through Bio-CNG. So, huge
scope is there means this is showing a way forward this Bio-CNG plant in Indore.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:43)

Then, alternate fuel also include this methanol. So, NITI Aayog’s ‘Methanol Economy’
program is aimed at reducing India's oil import bill as well as reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and converting coal reserves and municipal solid waste into methanol. So, this is
also one more area where we can go for blending like 15 percent of Methanol in gasoline can
bring down greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent in terms of particulate matter NOx and
Sox.

So, that way huge benefits are there we can go for so, we can go in multiple ways means only
not one policy can be targeted. But multiple policies and programs can be launched to address
those issues.

1584
(Refer Slide Time: 27:27)

So, there are like in that way five methanol plants have been there and one natural gas based
methanol production plant has been there. Which can produce 20 million metric ton per annum
in a joint venture with Israel. So, those are in process. Then there are like three boats and seven
cargo vessels are being built by this Cochin Shipyard Limited for Inland waterways Authority
of India to use methanol as a marine fuel.

So, that way these are new initiatives which are giving new way forward for dealing these
situations. Then there is this Thermax Limited which has successfully developed a five kilowatt
methanol based reformer on a Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC). So, this module is being
tested to replace the DG sets in mobile towers basically. Because lot of DG sets are there,
wherever these mobile towers are there and a lot of fuel is burned but if it can replace them we
can say reduction in pollution can be achieved.

1585
(Refer Slide Time: 28:26)

Then there are several innovations also in transport sector like CHAKR innovation is there,
which is basically capturing this 90 percent of particulate matter in these diesel engines
basically. And then converting those particulate matter into a kind of ink. So, valuable product
is being manufactured by reducing the carbon emissions. So, those are the innovations.

1586
(Refer Slide Time: 28:58)

Then there are innovations Inland waterways also like rooftop solar panels are being used in
these vessels also. So, that way energy is being produced. So, new innovations, new ways of
dealing with these problems are coming day by day and that way you can see these five years
success story this ADITYA which was, which is the vessel basically using these solar panels.
So, it has like 11.5 million savings and this eliminating 165,000 litres of the diesel basically.
So, huge benefits are there in saving fuel as well as reducing emissions.

1587
(Refer Slide Time: 29:44)

So, you can see means farmers in northern part of the India basically, they want to prepare their
land for next sowing purpose. So, they need to burn to quickly dispose of this crop residue.
This is one way, easy way for them. But it also causes a lot of air pollution in this at the regional
scale basically.

So, this seasonal crop residue burning in this Indo Gangetic plain has been a big problem over
the years basically. So, if we can give some solutions for this management of the crop residue
that can be a wonderful way of dealing with this problem.

1588
(Refer Slide Time: 30:22)

So, like there have been some policy interventions, which are shown in this particular timeline
in terms of technological interventions to convert that crop residue in a valuable product also
or dealing with an in other ways. So, there are several way forwards to curb this crop residue
burning basically like there is crop diversification program from 2013 to 2014, it has been in
place.

So, sub scheme of this Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana has been there this crop diversification
program. This encourages farmers this area of paddy crops to alternate crops to reduce the
stubble. So, means a shift from rather than paddy to other crops so, that this kind of problem
can be avoided. Then there is the national policy for management of crop residues.

1589
So, they focus on promoting in situ crop residue management or technological intervention and
awareness of the farmer so, that they avoid burning rather than converting into them converting
into those valuable products.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:30)

So, there are also technological interventions like happy seeder is there, which can quickly deal
with this stubble and it can be converted into proper kind of maneuver and that way.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:44)

Then there are other ways also like composting is also biochar formation using these crop
residues is also one way. But of course, this needs proper collection and then transporting that
crop residue. So, challenges are there but possibilities of having these kinds of innovative
solutions could deal with the crop residue burning.

1590
(Refer Slide Time: 32:05)

Then financial aspects are also there. So, policymakers and researchers have suggested that
maybe with like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee scheme is their
MGNREGA act is there. So, within that scheme if we promote the community based solutions
or community based initiatives where a lot of farmers can join hands to deal with this crop
residue burning and using that crop residue in terms of some valuable products. Then we can
deal with the, we can avoid the burning of that crop residue.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:44)

1591
Then there are industrial sectors or other sectors where there are challenges like greenhouse
gas emissions are there. So, a lot of solutions are coming in that sector also. For example,
removing of the VOCs by some innovative the paints etc are there which emit lots of VOCs
but new paints are being promoted which can emit very less amount of the VOC basically. It
reduces the VOC industry in because of some other chemical free kind of paints are there which
can be used for reducing these emissions of VOCs.

1592
(Refer Slide Time: 33:24)

So, these are ways then there are like reducing of the sulfur there are technologies sulfur
emissions can be reduced. And that way SO2 emissions can be reduced and regional scale that
acid rain problem related which is not in India, but in other parts of the globe are there. So, new
technologies are coming to dealing with these emissions.

1593
(Refer Slide Time: 33:44)

1594
Then there are residential and commercial sector related challenges. For example, a lot of
people still use bio mass they burn the biomass and to meet their energy needs. So, can we shift
from biomass to better cleaning clean fuels. So, like there are this Agnisumukh manufacturing
commercial kitchen equipment, which are driving innovative and energy efficient radiant heat
gas burners.

So, that way efficient cooking appliances are also coming there. Plus you can see this particular
Yojana or program of government of India, which is Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY).
This has also given a big boost in reducing emissions, which are coming from biomass burning
because a lot of rural population has been given gas connections. So, the clean fuel if is
available then biomass burning is reduced. So, naturally emissions which are coming from
biomass burning are greatly reduced in that way.

1595
(Refer Slide Time: 34:46)

So, this is one big program which has been very successful and it has given our rural population
to go for the clean energy rather than this polluting energy which is from biomass burning
basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:03)

1596
1597
Then energy demands related challenges are also there and a lot of policies are coming like
solar related or some other electric power generation from renewable resources. So, a lot of
focus is there basically, in meeting those energy demands. We can say this net zero carbon
related the policies there after certain decades we want to go for net zero carbon emissions.

So, that way huge shift is demand or huge shift is needed from fossil fuel based energy products
into renewable resources based energy production. Example is there like notable renewable
projects have been with large scale projects have been implemented in India like in Tamil Nadu
this solar power panel, big plant is there in again Tamil Nadu at another place, windmill has
been there in Rajasthan in Jaisalmer a lot of windmills have come then this 400 kilo watt power
rooftop solar installation in central coalfields limited in Jharkhand has been implemented.
Similarly, in Telangana, Maharashtra, huge plants are coming to generate energy from the solar
power plants.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:20)

1598
1599
Then new innovative technologies are also coming to curb their pollution around the world.
Like in Mexico City special mural painting has been promoted which absorbs pollution,
Biosolar leaf, City tree or special roofing granules you can see these murals which are using
certain paint which can absorb the air pollutants. So, antipollution, gravity's popular nowadays
in Mexico City. Biosolar leaf is also one technology large panels which are like they are
producing energy with this new kind of solar panels.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:56)

Then in Germany City tree is one technology, where they are using these kind of moss cultures,
which can absorb a lot of particulate matter and nitrogen oxides basically. So, that way
improvement in air quality can be achieved. In United States again, the smog reducing granules
are promoted by a company which can reduce the smog formation kind of pollutants.

1600
(Refer Slide Time: 37:23)

So, in conclusion, we can say that of course there are a lot of challenges still to reduce the air
pollution emissions. But new innovative technologies are coming, new innovative programs
are implemented by several countries. And in India, basically we are shifting from fossil fuel
based economy to renewable energy based economy that is a big program and like E mobility
and there are other ways which are coming up in a big way to reduce the air pollution emissions.

So, that way we can say that awareness of public is also needed. So, that they can shift from
quickly from those polluting kind of technologies to non-polluting kind of technologies and
also like sifting from fossil fuel based transportation to non-motorized transportation (NMT).
All these need infrastructure facilities as well as public awareness. So, so many innovations are
coming and that way we can deal with the challenges.

So, in conclusion, we can say that challenges are there but innovative solutions are also there.
And you can also think means everybody has a creativity and innovative attitude if they can
apply they can come up with new solutions. So, this is all for today. So, to deal with the
challenges let us come with the innovative solutions to put forward the new ways of dealing
with the air pollution emissions and to improve the air quality.

1601
(Refer Slide Time: 38:56)

So, this is all for today, these are the references where we have taken information you can go
through at leisure to these references to have more information on a particular topic. So, thank
you for your kind attention. See you in the next lecture. Thanks again.

1602
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture – 55
Sampling and Analysis of PM10 in Ambient Air

Hello friends. So, you may recall that last time we had a kind of concluding lecture, which
could give a summary of all the aspects of air pollution monitoring and modeling. And we also
discussed about the challenges which we are facing to control the air pollution and the way
forward.

Now, today onward we will look into sampling and analysis of various air pollutants in the
ambient air. So, today first we will discuss about sampling and analysis of particulate matter
PM10, which is also known as RSPM (Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter). So, in ambient
air how do we sample and analyze the PM10 today's lecture is related to that.

Also we will have a small video demonstration, which will give you the real feeling how these
instruments are used in the field, so, that you can have a better perspective and you can later
on use this instrument at a particular location to monitor the air quality in terms of particulate
matter.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:30)

So, this particular lecture is including like a small introduction of particulate matter which we
will revise basically, we have already discussed in certain lectures, then we will look into what
are the standards or National Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM10. So, that we can compare
the observed data with the standards.

1603
And we will then know that whether air quality is meeting the requirements or it is exceeding
from these standards which has been prescribed by CPCB we will also look into the principle
which is being used for sampling purpose and the instruments which are popular in the field
for monitoring the air quality in terms of PM10.

And then we will see the sampling procedure and little bit calculation formula and then we will
see the video we have prepared in laboratory of IIT Roorkee and later on we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:26)

So, if we come to this revise or region of few slides which we have discussed in sources and
classification of air pollutants long back. So, the particulate matter is nothing but either solid
particles suspended in the air or they may also contain these liquid droplets or both maybe they
are suspending in the air.

And according to their size we define them like coarser particles or fine particles. So, like PM10
is known as coarse particles you can say and PM2.5 is known as fine particles and less than
PM2.5 like 1 micrometer or 0.1 micrometer, they fall into the category of ultra fine particles.

You can see here this PM10 is coarse and PM10 means the particles which are having size equal
to or less than 10 micrometer. So, PM10 also includes PM2.5, PM1 also. So, all these smaller
particle sizes are included in the higher sizes. So, PM10 is basically having the size of the
particles which are PM2.5 also PM1 also and PM2.5 will not have PM10, PM2.5 micrometer will
have the size of 1 micrometer also 0.1 micrometer also like that.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:48)

1604
Well, if you want to have a kind of visualization, what is the size of these particles, how small
particles they are. So, you can compare with human hair, if human hair is like 50 to 180
micrometers size. So, you can say that it is one tenth or 18 times size this human hair is then
the PM10 particles because like 180 micrometer if it is then certain hair maybe finer like 50
micrometers so, you can say 5 times then the PM10.

So, that way you can see like these respiratory droplets maybe having size of 5 to 10
micrometer. Dust is having particles of PM2.5 size so that way you can compare with the sand
grains or human hair size and these PM2.5 PM1 etc are very, very fine particles and we cannot
see them through naked eyes. Basically they becomes part of our respiratory inhalation and
exhalation and they can go up to the lungs.

1605
(Refer Slide Time: 4:57)

And if you want to again compare the sizes depending upon different kinds of particulate matter
like fumes or smoke or dust. So, dust is basically 1 to 200 micrometer sized particles are found
in the dust. And in smoke 0.01 to 1 micrometer sized particles can be found. In fumes it is 0.1
to 1 micrometer.

Chemical fumes or simple fumes plus mist can have less than 10 micrometer PM10 or so. Fog
also less than 10 micrometers size particles. Aerosols are like whatever particles which are of
size less than 1 micrometer.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:36)

So, in this table also, the nomenclature has been given according to the size and their sources
like aerosols are the particles which are less than 1 micrometer and they are basically airborne

1606
suspensions and dust is 1 to 200 micrometer, natural disintegration of the rocks and mechanical
processes they create the dust, resuspension dust also occurs.

Fog less than 10 micrometer and mist also with water and liquid droplets in hanging in the air
in wintertime basically, we look into these kinds of situations. Fumes 0.1 to 1 micrometer
through metallurgical processes or chemical processes, these can be the sources of the fumes
then mist could be like again less than 10 micrometers.

And because of condensation during industrial operations or naturally also mist can occur and
this is having the particles of less than 10 micrometers. Smoke is 0.01 to 1 micrometer and
from combustion and chemical processes smoke emitted.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:39)

Then if we relate particulate matter and human respiratory systems, how, where they can go up
to like 10 micrometers size basically up to the nasal opening they can go and it can be removed
there. But the smaller particles can go through this respiratory tract and up to lungs it can go
like very fine particles like 0.65 micrometer or 0.4 micrometer size, they can go up to the lungs
and very fine particles ultra-particles or ultra-fine particles they can even go to the blood that
is the problem with these very ultra-fine particles. And if they are having like some toxic
material with them. Then of course they can create some problem health problem and other
issues.

1607
(Refer Slide Time: 7:26)

Well, so when we come to how to monitor these PM10. What kind of instrument do we use?
So, we have taken this process of monitoring the PM10 or RSPM respirable suspended particles.
So, guidelines for sampling and analysis of particulate matter in ambient air which is through
gravimetric method, this has been taken from this particular manual.

This is guidelines for measurement of ambient air pollutants, this contains several pollutants,
measurement techniques. So, we have taken this PM10 sampling and analysis method presented
in this particular manual or document.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:04)

If we look into national ambient air quality standards of PM10 basically two situations like
industrial, residential, rural, or other areas, they are like annual standards are 60 micro meter

1608
per cubic meter and 24 hours are 100 Micro gram per cubic meter and the same is like in
ecologically sensitive areas, which are notified by the central government. In other pollutants
like SO2, NO2, etc these values may differ but it depends upon their health effects and
environmental effects.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:39)

Now, if we come to the principle which is the basis of the sampling methods. So, basically air
is sucked or drawn through some inlet and it goes inside this instrument and it passes through
a filter paper and we also note down the flow rate which is like around typically 1 cubic meter,
1.13 cubic meter per minute that average we have to maintain.

And there is technique that this diameter less or less than or equal to 10 micrometer are passed
towards the filter paper others are removed and collected in other kinds of hopper. We will see
that particular part of this high volume sampler. Then we find how much mass is collected at
the filter paper.

Then we weigh and then we divide it with the total volume of the air which has passed through.
So, that comes that gives us the value of concentration microgram per cubic meter mass per
unit of the volume.

1609
(Refer Slide Time: 9:50)

Well, if you look into the instrument which is which are required for calculating ambient air
concentration of PM10. So, we need first of all analytical balance where we can weigh it we
can find what is the weight and we have this high volume sampler and there is ways to control
the flow and we can see like initial flow rate, afterwards flow rate and then we can have the
average.

There is also the way like top loading this mechanism where we put in the filter paper and also
we have to have a particular type of filter paper, every kind of filter paper is not used there. So,
glass fibre filter paper are mostly used for this particular purpose.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:39)

1610
If you look into different parts of this particular high volume sampler, then this filter paper is
placed at this particular location where no filter paper loading assembly is there, you just
remove this lead and put out put this filter paper and then you start the instrument and means,
you switch on the instrument and then air start to flow and the particles less than 10 micrometer
goes through this filter paper.

And the more the size is higher than the 10 micrometer, they are collected in this particular
cyclone kind of assembly. So, in the hopper it is collected and we can also weigh it and know
how much value is there of the particle size more than the PM10. So, that is the basic idea.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:27)

And also we need to look into like filter paper must be free from moisture. So, it is conditioned
basically at a particular temperature.

1611
(Refer Slide Time: 11:37)

And then the sampling procedure like first of all you have to inspect the filter paper which you
are going to use it should not be punctured, it should be properly intact. So, we have to inspect
it and see there is no any kind of holes etc. And then loose particles are there if they are then it
should be completely removed and it should be completely clean.

Then we have to put some mark of the site like where this filter paper has been used. Because
there are so many like if you are conducting experiment or having monitoring at various sites,
then how would you differentiate where this filter paper has come so, we have to mark that this
particular filter paper has been used at that specific location then you condition it.

So, we have to for 24 hours, we have to put in a particular oven and a particular place where
20 to 30 degree Celsius temperature is there and 40 to 50 percent relative humidity. So, that

1612
kind of those parameters are maintained then initial weight of the filter paper is measured Wi.
Then filter paper is used, sampling is done and again filter paper is taken there because after
collection we have to take it to the laboratory again conditioning is done.

Then final weight is observed and we use this simple formula to know the concentration in the
air. So, that is the final weight of the filter paper in grams initial weight of the filter paper in
grams a difference of that divided by the volume of the air which has passed through that filter
paper basically.

So, that we know from the instrument itself there are we have seen there are knobs which can
give the reading basically of the flow rate then we multiply it by 10 to the power 6 to convert
gram into micro gram and we get the concentration of PM10 in ambient air.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:42)

1613
Of course, we need to do the quality control so, that proper protocol is followed. And that way
to prevent maintenance related problems or calibration of the equipment is done periodically,
an analysis of the field blanks and lab blanks is also carried out because sometimes the same
kind of paper may have some sort of impurities.

So, the blank reading will give us to differentiate between the observed one and the reading
which has been obtained with the blank filter paper. So, the flowchart for this measurement of
PM10 is given in a very simple way like check the filter paper for any physical damages if it is
damaged, remove it, take another filter paper which is of good quality.

Then mark the identification number for that particular site condition it for 24 hours so that it
is free from moisture etc record the initial weight then placed on the that in high volume
sampler at that assembly where it is to be placed. And then close the nuts and start it then
remove after this observation of 8 hours or so.

Because for 24 hours observation we take three samples of 8 hour each then keep that filter
paper in a proper container and take to the laboratory recondition it then record the final weight
and calculate by using that formula. So, now we will look into this demo video which will
illustrate you the sampling of PM10 using the high volume sampler.

1614
(Refer Slide Time: 15:21)

1615
So, this is the video which has been recorded in air pollution laboratory of Civil Engineering
Department at IIT Roorkee. So, that will give you the complete picture of the real instrument
which is used for this particular purpose.

Narrator: Good morning friends, I welcome you all in experiment part of the subject air
pollution control in this series of lecture will explain the demonstration of different instruments
which are used for measurement of air pollution in ambient air. So, today I am going to discuss
the first experiment of this series and the first experiment is your sampling and analysis of
PM10 in ambient air using gravimetric analysis.

So, in order to analyze this or in order to measure the PM10 in ambient air, we use the instrument
that is called as the high volume sampler. So, this is the instrument which we use for
measurement of PM10 or RSPM in the ambient air. So, I will explain the different components
of this device.

So, we can see this is the part of the device which is called as the inlet through which the
ambient air is sucked into the device and after air enters through this inlet is passes through this
part, which is the size selective inlet and the purpose of size selective inlet is to segregate the
particles which are means smaller than 10 micron and those which are heavier than those. So,
whatever the particles which are smaller in size from 10 micron. They will go into the filter
assembly.

1616
(Refer Slide Time: 16:47)

1617
And those particles which are heavier they will be collected here this is the cyclone so, they
will be collected in the hopper of the cyclone. This is the hopper so, here the heavier particles
will be collected and those which are smaller than 10 micron or we will call them as PM10 will
go into the filter assembly.

So, this is your filter assembly. And in order to suck the air from the ambient, we use this pump
that is the suction pump. So, it sucks the air and it creates the negative pressure inside it and
apart from that this is the filter assembly and this is your manometer and along with that scale
bar is there. So through which we can directly measure the flow rate which is passing through
this device. And this is your time totalizer for measurement of time. So, this is a broadly
different component of the device. Now I will explain the workings of it.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:42)

1618
1619
So, when we switch on the device what happens the suction pump sucks the ambient air and it
enters into the inlet part. So, this is the inlet part and then when it pass through this size selective
inlet those particles which are smaller than 10 micron or equal to 10 micron will go into this
filter assembly.

So, this part is the filter cover and these are the wing nuts. So, what we do before starting the
instrument, we have to place the filter into the filter assembly. So, I will tell the different
component of it. So, this is the filter cover, we have to take it out very gently and you can see
that here a filter is already present. So, it is pretty dark and indicating that some sampling has
already been done. So, this is the 8 into 10 inch filter and this is the upper cover generally the
upper part of the filter is kept as a rough surface. When we are placing the filter over here.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:47)

1620
1621
And you can see here there is a slot so, the air which is having the PM10 particles then it will
come through this slot and will go into this filter assembly and it will enter through this filter.
So, whatever the particle which are of the size 10 or less than 10 micron will be collected on
this filter paper.

So, once we place this filter paper gently over here, then we place the filter cover like that and
after placing that we have to close these wing nut tightened such that like it should not be
disturbed while we are doing the sampling. Now, the important part for ensuring the quality
control is that like the filter which is the quad fiber filter and 8 into 10 size.

So before placing the filter into the filter assembly, we have to do its preconditioning and for
doing its preconditioning we kept it at 20 to 30 degrees centigrade, as well as at 40 to 50 percent
relative humidity for nearly means 24 hour. And after doing this preconditioning we measure
its weight.

So, that is called the filters pre-weight and upon doing this, then we place this filter here and
upon placing this filter here, then we cover the filter from the filter cover and tighten all these
wing nut. So, now our instruments is ready for doing the sampling and then we take our
instrument into the sampling site and generally they are at a relatively height.

So, that like nearby obstacles will not have an impact and we will be able to get the true ambient
air quality. So, after doing all this arrangement and placing the filter here and placing the device
to our sampling site, we start the monitoring. So, I will just start the monitoring for
demonstration purpose here.

So, you can see here in this manometer the liquid is moving up. So, through this manometer
and through the scale bar, which is directly present to our cubic meter per minute flow rate. So,
we can get our flow rate from this scale bar and the time from this time totalizer. Now, what is
the purpose of these two things? Actually, as I said like, we will take the pre-weight and post-
weight or the filter.

And from the difference of these two values, we will be able to get the mass of the PM10 which
will be collected on the filter paper. But mass of the PM10 will not be sufficient because we
have to present our PM10 pollution loading in the ambient air in terms of microgram per meter
cube. So, mass per unit volume we need.

Now, from where the volume will come. So, in order to get the volume of the air which pass
through the device. We have to take the two measurement, the first measurement is from the

1622
time totalizer and second measurement is from the flow rate. Which is the taken from this scale
bar directly.

So, the time totalizer reading we have to measure when we start the sampling. So, initial reading
we take and when the sampling gets over, we take the final reading of this time totalizer. So,
the difference of these two readings will give the total time of the sampling. And then from this
manometer we will be able to measure the flow rate of the air which is passing through this.

Now the question is like, when we are placing the device in ambient air and we are doing the
sampling initially your filter will be clean. So, there will be a resistance for the air to pass
through it. So, we will be having a relatively higher flow rate. But as soon as the sampling
process and goes further the filter starts getting dirty.

And once the filter starts getting dirty we will get the more resistance. So, pressure drop will
be relatively high and because of that the flow rate will be going relatively down. Now, the
question is which flow rate we should take. So, the point is to take the representative flow rate
what we do the protocol is that like we generally measure the flow rate at every hour while the
sampling is going on.

So, what happens generally this flow rate varies between 0.8 to 1.2 cubic meter per minute. So,
let us say we have carried out the sampling for 8 hour. Then we have taken the 8 representative
samples of this flow rate and then we take the average of those 8 value.

So, that will give us the average flow rate of the air which pass through this high volume
sampler during the sampling. So, we got the average flow rate and through the difference of
time from the time totalizer we will get the total volume, total time of the sampling. So, the
product of these two quantity will give the volume of the air that pass through this device.

1623
(Refer Slide Time: 23:42)

So, now I will explain you the calculation part, which I presented here. So, PM10 here it is
representing the concentration of PM10 microgram per meter cube, Wf and Wi is the means
initial and final weight like Wi is representing the initial weight of the filter that is presented in
grams and Wf is the final weight of the filter that is presented in grams.

(Wf − Wi )
C 𝑃𝑀10 μg/m3 = × 106
V

So, difference of these two will give you the mass of the PM10 which is collected over the filter
paper. And V is the volume of air which is sampled. So, which we can get through the product
of the time of sampling and the average flow rate we have taken through the manometer. So,
by using this formula, we will be able to get the PM10 concentration in the ambient air. Thank
you.

Professor: Well, so, you have seen this video and I am sure that now you have better
perspective, better visualization, how the high volume sampler is used for monitoring purpose
or sampling purpose of PM10 in the ambient air. So, particulate matters of aerodynamic size
less than or equal to 10 micrometer in ambient air. It is simple through this high volume sampler
which we have seen it is also sometimes known as RSPM sampler.

1624
(Refer Slide Time: 24:48)

And the conditioning of filter is very important you have to remember it and the air flow rates
should also be kept average like 1.132 cubic meter per minute. So, you have to note down
initial, final and that way if it is changing then you have to maintain the flow rate because as
this filter paper get clogged the flow rate becomes down.

So, pressure drop is there. So, you have to maintain it with the help of that motor then this
difference of the final and the initial weight will give you the mass of the particles which has
been collected then you divide with volume of the air and you get the concentration then you
can compare it with the national ambient air quality standards of the PM10.

And then you can know whether that site is okay, okay in the sense whether the concentration
is less than the ambient air quality standard like for 24 hours it is 100 and for annual it is 60.

1625
So, the observed data you can compare means if you have so, many data for annual then you
calculate the average value of the annual and you compare with the annual data.

Otherwise if you are having only 24 hours data then compare with this if it is exceeding 100
then it is a problem and you have to see what the sources are and how can we control the air
pollution. So, this is all for today, you can now know about and you can practice whenever you
have a chance to monitor the PM10 by using this high volume sampler.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:14)

So, these are the references which we have used for this particular presentation. You can go
through them if you want to know more about the procedure of guidelines which are used for
sampling purpose of PM10. So this is all thank you very much for your kind attention and see
you in the next lecture for demonstrating to sample another air pollutant. Thank you.

1626
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 56
Sampling and Analysis of PM 2.5 in Ambient Air
Hello friends. So, these days we are discussing about experimental part of air quality
monitoring. As you recall last time we discussed about sampling and analysis of PM 10
particles, the size of the particles 10 micrometer or less than that. So, today we will discuss
about sampling and analysis of PM2.5 in ambient air, means the particles of the size equal to or
less than 2.5 micrometer. So, it is more or less similar the way we monitor or do sampling of
PM10, but let us discuss it separately so, that we can know certain differences are there in the
instrumentation basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:13)

So, first of all, we will discuss the background like introduction and then we will look into the
standards which are prescribed by CPCB regarding PM2.5 and the principle of the sampling
method of this particular particulate matter and the apparatus and materials which are used then
what is the procedure of sampling and how do we calculate the concentration, ambient air
concentration of PM2.5 after observation is made.

So, then we will look into the summary of the flowchart of the procedure then we will have a
short video which will explain the procedure of PM2.5 monitoring and then we will conclude.

1627
(Refer Slide Time: 01:50)

So, as we discussed last time also that fine particles have tendency to go into our respiratory
system. So, PM2.5 basically these are very fine particles of this size let us say this 2.1
micrometer these secondary. So, this can go up to this part of lungs, they can do damages to
these parts of the lungs basically. So, they may have irritating kind of behavior as well as they
can kind of hamper the function of the lungs.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:23)

Well so, guidelines for determination of PM2.5 in ambient air is basically the gravimetric
method which are taken from CPCB’s manual on guidelines for the measurement of ambient
air pollution which has all particulate matter as well as gaseous pollutants. So, the PM2.5
sampling and analysis method which we are describing in this particular lecture is basically
based on the information which we have derived from this particular document.

1628
(Refer Slide Time: 02:53)

Now, if we talk about national ambient air quality standards that is NAAQS for PM2.5 which
has been prescribed by CPCB central pollution control board. So, this is like for industrial
residential and rural and other areas it is around 40 to 60, 40 for annual average and 24 hours
average is 60 Micro gram per cubic meter, the same quantities are there for ecologically
sensitive areas also, which are notified by central government.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:26)

Well, so, what is the principle behind the sampling of PM2.5 It basically draws the Air, ambient
air at a constant volumetric flow rate around this 16.7 liter per minute or 0.0167 cubic meter
per minute which is maintained by a volumetric flow controller which is coupled to a
microprocessor into a specially designed this inertial particle-size separator which is also
known as impactor, where the suspended particulate matters in the PM size ranges, which are

1629
separated for 2.5 for collection on a particular filter paper which is 47 mm, this PTFE filter
paper which is known as over a specified sampling period.

So, that we know how much air has been passed through that filter papers because we will
require the volume of the air for calculation purposes of the concentration because, we will
calculate the mass which is deposited on the filter paper then if we know how much air has
passed through this filter paper that means, what was the volume of air that had this particular
amount of particulate matter.

Then each filter paper is basically weight before and after the sampling collection is done, so
that we can know the difference of the particulate matter after the final weight and before
sampling so that the difference of the weight is the particulate matter which is collected on the
filter paper.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:05)

Then this is the apparatus basically. So, inlet is there and then PM10 impactor is there, so, that
the coarse particles are removed and PM10 is only collected here, but then it passes through at
the lower place. So, at this particular location, this PM2.5 is collected on a small filter paper.
So, that means, PM2.5 to PM10 is collected in this particular portion.

So, if we are interested to know, how much particles are there in the ambient air of the size
which is more than or larger than PM2.5 but less than or smaller than PM10 then we can also get
this value here, but we are interested especially in PM2.5. So, the collected particulate matter
on this filter paper is of our interest basically.

1630
(Refer Slide Time: 05:59)

So, different kind of devices in addition to this particular apparatus we need like weighing
machine electronic micro balance and then filter paper is also needed, Stopwatch so that, we
know how much period is there because we have to maintain the flow rate also, how much time
we are doing sampling like 4 hours or how many hours then filter paper supporting cassettes
are there so, that it is not disturbed, it has to be protected from other kind of issues. Well, so,
this weighing machine is used for weighing the filter paper before sampling and after the
sampling basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:39)

1631
So, if we go to the sampling procedure, we basically follow this particular path that we first of
all inspect the filter paper so, that it does not have any kind of holes or short circuit will be
there particles will not be deposited, but air will take the particles through the that punctured
filter paper. So, that kind of filter paper we do not need if there are cracks or holes we should
reject that filter paper it should be completely intact.

Then we have to note down the batch of the sampling and the log sheet where we mentioned
every kind of information, then we have to label the filter paper so that we know at which site
is has been used, because each filter paper represents a unique monitoring site basically, then
we placed them in a petri dish and we also use it with some of these forceps, so that you do not
touch it and you do not interfere in the way or you do not put some particles if they are in the
hands.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:47)

1632
Then we prepare this filter paper after conditioning because conditioning is needed. So, that
any kind of moisture can be removed from the filter paper otherwise it can interfere in the
collection of the particles as well as calculations. So, you can condition it at a particular
temperature. And then after conditioning you have to weight and note down the weight that is
the weight of the filter paper before sampling.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:11)

Then we do the sampling and after this is exposed to the particulate matter which is passing
through that device for a certain period, then we again we weight. So, that is the weight of final
and the initial we have weighed just before sampling and after sampling this final weight is
there. So, difference of these is the basically mass of the 2.5 particles, particles of the size of
2.5 micrometer which is collected on this particular filter paper and if this is in milligram then
we multiply it by 10 to the power 3 to convert it into microgram.

1633
M2.5= (𝑀𝑓 − 𝑀𝑖 )𝑚𝑔 × 103 µ𝑔

(Refer Slide Time: 08:50)

Then we divided this mass of microgram by this volume, volume of the, total volume of the air
which has been sampled which is responsible for the collection of this particular amount of or
weight of or mass of particulate matter.

𝑀2.5
𝑃𝑀2.5 =
𝑉

(Refer Slide Time: 09:06)

We need to do quality control some protocols are followed like to prevent like we do
maintenance of the equipment calibration of the equipment time to time and other protocols we
need to follow so, that quality is properly control.

1634
(Refer Slide Time: 09:19)

If we go for summary of flowchart regarding measurements of PM2.5 then first of all, Let us
check the filter paper for any physical damage if there is any damage, reject it, get another fresh
or new filter paper and then mark the identification number of the filter paper which represent
a particular site of the monitoring, then you need to condition it at the particular temperature
for 24 hours.

So that all those moisture and VOCs related issues are removed. Then we record the initial
weight after conditioning. Please remember, after conditioning we have to record the initial
weight, then we place this filter paper on the sampler, we run the sampler for 8 hours or 4 hours
depending upon the requirements, then we record the flow rate on hourly basis.

So, that we can if there is difference in the flow rate, then we can get the average value for that
4 hours or the 8 hours, then we remove the filter paper from the sampler and then we keep it in
a particular container so, that it is not disturbed, and we take it to our laboratory and then we

1635
record all the values of the flow rate as well as then again we condition the filter paper in a
conditioning room for 24 hours, and then we record the final weight.

So, the difference of the final weight and initial weight gives the total mass which is collected
and we know the volume of the air by that flow rate and the time duration. So, we can divide
it and calculate for the concentration which is available or present in the ambient air.

So, now, we present a short video which will illustrate you about the sampling procedure of
PM2.5 using this particular sampler of fine particulate collection, and this video has been
prepared in the air pollution laboratory of civil engineering department of IIT Roorkee. So,
please watch this video and it will give you a better perspective about the sampling of PM2.5.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:25)

Good morning friends, welcome to the experiment of the subject Air pollution and Control.
And this is our second experiment where I will demonstrate you the purpose of the experiment
is to measurement sampling and analysis of PM2.5 in ambient air using gravimetric analysis,
like in previous experiment, we have learned about how the measurement of PM10 in ambient
air is carried out. Similarly, we also have a device to measure the PM2.5 concentration in
ambient air and for that the instrument that is used is called as Fine Particulate Matter Sampler
of Envirotech called as APM 550.

1636
(Refer Slide Time: 12:05)

1637
So, initially I will explain the different components of the instrument. So, you can see this is
the upper part of the instrument that is called as the inlet and after the inlet this part is called
the impactor which is the PM10 impactor to segregate the particles which are larger than 10
micron in size and those particles which are smaller than 10 micron will go through the air
stream passing down and this is the down tube and this is the housing of the APM 550 sampler.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:28)

1638
So, in the housing we have the 3 major component this is the winds impactor assembly and this
is the filter holder assembly and this is the dry gas meter and this other part that is the oil less

1639
vacuum pump, so, these are the major components of this instrument. So, what is the purpose
of different component I will explain and this is the inlet so, to the inlet, this is the circular inlet
basically, so that like the air which enters through this circular inlet, it will not affect the
direction of the wind flow.

So that, the air will enter through this circular inlet and immediately this we are having this
impactor. So, the purpose of this impactor is that those particles which are larger than 10
microns in size will be trapped here and those particles which are less than or equal to 10
micron or PM10 will say they will pass through the instrument in the following airflow.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:23)

So, this air will pass through this down tube and then it will pass through these winds impactor
and here the purpose of this winds compactor is to trap the particles which are falling in the
range of 2.5 to 10 micron in size. So, those particles which are less than or equal to 2.5 micron
will pass through the air and pass through these winds impactor and then those particles have

1640
to or we can say the PM2.5 particles they will be collected here in this filter holder assembly we
have a filter cover, so, in which we have the PTFE filter I will explain in the separate part.

So, those particles will be collected over this filter. So, what basically happens from the ambient
air the particles which are larger than 10 micron, they will be trapped here and those particles
which are in the range of 2.5 to 10 micron they will be trapped in winds impactor.

So, only the air which is crossing these winds impactor will be having the concentration of
particles less than or equal to 2.5 micron and that will be collected over this in the filter which
is holded by this filter holder assembly.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:26)

Now, the other part is like dry gas air meter. So, you can see here we can directly measure the
volume of air through this meter. So, we do not have to calculate the flow rate multiplied by
time things like that directly we can get the volume of the air and the point is like how we
create the suction in the stream and so in order to create the suction, we have the oil less vacuum
pump.

So, that should be attached with the, this device. Generally this device is placed over this oil
less vacuum pump and it is hold through this part so that like we can wherever we are moving.
We can easily take entire as a single unit and place anywhere where we are doing the sampling.
Now, the point is like what happens inside the winds impactor.

1641
(Refer Slide Time: 15:11)

So, in order to understand it I have just another unit of winds Impactor. So, this is the winds
impactor we have and here we have the PTFE filter, which is 47 mm size and we have a GFA

1642
filter, glass microfiber filter that is for the impaction purpose. So, I will explain this. So, this is
our winds impactor. So, we have to gently open it when we are setting the instrument.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:47)

So, you can see here in this impactor assembly we have this part that is called as the oil well.
And in oil well we have to remove this upper part of this oil well and here inside you can see
we have one filter that is the 37 mm GFA filter. And before starting the instrument or before
starting our experiment, we have to place this GFA filter. So, we have already placed here and
you can see here some wetness there that is because of we have added some drops of silicone
oil.

1643
(Refer Slide Time: 16:13)

So, silicone oil we have placed into this that is a dropper. So, when we place the filter through
this forcep and then we place this upper part of the oil well and then simply using this dropper
we add the drops of the silicone oil on the filter so that it becomes wet and so that what happens
when the air which is coming down through the down tube it will impact here.

So, those particles which are falling in the range of 2.5 to 10 microns they will stuck here and
only the air which is coming out having the particles less than or equal to 2.5 micron that will
pass through the filter assembly. So, then replace here simply so that and then we cover it, like
this.

So, now what happens whatever air is coming from this lower part that will be having the PM2.5
micron particles. Now, here we have a filter holder in which we have added the place the filter
PTFE filter, which is 47 mm in size in diameter. So, this is the filter holder and we place this
filter here and then we put this cover up like this.

1644
(Refer Slide Time: 17:28)

So, the air which comes out from here that will pass through this and whatever the mass of the
PM2.5 will be collected on this filter and this filter is basically placed in the filter holder
assembly like you can see here we have already placed this. So, we have to open it and then
we have to place it. So, until now I explained you the different components of the device and
how the air comes into it and then it passed through the filter and the PM2.5 particle is collected
on the filter that advantage this instrument is having that like if we want to suppose measure
the PM10 only.

Then we can simply take out this winds impactor assembly and we can directly allow this air
through this down tube to pass to the this filter here that time we have to replace this filter from
the glass fiber filter, so that we can measure the PM10 also. So, this is how the 10 and 2.5 is
measured the PM2.5. Now that we come to the calculation part, so, the calculation is very similar
with the calculation of the PM10 as we have seen our previous experiment.

So, I have explained here you can see this upper equation is giving the mass of the PM2.5
particles which are collected over this filter. So, what we have to do, we have to do the
preconditioning and post conditioning for the filter which we are going to use for measurement
of PM2.5 and after doing this preconditioning we take the weight of the filter and that is called
as the initial weight of the filter and after doing the sampling, we again take the filter weight
that is the following the post conditioning which we have done similar to the pre conditioning.

So, after doing this conditioning, we take the post weight of the filter and the difference of
these two will be placed in this equation and then we get the mass of the PM2.5. Now we need
to have the volume and as I said like volume, we can directly measure through this dry gas
meter. So, this reading is directly giving you the volume in meter cube. So, we can simply place

1645
use the second equation and we can calculate the PM2.5 concentration in the ambient air. So,
this is how using these winds impactor and this assembly, we are able to measure the PM2.5 in
the ambient air. Thank you.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:44)

Well, so, you have seen this video and we can conclude at last that the main objective of
ambient air particulate sampling whether PM10 or PM2.5 here we have done this PM2.5 sampling
related description, we have to do because we need the data to compare with the ambient air
quality standards and whether it is exceeding or not. And if it is exceeding then how to control
it, how to remove or reduce the concentration. So that, we can target certain sources like
through source apportionment studies etc. So, for various purposes, we need to monitor the air
quality and different kinds of pollutants.

So, PM2.5 is the part of this particular illustration and this data is useful for all kind of
calculations like health effects or whether this air quality standards are being met or not. So,
we can get these data at certain locations and use this particular instrument for sampling
purpose and do calculations and compare with the air quality standards and know whether it is
exceeding or not.

1646
(Refer Slide Time: 20:42)

And these are the references based on which we have prepared this presentation. So, thank you
for your kind attention and I will see you in the next lecture where we will look into how to
monitor Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide. Thanks again.

1647
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 57
Sampling and Analysis of SO2 and NO2 in Ambient Air
Hello friends, so these days we are discussing about experimental aspects or practical
aspects of air quality monitoring. So, we have discussed about how to monitor pm 10 or
PM2.5. Today we will look into the sampling and analysis of sulphur dioxide or nitrogen
dioxide in ambient air. So, kind of monitoring gaseous components or gaseous compounds
in the ambient air.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:01)

So, this is the content list of this particular presentation, we have two parts basically the
sampling and analysis of sulphur dioxide and the second is sampling analysis of nitrogen
dioxide and both have similar content like introduction, then what are the standards of SO2
or NO2, then principle of the method, that sampling method I mean what are the instruments
and equipments which are used for sampling purpose.

Then the reagents and chemicals which are used in analysis procedure and how to calculate
and ultimately the sampling procedure in terms of the flow chart which will give you at
one place the step by step procedure of the sampling and later on we will have a short video

1648
which will give kind of feeling how to handle this equipment basically for a particular
purpose of sampling or monitoring of SO2 or NO2 and then we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:50)

So, first let us look into sampling and analysis of sulphur dioxide which is present in
ambient air. As you know sources of SO2 are many like coal burning or even diesel based
vehicular emissions and it is this sampling and analysis method is basically known as
Improved West and Gaeke Method for SO2 monitoring.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:12)

1649
Well in this you can see like there are many sources and SO2 is known for several kind of
effects not only the health but environmental effects because it can get converted into
secondary aerosols or it can also acidify certain environmental components.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:30)

If we look into what are the prescribed standards, so like industrial, residential or rural
areas they are known for annual standard 50 microgram per cubic meter and 24 hours 80
but if we go for ecologically sensitive then the annual average is only 20 very stringent and
24 hours it is same 80 microgram per cubic meter.

1650
(Refer Slide Time: 2:53)

The principle which is used for this particular monitoring or sampling of SO2, so basically
it is based on absorption in a particular solution of this potassium tetrachloromercurate
(TCM) in brief we call it, so the TCM solution is used and this is the, why this is used
because it is also a particular chemical which resists the oxidation because of other
compounds like ozone or NOx, so those kind of interference it can be removed, it can
remove easily, so that way this is a good procedure and it is made of certain chemicals like
formaldehyde and others, then at certain places or at certain steps we use different kind of
reagents and chemicals.

1651
(Refer Slide Time: 3:44)

And we will look into these analytical like balance, then vacuum pump is used for
extraction of the gases, then it is passed through that chemical which is in impinger and so
it is absorbed there basically, then ultimately spectrophotometer is used for measuring this
absorbance in terms of color matrix kind of procedure and there are need of glass wears
also because we need to form solutions etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:13)

1652
So, you can see different kind of reagents and chemicals which are used for this particular
analysis in laboratory, distilled water then mercury chloride, potassium chloride. So, all
these chemicals, reagents we need in our laboratory for this particular purpose.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:30)

Then if you go for sampling procedure, then first of all we have to have 30 milliliter of this
absorbing solution which is needed in the impinger, so that when gas, this air passes
through this impinger in this solution so SO2 get absorbed basically.

1653
(Refer Slide Time: 4:47)

And we do certain procedure we will look into just later on in steps by step.

1654
(Refer Slide Time: 4:53)

I come to this calculation, this is again like how much concentration of sulphur dioxide is
there. So, basically first of all absorbance of sample is needed, so difference of the blank
sample and the which is exposed and then this calibration factor CF is needed which is
again we can derive from different kind of solutions, this curve is based on the slope so
concentration can be calculated when we know a particular kind of concentration of this
absorbance.

𝑉𝑠
𝐶(𝑆𝑂2 µ𝑔/𝑚3) = (𝐴𝑠 − 𝐴𝑏 ) × 𝐶𝐹 × × 𝑉𝑡
𝑉𝑎

Then there is this volume of the air sampled, how much air has been passed through that
solution and volume of the sample we have taken, so Va and Vs and then Vt that is volume
of aliquot taken for analysis, means in the pipette how much we are taking for particular
analysis.

1655
(Refer Slide Time: 5:42)

Quality control, it is the same we have done in PM10 and PM2.5 similarly, we have to follow
certain protocols so that there is no error in the monitoring or sampling.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:55)

So, this is the flow chart which gives different steps for the measurement of sulphur dioxide
like as I said, first of all we have to place 30 milliliter of absorbing media in the impinger
because this will absorb the SO2, then we have to connect it in the gas sampling manifold
of gas sampling device there is a particular frame where it has to connect.

1656
Then we have to draw air at a sampling rate of around 1 liter per minute for 4 hours or it
can be 8 hours depending upon how much do we need to sample it, then we have to check
the volume of the sample at the end of the sampling and record it because it will get reduced
then we have to fill some distilled water, I will tell you later on, so transfer this exposed
samples in a storage bottle and we have to preserve it properly.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:44)

Then we need to prepare calibration graph as recommended so that we can get the
concentration after using this particular graph then we need to take 10 or 20 milliliter of
this aliquot of sample in 25 milliliter volume of the flask and this unexposed sample is also
taken as the blank, then we need to add 1 milliliter of this Sulphamic acid and we keep it
for 10 minutes, after that we add 2 milliliter of formaldehyde and then we add 2 milliliter
of working PRA.

1657
(Refer Slide Time: 7:18)

Then make it up to 25 milliliter because certain volume reduction is there, so we mix with
distilled water, then we keep it for 30 minutes for the reaction and we set the Zero of
spectrophotometer with the distilled water because we have to compare with the distilled
water not with the blank, blank with distilled water and the exposed solution also with the
distilled water we have to compare.

So, measure the absorbance at the 560 nanometer and calculate the concentration using
calibration graph, we have already prepared so that graph will be used, then we calculate

1658
the concentration of sulphur dioxide using that particular equation which I just discussed,
this one.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:08)

So, this is the way we calculate concentration of SO2 which is present in ambient air,
similarly the sampling and analysis is done for NO2 nitrogen dioxide in ambient air and the
method which is used is known as modified Jacob and Hochheiser method.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:24)

1659
And again it has its own characteristics and NO2 is also known for like creating acid rain
related problem or it can have respiratory issues, health effects also, it also contribute into
haze formation, smoke formation, also precursor for formation of the ozone, so that way it
is a problematic gaseous component in the air basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:50)

If we look into the air quality standards, National Ambient Air quality standards of NO2
then we can see like 40 and 80 for industrial, residential and rural areas, 40 for annual
average, 24 hours average is 80 micro gram per cubic meter, it should not exceed whatever
we are observing it should not exceed with these given values otherwise it is a problem.
And for ecologically sensitive areas it is 30 to 80, so that means for annual average value
is less, it is stringent because whole year if you are inhaling polluted air then it will create
problems in the system, our body.

1660
(Refer Slide Time: 9:31)

The principle of sampling method, so again this is collected by bubbling air through a
solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium arsenite, so bubbles are there and then it will get
absorbed basically. The concentration of nitrite ion produced during the sampling is
determined again by colorimetric method and by reacting the nitrite ion with phosphoric
acid and all other chemicals which are listed here.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:00)

1661
Well, so instruments as we know analytical balance is needed, vacuum pump is needed and
absorber in the impinger, then capable of measuring the absorbance at 540 nanometer, a
spectrophotometer of that capability is needed, glass wears are of course needed.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:17)

Then other reagents and chemicals are listed here like distilled water, sodium hydroxide
and sodium arsenite and other absorbing solutions.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:27)

1662
Then these are additional reagents and chemicals.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:31)

Procedure is as I said earlier also like first of all place this 30 ml of absorbing solution in
the impinger and impinger is placed in the instrument where this air will pass, basically we
do it in the same instrument where we are taking observation or sampling of PM10 or PM2.5
we can this particular assembly we can use with that instrument also taking air at a
particular flow.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:03)

1663
So, we replace any water lost by evaporation during sampling by adding the distilled water
to make the same volume which we took, then we prepared 10 milliliter of the collected
sample into 50 millimeter volumetric flask.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:18)

And do some those laboratory based analysis.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:23)

1664
And then calculation is done as earlier as I said this As absorbance of the sample which
has been exposed, absorbance of the reagent blank, and then CF is calibration factor which
we derived from the graph curve and then volume of air sampled and volume of the sample,
volume of aliquot which we have taken and then we multiply with sampling efficiency
around 0.82 depending upon the sampling rate.

𝑉𝑠
𝐶(𝑁𝑂2 µ𝑔/𝑚3 ) = (𝐴𝑠 − 𝐴𝑏 ) × 𝐶𝐹 × × 𝑉𝑡 × 0.82
𝑉𝑎

(Refer Slide Time: 11:51)

Then quality control is the same, we have to follow the protocol so that there is no error in
monitoring and analysis at the laboratory.

1665
(Refer Slide Time: 11:58)

So, this is the flow chart which will give you in nutshell what is the procedure which we
follow. So, place 30 ml absorbing media in the impinger, connect it to the gas sampling
manifold that device particularly, we do the gas sampling device, draw air sampling at the
rate of 1 liter per meter for 4 hours or 8 hours or whatever you need to do as per the
requirement, then we check the volume of the sample at the end of the sampling and record
it because it will reduce, then transfer the exposed sample in storage bottle and preserve it,
so that we can take it without disturbing to the laboratory.

1666
(Refer Slide Time: 12:37)

We prepare calibration graph as recommended earlier, then we take 10 milliliter of this

aliquot through the pipette and put in 50 milliliter of the volume flask, then we take 10
milliliter of unexposed sample as a blank in 50 milliliter volume flask, add 1 milliliter of
hydrogen peroxide, 10 milliliter of sulphanilamide and 1.4 milliliter of NEDA, all these
chemicals are taken.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:05)

1667
Then we make up to the mark of 50 milliliter with distilled water, then we keep it up to 10
minutes for reaction purpose set Zero spectrophotometer with distilled water and we
measure the absorbance of both blank as well as the exposed solution, so we calculate the
concentration using calibration graph and then we calculate the concentration with that
particular equation.

So, here we present a short video which will illustrate you the sampling of both sulphur
dioxide and NO2 nitrogen dioxide and this video has been prepared in air pollution lab of
civil engineering department, so enjoy the video.

(Video Being Played)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:10)

1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
Good morning friends, I welcome you all in the experiment part of our subject air pollution
and control and here I am coming with another experiment and this experiment is for
measurement of SOx and NOx in the ambient air. So, in our one of the previous experiment
I have explained how to measure the pm 10 in the ambient air and for that we use the high
volume sampler and in that I have already explained you how the sampling of PM10 is
carried out through the high volume sampler, like the ambient air is sucked through this
inlet, then it passed through the filter assembly and then it exists from here.

Now, using this instrument along with another accessory we can also measure the SOx and
NOx in the ambient air. Now, in order to measure it how we do that I will explain in today's

1680
experiment. So, basically what happens like when we start our device, so it sucks the air
and then it exits from here. So, now what happens like here we added one attach one tube
that is connected with this box that is called as an impinger box, okay, so what is its
functioning that I will tell you.

So, we connect this tube through this imbinger box, so what happens like whatever the air
which is coming out through the high volume sampler that will be allowed to go into this
impinger box, now what are the different component of the impingr box is that we have
the impinger tray and impinger tubes and we have a rotameter to maintain the flow rate.

So, basically what we do for measurement of SOx and NOx we do measure it through the
colorimetric analysis and in order to do this we prepare some absorbent in the lab like for
measurement of SOx we do prepare the potassium tetrachloromercurite and for the
measurement of NOx we do prepare the absorbent of which is prepared by the sodium
hydroxide and sodium arsenite.

So, after preparing these two absorbent we place in these four tubes, actually here we have
two tubes for NOx, we have already mentioned so that while sampling we will be able to
know like which impinger tube is for which absorbent. So, these two tubes where we have
mentioned the NOx here we add the absorbance of NOx and for measurement of SOx we
add the absorbance for SOx in this tube and this tube, so we have kept here four tubes.

Now, how the constant flow rate of 1 liter per minute is maintained in this impinger box,
so in order to do this we have a rotameter here through which we are able to regulate our
flow rate, so that only 1 liter per minute of air flow can pass through these four tubes. So,
how do we do it that I will explain now.

So, I will just start this device, so you can see we have these four loops are connected with
these two, so the air is coming from here then it is going there and then this tube is
connected to this tube and this tube is connected to this tube, now if you want to maintain
the flow rate of 1 liter per minute we connect this tube here and you can see that flow rate
is around 1 liter per minute, if it is not 1 liter per minute then through the adjustment screw

1681
here we can change or we can open up or close it down, so that flow rate will be maintained
to 1 liter per minute.

So, now these two tubes are having flow rate of 1 liter per minute of air that is passing
through this, similarly for another tube this one and this one we have this another opening,
so we just place here and we check that whether the flow rate is 1 liter per minute or not,
so here it is little round, so we can just adjust this flow rate by opening and closing this
screw, you can see this marker is moving and here we have adjusted at 1 liter per minute.
So, now the flow rate is set at the 1 liter per minute, then we take out these tubes and so
that like this is the procedure for keeping the flow rate of 1 liter per minute of the air which
is passing through these four impinger tubes.

So, then after what we do, as I said like we place the absorbent media in these four tubes
like for NOx we add in this first and third tube and for SOx in the second and fourth tube
and after that we close the door of the impinger box and another thing is like we have to
maintain a constant temperature inside the box, so it has a fan inside the box, so that like
what if it is heating more it has a thermostat inside so it will accordingly adjust the
temperature.

So, that right now we are having let us say temperature of 28 degree centigrade inside, so
we can just use this up and down buttons to maintain the temperature and at the same time
let us say more sampling is going on and we want to see whether everything is okay inside,
we just switch on this light button, so we can check inside whether everything is fine or
not.

So, this is how the ambient air is passed or allowed to pass through this absorbent media
which is present in these four impinger tubes. So, generally sampling is carried out say 4
hours in the ambient air when we are doing sampling for pm 10 so along with that we can
attach this impinger box and we can also measure the SOx and NOx in the ambient air. So,
after finishing our sampling we take out the sample from these impinger tubes and we go
for the colorimetric analysis in the laboratory.

1682
So, here in this calculation I have explained you or I have presented here the SOx and NOx
what are the different chemicals which has to be added, let us say for the SOx this is our
PTCM which is the absorbent we have placed inside this tube and after doing the sampling
we come back to the lab and then we take out 10 ml of the sample and to this we add 1 ml
sulphanic acid or 2 ml of pararosaniline and 2 ml of formaldehyde and then we make up it
to the 50 ml and after that we take the absorbance of this sample through the
spectrophotometer.

Similarly, we have the blank sample in the lab which is not sampled or we say that
unsampled, so for that also we measure the absorbance, so the difference of these two is
represented here is As minus Ab and then here we have the calibration factor that is taken
from the calibration curve with the standard which we prepare in the lab so that we will be
able to calculate the SO2 concentration.

𝑉𝑠
𝐶(𝑆𝑂2 µ𝑔/𝑚3) = (𝐴𝑠 − 𝐴𝑏 ) × 𝐶𝐹 × × 𝑉𝑡
𝑉𝑎

And Vs and Va is your volume of sample and Va is the volume of air sample, so volume
of air sample we can obtain from this high volume sampler which I have already explained
in our previous experiment and then Vd is the volume of aliquot, so using this formula we
are able to calculate the SO2 in the ambient air in terms of microgram per meter cube.

Similarly, if we go to the measurement for NOx as I said like we use the absorbing media
as sodium hydroxide and sodium arsenite, so when the NOx passes through this then it
fixes in the form of nitrate and then we come back to the lab and we take the sample like
for SO2 we have taken so we take the 10 ml of sample and then we make up it by adding 1
ml of hydrogen peroxide and then 10 ml of sulfanilamide and NEDA of 1.4 ml, so after
adding this we make up the sample up to 50 ml and then we take the absorbance, so after
taking the absorbance we use this formula for the NO2 concentration.

𝑉𝑠
𝐶(𝑁𝑂2 µ𝑔/𝑚3 ) = (𝐴𝑠 − 𝐴𝑏 ) × 𝐶𝐹 × × 𝑉𝑡 × 0.82
𝑉𝑎

Here again the Ab stands for the blank absorbance which is unsampled absorbing media,
so the difference of these two is presented here and then CF is standing for the calibration

1683
factor, Vs is the volume of sample and Va is the volume of air and Vd is the volume of
aliquot which we have taken let us say 10 ml and then 0.82 is the sampling efficiency, so
using this formula we are able to calculate the NO2 into the ambient air. So, this is how we
do measure the SOx and NOx in the ambient air using the impinger box, thank you very
much.

(Video Ended)

(Refer Slide Time: 22:34)

We can conclude that both sulfur dioxide and NO2 are major pollutants in the atmosphere
that is why we do sampling and this vegetation and buildings and human health can be
affected by these pollutants that is why measurement and to compare them with the
prescribed standards are needed and sampling is done as we have described in this
particular lecture and short video presentation has been there.

So, we compare all these concentration with NAAQS, we can look into the problem if there
is a problem, if it is not exceeding the prescribed standard then it is fine but the monitoring
is needed so that we can know whether the sulphur dioxide and now this NO2 are within
the limits or not.

1684
(Refer Slide Time: 23:09)

So, this is all for today and this is the reference list which you can go through at leisure, so
thank you very much for your kind attention, see you in the next lecture.

1685
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 58
Stack emission Monitoring using Isokinetic Sampling
Hello friends, as you know these days we are discussing about lab based experiments or
field based experiments to monitor different air pollutants. So, today we will discuss about
stack emission monitoring using isokinetic sampling. So, what are the emissions from the
stack if you want to measure like particulate matter or gaseous components, so how do we
measure these emissions, that is very important stack monitoring is very important.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:57)

So, in this particular presentation we will first discuss about what is the need, why it is so
important, then the principle of the sampling method for stack monitoring, what are the
apparatus or equipment which are used for the sampling in stack monitoring and what is
the procedure, then how do we recover the sample so that we can analyze in the lab, then
how do we estimate the concentrations, what are the procedures of the calculation and the
particulate matter as well as gaseous pollutants can be measured.

So, first we will discuss about particulate pollution monitoring method and then briefly we
will also touch about gaseous pollutants like sulphur dioxide, we have given one example
otherwise NOx emissions can also be monitored and explained, then after quality control

1686
related brief discussion we will show you the video which will further explain how this
sampling is done at the stack emissions and we will conclude.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:00)

So, as you know these stacks which are quite large size chimneys where pollutions are
coming as a kind of point source emissions you can say, so they are important in the sense
because earlier they were used for giving the pressure difference in the draft velocity
otherwise later on it was found that stacks also help in dispersion of the pollutants, so you
can send directly it also helps in dilution of the pollutants and reducing the concentration
at the ground level.

So, we should know how much emission is coming out of it because if there are so many
stacks and emissions are multiplying then maybe even if they are diluting, ultimately the
ground level concentration may exceed the standards which are prescribed by CPCB or
MOEF Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change.

So, we need to monitor the emissions from the stacks that is the important thing and the
particulate matter or the gaseous components, their properties like velocity, temperature,
humidity and the concentration of particular pollutants, whether it is particulate matter or
gaseous components we can measure and the importance is because the pollution if we do

1687
not measure and we do not compare then we cannot judge how much pollution is coming
from those stack, so stack monitoring is very important thing.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:21)

Now, if you talk about like the principle of sampling method for particulate matter
monitoring, then this is basically the isokinetic sampling method which is given lot of
emphasis, because in this we have to ensure that the velocity, temperature and other
parameters are the same as it is in the stack, means the nozzle which we will be using for
extracting the sample, so the velocity and the flow rate etc, all these kinetic parameters
must be the same which goes into the probe or the nozzle which is in the entire stack, so
that is the isokinetic fundamental thing which we should ensure.

1688
(Refer Slide Time: 4:09)

If we look into the apparatus or equipment which is used for this stack emission monitoring
then basically it is like panel box, on front side you can see the pressure, the measurement
of the pressure difference and the flow rate etc, on the back side we have out and inlet or
those where we will put those probes you can say and then these pilot tubes which are used
for guiding the probes etc, thermocouples are also there, then impinger tubes are needed
for gaseous components basically so that we can have the knowledge about how much NOx
or SOx are there, then vacuum pump is there for extraction, this is the sampling probe
which is inserted in the stack basically.

1689
(Refer Slide Time: 4:56)

So, you can see there are other parts like filter paper or thimble which is known, then the
thimble holder, nozzle is also there, then heated filler box, stopwatch is there and other
parts of this equipment which are shown in CPCB manual basically you can go through
that to learn more.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:13)

Then there are important aspects like location of sampling, the sample which is collected
so that sample for particulate concentration shall be done where velocity measurement

1690
were carried out basically, that particular point is very important. The nozzle size is selected
so that we can provide this meter sampling rate between 40 to 60 liter per minute, so that
kind of nozzle size must be there, calculation of proper sampling rate is also very important
which is done with the help of like gas meter for each sampling point before starting the
test.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:50)

So, this is the calculation procedure for sampling rate basically where there are different
parameters like flow rate, then the sampling rate, absolute gas temperature, absolute
temperature of the metering conditions, then barometer pressure all these parameters are
noted and we use those parameters here in this particular equation to calculate the sampling
rate.

𝑇𝑚 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑅𝑠 × × ×
𝑇𝑠 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 − 𝑃𝑚 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑠

1691
(Refer Slide Time: 6:12)

And if we talk about the sampling procedure basically so the two streams are there, one is
like giving the temperature related, velocity related values, other one is giving us where
this particulate matter will be collected, so the two streams you can look into in this
procedure.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:34)

So, the sample is recovered when we have done the sampling so we need to collect that
filter paper basically and we have to make sure that there is no addition of the particulate

1692
matter from outside, so we need to keep it in a proper way and then the mass of the dust
collected on this filter paper or thimble is to be weight basically and it should be kept in
oven about 2 hours at 120 degree Celsius to remove any kind of error which could be
because of some moisture etc, so the before and after the sampling the way is taken and
then the difference as in this high volume sampler case we have already seen, how the
difference of these two values gives us the concentration.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:12)

Well, so when we calculate the volume of the gas which has been sampled basically, so we
need this particular relationship where pressure difference is there, volume of the gas
sample at dry gas meter conditions and the temperature etc, so that correction can be
applied according to their unit and then this gives the value of gas sample basically.

𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 − 𝑃𝑚 273 + 25°𝐶

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 𝑉𝑚 × 𝑌 × ×
760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 𝑇𝑚 + 273

1693
(Refer Slide Time: 7:45)

This value is used for like to divide this weight difference and it will give the concentration,
concentration means weight divided by the volume flow rate, so this equation can be used
for that purpose.

(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )𝑚 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝐸𝑀 = × 1000
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑑

(Refer Slide Time: 8:00)

1694
Then if you want to calculate the dust emission rate then we have to multiply it with the
flow rate Qs, so that can give the emission rate.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:09)

So, we know the concentration as well as the emission rate and if you want to use this
particular device for monitoring the gaseous pollutant that is also possible by using some
impingers, so for SO2 or NOx. So, for SO2 we have given some information so that gas
sampling is done through extraction from the sampling point where we are using the probe
in the stack basically, so in this case of SO2 sulphuric acid mist including the sulphur
trioxide and the sulphur dioxide are separated so that there is no error, the SO2 fraction is
measured by the barium-thorium titration method.

1695
(Refer Slide Time: 8:48)

And there are reagents which are used for this particular purpose and deionized distilled
water, then isopropanol, then hydrogen peroxide, 3 percent all these stuff is being used for
that calculation and sampling method.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:06)

Then the procedure is shown in this particular figure, a schematic diagram you can see
here, so the sample is collected and then sample is recovered and then it is analyzed in the

1696
laboratory. So, here you collect the sample it goes through these impingers and it is
absorbed and then it is taken to the lab.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:22)

Calculation is done in this case also as we have done particulate matter, so this is the, these
are the temperature, then the volume and this calibration factor, pressure related factor all
these parameters are to be used for gas volume calculation.

𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟

𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑌 [ ][ ] = 𝐾1 𝑌 𝑉𝑚 [ ]
𝑇𝑚 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑃𝑚

(Refer Slide Time: 9:41)

1697
Then the concentration, so concentration is to be calculated by this particular relationship
where volume of barium standard titrant used for the sample is used and similarly for the
blank is used so that difference can be noted and other the like dry volume, volume of the
sample this kind of values are to be used for this particular relationship.

𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑁 [ ]
𝑉𝑎
𝐶𝑆𝑂2 = 𝐾2 (𝑉𝑡 − 𝑉𝑡ℎ ) ×
𝑉𝑚,𝑠𝑡𝑑

(Refer Slide Time: 10:02)

1698
Also the quality control is important as we have seen in each experiment we have to follow
the strict guidelines or those mandatory procedure or protocol so that quality is ensured,
otherwise the monitoring values can be different, and calculation may also be different than
what is the real one.

So now we present a short video which will give you better perspective about how the
sampling of gaseous components or particulate matter is to be done using the isokinetic
sampling method and this video has been recorded in air pollution laboratory of civil
engineering department IIT Roorkee, so enjoy the video please.

(Video Being Played)

(Refer Slide Time: 10:40)

1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
Good morning friends, I welcome you in another experiment of our subject air pollution
and control and in today's experiment I am going to explain you the method of sampling
of emissions which are coming out from the stacks and that is called as the stack monitoring
and for that we use the stack monitor and stack monitoring is generally used when we are
going into the power plants or industries and the emissions which are coming out from the
height of the different height of the stacks.

So, from those stacks through which the emissions are coming out we measure the how
much of the particulate and polluting gases are there which are coming out from the
emissions of these stacks. So, this is the experimental setup that we use for measurement
of emissions from the stacks and first of all I will explain you the different component of
this device.

So, basically like we have seen in our previous experiments also, like we have to suck the
ambient air to measure the pollutants or particular matter inside it, so here also we need to
have a suction device. So, here you can see this is the stack monitor and to suck the ambient
air we have here a vacuum pump which is connected through this hose and it is attached at
this point, so when we start this vacuum pump it sucks the air through this instrument, so
this is the suction pump part and this stack monitor is having the different components.

1706
So first of all I will tell you this is the thermocouple sampler and this long road is there so
the purpose of this road is like when we are going to measure the temperature inside the
stack we have to insert this probe into the stack through the sampling port and this probe
or thermocouple is connected through this pipe at this point, so this is the thermocouple for
measurement of temperature inside the stack as well as ambient air.

Another component of this instrument is your pitot tube this is called as S type of pitot tube
and the purpose of this pitot tube is to measure the velocity and the fundamental principle
or the physics which are used in this sampling is called as isokinetic sampling, what is the
isokinetic?

Basically like when we are sampling the emissions through the stack whatever the velocity
of the emissions which are coming from the stack or coming out from the stack the same
velocity should be maintained when we are sampling the sample through this probe of the
pitot tube, if the velocity is different then it will not be isokinetic sampling.

So, in order to maintain uh the constant velocity or the isokinetic sampling so that like
velocity which are coming out from the stack and which is passing through this of the gas
should have a constant value or it is the same value so we have this rotameter here through
which we can regulate, so this is your pitot tube for measurement of the velocity of the
stack emission and it has a long probe, so we just insert it through the port wherever we
are doing the sampling in the stack and it has a two pipes here and which are connected
here in the stack sampler.

So, what is the purpose of this two pipe? When we are keeping this pitot tube like this then
if from bottom to up it is the gas which is coming out then it has a two probe so there will
be some difference in the pressure, like coming the velocity of the gas which is coming up
here it will be higher and here it will be lower, so the difference of these two will be here
and using this fundamental equation of the pitot tube we will be able to measure the velocity
because by using the pressure drop. So, this is the purpose of the pitot tube to measure the
velocity in the stack.

1707
So, until now I have tell you the temperature through the temperature probe or
thermocouple using which we can measure the temperature inside the stack as well as
outside and through the pitot tube we are able to measure the velocity of the stack
emissions.

So, now as I said like we need to maintain the isokinetic sampling, now how do we do this
and in order to do this like we have to have a rotameters, so here you can see in this device
we have a rotameter, two rotameter, one is corresponding to the SPM and one is
corresponding to gas, the purpose of saying this for SPM like when we are doing the
sampling for SPM or suspended particular matter then we maintain the flow rate through
this and when we are measuring the gases only then we control the flow rate through this.

Now, how what is the purpose of controlling? The purpose of controlling is like when we
are measuring the velocity through the pitot tube we can use the formula and estimate the
velocity and then we can calculate the flow rate, now that flow rate if we are able to control
through the suction pump and through regulating here then by regulating that flow rate we
will be able to maintain a constant velocity and therefore this will ensure the isokinetic
condition of sampling.

And so this is the purpose of these two rotameters and here we have another opening and
the purpose of this opening is like when we are doing for the sampling of particles along
with gas then we use this probe, actually this probe is having at the front a filter assembly
through which when the stack emissions is coming and it is passing through the filter, so
whatever the dust particle or suspended particles that will be collected inside the filter and
only gas will be allowed to pass, so this probe is used when we are doing sampling of SPM
also.

And this probe will be connected at this point, so for measurement of stack temperature we
use the probe and when we also use this switch, so when this switch is on for the stack
temperature, the temperature of stack will be recorded and when we are using this switch
to switch up so that the ambient temperature will be recorded from here, so this is how
using this switch we can measure the stack temperature as well as the ambient temperature.

1708
Professor: So, on this basis we can calculate all those parameters whether particulate matter
or SO2 you know the procedure sampling as well as calculation.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:29)

So, in conclusion we can say that these kind of methodologies or instruments can be used
for measurement of gaseous and particulate pollution which is emitting out of a particular
stack and those values are very much required because there are norms how much pollution
emission standards are there which has to be met, so we can compare with the help of those
particular monitoring data, those monitoring data are also used for dispersion modeling
purpose, health risk assessment, etc.

So, stack monitoring is very important activity and environmental engineers they should
know the methodology how to do stack monitoring, so this is the explanation about the
stack sampling, stack emission sampling and the calculation. I hope you have enjoyed this
so thank you for your kind attention.

1709
(Refer Slide Time: 18:15)

And these are the references where we have taken matter and thanks again and see you in
the next lecture.

1710
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 59
Indoor Air Quality Assessment Using Multi Gas Monitor
Hello friends. So, these days we are discussing about practical aspects or laboratory based
measurements of air quality. So, we have already discussed how to measure PM10, PM2.5 even
how to carry out stack mon itoring, today we will see how to assess the indoor air quality using
multi gas monitor because nowadays, indoor air quality is as important as ambient air quality
because most of the time we work in the indoors and especially during corona period everyone
was housed in their premises and inside their houses, whatever environment was there. So,
micro environments air quality has also affected our health issues or other issues.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:14)

So, if we talk about indoor air quality and assessment of indoor air quality using multi gas
monitor, then we will look into the introductory part then what are the equipment or apparatus
which are used for indoor air quality assessment. Then, like this is particularly based on probe,
sensor based measurements.

So, we will discuss about the probe also and how to carry out monitoring then how to maintain
the probe so that there is no error in the measurements, what is the procedure we follow, then
how to control the quality or how to asssure the quality. Then we will see the video to operate
this multi gas monitor and lastly we will conclude.

1711
(Refer Slide Time: 1:54)

So, as you know indoor air quality is very important because there are several sources inside
the micro environments where we live and they can contribute to deterioration of air quality
which we are surrounded with and they can also cause certain health issues or they can affect
our comfort level. So, we should monitor the indoor air quality also.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:16)

Well if we use the multi gas monitor, so, multi gas monitor is basically sensor based monitor
of different gases and it can monitor five parameters like temperature or percent relative
humidity then the dew point or carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. But there are some
advanced probes also which can also monitor additional three compounds like VOCs volatile

1712
organic compound, ozone and hydrogen sulphide. So, these three can be added. So, total eight
parameters can be measured by multi gas monitor.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:56)

Well when we talk about the equipment means different parts or components of the instrument
then we can see here one is probe and then this is handheld personal computer HPC and adapter
is there so that you can directly use with AC otherwise batteries we can use for running this
probe based monitoring. So, this is the sensor based monitoring equipments and this is IQ 410
probe which is used for the direct sense of hundred. It is known as per their parameters
handling.

Then AC adapter is there as we have seen and then software this is the software which comes
with the instrument basically this is WolfSense 2018 version and then Microsoft
synchronization software is also needed the along with the probe software basically so that we
can transfer data and we can deal with the data analysis.

1713
(Refer Slide Time: 3:57)

So, if we talk about how to use this probe or sensor based equipment, so anywhere indoor
environment, you can take this probe and keep there for certain time. So, it has certain reactions
and then it can give the reading of those particular components whether it is gasconcentration
or humidity or temperature etc plus it can record the data into this HPC handheld personal
computer.

So, from there we can transfer to the desktop computer and we keep this probe for certain
period because otherwise there is a variation in the reading and consequently we can take three
or four readings and then we can take the average of it.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:40)

1714
Then, how to maintain or what is the requirement of the maintenance of the probe so that it
gives better reading or reliable reading and does not give us the erroneous readings. First of all,
we need to store those probes or sensors in a cool, dry and dust free environment the
temperature should be less than around 21 degrees Celsius, 21.11 or so.

Then if the probe is being stored for an extended period then we should remove the batteries
otherwise it can damage its functioning. If the probe gets dirty then we have to clean it, but it
should be cleaned by damp wet cloth only, it should not be attempted to clean from the inside
otherwise it may get damaged. So, better give it to the manufacturer or their agents they can
clean it properly following the proper protocol and they can give it back to you otherwise, just
clean from outside using damp wet cloth.

Also we need to avoid operating this sensor in direct sunlight because otherwise it will
influence the relative humidity reading those measurements may be very erratic in that case
and we should not immerse this probe into water otherwise it will be damaged and if there is
some condensation formation, then on the CO2 sensor especially, the readings may be very
erratic it may give different readings of the temperature as well as those sensor based readings.

So, we need to keep it safe basically, and we should not also drop it, it should not be come
across some vibrations otherwise, some damage maybe. So should keep it very safely otherwise
readings may not be reliable.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:25)

Well, so, how to do the monitoring basically like carbon dioxide and we know that carbon
dioxide absorbs light at a very specific wavelength, where other gases do not absorb in that

1715
particular wavelength. So, the CO2 measurement is based on non-dispersive infrared
spectroscopy in this particular equipment, but on the other hand like carbon monoxide, so, the
diffusing of the carbon monoxide in to this electrochemical sensor is either oxidized or reduced
like using that the sensing electrodes and then it can coupled with the corresponding outer
reaction at the other electrode.

So, a current is generated basically at the two ends. So, according to that current generation
and flow the proportional amount is the carbon monoxide concentration. So, that relationship
is there and the sensor gives the reading based on that particular activity.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:23)

If we talk about like percent relative humidity, so, it is measured by either absorption or
desorption methodology of the moisture by a thin polymeric film. So, the relative humidity
changes the, this dielectric property of the film also changes. So, according the variation comes
in concentration are measured. For temperature basically we use the platinum element which
is quite robust to give readings about the temperature. So, this is the way different parameters
are used.

1716
(Refer Slide Time: 7:56)

1717
Then we need to take this data to this HPC it goes through software and from HPC to the
desktop computer and if you look into this procedure, like the software gives different kinds of
Windows. So, for example, it gives this toolbar button toolbar button and the pull down button
also. So, this has different kinds of buttons where we can play with it to know what kind of
parameters we are dealing with like pull down button, this pulldown menu has like file, view,
probe similar to MS Office software as you know like Windows Excel etc.

So, file can be used for management of different files to open it or to export the file in terms of
Excel or Word or whatever we need and whatever it applies to then view give the readings
details and a statistics of those data which we have collected and probe gives like whether it is
active or it needs to be calibrated. So, the probe button is used for that particular purpose.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:06)

Then log button is there to set up how readings will be logged into, snapshots can be taken by
manually or like that, then help button is there which can give you different topics, frequently
asked topics plus email if we have certain queries we can email. So, those kinds of facilities
are there.

1718
(Refer Slide Time: 9:25)

Toolbar button says like log, stop, snapshot, all these buttons so, this log is to start the time log
previously which has been stored and then Stop button is to stop the that functioning or the
reading, snapshot can be taken manually and all button gives all measurement data related to
parameters which can be seen. So all these statistics, notebook, locations, they have their own
functioning which we can look into.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:55)

Then this live mode operation is there and through serial port adapter we use either using AC
current or battery operation is also possible. Then we can use the tap on View button readings
and those units can also be changed depending upon what kind of unit we are needing the
values into.

1719
(Refer Slide Time: 10:20)

Then if we log into this mode operation basically then we can select the parameters according
to the need, and we can also ensure which interval we need to have like per minute or 15 minute
those kinds of default values 15 minutes, so, that kind of most of the cases we use 15 minutes
otherwise we can change it for per minute or depending upon the need of the data.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:44)

Well, so, this is the way this log data appears in column form. And ultimately, it can, go to the
Excel sheet basically.

1720
(Refer Slide Time: 10:53)

So, the data transfer takes place when we connect it with the desktop PC, and then this popup
menu is there to transfer the data and the data is transferred then it can be opened in Excel sheet
or different kind of software basically. So, you can see these are the possibilities transfer all if
we transfer all the data which are stored there or transfers site specific data. So, those kinds of
facilities are there.

1721
(Refer Slide Time: 11:20)

Well, we need to do quality control as I said, because certain protocol has to be followed and
calibration is very important, otherwise erroneous data will be collected, sensors are very
sensitive. So, we need to calibrate them periodically. For example, 12 months for this relative
humidity sensor needs that every 12 month it should be calibrated and CO or CO2 sensors, they
need to be calibrated every six months, but better if you can calibrate more frequently, but these
are the minimum time period.

Similarly, temperature sensor needs to be calibrated every two years it is more robust, but
annual calibration is recommended basically. So, now, we present a short video for you to give
you a feeling that how this indoor air quality assessment is carried out by multi gas monitor
and this video has been recorded in air pollution laboratory of Civil Engineering Department
of IIT Roorkee. So, enjoy the video please.

1722
(Refer Slide Time: 12:24)

Good afternoon everyone and in the series of this lab based measurement lectures. So, our next
experiment is the monitoring of indoor air pollutants using the multi gas monitor. So, for that
we are using this probe which is being provided by the GrayWolf. So, in this particular probe,
the sensors are there from which we are measuring the indoor air pollutants or gases we are
which are for example volatile organic compounds ozone, hydrogen sulphide and carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:58)

1723
So, this probe is attached with this tablet. So, in this tablet a software has been installed in this
tablet from which we are able to monitor the indoor air pollutants at various locations. So, what
we need to do, we simply need to just attach this probe in this particular tablet and at any
locations.

So, in a particular indoor environment if where you are able to measure the gases for example
the ventilation corner or the corner of the room or office or lab in that particular sense, we
simply need to for example, I need to measure this at here. So you simply need to place here
and it will stabilize and we will be getting the readings. So, next I will tell you how we are
taking the readings in this particular software.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:52)

1724
This is the tablet which is being provided by the gravels and particle software installed you can
see WolfSense 2018 lab and WolfSense PC. So these two software has been provided by the
gravels company and they are being installed in this tablet. So now we will connect the probe
with this tablet using this USB cable.

So now I have connected now what next we have to do we have to open the first application
that is WolfSense 2018 lab. You can see this the similar like what we are using in the Windows
laptop, the user interface is same.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:30)

1725
So this is the software of WolfSense where we will be observing the readings of different types
of gases. And as I have connected this probe, it takes little time to detect the probe. So after the
probe has been detected, it takes us some more times to get the probe to stabilize. Here you can
see a small message is being showing there that this probe is stabilizing.

So after the probe gets stabilize we can see the different types of reading are there for different
gases, here we are seeing the different types of gases and parameters are being shown here, that
is total volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, ozone, H2S, CO, and having some
particular units.

Now I will explain the different types of toolbars which is being shown in this user interface.
So, in the upper side you can see this file, log. Probe and view. So, this is known as the pulldown
menu. So, in the file in the file, you can see there are a number of options available you can

1726
open the documents, you can take down the notes of this particular experiment which you are
performing or else you can open the previous documents which you have earlier performed for
and edit documents and carry on your particular experiments.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:52)

And next, next is the log. Here we are, in this particular menu, we are we are filing the
experiment if I click so after clicking on the Start log, you can see you are having the three
options that is snap, trend and auto. Snap mode is for generally your if you are getting the
instant reading, trend mode is for giving the particular time interval. So, and auto mode is the
same, the difference between trend and auto mode is that in trend mode user has to stop the
readings and auto mode user can define the particular time of readings.

1727
(Refer Slide Time: 16:32)

1728
Next is the probe, in probe you can select the different parameters, you can see we have selected
total volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide, ozone, hydrogen sulfide and also you can
select the dew point and all from this particular parameters menu.

Also you can change the units for different type of compounds, different types of units are
being available in this software, so you can change according to your requirements. Then, other
options, we will have in the probe manual like calibration of the device, you can calibrate the
device for different kinds of pollutants.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:20)

And next menu is the view. View is the way we are using the live readings of the gases. So,
live readings have been available. And next you can also select the parameters, which I have
already shown in the probe. Next, you can see the graph, sensor tips, notes minimum,
maximum, average. So, these types of features are available, where you can visualize your
readings and take down the notes and also you can see what is the minimum maximum average
of your readings.

1729
(Refer Slide Time: 17:58)

So next is the, this downside Menu, it is also known as the toolbar. So toolbar, we can see the
live readings, you can see the logs, you can see review, the log is the same which I have
explained in the tool of this pulldown menu and then there is a review. So review, you can see
the earlier recorded experiments you can visualize here.

And next is the graph, notes, photos, minimum, average and audio. So, graph will be showing
graph of your experiments with which you are performing you can take down some notes or
else photo is also there you can take down the photo of a particular site and minimum,
maximum average which I have already explained. And next is the audio, audio mode is also
available.

1730
If you want to just add a voice note for a particular experiment then you can use this audio
note. So in this process in this manner here you can just monitor the different types of gases in
the indoor air environment using this multi gas monitor, which has been connected with this
PC. So, this is the complete kit for measuring the indoor air pollutants using multi gas monitor
provided by Graywolf. Thank you

(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

Well, so, on the basis of this video, you can easily visualize how this instrument function and
what are the ways to transfer the data and other issues. So, in conclusion, we can say that indoor
environment gas concentration in the micro environments where we are living because VOC
concentration maybe the CO2 concentration maybe built up because of so many activities in
the indoor environment.

1731
So they can be monitored by this multi gas monitor and sensor based monitoring is there and
if we carry out proper monitoring and analysis then we can compare with the recommended
values whether it is fine or not. And accordingly we can recommend some solutions if
concentration is higher. So this is all for today thank you for your kind attention. These are the
references we have taken information from. And you can go through them if you want to know
more information. So thanks again and see you in the next lecture.

1732
 Air Pollution and Control
Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 60
Sampling and Analysing of Particulate Matter (PM10 & PM2.5) using Spectrometer
Hello friends, you may recall we discussed about gravimetric methodology to do the sampling
or monitoring of like PM10 and PM2.5 using the high-volume sampler, we can also do sampling
and analysis of particulate matter especially PM10, PM2.5 even less than PM2.5 like PM1 using
spectrometer-based instruments basically. So, this methodology today we will discuss and this
is the last lecture of this particular course.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:59)

So, first of all, we will discuss briefly about the introduction, why particulate matter are so
important, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM10 and PM2.5, what is the
principle of the method of a spectrometer and which kind of equipments are used and how
measurements are carried out. Then, the software which is used for this purpose, so how it is
used and how does it help in analysis of the data, then the lab-based video we will screen and
we will conclude.

1733
(Refer Slide Time: 01:23)

So, as this primary air pollutant particulate matter is very important because of its effect on the
environment as well as on the health and these fine particles they can go to the respiratory
system and they can cause several kinds of health issues basically. So, ultra-fine particles are
also very important like PM1 and less and they can also be measured but in this presentation
we will discuss about only PM10 and PM2.5. But using the spectrometer I repeat that even PM1
and less than PM1 can be measured basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:00)

So, this PM10 and PM2.5 air quality standards, National Ambient Air Quality Standards are there
like annual 24 hours. So, for those like industrial residential areas or ecologically sensitive
areas values are same, like annual concentration of PM10 is 60 in both cases, 24 hours

1734
concentration is 100 in both cases. Similarly, for PM2.5 annual concentration is 40. So, this
should not exceed if we go on getting exposed throughout year and 60 is the 24-hour maximum
concentration it should not violate or it should not exceed at a particular location for PM2.5.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:45)

If we talk about the spectrometer based instrument, so basically we have used this GRIMM
instrument which houses many these parts or components like EDM, this field housing where
the instrument can be put in, then this is the dust monitor, which monitor the particulate matter
and you can see like there is a connecting cable and then there is a filter paper with a small size
which is put into this instrument and data storage that memory card is there and this is the
battery which is used if there is no current available, power available there.

1735
(Refer Slide Time: 03:25)

Then if we look into dust monitor, so the front panel houses this LCD panel as well as the
keypad here, then this is the slot for data storage that particular card, then sample inlet is there
at four number where air inflows and analogue input 5 number, 6 is connecting with the main
adapter. And then interface port is the 7 number which can be used for connecting with the like
desktop computer.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:55)

Back panel has a space for this putting filter paper and then there are different like for cable
and other outlet is also there. So, all these parts are on the backside of the instrument.

1736
(Refer Slide Time: 04:11)

And the basic principle is which is used for this spectrometer they use the light scattering by
the single particle. So, each particle that is why this instrument gives not only the mass
concentration, but count also, count means number of the particles. So, count is also available
in this particular spectrometer. So, this is the way light scattering is there and the light scattering
is detected by some method which we can discuss here, detector is there.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:44)

So, at the 90 degree the laser past so, when it strikes with the particle it scatters the light and
then through mirror it is reflected and detector detects it and then that is monitored or that is
stored accordingly the number of particles and then the mass concentration can also be
monitored.

1737
(Refer Slide Time: 05:03)

When we do the monitoring. So, basically the filter paper we should particularly be careful
about how to put it so remove using these tweezers the old one and then clean it very properly
and then put a new filter paper and it has to be weighed also 3 times so, that because it is small,
so the average weight is taken after weighing it for 3 times and then monitoring is to be done.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:31)

1738
When data is taken into the desktop and data as I said, it can be like particle per litre count
means how many particles are there in per litre, or microgram per cubic metre, the mass
concentration can also be there. So, this is the way data is transferred to the laptop or desktop
and the software is there its own software is there which gives us different buttons like we can
select the port, the time interval, all those things can be set to start the monitoring.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:05)

So, you can see here the scan ports are selected, then it can automatically take which particular
port it is using otherwise manually we can give the name of this particular port and this is the
device which can give the display of this particular port related information.

1739
(Refer Slide Time: 06:19)

Then time interval can be set like from 6 seconds to 1-hour huge range is there. So, depending
upon the necessity, we can select how much at the what time interval we need data to be stored
like 5 minutes each or each 10 minutes or something like that. So, there is one need of
synchronise of the device time with the PC time so that there is no error of the time recording.
So, every 3 months they should be basically synchronised otherwise, if a site is changing, time
zone is changing particularly in time zone then you can synchronise it more frequently.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:00)

Then if we took into this user settings, you can see how this is taken all these parameters and
headers are there and spreadsheet files are created basically like Excel etc. So, that data analysis
is very easy.

1740
(Refer Slide Time: 07:17)

Now, this is the button when we start monitoring. So, the start device button is to be clicked
and then this instrument starts functioning and recording the data.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:27)

Well after that when monitoring is complete, then a stop device button can be pressed and data
is stored and then data can be taken whatever time interval we have selected and it can be
transferred to the PC.

1741
(Refer Slide Time: 07:41)

So, this is the way data is collected basically different columns are there and then whether it is
count or whether it is mass concentration, we can select according to the requirement.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:53)

We can analyse the data at per like time interval like particulate matter and mass concentration
or count. So, we can analyse and see how data is varying from time to time.

1742
(Refer Slide Time: 08:08)

So, these are the software of the spectrometer, which we are using. So, control software is there
which can give different kinds of possibilities and as per the site where we have monitored data
is transferred to the particular file and then it is analysed later on.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:26)

So, here we present the short video illustrating the sampling and analysis of particulate matter
especially PM10 and PM2.5 using a spectrometer. So, now you can compare the high-volume
sampler and a spectrometer, how do they function, what is their difference in the procedures
and whether one is robust or second is robust, and the possibilities the range like it can also
give PM1 etc and this video has been recorded in air pollution laboratory of Civil Engineering

1743
Department in IIT Roorkee. So, enjoy the video and learn about the PM10 and PM2.5 monitoring
using spectrometer.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:32)

Narrator: Good afternoon everyone. And I welcome you all in this lab-based series of this
lecture for NPTEL. And this is the last lecture in the lab base measurements. And today we
will be discussing on the sampling analysis of PM10, PM2.5, PM1 using the GRIMM model.

And for that we will be using this apparatus that is the GRIMM EDM, EDM 164 that is
Environmental Dust Monitor and in that it is the field housing and this is the spectrometer and
this is the memory card which has been inserted in the spectrometer. So, let me just give you a
quick intro of this, the parts of this field housing and the spectrometer so as you can see this
field housing here we are placing the spectrometer right now.

1744
(Refer Slide Time: 09:58)

So, this is the spectrometer and this is the front panel of the spectrometer, here you can see this
LCD screen where we are seeing the readings of all the PM10 PM2.5 all the particles and these
are the control buttons, where we are using these buttons we are controlling this spectrometer
and this is the sample inlet. So, in this sample inlet this sampling pipe is being fitted in this
spectrometer and this spectrometer is being placed in this field housing.

1745
(Refer Slide Time: 10:35)

Let me just give you the intro of this back panel, in back panel you can see that lock is there,
if you open this lock there is a PTFE filter. So, this PTFE filter this let me tell you this
spectrometer or EDM 164 can monitor or sample the PM10, PM2.5 using the two modes that is
by the optical particle counter and by the gravimetric.

So, optical particle counter can be attained using the spectrometer and also using the
gravimetric analysis you can weigh this PTFE filter and you can just analyse or sample the
PM2.5 sample. So, after this taking the readings you can weigh this PTFE filter before the
sampling and after the sampling then you can analyse the PM2.5 particles.

So, you can see we are placing the PTFE filter using these forceps and it is so placed that all
the four points I hope you are able to see these four points this 1, 2, 3, 4 actually it is placed

1746
this PTFE filter is placed this side, so it is so placed there like that these four points so that is
1, 2, 3, 4 these four points should be visible. So, after placing this filter we have to play close
this panel. So, after this closing the panel and assembling that this PTFE filter your
spectrometer is ready to be placed in the field housing.

So, let me just place this spectrophotometer and one more thing that is this spectrophotometer
will be attached with the system and software is provided for monitoring the particles and this
software is also provided by the GRIMM model and this system and this spectrometer is
attached using this RS 232 cable.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:40)

1747
So, let me just attach all the things, so as you can see that the spectrometer is fitted in this field
housing and it is connected with this system using this RS 232 cable and the field this sample
pipe that is placed in this sample inlet that the port where I have shown earlier, so let me just
on the system.

So, as soon as I on the system I hope you are able to see that right now if not I will just let me
just tell you as you are on the system you will be seeing the model name first and then the date
and time we are displayed in this LCD screen and then thereafter the available memory that
how much duration you can go for measurement on analysis that is being displayed and after
that it will ask you to this have you change the filter or not.

So, in response you have to just press this plus button in the spectrometer for a few seconds.
So, after hearing this beep sound the spectrometer will go for self-test and the self-test is for
30 seconds and after self-test it will start measuring the particles and it will be showing the
counts per litre in this spectrometer the units are in it is in counts per meter. I hope you can see
right now, it has being starting, I have received a signal like self-test is okay. So, after receiving
the signal of self-test is, you can see that a PM10 and PM2.5 these two particles are being
displayed in this spectrometer.

So, now spectrometer is started now we need to configure the spectrometer according to our
requirements and for that we have to go for conferring the spectrometer using the system. So,
this is the software which is provided by the GRIMM. So, let me just give you the hands on
how to measure or monitor the PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 samples using this software.

1748
(Refer Slide Time: 15:32)

1749
So, this is the software provided by the GRIMM as you can see this is the UI of the software
and here you can see different kinds of options are available this is, first is the control panel
next is to overview so, as soon as I connect the software then it will be showing other options
as well.

So, here you can see you have to first select the ports or you have to scan the ports, if you know
already the port is there, then you can directly or manually select the port right now I am
clicking on this scan port, as you can see, it is detected the COM 3 port that is the GRIMM port
so the port is already selected. So, now you have to simply click on this connection to device
so while connecting with this software and the code you will be hearing some sounds from the
spectrometer as well. So, I have got the message that device has connected.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:21)

So, simply you have to click on exit now you can see it is searching for some analogue sensors
and reading the data it will take a while, so the port is now selected that is COM3 and you can
see the model and serial number is all the details are there.

1750
(Refer Slide Time: 16:40)

Next step is to decide the time interval. So, as you can see, the time interval is shown is you
have to set the time interval. So, the range varies from 6 seconds to 60 minutes or you can say
1 hour. So right now, I am selecting the 6 seconds and as per the requirements you can select
any of the options available right now I am selecting 6 seconds and I am clicking on the
initialise, that the time interval has been set, now I simply click on exit.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:06)

Now, you have to sync the time of this spectrometer or you can say the optical particle counter,
you have to sync the time with your PC time. So, you can see that you can see the option that
is to get the current PC time and OPC time is the Optical Particle Count time. So, that will sync
the PC time with your Optical Particle Count OPC time. Here I have got the message time on

1751
OPC is synchronised with your PC time. So, the date and time which were we were seeing in
the spectrometer that is now synced with your PC time. Now, I am clicking on exit.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:32)

Now, next step is the user setting. So, here we are giving the details of the output file. Right
now, this is test 8, for example, I am just giving the name as test 10, so you can see all the
relevant files, the mass file, the count files, the dM files and the log files all are being set up
accordingly. And also, you can add the details like comments. So meanwhile, I have just set
that normal conditions. And I have added the user name, as my name is Anurag and also
location. So, right now, we are just taking the readings on air pollution lab at IIT Roorkee. So,
I have selected that location, I will click on OK.

1752
(Refer Slide Time: 18:18)

1753
Now, by defining the user setting now you can start the device message is being displayed in
the bottom you can see measurement is in progress. So, yes you can see the measurement is
now being started and in this port telegram, in this window you will be able to see as soon as
the reading has been started. So right now it is preparing to start the taking the readings there
it will take a while. So, the next message you can see this data storage in progress.

So, as soon as it starts taking the reading, you will be hearing a sound for a spectrometer and
all the other options like control, overview, and distribution table. Now, you can see that all the
options are now available, you can toggle with all the tabs. So, let me just give you an idea of
all the tabs.

1754
(Refer Slide Time: 19:05)

1755
1756
So, control tab we already discussed. The next tab is the overview tab. So, in overview tab, you
can see all the details of your readings counts like what are the particles which are less than 1
micrometre what are the particles which are greater than 1 micrometre and total count of the
particles total suspended particles PM10, PM2.5, PM1 and other particles like it is classified as
inhalable, thoracic and Alveolic. So, all the particles like the details of the particle as shown
here as an overview, in this particular time.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:45)

So, coming to the next step that is distribution. In distribution tab you can see a log table is
being shown. So, in this first table, that is the log table. You can see the X axis you can see the
particle diameter or particle sizes and in Y axis, you can see the this microgram (())(20:04).

(Refer Slide Time: 20:04)

1757
And in this you can see the area divided by this volume of the air being sucked by this sample
pipe and in first tab you will be able to see the counts per litre.

1758
(Refer Slide Time: 20:18)

So, this log graph is being shown in distribution tab, in the next tab you can see the live reading
you can be able to observe that it every 6 seconds that is the what interval we have decided at
every 6 seconds it is showing the readings of all the particles.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:38)

And in the first tab you can see the counts per litre in the next tab you can we will be able to
see the PM10, PM2.5, PM1 and other particles that is the indoor air quality you can say. So, in
this here you will be able to see in microgram per metre cube the unit.

1759
(Refer Slide Time: 20:53)

And coming to the next one now this is the graphical presentation of we were seeing earlier
that is in tabular form and this is the graphical form.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:01)

1760
That is count per unit of mass is being seen and this one is particulate matter and next one is
IAQ. So, in particulate matter this PM10, PM2.5, PM1 are being shown in this indoor air quality
this Inhalable, Thoracic, Alveolic, so these are related to this particle is related to the size
ranging from according to these organs present in the lungs. So, according to the size of
whichever be the sizes like in Alveolic part there is some size ranges and according to that this
measurement is being done. So, that particular part is called as Alveolic.

1761
(Refer Slide Time: 21:40)

In next step, that is the statistics, you can see the values which we are measuring and then all
the again the units are there that is counts per litre and microgram per metre cube. So, you can
calculate the stats using this particular time.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:56)

And also, you can plot the graph now, this showing the stats of this particular measurement.
So, boxplot or whisker plot you can say, and at 5 percent confidence interval at 95 percent they
are being plotted. So, you can see the PM10, PM2.5, PM1 are being plotted. So, in this whisker
plot you can see this lower part is the lowest range, the bottom part and this particular line
shows the uppermost range and this box, this box shows the interval, confidence interval of 5
percent and 95 percent that is being shown and that this line shows the median, median of the

1762
readings and the values you can observe in this particular window. So, after this what we are
going to do, you can also save all the graphics or all the graph right now, it any particular
instant.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:52)

So, this is all about the, this line monitoring real time monitoring. So, now we have to save the
data. So, for saving data you have to first stop the device. So, after stopping the device, what
do we have saved that I hope you are remembering that we have saved by using the name test
10 that is being saved. So, the question arises from this like for going for a field condition we
cannot take our system and for example, if we want to monitor the particles, for 8 hours or 24
hours or maybe any of the requirements.

1763
So, in that case, what we are doing, we are simply connecting the device and initialising data
using the software. So, after initialising the software starting the device, we can disconnect the
cable, this device will still be working and the data will be stored in the memory card. So,
sampling time is completed for example, we are taking the reading for 8 hours. So, after starting
the device and after completion, you can simply turn off the spectrometer using this on off
button that is already in the inner spectrometer. So, using that button you can simply off the
device.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:18)

And now to extract what data has been saved you can simply click on the external memory.
So, it will ask that whether the data has been saved in SD card or that card that is known as
SRAM card or PCMCIA card.

1764
(Refer Slide Time: 24:32)

So, right now, I am clicking on SRAM card. So, again that particular COM port has been
selected. Now, you have to go for read memory card after clicking on read memory card it will
read the card data it will take a while the data will be downloaded one more information about
data if you are going for fresh reading. I would recommend that clear the memory card for
going for fresh reading so that the previous reading should not be altered, you can see memory
card is being downloaded.

1765
(Refer Slide Time: 25:03)

So, after this data has been downloaded that data can be converted into spreadsheet format
using these options, so as soon as I click on data convert to spreadsheet format, this particular
window opens and you can see the whichever data we have recorded, right now that you can
select the data using this toggle keys that is present here. So right now, I am selecting the fourth
one, and you have to just give a name.

So again, I am giving the name as test10_1. Now, I will click on the start conversion data has
been is already been converted. So, let us assume that you have converted the data and we have
obtained the 8 hours of reading in particular spreadsheet format. So also, you can import that
particular spreadsheet in this software also.

1766
(Refer Slide Time: 26:07)

So, for that we can go for open files, and open files you can see right now it is bar by default,
taking the file which I have already saved, okay also you can select or browse at particular
locations. So, right now I am again selecting that file just for information.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:21)

1767
And you can click on the open files with the software and you can click on exit. So, you can
see now that all the readings which you have taken and that is present here. So, this is the
procedure by which you can measure the PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 using this GRIMM model. So,
this is software all about the software, thank you.

Professor Bhola Ram Gurjar: So, you have seen and you know how to use the spectrometer.
So, this is a versatile instrument which can give you count as well as mass concentration of
particulate matter PM2.5, PM1, PM10 huge range is there as I said, and all these data are very
important because whenever we want to do so, suppose meant or identification of different
sources where they are coming from and if we want to relate different kind of concentrations
of PM1 or PM2.5 etc, then we need these kinds of data and also to compare whether it is violating
the standards or not, so monitoring is very much needed. So, this is all and this is the last lecture
of this particular course.

1768
(Refer Slide Time: 27:29)

These are the references which we have used for this particular lecture. So, I take this
opportunity to thank all of you who took so keen interest in this particular course, we enjoyed
your interaction through emails etc. And I thank E-Learning centre of IIT Roorkee specially
Binoy to schedule lecture recording times as per our convenience and I also thank TAs Anurag
and Gaurav and other students like Ria and Apshay and Rahul they have also contributed a lot
in this particular course.

So, thanks all and I wish you all the best for your pursuits regarding air pollution control and
air pollution studies, whether you are studying as a student or whether you are trying to
implement this knowledge in the field. So, all the best for your pursuits. And thanks again.

1769
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