6 (i). « Evaluation of Food Quality InrropucTION Food qualtys an important concept because the food people choose depends largely on qty. Consumer preference i important tothe food manulacturer, ‘wo wants to gain as wide a‘share of the market forthe product a= posible unity is ifcut vo define precisely, but i reer to the degre of excellence of {foo and icles all the characteristics ofa food that ate significant an that make the foo! acceptable ‘Whereas some attributes of a food, such as nutritional quality, can be ‘measured by chemical analysis, food acceptability is not easy {0 measure as it {s very subjective. In fact, consumers make subjective judgments using one of mote of the five senses every dime they select or ent any food. For example, pouto chips, celery, and some cereals have a crunchy sound when they ate eaten fhe taste and smell of foods can be highly appealing or unaceptable; and the appearance and fel of «fod also are important in determining ts acceptability. od quality must be monitored on 2 regular day-to-day basis to ensure that {miform product is produced and that It meets the required quality contral Standards. Companies also must monitor the quality of ther products ding storage, while changing ingredients and developing new lines, Objective teste -ysng laboratory equipment ate useful for routine quality conto, but they cannot measure consumer preference. The only sire way to determine what «population thinks about any food 5 to ask them. This is done using sensory testing and =shing panelists to taste a food and give ther opinion om i. Both sensory aid ‘bjecive tess are imporant in evaluating food quality, and ideally they should ‘correlate wit or complement eachother. Engineersat food manufacturers are constanily developing new products both for ‘ahome" and eating-out markets. The intent sto beter serve the customer’ reds and wants4 IntRoDUcTION To FooD COMPONENTS ASPECTS OF Foop QUALITY Food quality has both subjective and nonsubjective aspects. Appearance, texture, and flavor are largely subjective attributes, whereas nutritional and bacterial {quality are not. The last two qualities can be measured objectively by chemical analysis, by measuring bacterial counts, or using other specific tests (1, 2). They will be mentioned only briefly in this chapter and the subjective qualities will be discussed in detail, Appearance ‘The appearance of a food includes its size, shape, color, structure, transparency oF turbidity, dullness or gloss, and degree of wholeness or damage. While selecting a food and judging its quality, a consumer takes these factors into account, as they are indeed an index of quality. For example, the color of a fruit indicates hhow ripe it is, and color also is an indication of strength (as in tea or coffee), degree of cooking, freshness, or spoilage (3, 4). Constumers expect foods to be of ‘certain color, and if they are not, itis judged to be a quality defect. The same is true for size, and one may choose large eggs over stall ones, or large peaches ‘over small ones for example Structure is important in baked goods. For example, bread should have many small holes uniformly spread throughout and not one large hole close to the top. Turbidity is important in beverages; for example, orange juice is supposed to be cloudy because it contains pulp, but white grape juice should be clear and ‘without any sediment, which would indicate a quality defect. Texture ‘Texture refers to those qualities of a food shat can be felt with the fingers, tongue, palate, or teeth. Foods have different textures, such as crisp crackers or potato chips, crunchy celery, hard candy, tender steaks, chewy chocolate chip cookies, and creamy ice cream, to name but a few: ‘Texture also is an index of quality. The texture of a food can change as it is stored, for various reasons. If fruits or vegetables lose water during storage, they wilt of lose their turgor pressure, and a crisp apple becomes unacceptable and leathery on the outside, Bread can become hard and stale on storage. Products like ice cream can become gritty due to pzecipitation of lactose and growth of ice crystals if the freezer temperature is allowed to fluctuate, allowing thawing and refreezing. Evaluation of texture involves measuring the response of a food when it is subjected to forces such as cutting, shearing, chewing, compressing, or stretching.EVALUATION oF Foo Quatity 5 breaks or flows in the mouth determines whether itis perceived as hard, brittle, thick, runny, and so on. The term mouthfeel is a general term used to describe the tentural properties of a food as perceived in the mouth. Subjective measurement of texture gives an indirect evaluation of the ‘theological properties of a food, For example, a sensory panzl might evaluate viscosity as the consistency or mouthfeel of a food. However, viscosity can he measured directly using a viscometer. Rheological properties therefore are discussed in more detail in section “Objective Evaluation” of this chapter. Flavor Flavoris a combination of taste and smell and is largely subjective. Ifa person has cold, food usually seems to be tasteless. However, its not the aste buds that are affect but the sense of smell. Taste is detected by the taste buds atthe tip, sides, and back of the tongue, whereas aromas are detected by the ollactory epithelium inthe upper part of the nasal cavity. For any food to have an aroma, it must be Xolatile, but volatile substances can be detected in very small amounts (vanillin can be detected at a concentration of 2x 10-! mgfler of air). Aroma isa valuable index of quality. A food often will smell bad before it looks bad, and old meat can be easily detected by its smell. (However, foods that are contaminated with pathogens may have no off-odor, so the absence of bad smell is not a guarantee thatthe food, such as meat, is safe to eat.) The taste of a food is a combination of five major tastes—salt, sweet, sour, bitter, and wmami. It is complex and hard to describe completely. Sweet and salt tastes are detected primarily on the tip of the tongue, and so they are detected. quickly, whereas bitter tastes are detected mainly by taste buds at the back of the tongue It takes longer to perceive a bitter taste and it lingers ir the mouth; thus, bitter foods are often described as having an aftertaste. Sour tastes are mainly detected by the taste buds along the side of the tongue Sugars, alcohols, aldehydes, and certain amtino acids taste sweet to varying degrees. Acids (such as vinegar, lemon juice, and the many organic acids present in fruis) contribute the sour taste, saltiness is due to salts, including sodium chloride, and bitter tastes are due to alkaloids such as calfeine, theobromine, Quinine, and other bitter compounds Umami isa taste that recently has been added to the other four, It isa savory taste given by ingredients such as monosodium glutamate (MSG) and other flavor enhancers. The umami taste is significant in Japanese foods and in snack foods such as taco-flavored chips TASTE SENSITIVITY People vary in their sensitivity to different tastes. Sensitivity depends on the Tength of time allowed to taste a substance. Sweet and salt tastes are detected -quickly (in less than a second), because they are detected by taste buds on the Up of the tongue; in addition, they are usually very soluble compounds. Bitter6 INTRODUCTION To Food COMPONENTS compounds, on the other hand, may take a full second to be detected because they are detected at the back of the tongue. The taste may linger, producing a bitter aftertaste. Sensitivity to a particular taste also depends on the concentration of the substance responsible for the taste. The threshold concentration is defined as the concentration required for identification of a particular substance. The threshold concentration may vary from person to person; some people are more sensitive to a particular taste than others and therefore are able to detect it at a lower concentration. Below the threshold concentration, a substance would not be Identified but may affect the perception of another taste. For example, subthreshold salt levels increase perceived sweetness and decrease perceived acidity, whereas subthreshold sugar concentrations make a food taste less salty than it actually Js, Although itis not clear why, lavor enhancers such as MSG also affect taste sensitivity by intensifying a particular taste in a food. Temperature of a food also affects its flavor. Warm foods generally taste stronger and sweeter than cold foods. For example, melted ice cream tastes much sweeter than frozen icecream. There are two reasons for the effects of temperature con favor. The volatility of substances is increased at higher temperatures, and so they smell stronger. Taste bud receptivity also is an important factor. Taste buds are most receptive in the region between 68 and 86°F (20 and 30°C), and 50 tastes will be more intense in this temperature range. Psychological factors also affect taste sensitivity and perception. Judgments about flavor are often influenced by preconceived ideas based on the appearance of the food or on previous experience with a similar food. For example, stawberry- flavored foods would be expected to be red. However, if colored green, because of the association of green foods with flavors such as lime, it would be difficult 10 identify the favor as strawberry unless it was very strong. Color intensity also alfeets flavor perception. A stronger color may cause perception of a stronger flavor in a product, even if the stronger color is simply due to the addition of more food coloring. Texture also can be misleading. A thicker product may be perceived as tasting richer or stronger simply because itis thicker and not because the thickening agent affects the flavor of the food. Other psychological factors that may come into play when making judgments about the flavor of foods include time of day (for example, certain tastes are preferred at breakfast time), general sense of well-being, health, and previous reactions toa particular food or taste SENSORY EVALUATION ‘Sensory evaluation has been defined asa scientific method used to evoke, measure, analyze, and interpret those responses to products as perceived through the senses of sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing (7). This definition has been accepted and endorsed by sensory evaluation committees within both the Institute of Food Technologists and the American Society for Testing and Materials, For more detailed information on sensory evaluation, the reader is referred to the books by Lavless and Heymann (8) and by Stone and Sidel (7).EVALUATION oF Foon QUALITY 7 Sensory testing utilizes one or more ofthe five senses to evaluate foods. Taste nels, comprising groups of people, taste specific food samples under controlled onditions and evaluate them in different ways depending on the particular sensory test being conducted. This is the only type of testing that can measure ‘onsumer preference and acceptability. When it comes to public opinion of a product, there is no substitute for tasting by individual consumers. In addition toa taste-panel evaluation, objective tests can be established that correlate with sensory testing, which give an indication of consumer acceptability, Dut this may noc always be sulicent. In the development of new foods or when changing an existing product, i is necessary to determine consumer acceptance alirectly and objective testing is not sulficient, even though it may be a reliable, objective indication of food quality Sensory methods may be used to determine: 1 whether foods differ in taste, odor, juiciness, tenderness, texture, and so on 2.10 what extent foods differ. 3.10 ascertain consumer preferences and to determine whether a certain food is, acceptable to a specific consumer group. ‘Thee types of sensory testing are commonly used, each with a different goal Discrimination or difference tests are designed to determine whether there is & filerence between products; descriptive tests determine the extent of difference fn specific sensory characteristics; and. affective or acceptance ce tests determine how well the products ae liked or which produets ae preferred. There are important differences between these three types of tests. It is important to select the appropriate type of test so thatthe results obtained are able to answer the questions being asked about the products and are useful to the manufacturer ‘or product developer. ‘The appropriate tests must be used under suitable conditions in order for results tobe interpreted correctly. All testing must be carried out under controlled conditions, with controlled lighting, sound (no noise), and temperature to ‘minimize distractions and other adverse psychologieal factors. Sensory Testing Procedure Sensory testing is carried out by members ofa taste panel, preferably in individual testing booths under controlled conditions. All distractions, bias, and adverse psychological factors must be minimized so that the evaluation is truly an evalu ation of the sample being tested and not a reaction to adverse circumstances, cultural prejudice, or the opinions of other testers. The noise level must be controlled to avoid distractions, temperature and humidity should be within an acceptable range, and lighting within the booth also must be monitored. In addition, there should be no extraneous smells, which may distract people from raking judgments about the product under test. Because color has a significant effect on subjective evaluation of a product, color differences may need to be masked. This is achieved by using red lights2 INTReDUETION To Foo COMPONENTS in the booths when necessary. It is important that people rate samples that ray have different color intensities on flavor and not simply on the fact that they look different. For example, two brands of cheese pufls may look different because one is a deeper shade of orange than the other, and so one could tell the difference between them simply because of their color. However, there may not bea difference in the taste. If the color difference is masked by conducting the tests under red light, any differences detected could then be attributed to flavor differences and not to color differences The samples usually are placed on a tray and passed to each panelist through. a hatch in front of the testing booth. The tray should contain a ballot that gives specific instructions on how to evaluate the samples and a place for the panelist’s response. A cracker and water are provided, in order to cleanse the palate before tasting the samples. ft is important that tasters have not eaten spicy or highly flavored food before tasting food samples or their judgment may be impaired Preferably, panelists should not have eaten anything immediately prior to carrying out a taste tes. Additionally, itis important that panelists cannot identify the products they are tasting and that they do not know which sample isthe same as their neighbor's sample, so that there is no room for bias in the results. This is accomplished by assigning three-digit random numbers to each product. For example, if two products are being tested (denoted product 1 and 2), each product is given at least two different random numbers. Panelists sitting next to each other will not be given samples with the same number, so that they cannot compare notes and agree with each other and introduce bias into the results that way If two products are being tested, 50% of the panelists must test product 1 first, and the rest must test product 2 first, but the order of testing must be randomized. This eliminates bias due to sample order and also due to any changes {in experimental conditions that may occur from the beginning to the end of the test. The specific product order and random numbers seen by each panelist are detailed on a master sheet to ensure that the test design is carried out correctly. Sensory Tests Discrimination or difference tests are used to determine if there is a perceivable difference between products. Such tests would be used if company was changing the source of one of its ingredients or substituting one ingredient for another. Difference tests also can be used to see if the quality of a product changes over time or to compare the shelf life of a particular product packaged in different packaging materials. For example, a difference test could be used to determine Af juices keep their flavor better when stored in glass bottles rather than in plastic ones, AA small group of panelists may be used to conduct such tests and they may be trained to recognize and describe the differences likely to occur in the products being tested. For example, if trained panelists are testing different tea blends or flavor bases, they have more experience than an average consumer in recognizing,EVALUATION oF Foon QUALITY & T+ Panelist “TRIANGLE DIFFERENCE TEST PRODUCT INSTRUCTIONS: Proceed when you are ready. (Quietly so as not to distract others) FOR EACH SAMPLE: 1) Take bite ofthe cracker and a sip of water to rinse your mouth 2) Two ofthe samples are the same and one is different. CIRCLE the ODD sample you cannot tell, guess. +) Describe the reason why the ODD sample is DIFFERENT. (Please be specific) Fraunet.1 Ballo for triangle sensory test (obtained from Dr. Clay King atthe Sensory Testing Laboratory at Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas. particular flavors associated with such products, are more sensitive to differences, and are able to describe them better. This partly is because they have been trained to identify such flavors. However, they are likely to be experienced tea drinkers (or tea connoisseurs) with a liking for different teas before they are trained for taste-panel work, Such people may be employees of the company doing the testng ‘or members of a university research group. They would be expected to detect. small differences in the product flavor that would go unnoticed by most of -he general population, Thus, their evaluation would be important in trying to keep 4 tea blend constant or in determining if there is a significant flavor difference shen the source of an ingredient is changed, also may be important to know if small differences in a product can be detected by untrained consumers, who simply like the product and use it on a regular basis. For this reason, difference tests often are conducted using larger panels of untrained panelists. Two of the most frequently used difference tests are the triangle test and che duo-trio test. Typical ballots for these tests are given in Figures 1.1 and 1.2. These ballots and the one shown in Figure 1.3 were developed at the sensory evaluation Inboratory at Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas by Dr. Clay King, in conjunction with Coca-Cola Foods. he ballots have been used for consurier testing of beverages and other foods at the university sensory facility. In the triangle test, each panelist is given three samples, two of which are alike, and is asked to indicate the odd sample, The panelists are asked to taste the samples from left to right, cleansing their palate before each sample by taking a bite of cracker and a sip of water. Then they circle the number on the ballot sheet that corresponds to the sample they believe to be different. If they cannot tell, they must guess. Statistics are applied to the results to see if there is significant difference among the products being tested. Because the panelists have to guess which is the odd one if they cannot detect a difference, one third of them10 INTRODUCTION To FooD COMPONENTS. TEST = Panelist DUO-TRIO DIFFERENCE TEST PRODUCT. INSTRUCTIONS: Proceed when you are ready. (Quietly so as not to distract others) FOR EACH SAMPLE: 1) Take a bite ofthe cracker and sip of water to einse your mouth, 2) GIRGLE the number ofthe sanple which is THE SAME as the reference R.If you cannot tell, guess R 3) Why eR and the sample you chose the same? Ficure 1.2 Ballot for duo-tro sensory test (obtained from Dr. Clay King at the Sensory “Testing Laboratory at Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas) Tsre Panelist # LLIKEABILITY RATING AND PAIRED PREFERENCE TEST PRopuct. INSTRUCTIONS: Proceed when you are ready, (Quietly 90 as not to distract others.) ‘Evaluate one sample at atime, working from top to bottom, FOR FACH SAMPLE: 1) Take a bite ofthe cracker and a sip of water to rinse your mouth 2) Taste the sample then CIRCLE the number which best expresses your opinion. ofthe sample, SAMPLE CODE: Lkebiity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8B o Seale Dislike Extremely Like Extremely SAMPLE CODE: Likebity = 1 23 HT Seale Dislike Extremely Like Extremely Describe the DIFFERENCES between the to samples, (Please be specific) ‘Taste the samples again, then circle the one you prefer. Describe the reasons why you prefer the one you chose. Fieune 1.3 Ballot for lkeabiliy and paired preference sensory tests (obtained from Dr. Clay King at the Sensory TestingLaboratory at Texas Woman's Uniersty, Deaton, Texas)EVALUATION oF Foop QUALITY 11 ‘would pick the correct sample as being odd just by guessing. Therefore, more than one third of the panelists must choose the correct answer for there to be a significant difference among the products. For example, if there are 60 members ona taste panel, 27 would need to choose the correct answer for the results tw be significant at a probability level of 0.05 and 30 correct answers would be needed for significance at a probability level of 0.01. A probability level (or p ‘value) of 0.05 means that out of 100 trials, the same result would be obtained 95 times, indicating 95% confidence that the result is valid. A probability of 0.01 is equivalent to 99% confidence in the significance of the results, because the same result would be expected in 99 out of 100 trials. Statistical tables are available to determine the number of correct answers required for significance at different probability levels (9) In the duo-trio test, cach panelist is given a reference and two samples. He or she is asked to taste the reference first and then each sample, working [rom left 10 right, and circle on the ballot the sample that is the same as the reference. Again, if panelist cannot tell which sample is the same as the reference, he or she must juess and statistics must be applied to the results to determine whether there is a significant difference among the products. Ifeveryone guessed, 50% of the panelists ‘would ger the correct answer, and so for the results tobe significant, more than 50% rust choose the correct answer. Fora panel of 60 people, #0 must give the correct answer for the results to be significant atthe 0.01 probability level. Again, tables are availabe to determine if results are statistically significant (9). Affective, acceptance, or preference (ests are used to determine whether & specific consumer group likes or prefers a particular product. This is necessary for the development and marketing of new products, as no laboratory test can tell whether the public will accept a new product or not. A large number of panelists, representing the general public, must be used: thus, consumer testing is expensive and time-consuming. A relevant segment of the population needs to test the product. For example, if itis being aimed at over-50s, senior citizens must make up the taste panel and not mothers with young children. The opposite ‘would apply if the product was aimed at young children, (Products aimed at children would have to be acceptable to mothers as well, because they would be the ones to buy it.) Ethnie products must be tested either by the group for which they are aimed or by a wide cross section of the public ifthe aim is to introduce the products to a broader market than is currently interested. Panelists are not trained for this type of sensory testing, All that is required from them is that they give their opinion of the sample(s). However, they are normally screened to make sure that they are users or potential users of the product to be tested. Typically, they are asked to fill out a screening sheet and answer questions about how much they like the product (or similar products) and. hhow often they consume it. Anyone who does not like the product is asked not 10 take the test, The screening sheet also may ask for demographic information, such as gender and age range of the panelists. The specific questions for each screening, sheet are determined by whoever sets up the test, based on the consumer group they aim to target with their product.12. INTRODUCTION To Foop ComPONENTS The simplest preference tests are ranking tests, where panelists are given two or more samples and asked to rank them in order of preference. In the paired preference test, panelists are given two samples and asked to circle the one they prefer. Often, the panelists are asked to taste a sample and score it on a nine-point hedonic scale from “dislike extremely” to “like extremely.” This type of test is called a likeability test Sometimes panelists are asked to test more than one sample, to score each on the nine-point likeability scale, and then to desc-ibe the differences between the samples. This would not be a difference test, as differences in this case are usually obvious, and the point of the test is to see which product is preferred. In fact, the differences may be considerable. An example might be comparison of a chewy brand of chocolate chip cookies with a crunchy variety. The difference is obvious, but consumer preference is not obvious and would not be known without carrying out preference tests on the two products. A paired preference or ranking test may be included on a same ballot and carried out along with a likeability test. An example of a typical ballot is given in Figure 1.3 Descriptive tests usually are carried out by a stall group of highly trained panelists. They are specialized difference tests, where the panelists are not simply asked whether they can determine differences between the two products, but are asked to rate particular aspects of the flavor of a particular product on a scale. Flavor aspects vary depending on the type of product being studied. For example, flavor notes in tea may be bitter, smoky, and tangy, whereas flavor notes in yogurt may be acid, chalky, smooth, and sweet. A descriptive “flavor map” or profile of a product thus is developed. Any detectable changes in the product would result in changes in the flavor map. The training required to be able to detect, describe, and quantify subtle changes in specific flavor notes is extensive Therefore, establishment of such panels is costly. When trained, the panelists function as analytical instruments and their evaluation of a product is not related to their like or dislike of it. The descriptive taste panel work is useful to research and development scientists, because it gives detailed information on the types of flavor differences between products. OBJECTIVE EVALUATION Objective evaluation of foods involves instrumentation and use of physical and chemical techniques to evaluate food quality. Objective testing uses equipment to evaluate food products instead of variable human sensory organs. Such tests of food quality are essential in the food industry, especially for routine quality control of food products. An objective test measures one particular attribute of a food rather than the