MagnusPro Review Course Program

Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics

Lecturer: Engr. R. Renigen

WING THEORY

DEFINITION OF WING PROPERTIES

Geometric Wingspan, b – is the distance between tip to tip of the wing, measured perpendicular to the
airplane of wing centerline, regardless of the geometric shape of the wing.

Wing Area, S - is the projection of the planform on a plane of reference which is usually the chord plane.

Wing aspect ratio, A :

b2
A , is the ratio of the square of the span to the wing area.
S
b
A  , is the ratio of the wing span to the average chord.
c
S
A  2 , is the ratio of the wing area to square of the average chord.
c
Taper ratio, λ – is the ratio of the tip chord ct to the root chord cr.
ct

cr
Mean aerodynamic chord, MAC
2  2    1 
c  MAC  cr   for straight tapered wings.
3    1 

Sweep angle, Λ – is the angle between a line perpendicular to the centerline and the leading edge or the
quarter chord line. It is denoted as  L.E. or  c 4 .

1
WING AEROYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENT

L  CL q S
D  CD q S
M  Cm q S c

INDUCED ANGLE OF ATTACK AND INDUCED DRAG COEFFICIENT

For non-elliptic lift distribution,

CL
αi 
πAe
2
C
C Di  L
Ae
Where:
e = span efficiency factor or Oswald’s efficiency factor
= 0.85 – 0.95 for the wing alone
Ae = effective aspect ratio, Aeff

For elliptic lift distribution,

CL
i 
A
2
CL
C Di 
A
Where:
e=1

TOTAL DRAG COEFFICIENT FOR A WING

CL2
CD  CD 
0
πAe
Where C D is the (lift independent) sum of skin friction and pressure drag.
0

2
ASPECT RATIO CORRECTIONS

CL  1 1 
1   2     where  is in radians
   Ae 1  Ae 2 
 1 1 
 1   2  18.24C L    where  in degrees
  Ae 1  Ae 2 
C 2 1 1 
CD  CD  L   
1 2
π  Ae 1 Ae 2 
Where:
 1 = angle of attack of wing # 1
 2 = angle of attack of wing # 2
C D1 = drag coefficient of wing # 1
C D 2 = drag coefficient of wing # 2

SLOPE OF LIFT CURVE

a2
a1 
a2  1 1 
1   
  Ae 1 Ae 2 
a
a
a
1 
Ae
Where:

a1 & a2 = slope of lift curve for finite aspect ratio (wing #1 & wing #2, respectively)
a = slope of lift curve for finite aspect ratio
a = slope of lift curve for infinite aspect ratio

WING STALL

Wing stall is due to flow separation. How the flow separation progresses chordwise and spanwise on a
wing depends on the following items:

1. Airfoil stall characteristics

2. Planform Geometry and Twist

The following planform effects are important in determining stall behavior

a) Taper Ratio

A rectangular wing – has a larger downwash angle at the tip than at the root. The effective angle of
attack at the tip is thus reduced, and therefore it will stall last. However, it is aerodynamically inefficient;
because the planform is far from elliptical so that it produces more induced drag.

To reduce the induced drag, planform tapering to approximate the ideal elliptical planform is often used.
With the tip reduced, the local Reynold’s number and the induced angle of attack are decrease in the tip region.
Therefore, the tip section will tend to stall first for a tapered wing. This is undesirable from a standpoint of a
lateral stability in stall entries and stall recoveries. It is seen that as the taper ratio is decreased it promotes tip-
stall.

b) Aspect ratio
With increasing aspect ratio wing tends to behave more like an airfoil section. For that reason it can be
expected that C L increases with aspect ratio.
max

3
c) Sweep angle
For swept aft wings, since the wing tips are usually situated aft of the center of gravity, loss lift at the
tips causes the nose to come up. If the angle of attack is high originally, this will increase the angle of attack
further. This may result in loss of pitch control. This phenomenon is known as pitch – up.

Note that a swept forward wing would tend to exhibit pitch down.

In addition, because of the tendency toward spanwise flow, a swept –aft wing tends towards tip stall
because of boundary layer thickening. A swept forward wing for the same reason, will tend toward root-stall.

The trend is for to decrease with sweep angle (fore & aft)

d) Twist (or Wash out)

If the angles of attack C Lmax at various spanwise stations are not equal the wing is said to have twist. If
the angle of attack at the wing tip is less than that of the root, the wing is said to have washout. With washout,
the tips will be at a lower angle of attack than the root, and thus the tip stall may be delayed until after the stall
has occurred at the root.

Examples:
1. A straight, tapered wing 30 ft. span has leading-edge and trailing-edge sweep angle of 30o and 15o,
respectively. Find the magnitudes of root chord, tip chord and the mean aerodynamic chord.
Given:

Required:
cr , ct , and MAC
Solution:
For ΔABC:
cr
tan 30 0 
15'
cr  (15' )(tan 30 0 )  8.66 ft
For ΔBCD:
ct
tan 150 
15'
ct  (15' )(tan 150 )  4.02 ft
ct 4.02
   0.464
cr 8.66
2  2    1   2   (0.464) 2  0.464  1
MAC  c  cr     8.66    6.62 ft
3   1   3   0.464  1 

2. The test results of NACA 23012 airfoil shows the following:

 (deg) cl
0 0.15
9 1.2

If the airfoil is used to construct an elliptical wing of A = 7.0, determine the wing lift curve slope.
Ans. a = 0.09/deg.

4
Given:

Required:
Slope of lift curve, a at A = 7
Solution:
cl cl2  cl1 1.2  0.15
a     0.117 / deg .
  2   1 90
a
a
a
1 
Ae
or:
a 0.117 / deg .
a   0.09 / deg .
18.24a (18.24 deg .)(0.117 / deg .)
1 1
Ae (7)(1)
3. An airfoil, with aspect ratio of 6, at an angle of attack of 90, CL = 1.067 and CD =0.0780. Find for the same
airfoil shape, the angle of attack and CD corresponding to CL = 1.067 for aspect ratio of 9.1. Assume e = 1.0.
Given:
A6  6
C L  1.067
 6  90
C D6  0.0780
A9.1  9.1

Required:
 9.1 and C D 9 .1

Solution:
 1 1 
 9.1   6  18.24C L    , where  in degrees
  Ae 9.1  Ae 6 
 1 1  0
 9.1  9 0  (18.24)(1.067)     7 .9
 (9.1)(1.0) (6)(1.0) 
2
CL  1 1  (1.067) 2  1 1 
C D9.1  C D6      0 . 078   (9.1)(1.0)  (6)(1.0)   0.057
   Ae 9.1  Ae 6    

4. For a certain airfoil with infinite aspect ratio, the CL is 1.03 at 90 angle of attack and the corresponding CD is
0.067. Find the angle of attack and CD for an aspect ratio of 8, when CL is 1.03. Assume e = 1.0.
Given:
A  inf inite
C L  1.03

5
  e  90
C D  0.067
0

Required:
 8 and C D at A8  8.
8

Solution:
  e   i
18.24C L
 (in deg .)   e 
Ae
(18 . 24 )(1 . 03)
 8  90   11.35 deg .
(8)(1.0)
C D  C D0  C D1
C L2
C D  C D0 
Ae
(1.03) 2
C D8  0.067   0.1092
( )(8)(1.0)

Problems:
1. An airplane weighing 5,000 lbs. has a wing area of 250 ft2. If the lift-curve slope is 6.0 per radian and the
angle of attack of zero lift is –2 deg., calculate the angle of attack (in degrees) of this airplane at a level flight
speed of 200 mph under standard sea-level conditions.
Ans.   0.132 deg .

2. The rectangular wing model of 40 in. by 5 in. has the following characteristics determined from a wind tunnel
test: e = 0.87, C L = a = 0.09 per deg. and  o = -3o, if a full-scale rectangular wing of 42 ft by 6 ft is
constructed with the same airfoil section. What lift will it develop at  = 5o and 120 mph under standard sea-
level conditions? Assume e = 0.87 for the full-scale wing.
Ans. L =6,457.05 lb

3. An airfoil, with aspect ratio of 6, at an angle of attack of 7.50, has CL = 0.851 and CD =0.0530. Find for the
same airfoil shape, the angle of attack and CD corresponding to CL = 0.851 for aspect ratio of 8.7. Assume e
= 1.0.
Ans.  8.7  6.7 0 and C D8.7  0.041

4. An airfoil of infinite aspect ratio, has a CD of 0.015 when CL is 1.1. (a) What is the CD for a similar airfoil with
aspect ratio of 8.5, when CL is 1.1? (b) What is the lift to drag ratio? Assume e = 1.0.
Ans. ( a ) C D8.5  0.0603 ; (b) L / D  18.24

AIRPLANE DRAG

COMPLETE AIRPLANE POLARS

CLEAN AIRPLANE

A clean airplane is defined as an airplane in its cruise configuration

2
C
C D  C D0  L
Ae
Where:
C D0 = zero lift drag coefficient
e = Oswald’s efficiency factor. A value of e = 1.0 would indicate an elliptical lift distribution.

6
 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT MECHANICS
FOR STEADY SYMMETRICAL FLIGHT

Where:

X B , YB , Z B = body axes system ( YB , not shown, is pointing into the paper), with X B ,
along some airplane reference line.

X S , YS , Z S = stability axes system ( YS is pointing along YB ) with X S pointing in the

direction of the velocity vector .

γ = the flight path angle, positive for ascending flight (climb) and negative
for descending flight ( glide or drive)

α = airplane (reference) angle of attack

θ = pitch attitude angle

V = true airspeed

Vh = horizontal flight speed component ( Vh  V cos  )

Vv = R.C. = vertical flight speed component or rate-of-climb: R.C  V sin 

7
 F XS 0

T cos   T   D  W sin   0
Assume,

cos   T   1.0
T  D  W sin   0
T  D  W sin 

F ZS 0

T sin    T   L  W sin   0
Assume,

sin   T   0
L  W cos 
Where:
L = airplane lift
R is their resultant force
D = airplane drag

T = airplane thrust

W = airplane weight

θT = thrust orientation angle relative to the body x-axis

To write Eqn. T  D  W sin  in terms of “work” multiply both sides by the airspeed V.

TV  DV  WV sin 
Since,

R.C.  V sin 

TV  DV  WR.C.
Where:

8
 TV  PAV  power available from the propulsive system
DV  PREQD = power required to overcome the drag at a given speed V.
WR.C.  PCL = climb power

Note that in steady symmetrical flight the power available equals to the sum of the power required and the
climb power.

UNPOWERED FLIGHT OR GLIDE

In this flight condition, T = 0.

FV  0

R W  0

R W
But,
1

R  L2  D 2  2 W

   C qS  
1
2 2 2
C R qS  C L qS D W

qS  C  C  qS  W
1
2 2 2
CR L D

F X S  0
D  W sin   0
D  W sin 
C D q S  W sin 
FZ S  0
L  W cos   0
L  W cos 
C L qS  W cos 

9
GLIDE ANGLE, 

CD 1
tan   
CL CL
CD

AIRSPEED, V

W  2  1 
V      cos 
S    C L 

RATE OF DESCENT, RD

RD  V sin 

C  W  2  1  3
 cos 
RD  V  D  cos      3 2 
 CL  S    C L / C D 

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE COVERED IN A STEADY GLIDE

h
tan  
R

h
R
tan 
But,
CD
tan  
CL
Hence,

C 
R  h L 
 CD 

Where:
h = initial altitude

MINIMUM GLIDE PATH ANGLE

From:
CD
tan  
CL

10
 1
  tan 1
 CL 
 
 CD 
Therefore:
1
 min  tan 1
 CL 
 
 C D  max

It is seen that to achieve the lowest possible glide path angle it is necessary to maximize CL/CD. For a parabolic
drag polar, CL/CD can be maximized by setting its derivative with CL to zero.
C 
 L 
 CD   0
C L
 
 
 CL 

 CL 
2

 CD0  
 Ae   0
C L
 C 
2
2C
 C D  L 1  C L  L 
 0 Ae   Ae 
  0
2 2
 CL 
 CD  
 0 Ae 
 
2 2
C 2C
C D0  L  L  0
Ae Ae
2
C
C D0  L  0
Ae
C D0  C Di
2
C L  AeC D0
C L  AeC D0
2
2 CL
Substituti ng C L  AeC D0 in C D  C D0  ,
Ae
AeC D
C D  C D0  0

Ae
C D  2C D0
CL
Substituti ng C L  AeC D0 and C D  2C D0 in ,
CD
 CL  AeC D0
  
 C D  max 2C D0
 CL  1 Ae
  
 C D  max 2 C D0

11
MINIMUM RATE OF DESCENT

 
 
 W  2   1  cos 3 
RD min    
 S      C L  
3
  2  
  C D  max 
It is seen that to achieve the lowest possible RD it is necessary to minimize W/S and to maximize
CL3/CD2. For a parabolic drag polar, CL3/CD2 can be maximized by setting its derivative with CL to zero.
C 3 
 L 2 
 CD   0
C L
 
 3

 CL 

2 2
  C  C L  
  D0 Ae  
  
0
C L
2
  C  2C 
 C 
 
2 2
 C D  L  3C L 2  C L 3 2 C D  L  L 
 0 Ae   0 Ae  Ae 
      0
4
 C 
2
 CD  L 
 0 Ae 
 
 C 
 
2 4
4C
 C D  L  3C L 2  L  0
 0 Ae  Ae
 
4 4
2 3C L 4C
3C D0 C L   L 0
Ae Ae
2
C
3C D0  L  0
Ae
2
C
3C D0  L
Ae
2
CL
C D0 
3Ae
1
C D0  C Di
3
2
C L  3AeC D0
C L  3AeC D0
2
2 C
Substituti ng C L  3AeC D0 in C D  C D0  L ,
Ae
3AeC D0
C D  C D0 
Ae
C D  4C D0
3
CL
Substituti ng C L  3AeC D0 and C D  4C D0 in 2
,
CD
 CL 3  (3AeC D0 ) 3
 2 
C  (4C D0 ) 2
 D  max
 CL 3  3 3Ae
 2   Ae
C 
 D  max 16 C DO

12
MINIMUM SPEED OR STALLING SPEED

W  2  1 
 cos 
V min  V s    
S    C Lmax 


LEVEL FLIGHT

In case of level flight (R.C. = 0).

 FH  0
T D0
T  D  C D qS

FV  0
L W  0
L  C L qS  W
Note that Eqn. TV  DV  WR.C. in the case of level flight can be written as:

TV  DV
PAV  PREQD

The level flight speed follows from Eqn. L  C L qS  W :

W  2  1 
V     
S    C L 

The drag in level flight is:

C 
D   D W
 CL 

The power required is:

C  W  2  1 
PREQD  DV   D W    
 CL  S    C L 

 2  C D   2  
2
W   W  W 1 
PREQD  W    3   3
S    C L  S    C L / C D
2 
 

13
DRAG AND POWER REQUIRED FOR THE CASE OF PARABOLIC DRAG POLARS
2
CL
C D  C DO 
Ae
1
D  CD V 2 S
2
D  D 0  Di
1
D  C D0 V 2 S  C Di V 2 S
2
1
D  C D0 V 2 S  Ae V 2 S
2
W2
D  C D0 V 2 S 
1
Ae V 2 S
2
Where:
D = total airplane drag
Do = parasite drag
Di = induced drag

The power required in level flight is:

1 W2
PREQD  DV  C DO V 3 S 
2 1
Ae VS
2
1 W b 2
PREQD  DV  C DO 3
V S 
2 1
e V
2
Where:
W
 Span loading
b

MINIMUM DRAG

C DO
D min = 2D o = 2W
Ae

SPEED AT MINIMUM DRAG

W  2  1 

V min drag    
S    AeC D0 


POWER REQUIRED AT MINIMUM DRAG

W  2  C DO
PREQDmin drag  2W   
S    Ae 3
MINIMUM POWER REQUIRED

4  W  2  3C DO
PREQDmin  W   
3  S    Ae 
3

14
SPEED AT MINIMUM REQUIRED POWER

W  2  1
Vmin reqd power    
S    3AeC D0

DRAG AT MINIMUM REQUIRED POWER SPEED

C DO 3C D O
D at VMIN REQD POWER = W  W
3Ae Ae
Example:
1. A monoplane weighing 8,900 Newtons, has a span of 12 meters. What is the induced drag at 3,000 meters
altitude if the airspeed is 36 meters per second? Assume e = 1.0.
Given:
W  8,900 N
b  12 m
h  3,000 m
V  36 m / s
Required:
Di
Solution:
2
 
 W 
  2
 1 2  W 
1 C2 1  V S  1 W2 W 2  
b
Di  C Di V 2 S  L V 2 S   2  V 2 S     
2 Ae 2 Ae 2 1 2
1 1
Ae V S  b
2
e V 2 S e V
2

2 S 2 2
Where:
W / b  span loading

At h = 3,000 meters:
4.26 4.26
 ah   (0.00651)(3,000) 
   0 1    1.225 1    0.908 kg / m 3
 T0   288 
2 2
W   8,900 
   
 b  12 
Di    297.58 N
1 2
e V 2 ( )(1.0)(0.5)(0.908)(36)
2
2. A sailplane with a weight of 4,500 Newtons has a wing loading of 600 Newtons per square meter. Its drag
coefficient (CD) is related to the lift coefficient (CL) by the equation:
2
C D  0.0102  0.0221C L
After completing a launch at an altitude of 300 meters, the sailplane glides back to the ground. Assume that
the air is still, the ground is level, and the change in air density with altitude is negligible.
Determine: (a) longest ground distance (kilometers) covered during glide
(b) gliding speed (meters per second)
Given:

W = 4,500 N
15
 W/S = 600 N/m2
2
C D  0.0102  0.0221C L
C D 0  0.0102
1
Ae 
0.0221
Required:
(a) R max (in km)
(b) VR max (in m / s )
Solution:
h
(a) tan  
R
h
R
tan 
h
Rmax 
tan  min
but,
1
tan  min 
 CL 
 
C
 D  max
   
   
1 1  1  1  2   1.72 deg .
 min  tan 1  tan
 1 Ae 
 tan
 CL   1 
     
C
 D  max  2 C D0   (0.0221)(0.0102) 

hence,
h 300 m
Rmax    9,990.45 m  10 km
tan  min tan 1.72 0
 
 
 W  2  1   W  2  1   2  1   37.97 m / sec
(b) VRmax           600  
 S    C L   S    AeC D0   1.225  0.0102 
  
 0.0221 
Problems:
1. The drag polar equation of an advanced light twin airplane in clean configuration can be written as:
2
C D  0.0358  0.0405C L
Its weight is 18,680 N and the wing area is 14.4 m2. Calculate by analytical methods its (1) maximum lift-
drag ratio (2) Minimum drag speed, (3) minimum power required with the corresponding flight speed.
Assume standard sea-level conditions.
C 
Ans.  L   13.13 ; Vmin drag  47.46 m / s ; PREQD min  59.24 kW ; V min reqd power 36.06 m / s
 C D  max

2. A glider weighs 3,550 N and has a wing loading of 574 N/m2. Its drag equation is:
2
C D  0.010  0.022C L
After being launched at 1,500 ft. in still air, find (a) the greatest distance it can cover and (b) the greatest
duration of flight possible, over level ground. In both cases, find the corresponding flight speeds. Ignore the
effect of density changes of the atmosphere and use standard sea level conditions.
Ans. Rmax  50,565 ft ; t max  7.85 min utes ; VRmax  37.28 m / s ; Vt max  28.33 m / s

16
 CLIMB PERFORMANCE AND SPEED OF PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE

POWER REQUIRED

Power required for flight at constant speed is given by:

PREQD  DV

For a small ˠ:

CD
TREQD  D  W
CL
W  2  1 
V     
S    C L 
 
 
 2  C D 
2
W  CD   W  2  1  W  W W  W  2   1 
THPREQD            3      
550  C L   S    C L  550  S    C L 
 550  S      C L3  
  2  
  C D  
Below the drag-divergence Mach number, it can be assumed that the CL and CD at the same angle of
attack will remain constant.

At sea level:
CD
TREQD 0  W0
CL
W  2  1 
V0   0   
 S   0  C L 
 
 
W0  C D   W0  2  1  W0  W0  2  C D 
2
W0  W0  2   1 
THPREQD0                
550  C L   S   0  C L  550  S   0  C L 3 
 550  S   0    C L3  
  2  
  C D  
At altitudes:

TREQD  TREQD0
V0
V

THPREQD 0
THPREQD 

Where:


0

POWER AVAILABLE

The available thrust power is given by:

THPAV  BHP x  P

Where: p = propeller efficiency

BHP = shaft brake horsepower

17
RATE OF CLIMB

THPAV  THPREQD
R.C. ft / min   X 33,000 where W is in lbs .
W

From the plotted graph of power required and available at given altitudes, various performance
parameters can be obtained:

 Maximum flight speed

The maximum speed in level flight at a given altitude is simply the speed at which the power available
and power required curves intersect.

 Maximum rate of climb

The maximum rate of climb occurs when the excess power is maximum

 Maximum climb angle

The maximum climb angle occurs when the ratio (R.C./V) is maximum. In determining the maximum
climb angle, care should be taken to make sure that the speed for maximum climb angle is not less
than the stall speed. To find the condition for maximum (R.C./V) draw a straight line from the origin
tangent to the curve.

R.C.
 max  sin 1
V X max

CEILINGS

H h

R.C.0 R.C.0  R.C.h

hR.C. 0
H
R.C. 0  R.C. h

hR.C.0
R.C.h  R.C.0 
H

18
 H HS

R.C.0 R.C.0  30.49

H ( R.C. 0  30.49)
HS 
R.C. 0
or:
H ( R.C. 0  100)
HS 
R.C. 0
Where:
H = absolute ceiling
Hs = service ceiling
R.C.o = rate of climb at sea level
h = any altitude
R.C.h = rate of climb at any altitude, h

Absolute Ceiling - the maximum altitude above sea level at which a given airplane would be able to
maintain horizontal flight under air condition.
- the altitude where the rate of climb is zero.

Service Ceiling - the altitude above sea level, under air conditions, at which a given airplane is unable to
climb faster than a small specified rate.
- the altitude where the rate of climb is 100 ft per minute.

TIME TO CLIMB
H H
t ln
R.C.O H-h
Where:
t = time to climb to altitude h
H = absolute ceiling

Examples:
1. An airplane weighs 36,000 lb. and has a wing area of 450 ft2. The drag equation is C D  0.014  0.05C L2 . It is
desired to equip this airplane with turboprop engines with available power such that a maximum speed of
602.6 mph at sea level can be reached. The available power is assumed to be independent of flight speed.
Calculate the maximum rate of climb and the speed at which it occurs.
Given:
W  36,000 lb
S  450 ft 2
C D  0.014  0.05C L2
Vmax  602.6 mph
THPAV  cons tan t

19
Required:
Max R.C. and Vmax R.C .
Solution:
At Maximum speed, THPAV = THPREQD .

2W (2)(36,000)
CL   2
 0.086
V 2 S  22 
(0.002377 ) 602.6 x  (450)
 15 
C D  0.014  0.05C L2  0.014  (0.05)(0.086) 2  0.0144
C  0.0144 
D DW  (36,000)  6,027.91 lb
CL  0.086 
DV (6,027.91)(602.6)
THPAV  THPREQD    9,686.45 hp
375 375
 
 
W  W  2   1 
THPREQDmin    
550  S     C L  
 3
  2  
  C D  max 
 C L3  3 3Ae  3  3 
 2   Ae      245.5
 C D  max 16 C D0  (16)(0.05)   (0.05)(0.014) 
 
 
THPREQDmin 
W  W  2  
  
1    36,000    36,000  2  1  
    1,083.83 hp
550  S      C L3    550    450  0.002377  245.5  
  2  
  C D  max 
Max EHP (9,686.45  1,083.83)(33,000)
Max R.C.  x 33,000   7,885.74 ft / min
W 36,000

W  2  1  W  2  1 

VMax R.C .         
S    C L  S    3AeC D0 

 
 W  2  1   
VMax R.C .        36,000  2 

1
  271 ft / sec  184.77 mph
 S    3AeC D0 
  450  0.002377   (3)(0.014) 
 0.05 
2. An airplane has an absolute ceiling of 5 km. Its rate of climb at sea level is 360 m/min. How long will it take
to climb to 3 km and to reach service ceiling?
Given:
H  5 km
R.C.0  360 m / min

Required:
t@ h  3 km and t@ H S

20
Solution:
At h  3 km :
H H
t@ h  3 km  ln
R.C.O H-h
 5,000 m    5 km 
t@ h  3 km    ln   12.73 min
 360 m / min    5 km - 3 km 
At H S :
H ( R.C.0  30.49) (5)(360  30.490
HS    4.58 km
R.C.0 360

H H
t@ H S  ln
R.C.O H - HS

 5,000 m    5 km 
t@ H S    ln   34.42 min
 360 m / min    5 km  4.58 km 

Problems:
1. A 22,240 N aircraft has an excess power of 56 KW at sea level and the service ceiling is 3.66 km.
Determine the rate of climb at 2.8 km.
Ans. R.C.@ h  2.8 km  58.76 m / min

2. A 5,000 lb airplane with wing area of 250 sq. ft and power available of 450 hp is at sea level flight
standard condition. The airplane drag-to-lift relation is close to CD = 0.025 + 0.048 CL2. What is the rate
of climb (in feet per minute) at a flight speed of 180 miles per hour?
Ans. R.C.0  1,146 ft / min

3. A light airplane has a service ceiling of 16,400 ft. Its rate of climb at sea level is 1,195 ft per minute.
How long will it take to climb to 10,000 ft?
Ans. t  12.52 min

TAKE-OFF AND LANDING PERFORMANCE

Reference: Fundamentals of Aerodynamics Part II

TAKE-OFF PHASES OF FLIGHT

1. Accelerating ground-run
2. Rotation
3. Lift-off
4. Climb out

LANDING PHASES OF FLIGHT

1. Descent
2. Flare
3. Touchdown
4. Decelerating ground-run

SUMMARY OF CTOL TAKE-OFF RULES

ITEM MIL-C5011A FAR PART 23 FAR PART 25

(MILLITARY) (CIVIL) (COMMERCIAL)

SPEED VLOF ≥ 1.1VS VLOF ≥ 1.1VS VLOF ≥ 1.1VS

VCL ≥ 1.2VS VCL ≥ 1.1VS VCL ≥ 1.2VS

CLIMB GEAR UP: GEAR UP: GEAR DOWN;

21
 500 fpm @ S.L. 300fpm @ S.L. ½% @ VLOF
(AEO) (AEO)
GEAR UP:
100fpm @ S.L. 3% @ VCL (OIE)
(OEI)

FIELD LENGTH TAKE-OFF TAKE-OFF 115% OFF TAKE-OFF

DEFINITION Distance Distance DISTANCE WITH AEO
OVER 50 OVER 50’ OVER 35%

NOTES:
AEO = All engine operating
OEI = One Engine Inoperative
Vs = one g stall speed out of ground effect
VLOF = lift off speed
VCL = climb out speed

SUMMARY OF CTOL LANDING RULES

ITEM MIL-C5011A FAR APART 23 FAR APART 25

SPEEDS VA ≥ 1.2VS (L) VA ≥ 1.3VS (L) VA ≥ 1.3VS (L)

VTD ≥ 1.2VS (L) VTD ≥ 1.15VS (L) VA ≥ 1.15VS (L)

FIELD LENGTH LANDING LANDING LANDING

DEFINITION DISTANCE DISTANCE DISTANCE
OVER 50’ OVER 50’ OVER 50’
Divided by 0.6

NOTES:
VA = speed over the 50 ft. obstacle (also called the approach speed)
VTD = speed at touchdown during landing
Vs (L) = stalling speed in the landing configuration

TAKE-OFF DISTANCE

ST/O = SO + SR + STR + SCL

22
Ground Distance, SG

Approximate Method I for SG

a) Approximate for zero wind speed (VW = 0)

W  V LOF 
2

SG  
2 g  Fm 

W  V LOF 
2

SG  
2 g  kFS 

Where:
Fm = regarded as the average net force for acceleration

 F 
 1  LOF 
FS
Fm  FS    kF
 S
F
 ln S 
 FLOF 
 F 
 1  LOF 
FS 
k  
F 
 ln S 
 FLOF 
FS  T  W  W at V = 0
FLOF  T  D   (W  L)  W at V = VLOF
FLOF  T  W  (C D  C L )qS  W
C L ( IGE )
C L  C L( IGE )  C L( OGE )  C L ( IGE )  0
C L ( OGE )
2A
C L ( OGE ) (in per radian ) 
A2  2  tan 2  C / 2 
2 1    4
k 2  2 
2Aeff
C L ( IGE ) (in per radian ) 
A2  2  tan 2  C / 2 
2 1    4
k 2  2 
 
 
t  3.5655 0.1177 
 0 (in deg .)  
c h h 
2

 c   
 c 
In Figure 7:
A  2h 
 f 
Aeff  b 
 2  1 M 2
a
k
2 / 
a   2 per radian
C D  C D ( IGE )  C D ( CORRECTED )  C D ( OGE )  C Di
2
C L( OGE )
C Di   '
Ae

23
In Figure 8:

h
 ' f  
b
1  1.32(h / b) h
 ' for 0.033  0.25
1.05  7.4(h / b) b

b) Approximation for Non-zero Wind Speed (VW ≠ 0)

W V LOF  VW 
2

SG 
2g Fmw
Where:
Fmw = may be regarded as the average net force for acceleration.
  FLOF  VW 
2 
 1  1   
FS  2 
   V LOF  
Fmw  FS    kW FS
  FS  VW  VW  
2 2
1  
 ln  F  V 2  V 2 
  LOF  LOF  LOF 
  FLOF  V
2
 
 1  1  W 2  
 FS  V  
  LOF 
kW   
  FS  VW  VW  
2 2
1  
 ln  F  V 2  V 2 
  LOF  LOF  LOF 

Typical values of coefficient of friction, μ

BRAKES-OFF μ
Concrete 0.02-0.03
Hard turf 0.05
Short grass 0.05
Long grass 0.10
Soft ground 0.10 – 0.30

24
Approximate Method II for SG

At Vw ≠ 0:

W VLOF  VW 
2

SG 
2G Fm

At Vw = 0:

W VLOF 
2

SG 
2G Fm
Where:
FS  FLOF
Fm 
2
FS  T  W  W at V = 0
FLOF  T  W  (C D  C L )qS  W at V  V LOF / 2

Approximate method for Rotation Distance, SR

S R  t RV LOF

Where: tR ≈ 3 sec. for modern swept –wing aircraft (less for small aircraft)

Approximate method for transition Distance, STR

STR  R sin C L
Where:
2
V LOF
R
 V LOF 2  C LTR  
g     1
 V S  C  
2
 Lmax  

T D
 CL (in rad .)  V VLOF
W
With R calculated, it is necessary to find the climb angle to determine the transition distance. The rate
of climb is given by:
V LOF (T  D )
R.C.  V LOF sin  CL 
W

25
Where:

2
C LTR
C DTR  C D0   for clean airplane ) 
Ae
C LTR  0.8C Lmax

It follows that the transition distance is given by:

S TR  R sin  CL

Approximate Method for Climb Distance, SCL

50  h TR
SCL 
tan CL
Where:
STR
h TR  1  cos CL 
sin CL

If hTR > 50’ or 35’, then SCL = 0.

Approximation Method for Take-off Time

Ground-run time, tG
W V LOF  VW
tG 

g T  W   C D  C L qS   V V LOF 2

Rotation Time tR
The rotation time may be taken to be three seconds or less.

Time for Transition and Climb, t(TR + CL)

SCL
STR 
cos CL
t TR CL  
VLOF
Total take-off time, tTO

tTO = tG + tR + t(TR + CL)

26
LANDING DISTANCE

Air Distance, SA

W  V A 2  VTD 2 
SA    hF 
D T  2g 
 
Where:
V A  1.3V S ( L )

VTD  (1.10  1.15)V S ( L )

V S ( L )  stall speed in the landing configurat ion

1
D  D A  C DA V A 2 S
2
2
C LA
C D A  C D0  for dirty airplane configurat ion
Ae
W
C LA 
1 2
V A S
2
h F  50 ft
g  gravitatio nal acceleration

27
Note that:

D T  C T
 W   D  
  V V A C L W

Normally, ᵞ will be of the order of 30 or less for jet transports.

Referring to Figure 11, it is seen that for a circular-arc flare, the air distance is given by:

hF R' 
SA  
 2
The normal force FN inn the force is equal to the total lift:

L 
FN  L F  W  F   nW
W 
Where n is the total load factor. This normal force must be equal to the weight of the airplane and the
centrifugal force:

2
W VF
nW  W 
g R'
2
VF
R' 
g (n  1)
L
n  F  load factor
W

1
L F  C LA V A 2 S
2
Hence,
2
hF VF 
SA  
 2 g (n  1)
For a given load factor n, it is generally assumed that:

V F  0.95V A

Free Roll Distance, SFR

S FR  t FR VTD
Where:
t FR  0 to 3 sec onds.

Braking Distance, SB

At VW =0:
W  VTD 
2
SB   
2g  Fm 

Where:
FS  FTD
Fm 
F
ln S
FTD

FS  W  Te  W

FTD  ( W  Te )  ( c L  c D )q TD S  W

28
At VW ≠ 0:
W
SB  VTD  VW 2
2 gFmw
Where:
 VW 2 
FS  FTD 1  2 
 VTD 
Fmw 
F  V 2  V 2
ln  S 1  W 2   W 2 
 FTD  VTD  VTD 

Note that with the brakes applied, μ on concrete may be taken to be 0.4 to 0.6

Example:
1. The wing characteristics of the basic FSD – 1 airplane are as follows: A = 2.02, h/c = 0.329, (2h/b = 0.36),
t/c = 0.05, Ac/2 = 35o. Estimate the ground effect on the lift curve at M = 0.
Solution:
2A
C L ( OGE ) (in per radian ) 
A2  2  tan 2  C / 2 
2 1    4
k 2  2 
Assuming,
  k,
And
 2  1  M 2  1  (0) 2  1.0

2A (2)( )(2.02)

C L ( OGE )    2.453 / rad .
2

2  A 1  tan  c / 2  42
  
2  (2.02) 2 1  tan 350  4
2Aeff
C L ( IGE ) 

2  Aeff2 1  tan 2  c / 2  4 
In Fig. 7:
A  2h 
 f 
Aeff  b 
2h A
@  0.36 ,  0.67.
b Aeff
Therefore:
A 2.02
Aeff    3.01
0.67 0.67
2Aeff (2)( )(3.01)
C L ( IGE )    3.058 / rad .
 
2  Aeff 1  tan  c / 2  4 2  (3.01) 2 1  tan 2 350  4
2 2
 
 
 
t  3.5655 0.1177   3.5655 0.1177  
 0 (in deg .)    (0.05)   2
x  0.00851 rad .
c h h 
2
 0.329 (0.329)  180
 c   
 c 
C L ( IGE )
C L  C L( IGE )  C L( OGE )  C L ( IGE )  0
C L ( OGE )
 3.058 
C L  C L( IGE )  C L( OGE )    (3.058)(0.00851)
 2.453 
C L  C L( IGE )  1.2466C L( OGE )  0.026

29
Problems:
2
1. An aircraft weighing 56,000 lb. has a wing area of 90 ft2 and its drag equation is C D  0.016  0.04C L (in
ground effect). It is desired to operate this aircraft on an existing runway of 3, 000 ft. (ground rum distance)
with concrete pavement (μ = 0.02) at sea level. If the lift-off speed is 1.2 VS and C L max  1.8 , compute the
thrust required, assuming that the aircraft engines deliver a constant thrust during the take-off run. Vw = 0
and   0 . C L in ground roll = 1.0.
Ans. T = 14,090 lb

2. A jet fighter for carrier operation has a landing weight of 18,000 lb and a wing area of 320 ft2. C L max  2.4
and C L in ground roll is 1.80. The drag equation in landing configuration with spoilers in ground effect is
2
C D  0.4  0.05C L . The effective thrust in ground roll is assumed zero. If the flight deck length for ground
roll is limited to 700 ft,, how fast must the carrier be moving for the landing to be successful? Assume μB =
0.4, VTD = 1.15VS and sea level standard conditions.
Ans. Vcarrier = 35.58 fps

3. Assumed that during take-off ground run, the angle of attack is kept fixed and the airplane speed and thrust
are independent of  . Show that for maximum net force for acceleration (and hence minimum ground run
distance), the airplane lift coefficient during ground run should be such that:
Ae
CL 
2

TAKE –OFF AND LANDING

Reference: ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL AERODYNAMICS
By: BRADLY JONES – fourth edition

TAKE OFF DISTANCE IN STILL AIR

Three phases to the take-off of an airplane

PHASE I : There is a very short period during which the tail is being raised from the ground.

PHASE II : There is a comparatively long period during which the airplane is gaining speed with
the tail up so the wing is at low angle of attack

PHASE III : The stick is pulled back to put the wing at a high angle of attack so that the airplane is
lifted into the air.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION (μ)

BRAKES OFF
Concreter runway of wooden deck μ = 0.02
Hard turf, level field μ = 0.04
Average field, short gas μ = 0.05
Average field, long grass μ = 0.10
Soft ground μ = 0.10-0.30
BREAKS ON
Concreter runway of wooden deck μ = 0.50
Hard turf, level field μ = 0.40
Average field, short gas μ = 0.30
Average field, long grass μ = 0.50

30
 GROUND RUN DISTANCE, SO

2
Vt  1  1 
S0    1  ln 1  K  
gF0  K  K 
F0  T0  W
K bhp 
T0
T0 
N D 
F0  Ft
K
F0

W  2  1 

Vt    
S    0.9C Lmax 

Vmin
Vt 
0 .9
Vt  1.054V min
1 2
Ft  Tt  C D ' Vt S
2
Where:
Fo = initial accelerating for (lb)

To = static thrust of the propeller (lb)

KTo = static thrust coefficient

Tt = thrust at take –off (lb)

Ft = accelerating force at take –off (lb)

L
CD’ = CDt at angle of attack of
Dt max
Vt = Take-off velocity (ft/s)

W = Take-off weight (lb)

So = ground run distance (ft)

C Dt  C DW  C D pe
1.28a e
C D pe 
S
ae = equivalent parasite area

TRANSITION DISTANCE, St

2
WVt
S t  0.011
Ft
Where:
W = weight at take–off (lb)
Vt = take–off velocity (mph)
Ft = accelerating force at take–off (lb)

DISTANCE TO CLEAR AT 50 FT. OBSTACLE, S50

50
S50 
tan 
Where:
 = maximum climb angle (deg.)
31
TOTAL TAKE-OFF DISTANCE STOTAL

STOTAL = SO + St + S50

32
EFFECT OF WIND ON TAKE –OFF (UPWIND)

 V 
2

S W  SO 1   W   , for ground roll
  Vt  
Where:
Sw = ground run distance with wind
So = ground run in still air
Vw = wind speed
Vt = take-off velocity

tan 
tan '  , for S 50
 V cos  
1   t 
 Vw 

LANDING RUN IN STILL AIR

50
S 50 
tan  g
 V g 2  VS 2 
S t  0.067W  
 D g  DS 
 

33
 2
VL C 
S0  ln   D 
 C    CL  L
2 g     D  
  C L  L 
Dg
tan  g 
L
L  W cos  g
cos  g  1.0 for small value of  g .
L W
Dg
tan  g 
W
50
S 50 
Dg / W
50 W
S50 
Dg
S TOTAL  S 50  S t  S 0
Where:
θg = gliding angle (deg)
W = weight of aircraft (lb)
Dg = total drag at velocity Vg (lb)
Ds = total drag at velocity Vs (lb)
Vs = gliding speed (fps)
Vs = minimum or stalling speed (fps)
VL = minimum landing speed (fps)
(CD/CL) = drag to lift ratio corresponding to VL

Example:
1. In still air, what is the landing run for an airplane equipped with brakes on a concrete runway, if it is
landed at its minimum speed of 62 mph and if the (L/Dt) at the angle of maximum CL is 8.6?
Given:
μ = 0.50
VL = 62 mph = 90.93 fps
(L/Dt)L = 8.6

Required::
So
Solution:
2
VL C 
S0  ln   D 
 C    CL L
2 g     D  
  C L  L 

(90.93)2  1 
S0   ln(0.5)( )  488.43 ft  148.93 m
  1   8 .6 
(2)(32.174) 0.5   
  8 .6  
Problems:
1. An airplane weighing 25,000 lb. with 987 ft2 of wing area, is equipped with brakes and lands on a concrete
runway, within a speed of 75 mph. It rolls along at an angle of attack for which CL = 0.5 and CD = 0.13.
What is the landing run on smooth concrete with brakes?
Ans. So = 404 ft

2. In still air, what is the landing run of an airplane equipped with brakes on a concrete runway, if it is landed at
its minimum speed of 71 mph and the (L/D)L is 7.8?
Ans. So = 616 ft

34
 BREGUET’S FORMULAS FOR RANGE AND ENDURANCE
OF PROPELLER –DRIVEN AIRPLANES

RANGE
Range is the horizontal distance traveled by the aircraft.
   C  W0 
R (miles )  375 P  L  ln 
 BSFC  C D  W1 
Where:
P = propeller efficiency
BSFC = brake specific fuel consumption (the amount of fuel per hour used for each brake horsepower )
in lb/ BHP – hr.
Wo = initial gross weight in lb
W1 = final aircraft weight in lb
CL
Note: For best or maximum range, the flight speed should take place such that is maximum. For a
CD
parabolic drag polar equation, this condition implies in accordance with:

2
CL
C D0 
Ae
   C   W0 
Rbest (miles )  375 P  L   ln 
 BSFC  C D  max  W1 

ENDURANCE
Endurance is the time that an aircraft can stay aloft.
  P  C L 2 
3
 
E (hours )  778   
 S  1  1 
 BSFC  C D 

 W
 1 W0 
Where:
P = propeller efficiency
BSFC = brake specific fuel consumption in lb/BHP-hr.
Wo = initial gross weight in lb
W1 = final aircraft weight in lb
ρ = air density in slug /ft3
S = wing area in ft2
Note: For best or maximum endurance, CL3/2 / CD needs to be maximum. For the case of parabolic drag polar
equation, this condition implies in accordance with

2
CL
C DO 
3Ae
  P  C L 2 
3
 1 1 
E best (hours )  778    
S  
 BSFC  C D 
 max
 W
 1 W0 
Example:
1. A cargo airplane has the following characteristics:
Initial gross weight = 30,000 lb
BSFC = 0.45 lb / BHP –hr
2
C D  0.02  0.05C L
ηp = 0.87
S = 300 ft2
Cruise altitude = 28,000 ft.

This airplane is to carry 3,000 lb of supply and airdrop it at a distance 1,500 miles away and return to the
original airport. Determine (a) the total amount of cruise fuel consumed, (b) the corresponding flying time.

35
Solution:
The computation will be done in two parts.
(1) To Destination:
   C  W 
R (miles )  375 P  L  ln 0 
 BSFC  C D  W1 
W
ln 0  ( R / 375)( BSFC /  p )(C D / C L )
W1
W
W1  ( R / 375 )( BSFC0/ P )(C D / C L ) 
e
For optimum range, CL/CD should be kept at maximum.
C L  AeC D0  0.02 / 0.05  0.632
C D  2C D0  (2)(0.02)  0.04
W0 30,000
W1  ( R / 375 )( BSFC / P )( C D / C L )   (1, 500 / 375 )( 0.45 / 0.87 )( 0.04 / 0.632 )   26,317.92 lb
e e
Amount of fuel consumed:
W f used  W0  W1  30,000  26,317.92  3,682.08 lb
Initial Flight Speed, V:
W  2  1 
V    
S    C L 
At h = 28,000 ft,
4.26 4.26
 ah   (0.003566)(28,000) 
   0 1    (0.002377 ) 1    0.000957 slug / ft 3
 T0   519 
W  2  1   30,000  2  1 
V           575.04 ft / sec
S    C L   300  0.000957  0.632 
Flying Time, E:
  P  C L 2 
3
 
E (hours )  778   S  1  1   
 BSFC  C D 

 W
 1 W0 

 0.87   0.632  2 
3

E (hours )  (778) 
 0.45   0.04 

 (0.000957 )(300) 
26,
1
317 . 92

30

1
, 000

  3.955 hours
 
 
(2) Return Trip:
W0  26,317.92  3,000  23,317.92 lb
W 23,317.92
W1  ( R / 375 )( BSFC0/ P )(C D / C L )   (1,500 / 375 )( 0.45 / 0.87 )( 0.04 / 0.632 )   20,455.97 lb
e e
Amount of Fuel Consumed:
W f used  W0  W1  23,317.92  20,455.97  2,861.95 lb

Flying Time, E:
 0.87   0.632  2 
3

E (hours )  (778) 
 0.45   0.04 

 (0.000957 )(300) 
20,
1
455 . 97
 
23,
1
317 . 92

  4.486 hours
 
 
Total Amount of Fuel Consumed:
W f used  3,682.08  2,861.95  6,544.03 lb
Total

Total Flying Time:

ETotal  3.955  4.486  8.441 hours

36
Problems:
1. Determine the maximum range, maximum endurance (and speeds for best range and endurance at
10,000 ft) of the following airplane.
S = 200 ft2
W = 10,000 lb
Maximum fuel = 4,000 lb
BSFC = 0.52 lb/ BHP-hr
ηp = 0.90
Power required characteristics being: (at 10,000 lb. gross weight)

V, mph THPREQD

403 1350
350 925
300 600
250 400
200 250
175 215
150 200
140 205
130 220
125 240
Ans. Rbest  7,204.58 miles Ebest  50.46 hours
VRbest  175 mph VEbest  150 mph

2
2. An airplane has a lift-drag relation of C D  0.015  0.060C L , weight is 20,000 lb., wing area is 200 square ft.
If this airplane is propeller–driven, what are the speeds corresponding for best range and best endurance at
20,000 lb. gross weight at sea level?
Ans. VRbest  410 fps ; VE best 310.99 fps

TURNS

CENTRIPETAL FORCE

Centripetal force – the force which causes the body to accelerate inward in a turn. It is measured by the mass
times the acceleration.

In constant circular motion:

a  2R
or:
V2
a
R
Where:
a = acceleration
 = angular acceleration
V= linear velocity
R = radius of turn

Therefore:
W V2
C .F . 
g R
Where:
g = gravitational acceleration (fps2)
W = weight of aircraft (lb)
V = airspeed (fps)
R = radius of turn (ft)

NOTE:
The centrifugal force of an airplane in a turn is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
accelerating inward (centripetal) force.

37
BANKING

C.F.
tan  
W

W V2
g R
tan  
W

V2
tan  
gR
Where:
V is in feet per second
R is in feet
g is in feet per second squared

FV  0
L cos   W  0
L cos   W
W
L
cos 

Example:
1. A plane of 3,800 lb gross weight is turning at 175 miles per hour with an angle of bank of 500. (a) What is the
centrifugal force? (b) What is the lift? (c) What would be the radius of turn?
Given:
W  3,800 lb
V  175 mph
  50 0
Required:
( a ) C .F .
(b) L
(c) R
Solution:
C .F .
tan  
W
C.F .  W tan   (3,800 lb)(tan 50 0 )  4,528.66 lb
W 3,800
L   5,911.75 lb
cos  cos 50 0
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 V2
tan  
gR
2
 22 
2 175 x 
V 15 
R    1,718.10 ft
g tan  (32.174)(tan 50 0 )
Problems:
1. An airplane is making a 40o banked of 565 ft. radius. What should be the airspeed?
Ans. V = 123.50 fps

MINIMUM SPEED IN TURNS

 W  2  1  1 
VS '      
 S  ρ  C Lmax  cos β 

VS
VS ' 
cos 
Where:
W  2  1 

VS    
S    C Lmax 

Example:
1. A cub has a minimum flying speed of 39.3 mph in straight level flight. Assuming unlimited engine powers,
what is the minimum speed (a) a 300 banked turn; (b) a 500 banked turn; (c) 700 banked turn?
Solution:
VS 39.3
(a ) VS '    42.23 mph
cos  cos 30 0
VS 39.3
(b) VS '    49.02 mph
cos  cos 50 0
VS 39.3
(c ) VS '    67.20 mph
cos  cos 70 0

Problem:
1. An airplane with a loading of 18.2 lb/ft2 uses a wing section whose C Lmax is 1.5. What is the stalling speed in
a 400 banked turn at standard sea level conditions?
Ans. VS '  115.44 fps

MINIMUM RADIUS AS DETERMINED BY WING LOADING

In banked at constant altitude, the lift must equal the vector sum of the weight acting vertically downward and
centrifugal force acting horizontally outward, i.e.

1 W
L  CL V 2 S 
2 cos 
Since,
V 2  gR tan 
Then,
1 W
CL S g R tan  
2 cos 

W
R 
1
CL ρSg sin β
2

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 W
R  S
1
g sin 
CL
2
W
26.15
R  S
σ C L sin β

Since, in a turn it is dangerous to stall, the most common rule for pilots is always to keep at least 20
percent above stalling speed, this is the equivalent of saying that the angle of attack should be such that the CL
will not be greater than C Lmax / 1.2. Since on examining most wings, the greatest C Lmax to be found is 1.6, the CL
to be used in the above equation should be 1.6 / 1.44 or 1.11. When this value is used and is recalled that the
maximum possible value of sin β is unity (β = 90), the minimum radius becomes

W
23.56
R S

Problem:
1. On the basis of wing loading, what is the minimum radius of (a) a Curtiss P – 40. W/S = 31.2 lb/ft2, (b) a
Grumman Wildcat, W/S = 23.5 lb/ft2 and (c) a Piper liaison, W/S = 6.76 lb/ft2? Assumed standard sea level
conditions.
Ans. a  R  735.07' b  R  553.66' c  R  159.27'
TIME FOR 3600 TURN

2R
t
V
Since,
V2
R
g tan 
Then,
2V
t
g tan 

LOAD FACTOR

Load factor (n) = the ratio of the lift force to the weight of the airplane.

L
n=
W

LOAD FACTOR IN HORIZONTAL TURNS

In horizontal turns, the wing is banked so that the lift force acts in an oblique direction from the vertical.
The vertical component causes the inward acceleration. The lift on the wing must be equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the sum of the weight and the centrifugal force. The load factor in a horizontal turn is
the ratio of this lift to the weight of the airplane.

L  W  C.F .

WV 2
W
L gR
n 
W W

2
 WV 2 
2
W   
L  gR 
n 
W W2
40
 2
V2 
n  1   
 gR 

n  1 tan 2 

n  sec 2 

n  sec 

Example:
1. Airplane is making a turn 1/8 – mile radius at a speed of 225 mph. What is the load factor?
Given:
R  1 mile
8
V  225 mph
Required:
n
V2
tan  
gR
  22 
2

2   225 x  
1 V 1   15    78.970
  tan  tan
gR  1 
 (32.174) 8 x 5,280  
  
1 1
n  sec     5.23
cos  cos 78.970

Problem:
1. Airplane is making turn of 300 ft. radius at a speed of 240 mph. What is the load factor?
Ans. n = 12.88

DIVES AND PULL-OUTS

1
C Lmax V 2 S
L 2
n 
W 1
C Lmax V S 2 S
2
V2
n 2
VS

Where:
V = the velocity when the airplane is pulled out of the dive into the high angle of attack position.
Vs = stalling or landing speed.
Example:
1. A Lockheed airplane whose landing speed is 72 mph is pulled out of a dive at 225 mph, what is the load
factor?
Given:
VS  72 mph
V  225 mph
Required:
n
Solution:
2
V 2  225 
n 2
   9.77
VS  72 

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Problem:
1. A Northrop airplane whose stalling speed is 62 mph is pulled out of a dive at 200 mph. What is the load
factor?
Ans. n = 10.41

LOAD FACTOR DUE TO GUSTS

 
 KUVm 
n  1  
 575 W  
  
  S 
Where:
1

1 W 4 W
K    for  16 psf
2 S  S
2.67 W
K  1.33  3/ 4
for  16 psf
W  S
 
S 
U = normal gust velocity, ft/s
V = airplane speed, mph
CL
m = slope of lift curve, per radian 
   0 
 0 = angle of attack for zero lift

Problem:
1. An airplane weighing 2,000 lb. has a wing area of 216 ft2. The wing has zero lift at -50. For the aspect ratio
of the wing used CL = 1.19 at  = 120. What is the load factor caused by a sharp–edged 30 ft/s gust when
the airplane is flying at 60 mph at 10,000 ft altitude?
Ans. n = 2.95

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