Unit-8

USE OF EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING

Written by:
AYSHA KHALIL

1
Background

Educational technology could be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, e.g.,
paintings on cave walls. But usually its history is made to start with educational film (1900's) or
Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines in the 1920'.

First large scale usage of new technologies can be traced to US WWII training of soldiers
through training films and other mediated materials. Today, presentation-based technology,
based on the idea that people can learn contents trough aural and visual reception, exists in many
forms, e.g., streaming audio and video, PowerPoint presentations + voice-over.

The 1950's led to two major still popular designs. Skinners work led to "programmed
instruction" focusing on the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content
into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Advocating a mastery approach
to learning based on his taxonomy of intellectual behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional
techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models based
on these designs were usually referred to as computer-based training" (CBT), Computer-aided
instruction or computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in the 1970's through the 1990's. In a more
simplified form they correspond to today's "e-contents" that often form the core of "e-learning"
set-ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based training (WBT) or e-instruction.

The 1980's and 1990's produced a variety of schools that can be put under the umbrella of
the label Computer-based learning (CBL). Frequently based on constructivist and cognitivist
learning theories, these environments focused on teaching both abstract and domain-specific
problem solving. Preferred technologies were micro-worlds (computer environments were
learners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play
with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext. Digitized communication and networking in
education started in the mid 80s and became popular by the mid-90's, in particular through the
World-Wide Web (WWW), email and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of
online learning. The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer-
based learning (CBL), focused on the interaction between the student and computer drills plus
tutorials on one hand or micro-worlds and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today
over the WWW. Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular school system is Computer-

2
mediated communication (CMC), where the primary form of interaction is between students and
instructors, mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study)
learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires scenario of flexible learning
activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning
communities and associated knowledge management tasks. It also provides tools for student and
curriculum management.

In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in

full-time distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on paper, videos and occasional
CBT/CBL materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, instant messaging,
video-conferencing etc. Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid
designs that mix presence courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a module) with
distance activities and use various pedagogical styles (e.g., drill & practice, exercises, projects,
etc.). The 2000's emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous technologies gave a new impulse
to situated learning theories favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature uses the
concept of integrated learning to describe blended learning scenarios that integrate both school
and authentic (e.g., workplace) settings.

Objectives:

After reading this unit, students will be able to:

1- Understand educational technology and its utilization in teaching and learning

2- Identify the emerging technological trends used in educational settings these days.
3- Comprehend the nature, characteristics and scope of educational technology.
4- Differentiate between educational and instructional technologies and their implications in
elementary teaching.
5- Understand the role of teacher in technology-led learning environments.
6- Integrate technology in teaching and curriculum in elementary classrooms successfully.

3
Introduction:

Educational technology is a wide field. Therefore, one can find many definitions, some of which
are conflicting. Educational technology as an academic field can be considered either as a design
science or as a collection of different research interests addressing fundamental issues of
learning, teaching and social organization. Educational technology as practice refers to any form
of teaching and learning that makes use of technology. Nevertheless, there are a few features on
which most researchers and practitioners might agree:

1. Use of technology is principled: Technology means the systematic application of

scientific knowledge to practical tasks. Therefore, educational technology is based on
theoretical knowledge drawn from different disciplines (communication, education,
psychology, sociology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, computer science, etc.) plus
experiential knowledge drawn from educational practice.
2. Educational technology aims to improve education. Technology should facilitate learning
processes and increase performance of the educational system(s) as it regards to
effectiveness and/or efficiency.
Definitions of ET

The Association for Educational Communications and Technology AECT (2008) defines
educational technology as:

"Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of

facilitating learning and improving performance by creating,
using and managing appropriate technological processes and
resources."

According to The Encyclopedia of Educational Technology:

"Educational technology is a systematic, iterative process for

designing instruction or training used to improve performance."

Spector (2015) define ET as:

4
 "Educational Technology involves the disciplined application of
knowledge for the purpose of improving learning, instruction
and/or performance."
Perspectives of Educational Technology

As Muffoletto (1994) puts it, "Technology. . . is not a collection of machines and devices, but a
way of acting" (p. 25).

If educational technology is viewed as both processes and tools, it is important to begin by

examining four different historical perspectives on these processes and tools, all of which have
helped shape current practices in the field. These influences come to us from four groups of
education professionals. Because each of these groups emerged from a different area of
education and/or society, each has a unique outlook on what educational technology is, and each
defines it in a slightly different way. To some degree, these views have merged over time, but
each retains a focus that tends to shape the integration practices it considers important.

Perspective #1: Educational technology as media and audiovisual communications

This movement produced audiovisual communications or the "branch of educational theory and
practice concerned primarily with the design and use of messages that control the learning
process" (Saettler, 1990, p. 9). The view of educational technology as media to deliver
information continues to dominate areas of education and the communications industry. As late
as 1986, the National Task Force on Educational Technology equated educational technology
with media, treating computers simply as another medium (Saettler, 1990).

Perspective #2: Educational technology as instructional systems and instructional design

Their view was based on the belief that both human (teachers) and nonhuman (media) resources
could be part of an efficient system for addressing any instructional need. Therefore, they
equated "educational technology" with "educational problem solutions." Thus, the current view
of educational technology as instructional systems is continually evolving.

Perspective #3: Educational technology as vocational training

5
Also known as technology education, this perspective originated with industry trainers and
vocational teachers in the 1980s. They believed (1) that an important function of school learning
is to prepare students for the world of work in which they will use technology and (2) that
vocational training can be a practical means of teaching all content areas such as math, science,
and language.

Perspective #4: Educational technology as computer systems (a.k.a. educational computing and
instructional computing)

This view began in the 1950s with the advent of computers and gained momentum when they
began to be used instructionally in the 1960s. As computers began to transform business and
industry practices, both trainers and teachers began to see that computers also had the potential to
aid instruction. From the time computers came into classrooms in the 1960s until about 1990,
this perspective was known as educational computing and encompassed both instructional and
administrative support applications. At first, programmers and systems analysts created all
applications. But by the 1970s, many of the same teachers involved with media, AV
communications, and instructional systems also were researching and developing computer
applications. By the 1990s, teachers began to see computers as part of a combination of
technology resources, including media, instructional systems, and computer-based support
systems. At that point, educational computing became known as educational technology.

Characteristics of Educational Technology

Characteristics of Educational Technology are as follows:

1. It is based on scientific and technological advancements.

2. It is more a practical discipline and less a theoretical one.

3. It is a fast growing modern discipline.

4. It makes use of the research findings of psychology, sociology, engineering, sciences

and social psychology etc., and applies the same to the field of education.

5. It brings pupils, teachers and technical means together in an effective way.

6. It is the science of techniques and methods. It locates the problems in the field of
education, remedies them and ultimately aims at improving the education system.

6
 7. It is bound to improve the teacher, the learner and the teaching learning process.

Nature of Educational Technology

1. The basis of educational technology is science.

2. Educational Technology studies the effect of science and technology upon education. In
other words, science and technology are used under educational technology. Hence, it is
the practical aspect of science.
3. Educational Technology is a continuous dynamic, progressive and effect-producing
method.
4. New conceptions are possible only due to educational technology such as programmed
learning, micro-teaching, simulated teaching, interaction analysis, video-tape, tape-
recorder, projector and computer, etc.
5. Educational Technology accepts schools as a system. In this system, the school-building,
furniture and teachers act as input while various methods, techniques, strategies and the
teaching and examination with the help of audio-visual aids function in the form of a
process. Lastly, the output is in of form of ability of the pupils.
6. Audio-visual aids cannot be termed as educational technology. It is because its concern is
only with the process-aspect of educational technology and not with the input and output
aspects. But if these A.V. aids are used to achieve educational objectives, then it can be
put in the category of Educational technology.
7. Programmed Instruction is also different from Educational Technology. Its main cause is
that the student learns himself during the programmed instructions. It does not allow
interaction between pupil and teacher.
8. Hence, it can be used only for limited objectives and limited subject-matter. Therefore,
programmed instruction is merely a part of educational technology.
9. Engineering Technology is not the educational technology because the engineering
technology has manufactured radio, tape- recorder, video-tape and T.V., etc., which are
used in teaching as audio-visual aids, but still engineering technology is different from
educational technology. In education, it is accepted as hardware approach only.
10. Educational Technology cannot solve each and every problem of education. It can be
used successfully in teaching and instructional system only.

7
Applications of Educational Technology

Applications of Educational Technology are as follows:

1. Educational technology improves the teaching-learning process and makes it more

effective and process oriented as well.
2. Electronic and mechanical gadget which a common man possesses can be used for
educational requirements.
3. Educational technology has not only maintained the standard of education but also
improved the ways of teaching by giving teaching aids and programmed instructional
material etc.
4. Television, radio, V.C.R. and computers can enrich as well as effect very much the
education. Television, radio, tape-recorder and programmed instruction can also do
wonders in the field of distance and correspondence education.
5. Mechanism of feedback devices for modification of teaching-learning behaviour can
produce effective teachers in training schools.
6. New innovation of system analysis in the field of educational technology can help in
solving educational administrative problems.
7. Structure as well as nature of teaching can be developed and enriched with the help of
educational technology. It innovates new teaching models through which we can achieve
the objectives of education.
8. Scientific foundation of education which is the main force of development of the theories
of teaching and instruction is providing by educational technology.
9. Educational technology provides practice and strategies for reducing individual
differences or strategies and practices which help teachers to teach according to
individual differences of the learners.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational Technology is as wide as Education itself. Educational Technology implies the

use of all educational resources – Men, Materials, Methods and Techniques, Means and
Media in an integrated and systematic manner for optimized learning. The below mentioned
technologies are included in it.

8
Behavioral Technology: Behavioral technology is the important component of Educational
Technology. It puts emphasis on the use of psychological principles in learning and teaching
so that the behavior of the teacher and pupils may be modified in accordance of the teaching
objectives.

Instructional Technology: Instructional Technology means a network of techniques or

devices employed to accomplish certain defined set of learning objectives. Instructional
technology implies the application of psychological, sociological and scientific principles
and knowledge to instruction for achieving the specific objectives of learning.

Teaching Technology: Teaching is the social and professional activity. It is a process of

development teaching is system of actions which induce learning through interpersonal
relationship. Teaching technology is the application of philosophical, sociological and
scientific knowledge to teaching.

Instructional Design: In order to bring desired changes in the pupils’ behaviour, the teaching
situations, working tools and new approaches were considered important in addition to the
learning principles. The composite form of all these is instructional design.

Training Psychology: Training psychology is an important method of teaching and learning.

Its development resulted out of the research work carried out on the complicated training
problems and situations. Training psychology emphasizes that the whole training task should
be divided into three parts. These are: Preparing outline of the task. Task analysis Putting the
task in sequence. The main role of training psychology is in Teacher Education. Cybernetic
Psychology: It’s a part of training psychology. Cybernetic psychology accepts human beings
as machine. Cybernetic psychology emphasizes the fact that all the methods of feedback
bring the desired changes by controlling the behavior of the pupil.

System Analysis: System Analysis is a problem solving process in which the needs of the
management are diagnosed and by using an appropriate method for solving the problem,
evaluation is carried out.

If you consider the working areas of Educational Technology includes the following:
Curriculum Construction, Teaching-Learning Strategies, Audio-Visual materials,
Determining Educational Objectives, Training the teachers, Feedback, Hardware and

9
 Software etc. In short, the scope of Educational Technology extends to all resources (human
and non-human) for the augmentation and development of education.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The terms educational technology and instructional technology may seem interchangeable, but
they in fact have important subtle differences, when understood can make the differences to an
teacher(s) planning and implementation of instruction. The analysis between educational
technology and instruction technology are in fact found at the roots of their definitions.

As Education is defined as the "activities and resources that support learning" (AECT, 2004,
p.1). This refers to all activities and resources both planned and unplanned that contribute to a
students' learning regardless of whether the learning is intentional or unintentional. On the other
hand , instruction refers to " activities structured by someone other than the learner and oriented
toward specific ends"(AECT, 2004,p.1). Instruction is part of the education as a whole but
instruction, unlike education, is carefully mapped out in every detail.

As Educational technology is defined as "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning
and improving performance by creating using, and managing, appropriate technological
processes and resources" (AECT. 2004. p.3), whereas, Instructional Technology is defined as
"the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of
processes and resources for learning" (Seels and Richey, 1994, p.1).

Contrast the Characteristics of Educational Technology and Instructional Technology

Educational Technology Instructional Technology

Teaches with technology (uses technology as a
Teaches about technology as a content area
tool)
Key words: learning environments,
Key words: integration and education
instructional systems and process
Focus more on the development and creating of
Shape curriculum or solve performance the learning system that involve some type of
technology
Primary Goal: Technological literacy for Primary Goal: To enhance the teaching and
everyone learning process

10
Concerned with the broad spectrum of technology
Primarily concerned with the narrow spectrum
(How humans have designed and innovated the
of information and communication technologies
natural world )

Teachers and Educational Technology

Some people assume that educational technology will replace the teacher which will
make the teacher unemployed one day. It is their mistake. Educational technology can never
replace the teacher. It is because of three aspects of educational technology. These are i). Input,
ii). Process and iii). Output.

Input is the teacher’s job and therefore, educational technology cannot snatch the place of
a teacher. In spite of this, educational technology develops cognitive domain only and not the
affective domain. Affective domain can only be developed when an interaction between teachers
and pupils takes place. Hence, educational technology cannot replace the teacher.

Before shunning the use of technology, teachers needs to realize that the technology
actually does empower them. The vast platform of social media like Facebook, Twitter, Tumbler
enable teachers to have better interaction with students, both online and offline format. Teachers
can use the mobile apps to grade, evaluate the performance of the students. It can also provide
the database tom plan the lesson for the session.

Technology Integration in Elementary Teaching

11
Elementary school education should focus on learning through playing and exploration in order
to improve a child’s cognitive, emotional, physical, sensory, reflective, communication and
social developments. Traditional classroom methods may not always provide children with a fun
learning environment. But nowadays, technology helps teachers engage students with many fun
learning approaches. While introducing technology into early childhood education, teachers and
parents should take proper care to avail many positive benefits of it.

Research shows that there are numerous advantages of introducing technology into the
elementary classroom.

Technology integration is the use of technology resources -- computers, mobile devices like
smart phones and tablets, digital cameras, social media platforms and networks, software
applications, the Internet, etc. -- in daily classroom practices, and in the management of a school.
Successful technology integration is achieved when the use of technology is:

 Routine and transparent

 Accessible and readily available for the task at hand
 Supporting the curricular goals, and helping the students to effectively reach their goals

When technology integration is at its best, a child or a teacher doesn't stop to think that he or she
is using a technology tool -- it is second nature. And students are often more actively engaged in
projects when technology tools are a seamless part of the learning process.

When effectively integrated into the curriculum, technology tools can extend learning in
powerful ways. These tools can provide students and teachers with:

 Access to up-to-date, primary source material

 Methods of collecting/recording data
 Ways to collaborate with students, teachers, and experts around the world
 Opportunities for expressing understanding via multimedia
 Learning that is relevant and assessment that is authentic
 Training for publishing and presenting their new knowledge

12
"Effective integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select technology tools
to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyze and synthesize the information, and
present it professionally. The technology should become an integral part of how the classroom
functions -- as accessible as all other classroom tools."

Levels of Technology integration in Elementary Teaching

Most educational technology experts agree, however, that technology should be integrated, not
as a separate subject or as a once-in-a-while project, but as a tool to promote and extend student
learning on a daily basis. The challenge, of course, is in finding ways to use technology -- and to
help students use it -- that don't take time away from core subjects. For many teachers, a lack of
personal experience with technology presents an additional challenge. In order to incorporate
technology-based activities and projects into their curriculum, those teachers first must find the
time to learn to use the tools and understand the terminology necessary for participation in those
projects or activities. Used properly, however, technology can be a tool for teachers as well as
for students. To help teachers new to technology gain experience in using it, and to help tech
savvy teachers incorporate technology more fully into their daily routines, Education World
offers the following easy ways in which you can seamlessly integrate technology into your daily
and weekly classroom routines. Technology integration in teaching takes place in two major
domains: i) Technology in instruction, and ii) Technology in curriculum.

Teaching Strategies:

Those days are gone when classroom teaching only meant blackboards, chalks, diagrams, maps
and so on. But now the modern classroom is very much different than this. Now classroom is
adapting itself with modern digital technology. The first level in successful technology
integration is recognizing the change that may need to happen inside teachers and in their
approach to teaching. Teaching with technology can deepen student learning by supporting
instructional objectives. However, it can be challenging to select the “best” tech tools while not
losing sight of your goals for student learning. Once identified, integrating those tools can itself
be a challenge albeit an eye-opening experience. When any teacher brings technology into the
classroom, he or she will no longer be the center of attention. The level of refocused attention
will, of course, depend on the amount and the type of technology (e.g., mobile device, e-reader,

13
laptop, interactive whiteboard) being brought into the classroom. However, this does not mean
that the teacher is no longer essential to the learning process. While students may be surrounded
by technology at home, it is dangerous to assume that they know how to use it for learning -- this
is commonly referred to as the "myth of the digital native,"

If you are one of those teachers who love to try different things then 5 strategies are listed below
that might come handy for you to engage students better than before.

1) Use of Multimedia

Vivid images, videos, instantaneous information, all of this capture attention from students
easily. Use of various multimedia resources adds zing to your classroom sessions. Students enjoy
distinctive resources and variety of these resources keeps students engaged and interested in the
classrooms throughout. Multimedia can stimulate more than one sense at a time, and in doing so,
teachers reach all different types of learners and hold student’s attention longer. Giving students
the ability to create and utilize different types of multimedia creates a more collaborative
classroom and allows students communicate and actually apply what they are learning,
enhancing the overall educational experience.

2) Utilization of Social Media

Every kid, every teacher in fact everybody uses and enjoys social media. So when this social
media is used for teaching purposes, it turns out to be of great use. Students love being social,
collaborating, sharing and exchanging ideas. Various important aspects that are integral part of
teaching like collaboration and interaction can happen seamlessly via social media. Not just that
it is being used by all but it also enables you to keep things all checked up and helps you in
assigning tasks, assignment and other class related activities effortlessly. Social media also plays
an important role when you talk about keeping guardians updated about the students’
performance and other school activities. Various platforms like Facebook and Twitter are being
used by teachers worldwide and are enjoyed by the masses.

14
3) Use of Mobile Devices: Now in many schools, students are provided with mobile devices like
laptops, tabs, iPads which enhance the experience of education. Students can access net, read
online materials and ebooks and that helps the student in faster learning process.

4) Using Variety of Resources

Mix things up and add some engagement. The source of the information is not just limited to
books in 21st century instead you can use podcasts, videos, OERs, blogs and other resources to
deliver knowledge. Kids enjoy exploring various resources and widening their horizons. A mix
of various resources is enjoyed by students and is refreshing. It even caters to the different
learning needs of the students, as one same resource may not be apt for all.

4) Making Most of Games and Gamification

Maybe this is the best part about technology integration at elementary level. The thing that
students get to learn while gaming is the best thing. No doubts about the thing that how much
love kids have for the games and here educational games are there to help kids learn their
important lessons while playing amazing games. Students can get motivated by challenging each
other and if done on a mobile device, students are more likely to continue learning outside of the
classroom. Using educational games is one of the best ways to use technology in the classroom
to make students eager for learning. And gamification can be used as a framework for
education that can be used anywhere and in any level of complexity. It can be directly applied to
contents, to the pedagogical framework (usually constructivism), or even to other
complementary frameworks.

In curriculum: Utilizing this format is one way to build a curriculum, lesson plans, instructional
units, or presentations that integrate the tools of computer and web technology with classroom
content. In this way, the tools are not the focus of the instruction, but are imbedded in the
facilitation of the learning process. Although instruction will surely center at times on a given
application (such as making the links within a Web site), the learner is ready for the new
information, has experience with the application, and is learning it in a context that has meaning
and purpose. The resources of the media center along with the skills of the professional who
staffs this area provide the classroom teacher with the expertise needed to integrate computer

15
technology into instruction. For the teacher, the computer should be used within daily classroom
activities. Lessons should be made relevant to the student and designed to match their needs and
interests within the classroom activities. With the use of the Internet, students can use the
computer to research specific topics and prepare presentations, while the instructor can
implement specific assignments requiring students to use the computer as a research and
reporting tool. These lessons should take students beyond mere assimilation of content and
superficial levels of understanding to areas of synthesis, analysis, and evaluation.

Instructional need of Educational Technology in Elementary Teaching

Structuring content for technology-based environment is deceptively complex. Many

instructional designers see the process of structuring content as simply one of successively
"atomizing" what needs to learned into a categorical/hierarchical order of discrete elements. This
order can be a useful, productive, and legitimate way of representing information, but a greater
challenge lies on the opposite side of the coin: making sure that content is integrated into a
meaningful conceptual whole. Meaningful learning, even in a purely training context, is not
about absorbing isolated curricular components, but about struggling to understand, at a
conceptual level, the underlying context and principles that relate that information to a larger
picture.

The instructional needs of a target population center on context, communication, support for
practice, and clear and unambiguous feedback in terms of learning outcomes.

Context is the authenticity of the learning experience; in other words, matching the working
experience of the learners with the matrix in which the instructional objectives are embedded.
This determines how well the tasks in the learning environment reflect the real world.

Communication is the interface through which the instructional materials are accessed and
presented. It thus includes both interface design and imagery and the instructional media used.
The critical factor in communication is ensuring that learners know where they are at all times
regarding the instructional content and instructional intent. A well-designed learning system can
provide dynamic support for both navigation and presentation of content.

16
Support for practice is a key determinant in the retention of information. The focus should be on
the authentic representation of real tasks relating to appropriately delimited segments of content.
There should also be support for both elemental and integrated learning. Games, simulations,
predictive reasoning, and traditional assessment can all play a role in this process.

Learning outcome representation is critical for ensuring that learners retain a clear conceptual
picture of their progress through the instructional material. Multimedia technology can support
this in a variety of methods and formats. In addition, the essence of self-paced learning is
ensuring that a review of recently-learned material is always easily accessible.

Teaching should focus on ensuring that content is meaningfully integrated into a solid and
sustained conceptual framework. Understanding and adopting several principles may assist in
achieving that goal.

 What is perceived and attended to is idiosyncratically determined by a learner's prior

knowledge, experiences, and frameworks; ultimately, the meaningfulness of new
information is determined by the degree to which it can be linked to existing knowledge
frameworks.

 "Activating" prior knowledge is an important part of teaching new material; learners must
be actively coached or mentored to understand how to articulate existing cognitive
models, and how to integrate new information into extending and reshaping these models.

 Learners need a high-level view of the material to be learned in order to provide a

conceptual framework into which new material can be integrated. The "cognitive load"
that learners can carry is based on their level of expertise. Novice learners cannot attend
to more than a very small amount of material at any one time. This amount increases with
expertise.

 The axiom "less is more" is an important consideration in terms of the trade-off between
learning outcomes and the amount of presented material, especially in the case of novice
learners. The amount of supported practice is a critical determinant of learning, especially
during the early stages of learning.

17
  Lower-level cognition and psychomotor skills must achieve some degree of automaticity
before higher-order skills can be successfully learned and utilized. This does not,
however, negate or deny the importance of higher-level conceptual frameworks.

Ultimately, online learning development should focus on supporting and fostering the active
participation of the student in constructing personally meaningful representations of the material.
It is not simply a matter of breaking down the content into constituent components, but about
asking the student to think about what he or she already knows and the extent to which these
existing models make sense, reconciling differences between the predictive accuracy of these
and alternative models, determining and refining first principles, and integrating new information
into coherent frameworks. When these processes are supported, then online learning moves
beyond the function of a reference source to become a true semblance of teaching.

Instructional Strategies

Instructional strategies are derived from different educational theories. Here some examples of 4
key instructional strategies.

1- Direct Instruction
This is what some refer to as the traditional method. Direct instruction is primarily
teacher centered and consists of direct lecturing or vertical teaching. It is a form of
explicit teaching that consists of repetitive practice, didactic questioning, drill and
demonstration. This strategy is particularly useful for ‘providing information, or
developing step-by-step skills.'
2- Interactive Instruction
As its name indicates, this strategy consists of creating learning environments conducive
to interactions and discussions. It posits that learning takes place through interactive
communication of knowledge and this interaction can happen in different forms
including: open or closed group discussions, collaborative project work, whole class
discussions …etc
3- Experiential learning
One of the seminal works in experiential learning is Dewey’s "Experience and
Education". This strategy highlights the primacy of the process of learning over the

18
 product of learning. The purpose is to enhance students motivation and increase their
retention rates by connecting classroom learning to their lifeworlds. This can happen
through engaging students in reflexive thinking about their own experiences and how to
leverage what they learned in the past in new contexts.
4- Independent Study
Gayla defines this strategy as “the range of instructional methods which are purposefully
provided to foster the development of individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-
improvement. Independent study can also include learning in partnership with another
individual or as part of a small group.”

Implications of Educational Technology

Teaching should focus on ensuring that content is meaningfully integrated into a solid and
sustained conceptual framework. Understanding and adopting several principles may assist in
achieving that goal.

19
  What is perceived and attended to is idiosyncratically determined by a learner's prior
knowledge, experiences, and frameworks; ultimately, the meaningfulness of new
information is determined by the degree to which it can be linked to existing knowledge
frameworks.

 "Activating" prior knowledge is an important part of teaching new material; learners must
be actively coached or mentored to understand how to articulate existing cognitive
models, and how to integrate new information into extending and reshaping these models.

 Learners need a high-level view of the material to be learned in order to provide a

conceptual framework into which new material can be integrated. The "cognitive load"
that learners can carry is based on their level of expertise. Novice learners cannot attend
to more than a very small amount of material at any one time. This amount increases with
expertise.

 The axiom "less is more" is an important consideration in terms of the trade-off between
learning outcomes and the amount of presented material, especially in the case of novice
learners. The amount of supported practice is a critical determinant of learning, especially
during the early stages of learning.

 Lower-level cognition and psychomotor skills must achieve some degree of automaticity
before higher-order skills can be successfully learned and utilized. This does not,
however, negate or deny the importance of higher-level conceptual frameworks.

Ultimately, technology based learning should focus on supporting and fostering the active
participation of the student in constructing personally meaningful representations of the material.
It is not simply a matter of breaking down the content into constituent components, but about
asking the student to think about what he or she already knows and the extent to which these
existing models make sense, reconciling differences between the predictive accuracy of these
and alternative models, determining and refining first principles, and integrating new information
into coherent frameworks. When these processes are supported, then online learning moves
beyond the function of a reference source to become a true semblance of teaching.

20
Roles and Practices of Elementary Teachers in Technology-Supported Learning

Technology can empower teachers to become co-learners with their students by building new
experiences for deeper exploration of content. This enhanced learning experience embodies John
Dewey’s notion of creating “more mature learners. Side-by-side, students and teachers can
become engineers of collaboration, designers of learning experiences, leaders, guides, and
catalysts of change. Following are some descriptions of these teacher roles and examples of how
technology can play an integral part.

Teachers can collaborate far beyond the walls of their schools. Through technology, teachers are
no longer restricted to collaborating only with other teachers in their schools. They now can
connect with other teachers and experts across their communities or around the world to expand
their perspectives and create opportunities for student learning. They can connect with
community organizations specializing in real-world concerns to design learning experiences that
allow students to explore local needs and priorities. All of these elements make classroom
learning more relevant and authentic.

Teachers can design highly engaging and relevant learning experiences through
technology. Teachers have nearly limitless opportunities to select and apply technology in ways
that connect with the interests of their students and achieve their learning goals. The teacher
might direct students to practice the concept by using manipulative so they can start to develop
some grounded ideas about equivalence.

To create an engaging and relevant lesson that requires students to use content knowledge and
critical thinking skills, an teacher might ask students to solve a community problem by using
technology. Students may create an online community forum, public presentation, or call to
action related to their proposed solution. They can use social networking platforms to gather
information and suggestions of resources from their contacts. Students can draft and present their
work by using animated presentation software or through multimedia formats such as videos and
blogs. This work can be shared in virtual discussions with content experts and stored in online
learning portfolios.

Teachers can lead the evaluation and implementations of new technologies for learning

21
The teachers also can lead and model practices around evaluating new tools for privacy and
security risks, as well as compliance with federal privacy regulations. Teacher-leaders with a
broad understanding of their own educational technology needs, as well as those of students and
colleagues, can design short pilot studies that impact a small number of students to ensure the
chosen technology and the implementation approach have the desired outcomes. This allows
schools to gain experience with and confidence in these technologies before committing entire
schools or districts to purchases and use.

Teachers can be guides, facilitators, and motivators of learners.

By understanding how to help students access online information, engage in simulations of real-
world events, and use technology to document their world, teachers can help their students
examine problems and think deeply about their learning. Using digital tools, they can help
students create spaces to experiment, iterate, and take intellectual risks with all of the
information they need at their fingertips. Teachers also can take advantage of these spaces for
themselves as they navigate new understandings of teaching that move beyond a focus on what
they teach to a much broader menu of how students can learn and show what they know.
Teachers can help students make connections across subject areas and decide on the best tools
for collecting and showcasing learning through activities such as contributing to online forums,
producing webinars, or publishing their findings to relevant websites. These teachers can advise
students on how to build an online learning portfolio to demonstrate their learning progression.
Within these portfolios, students can catalog resources that they can review and share as they
move into deeper and more complex thinking about a particular issue.

Teachers can be co-learners with students and peers.

The availability of technology-based learning tools gives teachers a chance be co-learners

alongside their students and peers. Although teachers should not be expected to know everything
there is to know in their disciplines, they should be expected to model how to leverage available
tools to engage content with curiosity and a mindset bent on problem solving and how to be co-
creators of knowledge. In short, teachers should be the students they hope to inspire in their
classrooms.

Conclusion

22
The presence of educational technology is growing in the classroom. The new generation of kids
come ready to work with these new technologies, which play an important role in children’s
learning and acquiring various cognitive knowledge so that educational technology must be
incorporated into future curricula. The application of educational technology enhances skills and
cognitive characteristics. With the help of new technology comes an explosion of learning and
receiving new information, especially on mobile devices.

Teachers have been using new technologies in the classroom. However, the development and
application of new technologies grows as a measure that is the question of whether teachers are
trained to keep up with them. Here we have two problems. Are the teachers have the ability to
use educational technology and whether the school is sufficiently equipped with all modern
technical means? Numerous studies were carried out, some are still ongoing, but we have to find
the right strategies to apply educational technology in teaching.

Self Assessment

1- Define Educational Technology. What is the point of view of Muffeletto (1994) about
utilization of educational technology in teaching and learning?
2- Today How much educational technology has progressed for its utilization in the
classroom? Discuss the historical background of educational technology in the light of its
emergence.
3- What are characteristics and nature of educational technology? How it can be best
applied in elementary classrooms?
4- Differentiate between educational technology and instructional technology in the light of
point of view of Seels and Richey (1994) and AECT (2004)?
5- How much it is right to say that educational technology has minimized the role of teacher
by making them passive in educational process? Discuss.
6- As an elementary teacher, what would be your strategy to best integrate technology in
your classroom? What tools, technologies, and techniques will you use to make your
teaching more interesting and relevant to the learning objectives of elementary students?

References

Aggarwal J.C.(2010) Essentials of Educational Technology (Innovations in Teaching-

Learning), Vikas Publishing Housing PVT LTD:New Delhi, Page No. 1-10.

Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (2004). The meaning of

educational technology.

23
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. (2012). Innovation in education: Technology & effective
teaching in the U.S. Seattle, WA: Author.

Ching, D., Santo, R., Hoadley, C., & Peppler, K. (2015). On-ramps, lane changes, detours
and destinations: Building connected learning pathways in Hive NYC through brokering
future learning opportunities. New York, NY: Hive Research Lab.

D, Butucea (March 2013). "Personalized e-learning software systems. Extending the solution
to assist visually impaired users". Academy of Economic Studies Bucharest, Romania-
Database Systems Journal.

Darling-Hammond, L., & Rothman, R. (2015). Teaching in the flat world: Learning from
high-performing systems. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Dewey, J. (1937). Experience and education. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Gebbe, Marcel (2016) (in German), A Holistic Approach to Scoring in Complex Mobile
Learning Scenarios

Hannafin, M. J., & Land, S. M. (1997). The foundations and assumptions of technology-
enhanced student-centered learning environments. Instructional Science, 25(3), 167–202.

Haynie, D. (2014, April 4). Tips for Online Students with Disabilities. Retrieved September
16, 2015.

Herrington, J., Reeves, T. C., & Oliver, R. (2014). Authentic learning environments. In J. M.
Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational
communications and technology (pp. 401–412). New York, NY: Springer.
Januszewski, A. (2001). Educational technology: the development of a concept. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unlimited Inc.

Kafai, Y. B., Desai, S., Peppler, K. A., Chiu, G. M., & Moya, J. (2008). Mentoring
partnerships in a community technology centre: A constructionist approach for fostering
equitable service learning. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 16(2), 191–205.

Kafai, Y. B., Desai, S., Peppler, K. A., Chiu, G. M., & Moya, J. (2008). Mentoring
partnerships in a community technology centre: A constructionist approach for fostering
equitable service learning. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 16(2), 191–205.

Lou, Yiping, Robert M. Bernard and Philip C. Abrami (2006). Media and Pedagogy in
Undergrade Distance Education: A Theory-based Meta-Analysis of Empirical Literature.
Educational Technology Research and Development 54 (2), 141-176

Lowenthal, P. R.; Wilson, B. G. (2010). "Labels do matter! A critique of AECT's redefinition

of the field". TechTrends. 54 (1): 38–46.

24
Owen, H. (2008). Learners re-shaping learning landscapes: New directions for old
challenges? [Electronic Version]. Hello! Where are you in the landscape of educational
technology: ASCILITE 2008
from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/owen.pdf

Perkins, R. A., & Lowenthal, P. R. (2016). Open access journals in educational technology:
Results of a survey of experienced users. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,
32(3), 18-37

Reiser Robert A. and John V. Dempsey (eds). (2006). Trends and Issues in Instructional
Design and Technology, 2nd edition. Prentice Hall. ISBN: 0131708058 (probably the best
buy if you are looking for a single book covering educational technology, learning theory and
instructional design)
Reiser, R. A. & Ely, D. P. (1997). The field of educational technology as reflected through its
definitions. Educational technology research and development. Vol. 45, No. 3, 63-72.

Richey, R. C., Silber, K. H., & Ely, D. P. (2008). Reflections on the 2008 AECT Definitions
of the Field. TechTrends, 52(1), 24-25.

Richey, R.C. (2008). "Reflections on the 2008 AECT Definitions of the Field". TechTrends.
52 (1): 24–25.

Sandholtz, J. H., Ringstaff, C., & Dwyer, D. C. (1997). Teaching with technology: Creating
student-centered classrooms. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Smaldino, S. E. et al, (2005), Instructional Technology and Media for Learning (5th Edition),
Sharon E et al, Pearson Education Ltd.

Spector, J. M. (2015). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative approaches and

interdisciplinary perspectives. Routledge.

The Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. What is Educational Technology?

Tticca, F.; Perren, S. (2013). "Is cyberbullying worse than traditional bullying? Examining
the differential roles of medium, publicity, and anonymity for the perceived severity of
bullying". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 42 (5): 739–50.

Utah State University. (2005). National Library of Virtual Manipulatives.

25