Second Edition MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Roy R. Craic, Jr. as‘The Hobby-Eberly Telescope (HET). shown on the front cover is a92-meter telescope located at the McDonald Observatory at Fort Davis in west Texas. It was built and is ‘operated by an international collaboration between The University of Texas at Austin, ‘The Pennsylvania State University, and Stanford University in the United States: and Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Munchen and Georg-August-Universitat Gottingen in Germany. The primary mirror of the HET, seen in the center of the cover photo, consists of 91 hexagonal I-meter segments. Design of the many members of the support- ing 3D truss required very detailed finite element analysis, including careful attention to the effects of temperature change (see Chapter 3). Consult the following website for further information: bupuiwww.as.utexas.edu/medonald/hev, ACQUISTIONS EDITOR: Joseph Hayton MARKETING MANAGER: Katherine Hepburn FULL SERVICE MANAGER: Jeanine Furino DESIGN DIRECTION: Karin Gerdes Kincheloe TEXT DESIGNER: Lee Goldstein COVER DESIGNER: Carol C. Grohe ILLUSTRATION EDITOR: Sigmund Malinowski PRODUCTION SERVICES: Ingrao Associates ELECTRONIC ILLUSTRATIONS: Precision Graphics COVER PHOTO: Interior view of the Hobby-Eberly Telescope primary mirror. Photo courtesy of Mr. Thomas A. Sebring and MeDonald Observatory, The University of Texas at Austin, MDSolids Software by Dr. Timothy A. Philpot. ‘This book was set in Times Roman by The PRD Group and printed and bound by Von Hoffmann Press. ‘The cover was printed by Phoenix Color. The insert was printed by Lehigh Press ‘This book was printed on acide paper. @ Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved [No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, oF authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons. Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008. ‘To onder books or for customer service please, call 1(800)-CALL-WILEY (225-5945). ibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Craig, Roy RJ. ‘Mechanics of materials / Roy R. Cra Bem, Includes bibliographical references (p. ) ISBN 0-471-33176-7 (clot/CD-ROM : alk. paper) 1 Strength of materials. I. Title. TAMS.C89 1999 €201'1292—de21 9.43425 cP Je—2nd ed. Printed in the United States of America 10987 ,———E———————————————e PREFACE TO THE STUDENT This textbook is an introduction to the topic of mechanics of materials, an engi neering subject that also goes by the names mechanics of solids, mechanics of deformable bodies, and strength of materials, You should already have a thorough background in staties, that is, you should know how to analyze the equilibrium of “rigid” bodies by constructing fr appropriate equilibrium equations. In this course you will learn how to extend equilibrium analysis to deformable bodies, specitically to various members that make up structures and machines, This requires not only careful attention to equilib- > sium requirements, but also consideration of the behavior of the material ( aluminum, steel, or wood) of which the member is made, and consideration of the geometry of deformation. Therefore. you will learn to apply the three fundamental concepts of solid mecha ‘quilibrivun, Foree-Temperauire-Deformation Behav- ior of Materials, and Geometry of Deformation. With the aid of this textbook you will learn systematic problem-solving methods, including ways to assess the probable accuracy of your homework solutions. You will enjoy using the computer program MDSolids that is available for use with this textbook. Its intuitive graphical interface will help you develop problem-solvin skills by showing you the important factors affecting various problem types. by helping you visualize the nature of internal stresses and member deformations, and by providing you an easy-to-use means of investigating a greater number of problems and variations, Nevertheless, the emphasis in this textbook remains on your devel oping an understanding of the fundamentals of elementary solid mechunies, not on writing computer programs or on using an existing computer program just to get mediate answers. Please take time now to look at the seven color photographs that are included insert in this book. They illustrate how the Finite Element Me extension of this introduction to solid mechanics, is used to design i everything from airplanes to ears, from skyscrapers and bridges to bicycle frames and tennis racquets, from offshore oil rigs to computer chips. The goal of this book is to prepare you to study further courses in solids and structures that will enable you to carry out such complex analyses, opening the door to the exciting world of Computer-Aided Engineering, whether your application is to aerospace engi- neering, architectural engineering, civil engineering, m gineering, petro- je eum engineering, or even to electrical enginSPECIAL FEATURES The philosophy guiding the development of this introductory solid-mechanies text- book has been that students learn engineering topics best: (1) when they are made aware of the fundamental concepts involved in the subject, 2) when they are taught systematic problem-solving procedures and are provided many example problems that are solved in a systematic manner and are complete, (3) when they have ample opportunity for drill and practice in solving problems and obtaining feedback, and (4) when they are given real engineering examples and shown the relevance of what they are studying. To implement this philosophy. the following features have been incorporated in this textbook. + A Strong Emphasis on the Three Basie Concepts of Deformable-Body Me- chanics. Throughout this book students are reminded that solid mechanics problems involve three fundamental concepts: Equilibrium, Material Behay- ior, and Geometry of Deformation. In the Example Problems, the equations that correspond to each of these three concepts are highlighted and identified by name, so that the student should thoroughly understand the important role played by each one of these three fundamental concepts, + A Four-Step Problem-Solving Procedure. The following four steps are in- cluded in the solution of most of the Example Problems in this book. + State the Problem + Plan the Solution + Solve the Problem + Review the Solu ‘Once an engineering student leaves the university environment and becomes a practicing engineer, with powerful computer programs to carry out the etaed solution of complex problems. the importance of being able to Plan the n and Review the Solution for probable accuracy will become ily apparent. + Example Problems; Systematic Problem-Solving Procedures. In this text- book, over 140 Example Problems provide the student with detailed illustra tions of systematic procedures for solving solid-mechanics problems. In add tion, as part of the accompanying MDSolids software. there are an additional 90 Example Problems, with complete solutions provided in the same notation and style as the solutions in the textbook itself. As noted above, the distinc! contribution of each of the three fundamen- tal concepts—Equilibrium, Material Behavior, and Geometry of Deforma- tion—is highlighted and identified by name. Once the basic equations have been written down, solutions are completed by combining these equations to obtain the final answer(s). Flow eharts that indicate convenient and system- atic procedures for solving problems are provided. These problem-solving procedures, labeled the Basic Force Method, the Displacement Method, and the Force Method, are first presented in Chapter 3.! onventions for forces, displacements, ete. are established and are consistently followed, and wherever eq complete free-body diagram is drawn, Because equilibrium analysis plays such a central role in mechanies of solids, a special section in Chapter 1 is on See the "Now in This Edition” topic regarding these solution proceduresoe devoted to reviewing statics of rigid bodies and to introduei of internal resultants for deformable bodies. + Computer Exercises and Computer Softwa included as homework problems; these are identified by a C-superscripted problem number. Students are presented the opportunity to develop their own computer programs, and the award-winning MDSolids software is avai able on CD-ROM for use on PCs running the Windows operating system. Appendix G describes the software that accompanies this textbook. A Macis tosh program, MechSOLID is available for download from the author 1g the concept ‘Thirty computer exercises are website, www.ac.utexas.cdu/~craig, or the publisher's website: www.w com/eollege. + Design. There isa multifaccted treatment of the topic of design. For example, Section 2.8 discusses the philosophy of design, introduces the student to straightforward allowable-stress design, and closes with an example of opti- mum (minimum-weight) design of a simple statically determinate truss. The final chapter. Chapter 12, discusses three special design-related topics: stress concentrations, failure theories, and fatigue and fracture. ‘Throughout the text and among the special MDSolids Example Problems there are design- related examples. Homework problems with design content are identified by a D-superscripted problem number. (See also New in This Edition.) + Accuracy. Special efforts have been made to provide as error-free a book as possible. At least two independent solutions have been obtained for every homework problem, and the Solutions Manual was prepared directly by the author in order to insure consisteney and accuracy + Communication with Solutions Manual Authors, Comments regarding the book or the be addressed to: Dr. Roy R. Craig, Jr., ASE-EM Department, Mail Code C0600, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, ‘TX 78712-1085; or to the following e-mail address: Roy-Craig@mail utexas.edu, Please address your comments or inquiries regarding MDSolids by e-mail to Dr. Timothy Philpot: philpott@umr.edu. v Preface NEW IN THIS EDITION ‘This second edition of Mechanics of Materials provides 2 more gradual introduction to the basic concepts in mechanies of materials, primarily through an increase in the number of example problems and homework problems, and through better gradation of examples and homework problems from the less difficult to the more difficult. Both students and instructors will appreciate the more classical treatment of statically indeterminate structures. However, this edition retains the hallmarks of the first edition—strong emphasis on the three fundamental types of equations of solid mechanics and on systematic procedures for solving. problems + The most significant change is the reorganizatic topic of statically inde! of Chapter 3, with the structures introduced, i "The MDSolids software suite, developed by Dr. Timothy A. Philpot, wos awarded the 1998 Premier Award for Excellence in Engineering Education Courseware. “The so-called classical solution procedure consistsof simultancously solving the equations of equilibrium and the compatibility equations written because, as with the Force Method of § are the unknown forces, terms of forces, This is labeled the “Basie Force Method” tion 39, the quantitics thar are obtained first in a solutionPreface ‘There is still a strong emphasis on the three distinct equations of deformable- body mechanies—equilibrium, force-deformation behavior, and geometry of deformation, but coverage of the Displacement Method and the Force Method is now left to the discretion of the instructor. The MechSOLID computer program has been replaced by the award-win- ning MDSolids computer program. (See Appendix G.) MDSolids is supplied on the CD-ROM inside the back cover of the book. This program has a superb graphical user interface, is exceptionally user friendly, and covers a very broad range of mechanics of materials topics. A number of new text example problems have been added, particularly very simple demonstration-of-concept example problems (e.g., Examples 2.1 and 2.2), Inaddition to the 140+ text examples, there are the 90 all-new MDSolids example problems, which are closely linked to the examples in the book and to the homework problems. MDS icons key these examples to the text The initial example problems in Chapter 3 are new, simpler uniform axial- deformation examples. Several more difficult examples have been grouped together later in a new section. Section 3.4, entitled “Examples of Nonuni- form Axial Deformation. Systematic coverage of the Displacement Method (Sections 3.8, 4.7, and 7.7) and the Force Method (Section 3.9) is still an important feature in this edition, although less prominent than in the first edition. In Sections 3.5, 3.8, and 3.9, Flow Charts and Procedures are provided to help students understand the importance of the three fundamental equation types and to learn systematic ways to combine the three types of equations. As in Section 3.5, the “classical” solution procedure (labeled the Basic Force Method) is also employed in Section 4.6 on “Statically Indeterminate Assemblages of Uniform Torsion Members.” Section 4.7 is devoted 10 “Dis- placement-Method Solution of Torsion Problems.” As in Chapter 3, instruc- {ors may skip this section if they wish. Similar separation of topics holds for Sections 7.6 and 7.7 on deflection of beams. Approximately 250 new homework problems have been included in this edition, and another 200 have been modified, for a total of over 1300 home- work problems. Homework problems have been carefully grouped by type (eg., multisegment axial deformation); groups of problems are labeled and idemtified by an icon and header; and MDS example problems related to the problem set are listed in the header so that the student can study both. book examples and MDS examples before attempting to solve the as- signed homework. There is increased emphasis on design, and the earliest section on design has been moved forward from Section 2.12 to Section 2.8, immediately following the introduction of average normal stress and direct shear stress. There is a new example problem (Example 2.11) dealing with computer- aided optimal design. Design-type homework problems are all tagged with a D-superscript icon. MDSolids provides a powerful tool for students to use in solving design problems, whether straightforward determination of dimensions of members in an allowable-stress design or some more involved iterative design Section 5.5 on “Discontinuity Functions to Represent Loads, Shear, and Moment” has been simplified, and Section 6.6 on “Unsymmetric Bending” has been rewritten, with a more straightforward method replacing the princi- pal-axis method covered in the first edition. =oO + The formulas for the design of wood columns (in Section 10.7 of the first edition) have been replaced by the single design formula prescribed by the latest code. + Chapter 11 on “Energy Methods” has been extensively reorganized so that now only the elementary energy-methods topics in Sections 11.2-I1.4 pre- cede the discussion of liano’s Second Theorem: The Unit Load Method,” which was Section 1.8 and is now Section 11.5. Instructors who \wish to do so can now more easily cover Castigliano’s Theorem along with Chapter 7, where the other methods for calculating beam deflections are pre- sented. Preface SUPPLEMENTS ) structures, and the use of computers in engineering education. He is the developer of the Craig-Bampton Method of component mode synthesis, which is extensively used throughout the world for analyzing the dynamic response of complex stru tures. Dr. Craig hay received several citations for his contributions to aerospace structures technology, including a NASA citation for contributions to the U manned space Might program; and he has presented invited lectures in England, France, Taiwan, The Netherlands, and The People’s Republic of China, Dr. Craig has received numerous teaching awards and faculty leadership awards, including the General Dynamies Teaching Excellence Award in the College of igineering, a University of Texas Students’ Association Teaching Excellence Award, the Halliburton Award of Excellence, and the John Leland Atwood Award presented joinily by the Aerospace Division of the American Society for Engi neering Education and by the Amer titute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Dr. Craig is the author of many t papers and reports and of one oth: textbook, Sirucuval Dynamics—An turoduction 10 Compuier Methods. He is. a licensed Professic a Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and Member of the American Society for Engineering Educa- tion, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Society for Experimen- tal Mechani Roy R. Craig, Ir ‘Austin, Texas September 1999° > Ie =I SSeS CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS OF MATERIALS: 1 12 The Deformable-Body Mechanics, 4 Problem-Solving Procedi Review of Static Equilibrium brium of Deformable Bodies, 8 Problems, 17 es, 6 5 2 STRESS AND STRAIN; DESIGN 21 I roduction, 21 Extensional Stra Thermal Strai Stress-Strain Diagrams; Mechanical Properties of Materials, 36 ity and Plasticity; fects, 44 pepe See nperature ity; Hooke’s Law and 2.7 Shear Stress and Shea: ‘Modulus, 50 roduetion to Design —Axsial Loads ect Shear, 56 29 Stresses on an Inclined Plane in an Axially Loaded Member, 64 Strain; Shear jo 210 Saint-Venant’s Principle, 66 Law for Plane Stress; The jonship Between F and G, 68 eral Definitions of Stress and Strain, 71 2.13 Cartesian Components of Stress: Generalized Hooke’s Law for Isotropi Materials, 81 2.14 Problems, 86 3 AXIAL DEFORMATION Introduction, 113 nples of Nonm Deformation, 128 3.5. Statically Indeterminate Structures, 134 3.6. ‘Thermal Effects on Axial Deformation, 143 3.7 Geometric “Misfits,” 184 3.8. Displacement-Method Solution of Axial-Deformation Problems, 160 "3.9 Force-Method Solution of A: Deformation Problems, 172 on to the Analysis of Planar “3.10 “3.11 Inelastic Axial Deformation, 189 3.12, Problems, 2014 TORSION 4.1 Introduction, 227 42. Torsional Det 4.3, Torsion of Linearly F 4A Stress mation of Circular 28 Circular Bars, 231 1 ate Assemblages of orm Torsion Members, 243 n Members, 248 1.7 Displacement-Method Solution of ‘Torsion Problems 48 Shafts, 262 *49 ‘Thin-Wall Torsion Members, 265 °4.10 Torsion of Noncireular Prismatic Bars, 270 °4.1L Inelastic Torsion of Circular Rods, 274 4.12 Problems, 280 5 EQUILIBRIUM OF BEAMS 298 5.1 Introduction, 298 Equilibrium of Beams Using Fi Free-Body Diagrams, 303 Moment, 307 54 Shear-Force and B Diagrams, 310 5.5 Discontinuity Functions to Represent L Is, Shear, and Moment, 322 Problems, 329 G STRESSES IN BEAMS 338 Introduction, 338 uilysis, 341 6.3. Flexural Stress in Linearly Elastie Beams, 347 6A Design of Beams for Strength, 6.5. Flexural Stress in Beams, 362 *6.6 Unyymmetrie Bending, 369 96.7 Inelastic Bending of Beams, 379 68 Shear Stress and Shear Flow in Beams, 389 69 Li ‘on the Shear Stress ‘ormula, 395 6.10 Shear Stress in Thin-Wall Beams, 308, 6a 612 6.13 sar in Built-Up Beams, 408 Shear Center, 412 Problems, 419 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS x 1 12 al Equations of the n Curve, 449 Slope and Detection by Integration—Statically Determinate Beams, 455 Slope and Deilection by Integration—Statically Indeterminate Beams, 468 7.5. Use of Discontinuity Functions to Determine Beam Deflections, 473 746 Slope and Detlection of Beam Superposition Method, 480 721 Slope and Deflection of Beam Displacement Method, 498 78 Problems, 505 8 TRANSFORMATION OF STRESS AND STRAIN; MOHR’S CIRCLE 8.1 Introduction, $24 8.2 Plane Stress, 525 8.3. Stress Transformation for Plane Stress, 527 8.4 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stress, 534 8&5 Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress, S40 8.6 Triaxial Stress Absolute Maximum Shear Stress, 547 8.7 Plane Strain, 88° Transformati Plane, 585 89 Mohr’s Ci for Strain, $59 448 524ae 8.10 SL 812 Measurement of St Rosettes, 365 Analysis of Three-Dimensional Strain, $70 Problems, 571 Strain 9 PRESSURE VESSELS; STRESSES DUE TO COMBINED LOADING OL 92 93 94 95 10 BUCKLING OF COLUMNS Wd 2 103 - “104 105 106 10.7 108 ua n2 3 14 “116 “7 et lls 11 ENERGY METHODS Introduction, 585 ‘Thin-Walll Pressure Vessels, 586 Stress Distribution in Beams, 592 Stresses Due to Combined Loads, 597 Problems, 606 614 ntroduction, 614 ‘The Ideal Pin-Ended Column; Euler Buckling Load, 617 ‘The Effect of End Conditions on Column Buckling, 623 Eccentric Loading; the Secant Formula, 630 Imperfections in Columns, 636 Inelastic Buckling of Ideal Columns, 37 Design of Centrally Loaded Columns, oat Problems, 647 660 Introduetion, 660 Work and Strain Energy, 661 Elastic Strain Energy for Various es of Loading, 668 Work-Energy Principle for Calculating Defleetions, 674 mno’s Second Theorem; the vad! Method, 679 Virtual Work, 690 Strain-Energy Methods, 694 Complementary-Energy Methods, 699 “11.9 Dynamic Loa 11.10 Problems, 714 impact, 709 12 SPECIAL TOPICS RELATED TO DESIGN 729 4 122 +123 “124 1s n, 729 Stress Cone 8 729 Failure Theories, 736 Fatigue and Fracture, 744 Problems, 748 A NUMERICAL ACCURACY; APPROXIMATIONS, Ad Al Numerical Accuracy; Sigi Digits, A- Approximations, A-2 A2 B SYSTEMS OF UNITS Bel Bul B2 BS Introd BA SI Units, B-1 US. Customary Unit Units, B-3 Conversion of C GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREASt co Cl Ki C2 C3 ca st Moments of Area; Centroid, C-1 Moments of Inertia of am Area, C-4 Product of Inertia of an Area, C-9 Area Moments of Inertia About Inclined Axes; Principal Moments of Inertia, C-11 See CD-ROM for Sections C1 through ca D SECTION PROPERTIES OF SELECTED STRUCTURAL SHAPES D.l_ Properties of Steel Wide-Flange (W) Shapes (U.S. Customary Units), D-2D.2__ Properties of Steel Wide-Flange (W) Shapes (SI Units), D-3 D3 Properties can Standard (S) Beams (U.S. Customary Units), D-4 Da __ Properties of American Si Channels (U.S. Custon DS Properties of Steel Angle Sections—Equal Legs (US. Customary Units), D-6 DG Properties of Steel J Sections —Unequal Customary Units), D-7 1.7 Properties of Standard-Weight Steel Pipe (U.S. Customary Units), D-8 D8 Properties of al Lumber (US. Customary Units), D-9 D.9 Properties of Aluminu Standard I-Beams (Us Units), D-10 D.10 Properties of Alm Association Standard Channels (U.S. Customary Units), D-11 Association Customary E DEFLECTIONS AND SHOPES OF BEAMS; FIXED-END ACTIONS £0 BA E.2. Deflections and § Supported Uniform Beams, xiv E,3. Fixed-End Actions for Uniform Beams, E-t F MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED ENGINEERING MATERIALS F.1 Specific Weight and Mass Dens F. ty; Shear Modulus of . and Poisson’s Ratio, F F3 strength, 2 Inches, and 1 Expansion, P-4 G COMPUTATIONAL MECHANICS+ G.l_ MDSolids, G-1 G2 MechSOLID, G-4 See CD-ROM for Si G2. ns G-l and ANSWERS TO SELECTED ODD- NUMBERED PROBLEMS REFERENCES INDEX Fe GAINTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 1.1 WHAT IS MECHANICS OF MATERIALS? Mechanics is the physical science that is concerned with the conditions of rest or motion of bodies acted on by forces or by thermal disturbances. The study of bodies at rest is called series, whereas dynamics is the study of bodies in motion. You have been introduced to the fundamental principles of statics and dynamics and have applied these principles to particles and to rigid bodies, which are both simplified idealizations of real physical systems. The principles of statics and dynamies are also fundamental to the mechanics of solids and to the mechanics of finids, wo major branches of applied mechanics that deal, respectively, with the behavior of solids and with the behavior of Nuids. This book is an introduction to mechanics ‘of materials, « topic that is also known by several other names, including “strength ‘of materials,” “mechanics of solids,” and “"mechanies of deformable bodi Mechanics of Materials. We can begin to answer the question, “What is me- chanies of materials?” by considering Fig, 1.1, First, a deformable body is a solid that changes size and/or shape as a result of loads that are applied to it or as a result of temperature changes. The diving board in Fig, 1.1 visibly changes shape due to the weight of the diver standing on it, Changes of size and/or shape are FIGURE 1.1 A diving board as an example formable body.2 referred to as deformation, The deformation may even be so small that it isinvisible =m. to the naked eye, but it is still very important. To relate the deformation to the applied loading, it is necessary to understand how materials (ie. solids) behave under loading Whereas it would be possible from rigid-body equilibrium alone. given the ‘weight of the diver and the lengths Zand Ls, to determine the diving-board support reactions at A and Bin Fig. 1.1, questions of the following type can only be answered by employing the principles and procedures of mechanics of materials Introduction to Mechanics of Materials 1. What weight W would cause the given diving board to break, and where would the break occur? 2. For a given diving board and given position of roller B, what is the relation- ship between the tip deflection at C, 8, and the weight, W, of the diver ing on the board at C? 3. Would a tapered diving board be “better” than one of constant thickness? If so, how should the thickness, /, vary from A to C? 4, Would a diving board made of fiberglass be “preferable” to one made of aluminum? Stress and Strain. All of the preceding questions require consideration of the diving board as a deformable body; that is, they require consideration not only of the external forces applied to the diving board by the diver and by the diving-board supports at A and B, but they also involve the localized effects of these forces within the diving board (‘e., the stress distribution and the strain distribution) and of the material), Stress and strain, the Key concepts in the om study of mechanies of materials, are formally defined in Chapter 2. Throughout ¢ you will be learning how to analyze the distribution of stress and strain imensional deformable bodies, but the principles and procedures you learn here are also the basis for computer programs that are used to analyze very complex deformable bodies. The photos in the color insert illustrate stress and strain distributions that have been obtained by use of various finite element computer programs. In the photos, different colors are used to indicate different levels of siress or, in some cases, strain, Analysis and Design. All deformable-body mechanies problems fall into one ‘of two categories—strength problems, and stiffness problems, A structure or ma- chine must be “strong enough”: that is, it must satisfy preseribed strength criteria. It must also be “stiff enough”; that is, its deformation must be within acceptable limits. The first diving-board question is a strength question; the second one ad dresses stiffness. “The first two diving-board questions above fall under the category of analysis. That is, given the system (in this ease the diving board) and the loads applied to it, your task is to analyze the behavior of this particular system abeced to thisJ ») 7 Finite Element Analyses ‘The solid mechanics principles and the computational proce- dures presented in this Mechan- ies of Marerials textbook form the basis for the finite element ‘method, which was used to create these color photos. YV-22 Osprey tilterotor air- craft structure, Shown are the complete aircraft and a wing-tip eengine-mount section with finite element grids, and a wing-tip section that illustrates the use of color graphics to interpret strain contours, (MSC/NASTRAN finite element analysis by Bell Heli- copter Textron, Photo courtesy f American Institute of Aero- nities and Astronauts.)CP-2.« & b. Examples of the use of finite clement analysis to support the design of automobile components. Flat-plate and thin-shell elements were used in ‘modeling the car boxy and the wheel. (SDRC /-DEAS finite clement analysis photos by Renault (above) and AirBoss (below). Courtesy of Structural Dynamics Re- sarch Corporation.) (b) (a)+One Quadrant of a 24 Lead TSOP a Centerline ection of a TSOP-CP-4 An example of the use of finite element analysis in support of the design of a mechanical latch member from a ‘Space Shuttle payload, (MSC/NASTRAN finite element analysis with SDRC E-DEAS postprocessing. Photo courtesy ‘of NASA-Johnson Space Center.) CP'S Finite element analysis of the stress concentration due to ahole in an axially loaded flat bar, as described in Section 12.2, The adjacent color bar indicates that the stress depicted is the von Mises stress, which is discussed in Section 12.3. (ABAQUS finite element analysis by Greg Swadener.)o wt board), your task is to select the configuration of the diving board and the material to be used in its construction. ‘The design process usually involves an iterative procedure whereby a design (a ic configuration made of specific materials) is proposed, the response of the ;ned system to given loads is analyzed. and the response is compared with the response of other designs and with the stated design criteria, The “best” of several candidate designs is then selected. Finally, there may be a requirement that a prototype based on the selected design be manufactured and tested (0 verily that the system meets all the design requirements in an acceptable manner. Figure 1.2 shows an airplane wing undergoing an ultimate-load test, that is.a test to determine the maximum wing loading that can be applied without causing the wing to break. The designers’ expectations were exceeded when, during the test, the wings were pulled to approximately 24 ft above their normal position. (Of course, in normal service the wing will only undergo deflections that are much smaller than those experienced in an ultimate-load test like this.) Applications of Mechanics of Materials. The applications of deformable- body mechanies are practically endless and can be found in every engineering discipline. The impressive Brooklyn Bridge, shown in Fig. 1.3, is truly an engineering marvel. It was designed by Johann Roebling in 1867-1869 and built under the supervision of his son Washington Rocbling in 1870-1883 at a cost of $25 million, Its span of 1595 ft is suspended trom towers that are 271 ft tall. Since the 1960s, computer programs (e.g.. NASTRAN, ANSYS, ABAQUS, GT-STRUDL) have been employed extensively for carrying out the numerical computations required in the design of mechanical systems and structures. Very detailed finite element models were used to create the color stress plots shown in the color-photo insert. In designing modern airplanes, automobiles, and other al systems, Computer-Aided-Design (CAD) plays an essential role in defining the geometry of components, creating mathematical models of these com- 3 What is Mechanics of Materials? FIGURE 1.2 An airplane ‘wing undergoing an ultimate- load test. (Used with permis- sion, The Boeing Company, 1995)4 Introdu Materials to Mechanics of FIGURE 1,3. ‘The Brook- Bridge, New York, (An- Feininger/Life Mag- ponents, and then performing the deformable-bady analysis of these components. Color-insert Fig. CP-2 illustrates how CAD and finite element analysis are combined to determine the stress distribution and deformation of automobile components. Not only ire the principles and procedures of deformable-body mechanics used to analyze n large objects like brid; find application to very small objects as well. puter chip and the color-coded thermal deformation of the chip at one stage in the heating-cooling cycle that occurs when the computer is turned on and off. Such lyses are critical to the design of computer chips for high reliability and low fabrication cost. Although many of the tasks involved in the design and analysis of the systems illustrated in the color-photo insert require a knowledge of mechanics of materials that is beyond the scope of this introductory textbook, the principles and procedures introduced in this book form a foundation on which more advanced topies build, and on which the design of complex applications, like those illustrated in the color- photo insert, depends. 1.2 THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF DEFORMABLE-BODY MECHANICS Thro in solving strength and stiffness problems of deformable-body mechani stressed repeatedly. They are: shout this textbook, the three Jiudamental types of equations that are used will be 1. The equilibrium condi 2. The geometry of defor 3. The material behavior (i.e., the force-temper ‘of the materials) must be characterized. > mation must be described, ‘ature-deformation relationshipsjm Here these fundamental equations are applied to faiely simple deforn ible boi hema but the same three basic types of equations apply, in more advanced form in many cases, to all studies of deformable solids. rium. We have alrea dy noted that the principles of staties, that is, the equations of equilibrium, are fundamental to the study of deformable-body mechan- ies, Section 14 gives a brief review of static equilibrium and introduces the equilib- rium concepts that are particularly important in the study of mechanics of solids. It also stresses the importance of drawing complete, accurate free-body diagrams. An entire chapter, Chapter 5, is devoted to the topic of equilibrium of beams. Geometry of Deformation, There are several ways in which the geometry of deformation enters the solution of deformable-body mechanies problems i 4b a. and shear strain (Chapter 2). ons and idealizations (e.g., “rigid” member, “fixed” support, plane sections remain plane, displacements are small), 3. Connectivity of members, or geometric compatibility 4. Boundary conditions and other constraints. Several of these may be illustrated by a comparison of Fig. 1.1 with Fig. 14. In Fig 1.1, the diving board itself was considered to be deformable, but the supports at A and B were assumed to be rigid. Therefore, the idealized model in Fig. 1.1 is deformable beam with rigid constraints at A and B. By contrast, the beam BD in Fig. 1-4 is assumed to be “rigid” under the loading and support conditions shown. Although BD does actually deform, that is, change shape, its deformation is assumed tobe small in comparison to the rotation, 9, that it undergoes if the rod AB stretches, hhen load W is applied to the beam at D. Hence, the idealized model 14 is a rigid bewn, BD, connected by a frictionless pin at end B ta deformable rod AB. As rod AB stretches, beam BD rotates through a small angle about a fixed, frictionless pin at C. Material Behavior. ‘The third principal ingredient in deformable-body mechan- ies is material behavior. Unlike equilibrium and geometry of deformation, which are purely analytical in nature, the constitutive behavior of materials, that is, the force-temperanire-deformation relationships that describe the materials, ean only be established by conducting experiments. These are discussed in Chapter 2, Rigid team w | 0 Small angle The Fundamental Equations of Deformable-Body ‘Mechanies FIGURE 1.4 A system that illustrates several defor mation assumptions.6 Iwill be of great help to you in solving problemsin the mechanies of deformable => ———————— _ bodies if you will always keep in mind these three distinct ingredients: equilibrium, geometry of deformation, and material behavio Introduction to Mechani Materials WANES==> 1.3 PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCEDURES required for solving most problems in }osolying problems involving the mechan- n such a problem-solving procedure ai ring practice, and this certa ics of deformable bodies. T 1 scl the sysiem of interest. This may be based on an existing physical system, or it may be defined by a set of design drawings and specifications. 2. Make simplifying assumptions that reduce the real system to an idealized model, or idealization of the system. For example, Figs. 1.1 and 1.4 illustrate ‘wo different idealized models of a diving board 3. Apply the principles of deformable-body mechanics to the idealized model to create a mathematical model of the system, and solve the resulting equa- tions to predict the response of the system to the applied disturb (applied forces and/or temperature changes). Interpret the results that you obtain, and seek to understand the behavior (stress and deformation) that the system exhibits in response to the applied disturbances. 4. Perform a fest to compare the predicted responses to the behavior of the actual system, (A full-scale prototype or a scale model may have to be constructed if the physical system does not already exist.) 5. If the response predicted in step 3 docs not agree with the response of the tested system, repeat steps 1-4. making changes as necessary until agreement is achieved, In the future, as a practicing engineer you will find steps 1, 2, and 4 to be very important and very challenging. However, the main purpose of this textbook is 10 introduce you to the fundamental concepts of mechanics of solids and to enable you to solve deformable-body mechanics problems. Therefore, attention here wi bbe devoted primarily to carrying out step 3, in which a mathematical model is formulated and its behavior analyzed So, how do you apply the principles of dete mathematical equations, and how do you solve these equations to obtain the re- sponse of the system? A glance at the Example Problems in this textbook will indicate that the following four steps are clearly identified: -body mechanics to create 1. State the Problem 3. Carry Out the Solution 2. Plan the Solution 4, Review the Solution 1. State the Problem — + list + draw + ist 1g the given data, ww any fig 1¢ the problem data, and 1g the results that are to be obtained. s needed 10 dese 2. Plan the Solution— White you probably have not seen this step treated in a formal manner in previous textbooks, your sucess in solving problems quickly andem Accurately depends on how carefully you plan your solution strategy in advance ‘You should think about the given data and the results desired, identify the basic principles involved and recall the applicable equations, and plan the steps that will be needed to carry out the solution 3. Carry Out the Solution— As noted in Section 1.2, your solution will involve three basic ingredients: equilibrium, geometry of deformation, and material behavior Example problems and homework problems in this textbook appear in one of two forms—problems where numerical values are employed directly in the solution, and ones where algebraic symbols are used to represent the quantities involved and where the final answer is essentially a formula, One advantage of the symbolic form of solution is that a check of dimensional homogeneity may be easily made at each step of the solution, A second advantage is that the symbols serve to focus attention on the physical quantities involved. For example. the effect of a force designated by the symbol P can be traced through the various steps of the solution. Finally, since the end result is an equation in symbolic form, different numerical values can be substituted into the equation if desired. ‘The importance of checking for dimensional homegene solution cannot be overemphasized! The principal quantities involved in static solid mechanics problems are force (dimension F) and length (dimension £). If, at some step in the solution of a problem, you check an equation for dimensional homogeneity and obtain the result that iy at each step of 3 FL = AL you should realize that some error has been made. It is a waste of time and effort (@ (© proceed further without rectifying the error and establishing a dimensionally homogencous equation! Other checks for accuracy should also be made frequently as the solution progresses Appendix B provides a discussion of the units used in solving deformable: body mechanies problems, and Appendix A discusses the number of significant digits required. 4. Review the Solution— This step. like the Plan the Solution step, may be one that you have not previously encountered in a formal manner. However, it is yourself the following types of questions: + Is the answer dimensionally correct? + Do the quantities involved appear in the final solution in a reasonable manner? + Isthe sign of the final answer reasonable, and is the numerical magnitude rea- sonable? + Is the final result consistent with the assumptions that were made in order to achieve the solution? (For example, an assumption that “the slope is small" is violated if the final slope turns out to be 45°) You may be tempted to think that Review the Solution means for you to compare your answer with one in the back of the book. However, in the “real world” there are no “answer books." Hence, you should begin now, if you have not already done so, to make a habit of testing by any means possible the reasonableness, ges dimensional homogeneity, and accuracy of your ovin ansivers. Bul, itis not enough8 just to solve problems and get correct answers. You should also learn to interpret your answers, so that you begin to develop that indispensable quality called engé- neering judgment. Although the Carry Out the Solution step will undoubtedly occupy a major portion of your problem-solving time as you work on problems from this textbook, you will probably find that, as a practicing engineer, most of your time is involved in the other three steps, since a computer may quickly and obediently carry out the actual numerical solutions of your engineering problems. It then becomes your task to set up the problem correctly (State the Problem and Plan the Solution) and to evaluate carefully the results of the computer solution (Review the Solution). Finally, you should heed the advice of the authors of a popular statics text? Introduction to Mechanics of ‘Materials It also importa all work be neat and orderly, Careless solutions that cannot be easily reid by others ate of little or no value. The discipline involved in adherence to good form will in itself be an invaluable aid to the development of the abilities for formulation and analysis. Many problems that at first may seem difficult and complicated become clear and straightforward when begun with a logical and dis plined method of attack. Communication is a vital part of any engineering project, and only work that is neat and orderly can serve to communicate technical information, like the solu of a deformable-body mechanics problem. 1.4 REVIEW OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM; EQUILIBRIUM OF DEFORMABLE BODIES In this textbook we consider deformable bodies at rest, that is, bodies whose) acceleration and velocity are both zero. In your previous study of staties, you learned the equations of equilibrium and you learned how to apply these equations to particles and to rigid bodies through the use of free-body diagrams. In this section, jons «ind problem-solving procedures of statics apply to the study of deformable bodies, ‘we will review the fundamental eq Equations of Equilibrium. Recall that the necessary conditions for equilibrium of a body (rigid or deformable) ares! y (a) That is, if @ body is in equilibrium, + the sum of the external forces acting on the body is zero, and + the sum of the moments, about any arbitrary point O, of all the external forces acting on the body is zero. ‘These equations are usually expressed in component form with the components referred to a set of rectangular Cartesian axes x, y, z. Then, the resulting scalar ‘See [Ref. 1-3 8 rigid body. Eqs, Late satis condition for ea and on every possible subsystem isolated out of the orig LI (See, for example, (Ret. 1-4] p. 16.) fs 1.1 ako constitute sufetent conditons for equilibrium of the body. That is. if sd, then the rigid body is in equilibrium. However, the necessary and sufficient rium of a deformable body is that the sets of external forces that act on the body body Vb st of fre that ai Ege.(> eauations are: 9 Review of Static Equilibrium; (5 M, ), =0 ibrium of Deformable Bosies (4), <0 (12) =0, (s ™), =0 When the number of independent equilibrium equations available is equal 10 the number of unknowns, the problem is said to be staiicully determinate, When there are more unknowns than available independent equations of equilibrium, the problem is said to be statically indeterminate, For example, if a body has more external supports or constraints than are required to maintain the body in a stable equilibrium state, the body is statically indeterminate, Supports that could be re- moved without destroying the equilibrium of the body are called redundant supporis, and their reactions are called, simply, rededanis. In order to apply equilibrium equations to a body, it is always wise to draw a {free-body diagram (FBD) of the body. However, before reviewing the procedure for drawing a free-body diagram, let us consider the types of external loads that ‘may act on a body and several ways in which the body may be supported or connected to other bodies. External Loads. The external loads acting on a deformable body are the known forces and moments that are applied to the body. They may be classified in four © categories. or types. These types, together with their appropriate dimensions, are: + Concentrated loads, including poinit forces (F) and couples (FL). + Line toads (F/L). + Surface loads (F/L), and + Body forces (F/L"). ‘The first three types of external loads are illustrated on the generic deformable body in Fig, 1 5a. Body forces are produced by action-ata-distance. Like the force Concent force ‘Surtace load FIGURE 1.5. External ls acting on deformable ¢ (a) A genetic deformable be. () A port fame10 of gravity (weight), they are proportional to volume, and they act on particles my throughout the body Although, in reality, all external loads that act on the surface of a deformable body must act on a finite area of that surface, line loads and concentrated forces are considered 10 act along a “line” of t© act at a single “point,” respectively, as indicated in Fig. 1 Sa. Concentrated loads and line loads ate, therefore, idealizations. Nevertheless, they permit accurate analysis of the behavior of the deformable body except in the immediate vicinity of the loads.‘ In Fig. | 5b a cross-beam at C (shown in end view as an 1) exerts a downward concentrated force P. on the horizontal frame member BE, and a horizontal line load of uniform intensity pacts on the vertical frame member AB. Concentrated forces have the units of force [e.g,, newtons (N) or pounds (Ib)], and line loads have the units of force per unit length (c.g.. N/m or lb/ft). Other external loads are expressed in units appropriate to their dimensionality. Introduction to Mechanics of Materials Support Reactions and Member Connections, The external loads that are applied to a member must generally be transmitted to adjacent members that are connected to the given member, or carried directly to some form of support.’ For example, the vertical loads Pe and Pp that act on the horizontal beam BE in Fig. 15h are eventually ied” to the ground at supports A and F. Where there isa support, as at points A and F in Fig. 1.5b, the displacement (ie., the change of position) is specified to be zero, but the force is unknown. Therefore, forces (includ~ ing couples) at supports are called reactions, since they react to the loads that are applied elsewhere. We say that the support enforces a constraint, that is, the support constrains (i.c., makes) the displacement to be zero. ‘Table 1.1 gives the symbols that are used to represent idealized supporis and member connections. Also shown are the force components and the couples that correspond to these. In this textbook, all reactions are indicated by an arrow (straight for forces, curved for couples) that has a single slash through its shank, as illustrated in Table 1.1. For the most part in this text we will consider loading and supports that lie in a single plane, that is, coplanar loading and support, Occasionally, however, we will consider a three-dimensional situation. Internal Resultants. In the study of mechanics of deformable bodies, we must consider not only external forces and couples. that is, the applied loads and reactions, but we also must consider internal resultants, that is. forces and couples that are internal to the original body. For example. to analyze the L-shaped two-force linkage in Fig. 1.6a, it is necessary to imagine a custing plane, like the one indicated in Fig, 1.6a, and to show the (unknown) internal resultants acting on this plans has been done in Fig. 1.66, This procedure may be called the method of sections. ‘The engineering theo ire developed in this textbook apply to de formable bodies for which one dimension is significantly greater than the other two dimensions; that is, we will consider long, thin members.” The six internal resultants 2e the discussion of St. Venant's Principle in Section 2.10 “The exception is a self-equilibrated system, ike an airplane, whose (upward) distributed lift force equals sts (downward) weight, "You may reel from statics thal if a body in equilibrium is subjected only to concentrated forses acting usi be dicted alone the line {60 Such a body is roferred to at two points in the boul. the forces musi be eq Joining the points of application of the forces, ss illustrated in F a pvo-foree mentber. “The only exception i the wall presure vessels discussed in Section 9.2 am‘sipog ayqeunojag Jo umuqpndy umaquyng ne 19 say LL “syuaxnoun Suypuag poyies 2:0 (x) 7 pe (9) 7" WUoWoUE JO stuoLOdOa ost JO\No au “Seat “Q)L Paarl st pue TeawoM Supssau 10 ‘anbsoy ayp pagyes st s9quIoKs Ay} JO SINE aL NOE ALOW Jo HauOdUIOD ay, “Saad0y aay ISAL 30 “SA910] 1eAYS. asioasuen ports are “(39:4 pur (x) ‘auerd Suni ayp or woduer ame reyr a910) autrnsas oxp Jo sIUOuOdUIOD OAM OY “9940J [OHNE 10 “2270 puLLOU 94 PO|IED SUC) a}eqey “YONdDS ssO19 94 OF [RUIO 9910} KL], “S9UIVL HAUS U>AIT a1 SUEY Asay “21 Bie UL se “repueys st Apog ay) LAY, ‘AWOL TunqHSAL ay Jo siIM>UEdUIOD pam] pus e210) junypisoa oy Jo sitouoduos aos oq Mas axoy, FuIpeoy {eU0Is “USWp-Douq} [P19USF oF 199k GNs Spog v YsMoI suPjd SUNN CAMA Ue I *y ayeurptoos ye raquiour ayy ysnosyy passed st ‘wonaas ssoz9 v parte ‘sist aq oF jewou aueYd umn ee pur “roquiows Su JO WoRDALIp [EUPMITUoY ay Tuo|e at OF Maye st SINE X ay ABU “LT * UL YDIAYS ot oO pareaipUT ome A9qUIONE LY YoNs Jo SuIprOT [wIOUaT WOAY WHS eH (02109 ‘P2919 3) | gox>sutes pis | | | sper a [aa RoDEINDD | nodes 91085 9 wf uea GE=SNOLIDWAN (or poe) woddns 29909 oddns nae os x A = me po1s0 94097 ay Sy roqus ued 91041 Ge =SNOL VERE saudnonysmoiea pannbox | won ‘SropoMUOD |YMEHL pu SUOIDESY HOGG PT OKPL12 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials FIGURE 1.6 An illustra- tion of internal resultants, FIGURE 1.7. The six inter- nal resultants on an apbitrary cross seetion of a slender member ‘i 2 |S: Mey { . > Fe c 4 ve) G (4) A force member. () oer esas: Much of the remainder of this book is devoted to the determination of how these six resultants are distributed over the cross section. Free-body Diagram (FBD). Let us now review the steps that are involved in drawing a complete free-body diagram. They may be summarized as follow: + Determine the extent of the body to be included in the FBD. Completely isolace this body from its supports and from any other bodies attached to it When internal resultants are to be determined, pass a sectioning plane through the member at the desired location, Sketch the outline of the re- sulting free body. + Indicate on the sketch all of the applied Loads, that is, all known external forces and couples, acting on the body. These include distributed and concen- trated forces applied to the body and also, when it is not negligible, the distributed weight of the body itself. The location, magnitude, and direction of each applied load should he clearly indicated on the sketch, + Where the body is supported or is connected to other bodies, or where it hhas been sectioned, show the unkown forces and couples that are exerted on this body by the adjacent bodies. Assign a symbol to each such force (or force component or couple) and, where the direction of an unknown force or couple is known, use this infor Often there is a sign convention that establishes the propersense to he assumed as positive. Thisis particularly true for the internal resultants. However. in some cases the sense of an unknown can be assumed arbitrarily, + Label nt points and include significant dimensions. Also, if reference ayes aie necded, show these on the sketch + Finally, keep the FBD as simple as possible so that it conveys the essential equilibrium information quickly and clearly.(>, Esceptin Chapter 10, where we wil examine stability of equilibria and where it will be necessary to draw a free-body diagram of the deformed system, we will assume that deformations are small enough that the free-body diagram can be f drawn showing the body in its undeformed configuration, even though the forces‘ *illibrium of Deformable acting on it are those associated with the deformed configuration, Bodies The following two example problems will serve as a review of the way that free-body diagrams are chosen, and will illustrate how equilibrium equations are used to determine internal resultants. Example Problem 1.1 reviews the method of Joints and the method of sections for solving truss equilibrium problems, Example 1.2 applies the method of sections to solve a frame-type problem. EXAMPLE 1.1 A sign weighing 600 N hangs from a planar truss, as shown in Fi (a) Use the method of joints to determine the internal axial forces F, and F, in members CD and DE, respectively. Neglect the weight of the truss members. (b) Use the method of sections to determine the axial force F; in member FG. Plan the Solution This problem asks for the internal axial force each of three members, and specifies the types of free-body diagrams to use in obtaining the appropriate equilibrium equations. [n your Statics course you were introduced to the two methods indie good opportunity to review those method ‘The weight of the sign will tend to pull the truss away from the wall at joint A, forcing the wall to push to the right at joint G. Therefore, members along the top of the truss will be in tension, while the axial forces in members along the bottom of the truss will be compressive. (ed, 50 this will give you — > Solution (a) Using the method of joims, determine F, and Fy, We draw a free-body diagram of the joint at D (Fig, 2), taking F; and F; to be L 300 N positive in tension, Also, we select reference axes x and y as shown Equilibrium must be satisfied in both the x and y directions. Fig. 2. Fr -body diagram of joint D. oSection line wos | with cut through member FG. 14 Fig. 3. Free-body diagram of section SD A=0 Fy = (AIS)F, = 0. +t SF =0: (3/S)F, ~ 300 N = 0. F, = (513300 N) = S00.N ~ (415), = ~(4/5)(S00 N) = —400 N F, = S00N (1), F = 400 N(C) Ans. (31) "s (b) Using the method of sections, determine Fs, the force in wuss member FG. We make an imaginary sectioning “cut” as shown in Fig. 3, and draw a free-body diagram of the portion of the truss to the a right of this cut, taking the axial forces in the three cut members to be positive in tension. With this free-body diagram, there will be three unknown member forces, but by taking moments about joint B, only one equation of equilibrium will be needed to obtain the required un- known force F. MON es my) = 0: (300 NY(L2 m) + GOO NJ24 m) + K(LS m) = 0 F 600 N, of F = 600 N (C) Ans, (b) Review the Solution The force F; has turned out to be in tension, and forces F) and Fs in compression, as we expected. Also, the magnitudes are reasonable, so our solution appears to be correct.° Based on our experience in solving equilibrium problems, we could have assumed at the outset that the unknown foree in member FG acts to the right on joint F (ie., that member FG is in compression). Had we done so (by reversing the sense of the arrow representing force F,), we would have gotten an answer of F, = 600 N, without the minus sign. Instead, we chose to show all unknown axial forces on the free-body diagram assuming tension to be positive, As a consequence, the answer for F, turned out ta be F; = —600 N. That is, the minus sign indicates that the force F; isa compressive force rather than a tensile force As problems get more complex (c.g.. several interconnected bodies) it will become impossible to mentally solve all of the resulting equilibrium equations to the extent that the “correct” sense of every force can be established at the outset when the free-body diagram is drawn. The procedure of assuming internal axial forces to be positive in tension makes it both easy to draw the free-body diagram and easy to interpret the meaning of the answers (positive forces are ten: nega ces ure compres throughout this textbook, on). Hence, this sign convention will be followed ‘Note that the units (N) and (ma) are stated when numerical values are used. It is good practice 40 show the proper force units (F) and length units (L) in the solution of numerical problems. Also, note that the answers are marked, and that tension (7) and compression (C) are identiied in the answers.EXAMPLE 1.2 An electrical worker standy in the bucket that hangs from a pin at end D of the boom of the cherry picker in Fig. 1. The worker and bucket together weigh a total of 200 Ib, Between A and C the boom weighs 1.1 Ibvin,, and between C and D it weighs 08 tb/in. Assume that AC and CD are uniform beams. Determine the normal force, the transverse shear force, and the bending moment that aet at cross section E, midway between A and B. Fig. 1 Plan the Solution Since there will be three unknowns on the cross section at E and, in addition, an unknown force at the pin B, we cannot solve for all four unknowns using a single free-body diagram, Hence, ‘we will have to determine the pin force first using a separate free-body diagram: then we can determine the two components of the internal force at E and the moment at E. Solution Pin Reaction at B: First, we use the free-body diagram in Fig. 2 to determine the pin reaction at B. Fig. 2. A free-body diagram of boom AD. 1516 Wac = (1.1 Ibvin,)(60 in.) = 66 1b Wen = (08 Ibvin,)(50 in.) = 401b *C (Su) =o = (66 Ib)(30 in.}(cos 20°) — (40 1b)(85 in.}(cos 20°) = (200 1b)(110 in.)(cos 20°) + (B cos 50°)(20 in.) + (B cos 40?)(5 in.) = 0 B= 1542 1b Iniernal Resuitans: Nest, we poss a setion through the beam at £ and determine the forces and moment on this cross section (Fig. 3). (Let point E be on the centerline of the beam AD.) On the section at E we show the unknown normal force F, the unknown transverse shear force V,, and the unknown bending moment M, Were = (1.1 Ibvin.)(50 in.) = 55 1b +7 DA =o: =F, + (1542 Ib)(sin 50°) ~ (55 Ib + 40 Ib + 200 Ib)(sin 20°) = 0 Fe = 1080 tb +s DK =0. V, + (1542 Ib)(cos 50°) — (55 Ib + 40 Ib + 200 Ib)(cos 20°) = 0 Vp = -714 tb (ic. 714 Ib acting opposite to the direction shown on the free-body di- agram). (Ba), — My — (35 Ib)(cos 20°)(25 in.) — (40 Ib)(cos 20°)(75 in.) ~ (200 Ib)(cos 20°)(100 in.) + (1542 Ib)(cos 50°)(10 in.) + (1542 Ib)(sin 50°)(5 in.) = 0 My, = ~7088 Ib in. Fig. 3. A free-body diagram showing the resultants at sectioneo ‘The answers, rounded to the proper number of significant digits are: Fe = 1W0801b, Ve= 710 1b, Mp = -70001b-in. Ans. Review the Solution Because of the long moment arm of the 200-Ib load compared with the moment arm of the force at B, itis reasonable for the magnitude of B to be much larger than the magnitude of the total load, The magnitude and sense of Fs, Ve, and Mr also seem to be | reasonable in view of the magnitude of B and the magnitude and location of the other loads. Y REVIEW OF EQUILIBRIUM; DE INTERNAL RESULTANTS ERMINATION OF Problems 141 through 146 I these tras equilibrium | problems, adopt the sign convention for axial force that ‘a tensite force is positive. That is, on your free-body dia~ ‘grams, show all unknown forces Fas tensile forces. Then, aforce that is compressive will be negative truss in thed to a firm base , at A, and it rests on a roller support at B. For the loading shown, (a) determine the reactio Cc and B, and (b) determine the force in each of members, labeled (1) through (3). Ships o ae 6 hips PLA and PI. Prob, 1442. Solve Prob, L-1 with the position of the pin support and the role support interchanged, Thats. support the truss by a roller at A and by a pin at B. Prob, 1443, Forthe pin jointed uss in Fig, PLA-3.(a) deter mine the reactions atthe pin supports at C and and (b) nine the axial forse in cach of the following members: n member AD), F (in member CD), and F, (in mem- 1 BD) Prob, Lot, The pin jointed trass in Fig, PL.t-f supports load of P= 2 kips at joint C. Determine the axial forces F, through Fin the truss members. Prob. 14-5. A pin-jointed truss ACE is part of a cable-hoist system that is used to lift cargo boxes, as shovn in Fig PIAS. The cable from the lift motor to the cargo sling passes Piss 7‘over a 6-in, pulley that is supported by a frictionless pin at €.The weight of the cargobox being lifted is 1500 Ib. Neglect ing the weight of the cables, (a) determine the reactions at the pin supports at A and £, and (b) determine force in each of the following members: F, (in member AB F, Gin member AD), and Fs the answer you got for the value of F *Prob. 1446, »STRESS AND STRAIN; DESIGN 2.1 INTRODUCTION The photographs in the color-photo insert give a visual indication of the complexity of the internal behavior of the members pictured in response (o the given external loads. (See the color-photo insert.) Figure 1.6a shows an L-shaped bracket loaded as a two-foree member, and Fig. 1.6b shows the internal resultanis, F(x), V(x), and M(x), that are required to maintain the equilibrium of the two sectioned parts of the bracket. Although we could compute the internal resultants shown on Fig. 1.6b by using static equilibrium procedures (free-body diagrams and equations of equilibrium), those procedures are clearly insufficient for determining the complex internal force distribution making up those resultants. The concept of stress is introduced in this chapter to enable us to quantify internal force distribution: The shape of the bracket also changes duc to the applied loads: that is, the member deforms. The concept of strain is introduced to permit us to give a detailed analytical description of such deformation, Finally, stress and strain are related to each other. This relationship, which depends on the material(s) used in the fabrica- n of the member, must be determined by performing certain stress-strain tests, which are deseribed in this chapter. 2.2 NORMAL STRESS < SSS Ane ‘To introduce the concepts of stress and strain, we begin with the relatively simple case of a straight bar undergoing axial loading, as shown in Fig. 2.1.' In this section we consider the stress in the bar, and in Section 2.3 we treat the corresponding strain. Equal and opposite forces of magnitude P acting on a straight bar cause it to elongate, and also to get narrower, as can be seen by comparing Figs, 2.14 and 2.1), ‘The bar is said to be in tension. If the external forces had been applied in the ‘opposite sense, that is, pointing toward each other, the bar woukl have shortened ‘and would then be said to be in compression. "Aviad loading s discussed here in order to introduce the concepts of stress andl strain and the relationship of stress to strain, Chapter 3 tats axial deformation in greater deta a22 Stress and Strain; Design FIGURE 2.1. A straight bbar undergoing axial loading. (a) The undeformed bar, wit vertical lines indicating. cross sections. (b) The deformed bar. (c) The distribution of internal force at section A. (@) The distribution of internal force at section B. o aye o = o re Bee Del ion of Normal Stress. The thin red arrows in Figs. 2.1c and 2.14 repre- sent the distribution of force on eross sections at A and B, respectively. (A cross dion is a plane that is perpendicular to the axis of the bar.) Near the ends of the bar, for example at section A, the resultant normal force, Fy, is not uniformly distributed over the cross section; but at section B, farther from the point of application of force P, the force distribution is uniform. In mechanics, the term is used to deseribe the distribution of a force over the area on which it acts is, as force per unit area, Fore Stress = ea ‘The units of siress are units of force divided by units of area. In the U.S, Customary System of units (USCS), stress is normally expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or in kips per square inch, that is, kilopounds per square inch In the International System of units (SI), stress is specified using the basie of force (newton) and length (meter) as newtons per meter squared (N/m). ‘This unit, called the pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m), is quite small, so in engineering work siress is normally expressed in kilopascals (I KPa = 10° N/m*), megapascals (1 MPa = 10° N/m}, or gigapascals (1 GPa = 0’ N/m). For example, 1 psi = 6895 Pa = 6.895 ki There are vo types of stress, called normal stress and shear stress. In this section we will consider only normal stress; shear stress is introduced in Section 2.7. In words, normal stress is defined by Normal stress = 2" normal (i.e, \dicular) to an are: ‘Area on which the force acts ‘The symbol used for normal stress is the lowercase Greek letter sigma (a). The hormal stress at a point is delined by the equation Normal ay ale, Stress23 Normal Stress (a) Distibuted (b) Resultant of estribured tess ona Oss section. somal sess (a), FIGURE 2.2 Normal force on a cross section. where, as shown in Fig, 2.2a, AF is the normal force (assumed positive in tension) acting on an elemental area AA containing the point (x, y, z) where the stress is to be determined. ‘The sign convention for normal stress is ay follows + A positive value for o indicates tensile stress, that is, the stress due to a force AF that pulls on the area on which it acts + A negative value for o indicates compressive stress. © thus, the equation o = 650 MPa signifies that a is a tensile stress of magnitude 6.50 MPa, or 6.50 MN/m’, and the equation & = ~32.6 ksi indicates a compressive stress of magnitude 32.6 kips/in’, Average Normal Stress, Even when the normal stress varies over a cross see- tion, as it does in Fig, 2.1¢, we can compute the average normal stress on the cross section by letting Average Normal (2.2) Stress Thus, for Figs. 2.le and 2.1d we get z fr P (Om)a= Gm Ge Ome TE Much of the rest of this textbook is devoted 10 determining how stress is, distributed on cross sections of structural members under various loading conditions. However, in many situations the normal stress on a cross section is either constam oF very nearly constant, as in the next two examples oEXAMPLE 2.1 a0 Fig. 2 Free-body diagram. Fig. 3 Tensile stress on a typical cross section, In the evening, a contractor attaches a steel wire to an eyebolt at point A on his air compressor (Fig. 1), and, with the boom of his construction crane, he raises the compressor a safe distance above the ground to prevent mischief from being done to the compressor overnight. While the compressor is above the ground, the wire will be in tension, and the normal stress on any cross section of the wire, except near ends A and B, can be assumed o be constant. If the compressor weighs 600 Ib and the diameter of the wire is d = % in., what is the average tensile stress in the wire? Solution From the free-body diagram in Fig. 2, the tensile force in the wire is equal to the weight of the compressor, so SF=0: F = 6001b and from Eq, 2.2, SF cP ngs MO IU). 9) si An ada” wOABTS ine 2730PSi Rounded to three significant figures, the average normal stress on a typical cross section of the wire is Ong = UT ksi (T) Ans. where the (7) stands for tension. Actually, this is quite a high stress, as you will discover in Section 2.4. Figure 3 illustrates how this average hormal stress would be distributed over a cross section of the wire, 24MPN EXAMPLE 2.2 ‘The Washington Monument (Fig. 1a) stands 555 ft high and weighs 181,700 kips (ic., approximately 182 million pounds). The monument was made from over 36,000 blocks of marble and granite. As shown in 1b, the base of the monument is a square that is 665.5 in. long on each side, and the stone walls at the base are 180 in. thie @ ) Fig. 1 Determine the compressive stress that the foundation exerts over the eross section at the base of the monument, assuming that this normal stress is uniform, Solution From the free-body diagram in Fig. 2, the total norm on the base of the monument is equal to negative of the wei monument, so DSF=0: F = ~181,700kips (Note: In accordance with the sign convention for normal stress, the normal foree F is taken positive in tension, The negative value for F indicates that it is a compressive force, as is clearly evident in this case.) ‘The cross-sectional area of the base is A = (665.5 in)’ — (665.5 ‘Therefore, from Eq. 2.2, £ kcips A 340,600in? ~ 360 in.)? = 349,600 Oe 519.8 psi Rounded to three significant figures, the average normal stress on the cross section of the monument at its base is Gg = 520 pi (C) Ans. where the (C) stands for compression. This is a very low stress, even for stone. Figure 3 illustrates how this uniform compressive stress would be distributed over the foundation at the base of the monument. "= 181,700 kips F Fig. 2 Free-body diagram, S20psi Fig. 3. Compressive stress at the base 2526 ‘The compressive stress that results when one object bears on another, like the => ress that the monument exerts on the foundation in the above example problem, is frequently called bearing stress. Bearing stress is just a special case of compressiv normal stress ‘Stress and Strain; Desigr Stress Resultant. Internal resultants were introduced in Section 1.4, and Exam ples 1.1 and 1.2 show how equilibrium is used to relate these resultants on a cross section to the external loads. Equation 2.2 relates the average normal stress on a cross section to the normal force on the cross section. Let us now examine in greater detail the relationship between the distributed normal stress on a cross section and its resultant, Based on the definition of normal stress in Eq. 2.1, we can replace the AF in Fig. 2.2¢ by an clemental force dF = o da. Referring again to Fi and following the right-hand rule for moments, we can see that this elemental force dF contributes a moment zdF about the +y axis and yd about the ~z axis. In 2.2b, the resultant normal force on the eross section at x is labeled F(x), and it aets at point (y' zp) in the cross section. Given the distribution of normal stress, ‘on a cross section, 7 = a(x, y, z), We can integrate over the cross section to determine the magnitude and point of application of the resultant normal force:” Le Fa)=| oda SMe z4FQ) = [zd 23) Yu =yiFta) = —[ yoda ‘The two moment equations are used to locate the line of action of the force F(x). Note that the sign convention for implies that the force F in Eq. 2.3 is to be taken positive in tension, ‘This is the reason that we will consistently, as we did in Chapter 1, take normal force resultants to be positive in tension, Resultant of Constant Normal Sires on a Cross Section: L.ct us determine the resultant of normal stress on the cross section at x (Fig. 2.2a) if the normal stress is constant over the cross section. We will prove that normal stress that is constant a cross section corresponds to an axial force Fix) = A@(x) acting through the centroid of the cross section at x, (In Section 3.2 you will learn the conditions under which (x) is constant over the cross section.) Let the resultant be assumed to be & force F(x) acting parallel to the x axis ‘and passing through point (Vp, 24). as in Fig, 2.26. We must show that Fix) =AB)oQ), ve =F. z For this we can use Eqs. 2.3. Substitu Wg the condition a(x a(x) into Eqs 23, we get rh Fay = ate) fda = ata =M, zk) = oa) [2d = aE A pM, —vaF (x) os) |. dA = -o(0y A "For generality. the normal force has been permitted to be a function of x in Fig, 22b and in Eqs. 2.3, Of course, F(x) = P= const in the axial-oading case ilustrated in Fig. 2. )ge Therefore, if the normal stress is uniform over a cross section, the normal stress 27 oon the cross section, also called the axial stress, is given by o(e) = 2) A(x) Normal Stress (24) and corresponds to a force F(x) (tension positive) acting at the centroid of the cross section, that is, at ze = Z. yn =F. We would certainly expect uniform stress on a circular rod 10 correspond to a force acting along the axis of the rod, and similarly for a square or rectangular bar, Hence, it is “reasonable” that a uniform normal stress distribution acting over a cross section of general shape produces a resultant force acting through the centroid of the cross section. In most cases, the cross-sectional area is constant throughout the length of the member. but Eq. 2.4 may also be used if the cross-sectional area varies slowly with x. (See Example 3.5.) Uniform Normal Stress in an Axially Loaded Bar: Under certain assumptions, an axially loaded bar will have the same uniform normal stress on every cross section; that is, a(x, y, 2) = @ = constant, These assumptions are: + The bar is prismaiic: that is, the bar is straight and it has the same cross section throughout its length. + The bar is homogeneous; that throughout, + The load is applied as equal and opposite uniform stress distributions over on the two end cross sections of the bar. the bar is made of the same material So long as the resultant force at each end of the bar is applied at the centroid of the end cross section, the last assumption—that the loads are applied as uniform normal stress distributions on the end cross sections—ean be relaxed. As illustrated in Fig. 2.1 ad, the stress is uniform on every cross section, except on cross sections that are very near the points of application of load. This is an application of Saint- Venant’s Principle, which is discussed further in Section 2.10. ‘The uniform. prismatic bar in Fig. 2.34 is labeled as member “i” and is subjected to equal and opposite axial forces F; acting through the centroids at its ends. Its cross-sectional area is A, The normal stress on cross sections of an axially loaded member, like the one in Fig. 23, is called the axial stress. Since, from the free-body diagram in Fig. 2.3b, the resultant force, F(x), on every cross section of the bar is equal to the applied load F, and since the cross-sectional area is constant, from Eq. 2.4 we get the ® o ¢ FIGURE 2.3 Uniform stress in an axially loaded prismatic bar,28 following formula for the Stress and Strain; Design (25) Example 2.3 shows one application of the axial-stress equation, You will find several other examples in the computer program, MDSolids, which accompanies, this book. PRS CEX AMPLE 2.3 ‘Two solid circular rods are welded to a plate at B to form a single rod, as shown in Fig, |, Consider the 30-KN force at B to be uniformly distributed around the circumference of the collar at B and the 10 kN load at C to be applied at the centroid of the end crasssection, Determine the axial stress in each portion of the rod. z= 15mm Fig. 1 Plan the Solution Since each segment of the rod satisfies the conditions for uniform axial stress, we can use Eq, 2.5 to calculate the two required axial stresses. First, however, we need to compute the force in each rod by using an appropriate free-body diagram and equation of equilibrium. Solution Free-body Diagrams: First we draw {ree-body diagrams that expose the rod forces F; (or Fy) and Fs (or Fic). We show F, and F; positive in tension, Equations of Equilibrium: From free-body diagram 1 (Fig. 2a), & (5 ’) and, from free-body mr 52), : =30KN+10KN=0, i= —20kN (@)Frve-body diagram 1 gram 2 (Fig. 2b). OKN (6) Free-body dinram 2. Fig. 2 3142 mm* 76.7 mm?(@ | Aviad Stresses: Using Eq. 2.4, we obtain the axial stresses = ~63.7 MPa (63.7 MPa i A Ans, 56.6 MPa (56.6 MPaT) Review the Solution In this problem we could “mentally” solve the equilibrium problems and “sce” that AB is in compression and that BC is in tension. The free-body diagrams in Fig. 2 of Example 2.3 illustrate the application of the method of sections to structures that have axially loaded segments that are collinear. For example, the free-body diagram in Fig. 2a makes it possible with a single free-body diagram to relate the internal force F; to the external forces applied at the two nodes (joints) B and C; this is the most efficient way to determine F). In Chapter 3 there are many additional examples of this approach to equilibrium of axially loaded structun ‘This is an excellent time for you to get acquainted with the MDSolids computer Program that accompanics this textbook. You should “play with" each of the MDS examples in order to enhance and reinforce your understanding of the concepts presented in the textbook. Also, many of the homework problems can be checked by using MDSol [ROSE] segmented Axial is computer program forsolving aia stress problems like Example 2.3. | M5221] team and Two Rods is a computer program for solving statically deter minate problems having two non-collinear axial-deformation members. [SIR] two-bar Assembly is a program for analyzing the stresses in members of simple statically determinate trusslike structures. [ROSE truss Analysis is a program for analyzing the stresses in members of atically determinate trusses. 292.3. EXTENSIONAL STRAIN; THERMAL STRAIN % When a solid boy is subjected to external loading and/or temperature changes, it deforms; that is, changes occur in the size and/or the shape of the body. The general term deformation includes both changes of lengths and changes of angles. For example, consider the axial deformation of a bar as shown in To illustrate how the bar deforms locally when it is stretched, two squares are drawn on the surface of the undeformed bar (Fig, 24a); one square is aligned with the axis of the bar, and one square is oriented at 45° to the axis of the bar. Local changes in length, such as that of line segment BC when it elongates to become segment B°C*, are described by extensional strain, Asterisk superscripts denote “after deformation has occurred.” Local angle changes, like the change of right angle DEF to become acute angle DE" are described by shear sirain. Both types of strain are important in describing the geomeny of deformation of deformable bodies. (Shear strain is discussed in Section 2.7.) Definition of Extensional Strain. To define extensional strain, let us consider again the case of axial deformation, as illustrated by Fig. 2.4. The total elongation of the bar is designated by AL? and the extensional sirain, or normal strain, is designated by the lowercase Greek letter epsilon (©). The average extensional strain is defined as the ratio of the total elongation AL 10 the original length L. that is, (0) dome I~ oe AL ge FIGURE 2.4. The oT Extenonat (28) Aeformaton far under Strain axial loading. If the bar stretches (iv., /.* > L). the strain ¢ is positive and is called rensile strain. A shortening of the bar results in a negative value for € and is referred to as compressive strain, Although strain isa dimensionless quantity, it iscommon practice to report strain values in units of in.fin., or yin./in. (I microinch per inch fin.) or p/m. The magnitude of extensional strain is generally q say < 0.001, so the latter wo microstrain units are appropriate, Frequently just the symbol yz is used, like 100 2, which is read as 100 microstrain, For the remainder of this chapter we will consider only the case where the extensional strain is uniform along the length of a member. This type of uniform strain is also called arial strain. Thus, the axial en by AL| Axial ae Strain a ean (Nonuniform extensional strain is discussed in Sections 2 2, and 3.4.) Strain-Displacement Analysis. Equations 2.6 and 2.7 are definitions that in- volve only the geometry of deformation. They enable us to relate strain quantities to displacement quantities, as will be illustrated in the following example of strain displacement analysis. Later we will consider the causes of the deformation, the applied loads and/or temperature changes. The Greck capital leter dela (A) i frequently used to des We “tn Seetion 2.4 itis shown that the extensional strain ¢ is related fo the normal sess a. ‘Therefore, ny ity, so AL isa ie the change in a qu 30| IEE Leo ES When the bungee jumper in Fig. 1 stands on the jump platform, the unstretehed length of the bungee cord is 120 ft. Assuming that the % bungee cord stretches uniformly along its length, determine the exten- sional strain in the bungee cord when the jumper “hits bottom,” where the extended length of the cord is 37.1 ft | Plan the Solution The initial length of the bungee cord and its final as length are given in the problem statement. Therefore, we can simply 4 use Eq. 2.6 to calculate the average extensional strain in the bungee cord when the jumper hits bottom. Solution From 6, = STA ft= 12.0 oft L 120T a ie ¥ Fig. 1 Review the Solution ‘The final extensional strain of the bungee cord, 209%%. is very large by comparison with the strain in a stee! or aluminum rod when stretched until it fractures, which is about 10%. For information oon the elongation of bungee cord, see www.bungeezone.comiequipy. >| SERRE EXAMPLE 25 ES When the “rigid” beam AB in Fig. | is horizontal, the rod BC is strain free. (a) Determine an expression for the average extensional strain in rod BC as a function of the angle @ of clockwise rotation of AB in the range 0 = @ = 7/2. (b) Determine an approximation for e(6) that gives acceptable accuracy for values of e when << 1 Plan the Solution ‘The defining equation for extensional strain, in be used to determine the required expression for the average extensional strain of rod BC. To determine the geometrical relationship between the extended length £* and the angle @, we can draw a sketch of the deformed rod-beam system (i.e., a deformation diagram). Since beam AB is assumed to be rigid, end B moves in a circle about end A. Solution (a) Obtain an expression for «(0). From Eq, 2.6, From the original figure, L=BC=5a analogous 31Deformation Diagram: Rigid beam AB rotates about A, while rod BC stretches and rotates about C, as indicated in Fig. 2. Geomerry of Deformation: Using the Pythagorean theorem and dimen- sions from the sketch of the deformed configuration in Fig. 2, we get L*=VG@are TPE where 9 bY =dacosd, — c* =4asind Fig. 2 Deformation di Then, from Eq. 2.6, finn aVG@ + sin OF + (eos 6) 3a ‘This can be simplified to «(0) i Ans. (a) (1) (b) Approximate €(6) Jor 0 I rad.’ If 0-< 1, then sin 0~ 0, Further- more, the term under the radical has the form | + B, with B << 1. According to the binomial expansion theorem, for small values of B vivpai+8 | ‘Thus, for @-< 1, €(6) takes the form (0) = (2) 6 0> 5s negative, and the body shrinks a corresponding amount, The waits of «rand AT 35 must be consistent. For example, the U.S. Customary units of e are I/F (the § reciprocal of degrees Fahrenheit). The SI units are 1/K (the reciprocal of kelvins) Extensional Strain; Thermal Strain or 1/°C (the reciprocal of degrees Celsius), depending on the units of AT: Let the block of material in Fig. 2.6 be subjected 10 a uniform temper: increase AT. Since it is free to expand in all directions ure Gr 7 Gr Gr =a AT Since this strain is uniform throughout the block, to give the elongations of the bloc! Eqs. 2.6 and 2.8 can be combined Aba=(@AT)L, — Abyr=(@AT)Ly, AL =(@ATYL, 2.9) ‘The coefficient of thermal expansion is a property of the material; itis deter- prGURE 2.6 mined experimentally by applying a change in temperature and measuring the change in dimensions of the specimen, as in Fig. 2.6. Values foro are given in caused by a uniform increase tables of Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials, such as those in Table in the temperature of the F3 in Appendix F. block. WEBI AW os EE If the rod BC in Example 2.5 is made of a high-strength steel for which «= 80 x 10°F, and if BC is uniformly heated by 100°F, through what angle 0 will beam AB rotate? Assume that AB and BC are weightless. > | and that 8 is horizontal before the heating of BC occurs, The free expansion of uniform block Plan the Solution Equation 2.8 relates the temperature change ST 10 the thermal strain, and the answers in Example 2.5 relate strain to @. ‘Therefore, we can simply combine these. Solution ep = a AT = (8.0. 10-°F)(100°F) = 800 10°*in./in, Since the expression in Eq. (2) of Example expression in Eq, (1), let us try Eq. (2) first. is simpler than the (8.0 x 10) = 1.667 x 10° rad or 1.0955 deg Ans. Since this answer satis need to resort to Eq. (1), the requirement that @ << 1 rad, we do not Review the Solution Although a tenth of a degree rotation for a tem- perature increase of 100°F may seem to be very small, the formulas are so simple that all we can do to check our result is just to double-check the calculations and the conversion from radians to degrees.ae FIGURE 2.7 A computer- controlled hydrauli actuated testing machine. (MTS Systems Corp. photo.) 36 2.4 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS; MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS In order to relate the loads on engineering structures to the deformation produced by the loads, experiments must be performed to determine the load-deformation behavior of the materials (e.g., aluminum, pricating the structures, Many useful mechanical properties of materials are obtained from tension tests or (rom compression tests, and these properties are listed in tables ke those in Appendix F. This section describes how a tension test is performed and discusses the material properties that are obtained from this type of test Tension Tests and Compression Tests. Figure 2.7 shows a computer- controlled, hydraulically actuated testing machine that may be used to apply a tensile load or a compressive load to a test specimen, like the steel tension specimen in Fig. 2.8a of the conerete compression specimen in Fig, 2.8c* Figure 2.8b shows p view of a ceramic tension specimen mounted in special testing-machine ‘Specimen dimensions and procedures for prepating and testing specimens are preseribed by various Siandards organizations, Uke the American Societs Jor Testing Materials (ASTM) and the American Concrete Insitute (ACY), > ™~(2) A metal tension specimen (b) A ceramic tension with extensometer attached. specimen with extensometer attached. (MTS Systems Corp. Photo.) (0) A conerete cylinder before and after compression testing, FIGURE 2.8 Tension and compression test specimens. grips. Electromechanical extensometers are mounted on the specimens in Figs. 2.80 and 2.8) to measure the extension (j.e., the elongation) that occurs over the gage length of the test section. Figure 2.9a illustrates an underformed tension specimen with two points on the specimen marking the original gage length, Ly The notation Ls is used here to ‘emphasize that this is the original gage length, not the total length of the specimen. ‘An axial load P causes the portion of the specimen between the gage marks to elongate, as indicated in Fig. 2.9b. As the specimen is pulled, the load P is measured 37 Stress-Strain Diagram: Mechanical Propert of Materials — ‘ vn aaa (4) Undeformed specimen (6 Deformed specimen, FIGURE 2.9 A typical tension-test specimen.