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ERRORS

1) An instrument's least count is the smallest measurement it can make accurately. Less accurate instruments have higher least counts, such as 1 mm for a ruler and 0.1 mm for calipers. 2) The permissible error due to an instrument's least count is the maximum amount a measurement can differ from the true value. For example, a length measured as 26 mm by a 1 mm least count ruler could be anywhere from 25-27 mm. 3) Errors can be systematic, caused by known factors like instruments, or random, from unknown causes. Repeating measurements reduces random errors.

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14 views4 pages

ERRORS

1) An instrument's least count is the smallest measurement it can make accurately. Less accurate instruments have higher least counts, such as 1 mm for a ruler and 0.1 mm for calipers. 2) The permissible error due to an instrument's least count is the maximum amount a measurement can differ from the true value. For example, a length measured as 26 mm by a 1 mm least count ruler could be anywhere from 25-27 mm. 3) Errors can be systematic, caused by known factors like instruments, or random, from unknown causes. Repeating measurements reduces random errors.

Uploaded by

shivampurkayastha02
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ERRORS

Least count :
Every instrument can measure up to a certain accuracy called least count (LC).
The smallest measurement that can be measured accurately by an instrument is called
its least count.
Instrument least count

mm scale 1 mm

Vernier calipers 0.1 mm

Screw gauge 0.01 mm

Stop watch 0.1 second

Temperature thermometer 1℃

Permissible error due to least count:


Error in measurement due to the limitation or least count of the instrument is called
permissible error. Least count of a mm scale is 1 mm. Therefore, maximum
permissible error in the measurement of a length by mm scale may be 1 mm.
If we measure a length l= 26 mm. Then maximum value of true value may be (26 +
1)mm= 27mm and minimum value of true value may be (26 -1) mm= 27mm.
Thus, we can write it like,
l=(26 ±1) mm
If from any other instrument we measure in length 24.6 mm, then the maximum
permissible error for least count from this instrument is 0.1 mm. So, we can write the
measurement like,
l=(24.6±0.1) mm

Classification of errors:
Errors can be classified into two ways:

First classification:
1) It is based on the cause of errors. Systematic error and random errors fall in
this group.

1
1) Systematic error;
Systematic errors are the errors whose cause are known to us. Such errors
can therefore be minimised. Following are the causes of these errors:

● Instrumental errors may be due to erroneous instruments. this error can


be reduced by using more accurate instruments and applying zero
correction,
● Sometimes errors arise on account of ignoring certain facts.example in
measuring the time period of simple pendulum error may creep because
no consideration Is taken of air resistance. These errors can be reduced
by applying proper correction to the formula used.
● Change in temperature, pressure and humidity, etc., may also
sometimes cause errors in the result. Relevant corrections can be made
to minimise their effect.
2) Random errors:
The causes of random errors are not known. Hence, it is is not possible to
remove them completely. These errors may arise due to a variety of reasons.
For example, the reading of a sensitive beam balance may change by the
vibrations caused in the building due to persons moving in the laboratory for
vehicles running nearby.
The random error can be minimised by repeating the observations a large
number of times and taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations. The
mean value would be very close to the most accurate reading. Thus,
amean=(a1 +a2 +...+an)/n

Second classification:
It is based on the magnitude of errors. Absolute error, mean absolute error and
relative (or fractional) error lie on this group.

1) Absolute error:
The difference between the true value and the measured Value of a quantity is
called an absolute error. Usually the mean value am is taken as the true value.
So, if
am=(a1 +a2 +...+an)/n
Then by definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity are,
𝚫a =am – a1
𝚫a =am – a2
… … …
𝚫a =am – an
Absolute error may be positive or negative.

2) Mean absolute error:


Arithmetic mean of the magnitude of absolute error in all measurements is
called the mean absolute error. Thus,

2
𝚫amean=(|𝚫𝑎1|+|𝚫𝑎2|+...+|𝚫𝑎𝑛|)/n
The final result of measurement can be written as, a=am±𝚫amean
This implies that value of a is likely to lie between am+𝚫amean and am –𝚫amean.

3)Relative or fractional error:


The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured is called
relative or fractional error. Thus,
Relative error = 𝚫amean/am
Relative error expressed in percentage is called as the percentage error, i.e.
Percentage error = 𝚫amean/am × 100

Combination of errors:

Errors in sum or difference:


Let, x= a ±b
If 𝚫a is the absolute error in the measurement of a,𝚫b is the absolute error in the
measurement of b and 𝚫x is the absolute error in the measurement of x.
Then, x±𝚫x=(a±𝚫a)±(b±𝚫b)
=(a ±b)±(±𝚫a±𝚫b)
=x±(±𝚫a±𝚫b)
∴𝚫x =±𝚫a±𝚫b
The four possible values of 𝚫x are (𝚫a−𝚫b),(𝚫a+𝚫b),(−𝚫a–𝚫b) and (−𝚫a+𝚫b).
Therefore, maximum absolute error in x is,
𝚫x =±(𝚫a+𝚫b)
i.e. The maximum absolute error in sum and difference of two quantities is equal to
sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.

Errors in a product:
Let, x=ab
Then, (x±𝚫x)=(a±𝚫a)(b±𝚫b)
⇒ x(1±𝚫x/x)=ab(1±𝚫a/a)(1±𝚫b/b)
⇒ 1±𝚫x/x=1±𝚫b/b±𝚫a/a±𝚫a/a.𝚫b/b (as x=ab)
⇒ ±𝚫x/x=±𝚫b/b±𝚫a/a±𝚫a/a.𝚫b/b

Here,𝚫a/a.𝚫b/b is a small quantity and can be neglected.


Hence, ±𝚫x/x=±𝚫a/a±𝚫b/b
Possible values of 𝚫x/x are (𝚫a/a+𝚫b/b), (𝚫a/a−𝚫b/b), (−𝚫a/a+𝚫b/b) and (−𝚫a/a−
𝚫b/b).
Hence maximum possible value of
𝚫x/x=±(𝚫a/a+𝚫b/b)
Therefore, maximum fractional error in the product of two (or more) quantities is equal
to the sum of the fractional errors in the individual quantities.

3
Errors in division:
Let, x=a/b
Then, (x±𝚫x)=(a±𝚫a)/(b±𝚫b)
⇒x(1±𝚫x/x)=a(1±𝚫a/a)/b(1±𝚫b/b)
−1
⇒(1±𝚫x/x)=(1±𝚫a/a)(1±𝚫b/b) (as x=a/b)
As 𝚫b/b<<1,So expanding binomially, we get,
(1±𝚫x/x)=(1±𝚫a/a)(1∓𝚫b/b)
⇒1±𝚫x/x=1±𝚫a/a∓𝚫b/b±𝚫a/a.𝚫b/b
Here, 𝚫a/a.𝚫b/b is small quantity, so can be neglected. Therefore,
±𝚫x/x=±𝚫a/a∓𝚫b/b
Possible values of 𝚫x/x are (𝚫a/a−𝚫b/b), (𝚫a/a+𝚫b/b), (−𝚫a/a+𝚫b/b) and (−𝚫a/a−
𝚫b/b).
Therefore, the maximum value of
𝚫x/x=±(𝚫a/a+𝚫b/b)

Error in quantity raised to some power:


𝑛 𝑚
Let, x=𝑎 /𝑏
Then, ln(x)=nln(a)−mln(b)
Differentiating both sides, we get,
dx/x=n.da/a− m.db/b
In terms of fractional errors we may write,
± ∆𝑥/𝑥 =± 𝑛. ∆𝑎/𝑎∓ 𝑚. ∆𝑏/𝑏
Therefore, maximum value of
∆𝑥/𝑥 =±(𝑛.∆𝑎/𝑎+∓ 𝑚. ∆𝑏/𝑏)
Note: Errors in product and division can also be obtained by taking logarithm on both
sides (in x=ab or x=a/b) and then differentiating.

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