1A present simple and continuous, action and non-action verbs

present simple: I live, he works, etc.

1.- We use the present simple for things that are always true, or happen regularly.
• Remember the spelling rules for third person singular, e.g. lives, studies, watches.
• Use ASI (Auxiliary, Subject, infinitive) or QuASI (Question word, Auxiliary, Subject, infinitive)
to help you with word order in questions.
I live in London. She works in a restaurant.
We don't eat meat. Jack doesn't wear glasses.
Where do you live? Does the supermarket open on Sundays?
2.- We often use the present simple with adverbs of frequency, e.g. usual/y, never, or
expressions of frequency, e.g. every day, once a week.
• Adverbs of frequency go before the main verb and after be.
• Expressions of frequency usually go at the end of the sentence or verb phrase.
She usually has cereal for breakfast.
l'm never late for work.
We only eat out about once a month.
present continuous: be+ verb + -ing
 We use the present continuous {NOT the present simple) for actions in progress at the
time of speaking, e.g. things that are happening now or around now. These are
normally temporary, not habitual, actions.
 Remember the spelling rules, e.g. living, studying, getting.
 We also use the present continuous far future arrangements
A Is your sister still going out with Adam?
B No, they broke up. She isn't going out with anyone now.
The phone's ringing. Can you answer it?
House prices are going up very fast at the moment.

action and non-action verbs

 Verbs which describe actions, e.g. cook, make, can be used in the present simple or
continuous.
I'm making lunch. I usual/y make lunch at the weekend.
 Verbs which describe states or feelings {NOT actions), e.g. be, need, /ove, are non-
action verbs. They are not usually used in the present continuous, even if we mean
'now'.
 Common non-actian verbs are agree, be, be/ieve, belong, depend, forget, hate, hear,
know,like, /ove, matter, mean, need, prefer, realize,recognize, remember, seem,
suppose, want.
 Verbs of the senses are norma11y also non-action, e.g. look, sme/1, taste, and sound.
A What are you looking for? B My car keys.
A I'll help you in a moment. B But I need them now!
A What are you cooking? lt smells delicious. B l'm making pasta.
A Great! I love pasta.

Verbs that can be both action and non-action

A few verbs have an action and a non-action meaning, e.g. have and think.
I can't talk now. I'm having lunch. = action (have lunch)
I have a cat now. = non-action (possession)
What are you thinking about? = action (think about sth)
I think this music's great. = non-action (opinion)
1B future forms: present continuous, be going to, will / won't
be going to + infinitive
 We use be going to (NOT will / won't) when we have already decided to do something.
NOT My-sister-will-adopt-a-child.
future plans and intentions
My sister's going to adopt a child.
Are you going to buy a new car or a second-hand one?
I'm not going to go home for the holidays. lt's too far.
 We also use be going to to make a prediction about the future, especially when we have
some evidence (e.g. we can see black clouds).
predictions
Barcelona are going to win. They're playing really well.
look at those black clouds. I think it's going to rain.

present continuous: be+ verb + -ing

 We often use the present continuous for future arrangements.
 There is very little difference between the present continuous and be going to for future
plans I arrangements and often you can use either.
- be going to shows that you have made a decision.
We're going to get married next year.
- the present continuous emphasizes that you have made the arrangements.
We're getting married on October 12th. (= we've booked the church)
 We often use the present continuous with verbs relating to travel
arrangements, e.g. go, come, arrive, leave, etc.
He's arriving tomorrow and leaving on Thursday.

future arrangements
Lorna and Jamie are getting married in October.
We're meeting at 10.00 tomorrow in Richard's office.
Jane's leaving on Friday and coming back next Tuesday.

will / shall + infinitive

instant decisions, promises, offers, predictions, future facts, suggestions
 We use will / won't (NOT the present simple) for instant decisions, promises, and offers.
NOT -I-carry-that-bag-for you.
 We can also use will / won't for predictions, e.g. I think Barcelona will win, and to talk
about future facts, e.g. The election will be on 1st March.

I'll have the steak. (Instant decision)

I won't tell anybody where you are. (promise)
I'll carry that bag far you. (offer)
You'll love New York! (prediction)
Next year Christmas Day will be on a Thursday. (Future fact)

We use shall (NOT will) with I and we fer offers and suggestions when they are questions.
Shall I help you with your homework? (offer)
Shall we eat out tonight? (suggestion)

2A present perfect and past simple

present perfect simple: have I has + past participle (worked, seen, etc.)
 We use the present perfect for past experiences when we don't say exactly when they
happened.
 We often use ever and never when we talk or ask about past experiences. They go before
the main verb.

past experlences
l've inherited some money but I haven't spent it.
Sally has never met Bill's ex-wife.
Have you ever lost your credit card?

 We use the present perfect for recent past actions when we focus on the present result.
 In this context we often use just before the main verb.
recent past actions
l've cut my finger!
Too late! Our train has just left!

 We also use the present perfect with yet and already.

 We use already in positive sentences. lt goes before the main verb.
 We use yet with negative sentences and questions. lt goes at the end of the phrase.
with yet and already (for emphasis)
l've already seen this film twice. Can't we watch another one?
My brother hasn't found a new job yet. He's still looking.
‘Have you finished your homework yet?’ 'No, not yet.'

past simple (worked, stopped, went, had, etc.)

We use the past simple for finished past actions (when we say, ask, or know when they
happened).
They got married last year.
I didn't have time to do my homework.
What time did you wake up this morning?
present perfect or past simple?
We use the present perfect (NOT the past simple) to talk about past experiences and recent
past actions when we don't specify a time.
l've been to Madrid twice. (= in my llfe up to now)
l've bought a new computer. (= I don't say exactly when, where, etc.)
• We use the past simple (NOT the present perfect) to ask or talk about finished actions in the
past, when the time is mentioned or understood. We often use a past time expression,
e.g. yesterday, last week, etc.
I went there in 1998 and 2002. (= on two specific occasions)
I bought it last Saturday. (= I say when)
2B present perfect + for / since, present perfect continuous
present perfect + for I since
We use the present perfect + for or since to talk about something which started in the past
and is still true now.
They've known each other for ten years. (= they met ten years ago and they still know each
other today)
Julia's had that bag since she was at university.
• We use How long ... ? + present perfect to ask about an unfinished period of time (from the
past until now).
A How long have you worked here? B Since 1996.
A How long has your brother had his motorbike? B For about a year.
• We use for + a period of time, e.g. for two weeks, or since + a point of time, e.g. since 2016.
• Don't use the present simple with for/ since. NOT They know-each other-for-a-long--time.

present perfect continuous: have I has been + verb + -ing

1 We use the present perfect continuous with for and since with action verbs (e.g. learn,
work, go, etc.) to talk about actions which started in the past and are still true now.
• With non-action verbs we use the present perfect simple (NOT continuous). NOT They've
been knowing each other for ten years.
• Don't use the present continuous with for / since. NOT I am working here for two years.
How long have you been learning English? (1)2.17
Nick has been working here since April.
They've been going out together for about three years.
2 We can also use the present perfect continuous for continuous or repeated actions which
have been happening very recently. The actions have usually just finished or have visibly
present results.
A Your eyes are red. Have you been crying? B No, l've been chopping onions.

l've (I have)
You've (You have)
He/ She / lt's (He has) been working here for two years.
We've (We have)
They've (They have)

I haven't (I have not)

You haven't
He/ She / lt hasn't (He has not) been working here for two years.
We haven't
They haven't

Have you been working here for two years? Yes, I have. No, I haven't.
Has she been working here for two years? Yes, she has. No, she hasn't.

live and work

live and work are often used in either the present perfect simple or present perfect
continuous with the same meaning.
l've lived here since 2010.
l've been living here since 2010.

3A choosing between comparatives and superlatives

comparing two people, places, things, etc.
We use comparative adjectives + than to compare two people, places, things, etc.
• Regular comparative adjectives: spelling rules old-older; big-bigger; easy-easier; modern-
more modern; difficult-more difficult
• Irregular comparative adjectives: good-better; bad-worse; far-further/farther
• One-syllable adjectives ending in -ed: bored-more bored; stressed-more stressed; tired-
more tired
My car is a bit older than yours.
London is more expensive than Edinburgh.
This test is less difficult than the last one.
Olive oil is better for you than butter.

We can also use (not) as+ adjective + as to make comparisons.

The new sofa isn't as comfortable as the old one.
I don't have as many books as I used to.

Object pronouns (me, him, etc.) after than and as

After than or as we can use an object pronoun (me, him, her, etc.) or a subject pronoun (I, he,
she, etc.) + auxiliary verb.
She's taller than me. OR She's taller than I am. NOT She’s taller-than I.
They're not as busy as us. OR They're not as busy as we are. NOT They’re not as busy as we.
the same as
We use the same as to say that two people, places, things, etc. are identical.
Her dress is the same as mine.

comparing two actions

 We use comparative adverbs to compare two actions.
My father drives faster than me.
 Regular comparative adverbs: spelling rules fast- faster slowly - more slowly carefully -
more carefully
He walks more slowly than I do
 Irregular comparatives: well- better badly- worse
Liverpool played worse today than last week
 We can also use (not) as+ adverb + as to make comparisons.
Max doesn't speak English as well as his wife.
I don't earn as much as my boss
Superlatives
 We use superlative adjectives and adverbs to compare people, things, or actions with all of
their group.
Kevin is the tallest player in the team.
 We form superlatives like comparatives, but we use –est instead of -er and the most /
least instead of more/ less.
Oslo is the most expensive capital city in Europe.
The small bag is the least expensive.
Who dresses the most stylishly in your family?
 We normally use the before superlatives, but we can also use possessive adjectives, e.g.
my best friend, their most famous song.
Lucy is the best student in the class.
 We often use a superlative with the present perfect + ever.
lt's the best book I've ever read.
That's the worst we've ever played.
in after superlatives
Use in {NOT of) before places after a superlative.
lt's the longest bridge in the world. NOT of-the-world
lt's the best beach in England. NOT of England

3B articles: a/ an, the, no article

a/ an
We use a / an with singular countable nouns:
1 when we say what something is or what somebody does.
It's a nice house. She's a lawyer.
2 the first time we mention a thing / person.
I saw an old man with a dog
3 in exclamations with What. .. !
What an awful day!
4 in expressions of frequency.
I have classes three times a week

The
We use the:
1 when we talk about something we've already mentioned.
I saw an old man with a dog. The dog was barking.
2 when it's clear what we're referring to.
The bell rang and my father opened the door. The children are at school.
3 when there's only one of something.
The moon goes round the Earth.
4 with places in a town, e.g. cinema, theatre.
I'm going to the cinema tonight.
5 with superlatives.
It's the best restaurant in town.

no article
We don't use an article:
1 when we are speaking in general (with plural and uncountable nouns), e.g. I love flowers.
Compare: I love the flowers in my garden. (= the specific flowers in that place)
Girls often learn to read earlier than boys. Love is more important than money.
2 with some nouns, e.g. home, work, school, church, after at /to/ from.
She's not at home today. I get back from work at 5.30
3 before meaIs, days, and months.
I never have breakfast. I'm going to the theatre on Tuesday.
4 before next / last + day, week, etc.
See you next week.

4A obligation and prohibition: have to, must, should

have to / must + infinitive
have to and must are normally used to talk about obligation, or something that it is necessary
to do.
have to and must have a very similar meaning and you can usually use either form. have to is
more common for general, external obligations, for example, rules and laws. must is more
common for specific (i.e. on ene occasion) or personal obligations. Compare:
I have to wear a shirt and tie at work. (= it's the rule in this company)
I must buy a new shirt - this one is too old now. (= it's my own decision)
You have to switch off your phone during take-off and landing.
You must be on time tomorrow because there's a test.
We can also use have to or must for strong recommendations.
I love the Louvre! You have to go when you're in Paris.
You must see this film - it's amazing!
have to is a normal verb and it exists in all tenses and forms, e.g. also as a gerund or infinitive.
I had to wear a uniform at my primary school.
I hate having to get up early. My interview is at 9.00.
Do you have to work on Saturdays?
must is a modal verb. It only exists in the present, but it can be used with a future meaning.
Must I switch my phone off now?

don 't have to

You don't have to pay- this museum is free.
You don't have to go to the party if you don't want to.

mustn't
We use don't have to when there is no obligation to do something and mustn't when
something is prohibited.
• don't have to and mustn't are completely different.
Compare:
You don't have to drive - we can get a train. (= you can drive if you want to, but it isn't
necessary / obligatory)
You mustn't drive along this street. (= it's prohibited, against the law) NOT You don’t have to
drive along this street.
• We can often use can't or not allowed to instead of mustn't.
You mustn't / can't / 're not allowed to park here.
You mustn't park here.
You mustn't eat that cake - it's for the party.

should / shouldn't + infinitive

1 We use should to give advice or an opinion. should is not as strong as must / have to.
• should is a modal verb. The only forms are should / shouldn't.
You should take warm clothes with you to Dublin. lt might be cold at night.
You shouldn't drink so much coffee. lt isn't good for you.
We can use ought to/ ought not to instead of should / shouldn't.
You ought to take warm clothes with you to Dublin.
You ought not to drink so much coffee.

2 We use should to give an opinion - to say if we think something is the right or wrong thing to
do.
I think the government should do something about unemployment.

4B ability and possibility: can, could, be ab/e to

can I could
can is a modal verb. lt only has a present form (which can be used with future meaning) and a
past or conditional form (could).
I can speak three languages fluently.
Jenny can't come tonight. She's ill.
Our daughter could play the violin when she was three.
They couldn't wait because they were in a hurry.
• For all other tenses and forms, we use

be able to + infinitive
1 We use be able to + infinitive for ability and possibility, especially where there is no form of
can, e.g. present perfect, infinitive, gerund, future, etc.
Luke has been able to swim since he was three.
l'd like to be able to ski.
I love being able to stay in bed late on Sunday morning.
You'II be able to practise your English in London.
2 We sometimes use be able to in the present and past (instead of can / could), usually if we
want to be more formal.
Fortunately, I am able to accept your invitation.
My colleagues weren't able to come to yesterday's meeting.

5A past tenses: simple, continuous, perfect

past simple: worked, stopped, went, had, etc.
• We use the past simple for finished actions in the past (when we say, ask, or know when
they happened).
• We can also use it for repeated actions in the past.
They were in Mexico in 2016.
A South African won the race.
The plane didn't arrive on time.
What time did you get up this morning?
When I lived in Paris, I often went to watch Paris St-Germain.

past continuous: was / were + verb + -ing

1 We use the past continuous to talk about an action in progress at a spedfic time in the past.
• Remember, we don't use the past contlnuous with non-action verbs.
NOT We stopped at a garage because we were needing petrol.
What were you doing at six o'clock last night?
2 We often use the past continuous to describe a past action in progress which was
interrupted by another action (expressed in the past simple). The two actions are usually
linked by when or as.
I was driving along the motorway when it started snowing.
3 We often use the past continuous with while fer two actions happening at the same time.
While I was doing the housework, the children were playing in the garden.
4 We often use the past continuous to describe what's happening at the beginning of a story
or anecdote.
lt was a cold night and it was raining. I was watching TV in the living room.

past perfect: had + past participle

We use the past perfect when we are talking about the past and we want to talk about an
earlier past action.
Compare:
When John arrived, they went out. (= first John arrived and then they went out)
When John arrived, they had gone out. (= they went out before John arrived)
When they turned on the TV, the match had already finished.
As soon as I shut the door, I realized that l'd left my keys on the table.
We couldn't get a table in the restaurant because we hadn't booked.
 using narrative tenses together
 We use the past continuous (was raining, was watching) to set the scene.
 We use the past simple (heard, got up, etc.) to say what happened.
 We use the past perfect (had knocked, had disappeared) to say what happened before the
previous past action
lt was a cold night and it was raining. I was watching TV in the living room. Suddenly I
heard a knock at the door. 1 got up and opened the door. But there was nobody there. The
person who had knocked on the door had disappeared.

5B past and present habits and states

1 For past habits and states, we use used to / didn't use to + infinitive.
• used to does not exist in the present tense. NOT I use to get up at 8.00 during the week.
• We use used to for things that were true over a period of time in the past. used to often
refers to something which is not true now.
I used to do a lot of sport. (= I did a lot of sport for a period of time in the past, but now I
don't)
• We often use never used to instead of didn't use to.
• used to/ didn't use to can be used with action verbs (e.g. go, do) and non-action verbs (e.g.
be, have).
• We can also use the past simple to describe past habits (often with an adverb of frequency).
We (often) went to France for our holidays when I was a child.

I used to teach English when I was living abroad.

He didn't use to do any exercise, but now he runs marathons.
We used to be close friends, but we don't talk to each other any more.
That hotel used to have a swimming pool, but they closed it.
Did they use to live in the clty centre?
Didn't you use to have long hair?
2 For present habits, we use a verb in the present simple, often with an adverb of frequency,
e.g. usually or normally.
I usually meet my friends at weekends.
I don't normally go out during the week.
English houses usually have gardens.
Do you normally walk to work?

used to or past simple?

We can use used to or the past simple (often with an adverb of frequency) for repeated
actions or states and the meaning is the same.
I used to live in Leeds as a child. I lived in Leeds as a child.
We used to go to the cinema on Saturdays. We often went to the cinema on Saturdays.
But we have to use the past simple if:
- we mention exact dates or number of times.
- the action happened only once.
We went to the cinema on Saturday.

any more and any longer

We often use not... any more / any longer (= not now) with the present simple to contrast
with used to.
I used to go to the gym, but I don't (go) any more/ any longer.

be used to and get used to

Don't confuse used to/ didn't use to (do sth) with be used to or get used to (doing sth).
I am used to getting up early every day. (e: I am accustomed to it- I always do it, so it is not a
problem for me)
Lola can't get used to living in the UK. (= She can't get accustomed to it, it's a problem for her)

6A passive (all tenses)

1 We often use the passive (be+ past participle) when it isn't said, known, or important who
does an action.
Andy's bike has been stolen. (= somebody has stolen Andy's bike, but we don't know who). In
passive sentences, the object of the verb becomes the new subject.
A lot of films are shot on location.
When is our car being repaired?
Andy's bike has been stolen.
The director died when the film was being made.
You'II be picked up at the airport by one of our staff.
This bill must be paid tomorrow.
I love being given a massage

2 lf we want to say who did the action, we use by.

• We can often say things in two ways, in the active or in the passive. Compare:
 Gladiator was directed by Ridley Scott. ("' we want to focus more on the film)
Ridley Scott directed Gladiator. (= we want to focus more on the director)
The new concert hall will be opened by the Oueen
• We form negatives and questions in the same way as in active sentences.
Some films aren't shot on location.
Is your car being repaired today?
• We often use the passive to talk about processes, for example, scientific processes, and in
formal language, such as news reports.
Then the water is heated to 100 degrees ...
Many buildings in the city have been damaged by the earthquake.
to be+ past participle
The tense of the verb to be changes to make tenses in the passive.
Are you being served? (Present Continuous)
My car is insured with ASM. (Present Simple)
Were you taken to visit the cathedral? (Past Simple)
l've been invited to a wedding. (Present Perfect)
l'd love to be introduced to a film star. (Passive infinitive)

6B modals of deduction: might, can't, must

 We often use might, can't, or must to say how sure or certain we are about something (based
on the information we have).
 In this context. the opposite of must is can't. Compare:
The neighbours must be out. There aren't any lights on in the house.
The neighbours can't be out. All the lights are on in the house. NOT The neighbours mustn’t
be out
 We can use may instead of might and we can use could in positive sentences.
Jack could (or may) be at the party - l'm not sure.
 We don't use can instead of might/may. NOT He can be on the plane now
 We often use be + gerund after might/must/can't.
They must be having a party - the music's very loud.

might (when you think something is possibly true)

Tony's phone is switched off. He might be on the plane now, or just boarding.
Laura might not like that skirt. lt's not really her style.
can't (when you are sure something is impossible / not true)
Nigel can't earn much money in his job. He's still living with his parents.
That woman can't be Jack's wife. Jack's wife has dark hair.
must (when you are sure something is true)
The neighbours must be out. There aren't any lights on in the house.
Your sister must have a lot of money if she drives a Porsche

7A first conditional and future time clauses + when, untíl, etc.

first conditional sentences: if + present simple, will / won't + infinitive
We use first conditional sentences to talk about a possible / probable future situation and its
consequence.
1 We use the present tense {NOT the future) after if in first conditional sentences. NOT lf
you’ll work hard, you’ll pass all your exams.
lf you work hard, you will pass your exams.
The teacher won't be very pleased if we are late for class.
2 We can also use an imperative instead of the will clause.
Come and see us next week if you have time.
3 We can use unless + present simple [+] instead of if ... not in conditional sentences.
Compare: Alison won't get into university if she doesn't get good grades.
Alison won't get into university unless she gets good grades.
I won't go unless you go too.

future time clauses

We use the present tense (NOT the future) after when, as soon as, until, before, and after to
talk about the future
We wiII have dinner when your father gets home.
As soon as you get your exam results, call me.
I won't go to bed until you come home.
I will have a quick lunch before I leave.
After I finish university, I will probably take a year off and travel.

7B second conditional, choosing between conditionals

second conditional sentences: if + past simple, would / wouldn't + infinitive
• We use the second conditional to talk about a hypothetical / imaginary present or future
situation and its consequence.
improbable or impossible conditions = second conditional
lf I had a job ... (= I don't have a job, l'm imagining it)

1 We use the past simple after if and would / wouldn't + infinitive in the other clause.
We can also use could instead of would in the other clause
lf I had a job, I had get my own flat.
lf David spoke good English, he could get a job in that new hotel.
I would get on better with my parents if I didn't live with them.
I wouldn't do that job unless they paid me a really good salary.
2 After if, we can use was or were with I, he, and she.
lf your sister were here, she had know what to do.
lf it was warmer, we could have a swim.
3 We often use second conditionals beginning lf I were you, I'd ... to give advice. We don't
normally use lf I was you…
If I were you, I would buy a new computer.

Choosing between the first or second conditional

Using a first or second conditional usually depends on how probable you think it is that
something will happen.
lf I have time, I will (I’ll) help you. (= this is a real situation, it's possible that I’ll have time = first
conditional)
lf I had time, I would (I’d) help you. (= this is a hypothetical / imaginary situation, I don't have
time = second conditional)
would / wouldn't + infinitive
We also often use would / wouldn't + infinitive {without an if clause) when we talk about
imaginary situations.
My ideal holiday would be a week in the Bahamas.
I’d (would) never buy a car as a big as yours.

8A choosing between gerunds and infinitives

gerund (verb + -ing)
• We use the gerund (verb + -ing)
1 after prepositions and phrasal verbs.
l'm not very good at working in a team.
Katie's given up smoking.
2 as the subject of a sentence.
Looking for a job can be depressing.
Shopping is my favourite thing to do at weekends.

3 after some verbs, e.g. hate, don't mind.

I hate not being on time for things.
I don't mind getting up early.

• Common verbs which take the gerund include: admit, avoid, deny, dislike, enjoy, feel like,
finish, hate, keep, like, love, mind, miss, practise, prefer, recommend, spend time, stop,
suggest, and some phrasal verbs, e.g. give up, go on, etc.
• The negative gerund = not + verb + -ing.
like, love, and hate
In American English, like, love, and hate are followed by the infinitive with to. This is
becoming more common in British English too, e.g. I like to listen to music in the car.

the infinitive with to

• We use the infinitive + to:
1 after adjectives. My flat is very easy to find.
2 to express a reason or purpose. Liam is saving money to buy a new car.
3 after some verbs, e.g. want, need, learn. My sister has never learned to drive.
Try not to make a noise.

• Common verbs which take the infinitive include: (can't) afford, agree, decide, expect,
forget, help, hope, learn, need, offer, plan, pretend, promise, refuse, remember, seem,
try, want, would like. More verbs take the infinitive than the gerund.
• The negative infinitive = not to+ verb.
• These common verbs can take either the infinitive or gerund with no difference in meaning:
start, begin, continue.
lt started to rain. lt started raining.

Verb + person + infinitive with to

We also use the infinitive with to after some verbs + person, e.g. ask, tell, want, would like.
Can you ask the manager to come?
She told him not to worry.
I want you to do this now.
We'd really like you to come.

the infinitive without to

We use the infinitive without to:
1 after most modal and auxiliary verbs.
I can't drive. We must hurry.
2 after make and let.
She always makes me laugh. My parents didn't let me go out last night.

Verbs that can take a gerund or an infinitive, but the meaning is different
Try to be on time. (= make an effort to be on time)
Try doing yoga. (= do it to see if you like it)
Remember to phone him. (= don't forget to do it)
I remember meeting him years ago. (= I have a memory of it)
8B reported speech: sentences and questions
reported sentences
• We use reported speech to report (i.e. to tell another person) what someone said.
• When the reporting verb (said, told, etc.) is in the past tense, the tenses in the sentence
which is being reported usually change like this:
present - past
will- would
past simple/ present perfect - past perfect
present continuous – past continuous
•Some modal verbs change, e.g. can- could, may- might, must- had to. Other modal verbs
stay the same, e.g. could, might, should, etc.
'I might come back next week.' He said he might come back next week.
• We usually have to change the pronouns.
'I like jazz.' Jane said that she liked jazz.
• Using that after said and told is optional.
• lf you report what someone said on a different day or in a different place, some other time
and place words can change, e.g. tomorrow – the next day, here - there, this - that, etc.
'I'll meet you here tomorrow.' He said he'd meet me there the next day.

direct statements reported statements

'l like shopping.' She said (that) she liked shopping.
'l'm leaving tomorrow.' He told her (that) he was leaving the next day.
'I will always love you.' He said (that) he would always love me.
'I passed the exam!' She told me (that) she had passed the exam
'l have forgotten my keys.' He said (that) he had forgotten his keys.
'I can't come.' She said (that) she couldn't come
'I may be late.' He said (that) he might be late.
'I must go.' She said (that) she had to go

When tenses don't change

When you report what someone said very soon after they said it, the tenses often stay the
same as in the original sentence.
Adam 'I can't come tonight.'
I've just spoken to Adam and he said that he can't come tonight.
Jack 'I really enjoyed my trip.'
Jack told me that he really enjoyed his trip.
say and tell
Be careful - after said, don't use a person or an object pronoun.
Sarah said that she was tired. NOT Sarah said me that she was tired.
After told, you must use a person or object pronoun.
Sarah told me that she was tired. NOT Sarah told that she…

reported questions
• When we report a question, the tenses change as in reported statements.
• When a question doesn't begin with a question word, we add if (or whether).
'Do you want a drink?' He asked me if / whether I wanted a drink.
• We also have to change the word order to subject + verb and not use do / did.
direct questions reported questions
'Are you married?' She asked him if he was married.
'Did lucy phone?' He asked me whether Lucy had phoned.
'What's your name?' I asked him what his name was.
'Where do you live?' She asked me where I lived.

9A third conditional
• We normally use third conditional sentences to talk about hypothetical / imaginary
situations in the past, i.e. how things could have been different in the past. Compare:
Yesterday I got up late and missed my train. (= the real situation)
lf I hadn't got up late yesterday, I wouldn't have missed my train. (= the hypothetical or
imaginary past situation)
impossible past conditions = third conditional
• To make a third conditional, we use if + past perfect and would + have + past participle.
NOT If I would have known you had a problem...
• The contraction of both had and would is 'd.
If l'd have known you had a problem, l'd have helped you.
• We can use might or could instead of would to make the result less certain.
lf she'd studied harder. she might have passed the exam.

lf l'd known you had a problem, I would have helped you.

lf Paul hadn't gone to Brazil, he wouldn't have met his wife.
Would you have gone to the party if you'd known Lisa was there?
You wouldn't have lost your job if you hadn't been late every day.

9B quantifiers
large quantities
1 We use a lot of or lots of in [+] sentences. We can also use loads of, but it's more informal.
My daughter has a lot of apps on her phone.
Nina has lots of clothes.
l've been there loads of times (Informal)
2 We use a lot when there is no noun, e.g. He talks a lot. NOT He talks a-lot-of.
James eats a lot.

3 much / many are normally used in [-] sentences and [?] but a lot of can also be used.
There aren't many cafés near here. (Negative)
Do you have many close friends? (Question)
Do you watch much TV? (Question)
I don't eat much chocolate. (Negative)
4 We use plenty of in [+] sentences. (= more than enough)
Don't run. We have plenty of time. (a lot of time)

small quantities
1 We use little + uncountable nouns, few + plural countable nouns.
• a little and a few = some, but not a lot (un poco).
Do you want some more ice cream (general uncountable)? Just a little.
The town only has a few cinemas (countable).
2 very little and very few = not much / many.
l'm so busy that I have very little time for myself.
Sarah isn't popular and she has very few friends
3 The comparative of little is less and the comparative of few is fewer.
I have less free time than I used to have.
There are fewer flights in the winter than in the summer.

more or less than you need or want

1 We use too + adjective or adverb.
I don't like this city. lt's too big and lt's too noisy.
You're speaking too quietly - I can't hear you.
2 We use too much + uncountable nouns and too many + plural countable nouns.
There's too much traffic and too much noise.
There are too many tourists and too many cars.
3 We use (not) enough before a noun, e.g. (not) enough eggs / milk, and after an adjective,
e.g. lt isn't big enough, or an adverb, e.g. You aren't walking fast enough
There aren't enough parks and there aren't enough trees.
The buses aren't frequent enough.
The buses don't run frequently enough.

zero quantity
1 We use any + uncountable or plural noun for zero quantity with a negative verb.
There isn't any milk in the fridge.
We don't have any eggs.
2 We use no + uncountable or plural noun with a positive verb.
There is no milk in the fridge. We have no eggs
3 We use none (without a noun) in short answers.
A How many eggs do we have?
B None. l've used them all.

10A relative clauses: defining and non-defining

defining relative clauses {giving essential information}
• We use a defining relative clause (= a relative pronoun + verb phrase) to give essential
information about a person, place, or thing.
1 We use the relative pronoun who for people, which for things / animals, and where for
places.
• We can use that instead of who or which.
Harper lee is the woman who (that) wrote To Kill a Mockingbird.
l'm looking for a book which (that) teaches you how to relax.
That's the house where I was born.
2 We use whose to mean 'of who' or 'of which'.
Is Frank the man whose brother plays for Manchester United?
lt's a tree whose leaves change colour in autumn.
3 In some relative clauses, the verb after who, which, or that has a different subject, e.g. She's
the girl who I met on the train {the subject of met is I). In these clauses, who, which,
or that can be omitted. She's the girl I met on the train.
• where and whose can never be omitted. NOT Is that the woman dog barks?
• We can't omit who / which / that / where if it's the same subject in both clauses. NOT
Julia’s the woman works in the office with me.
l've just had a text from the girl {who / that) I met on the flight to Paris.
This is the phone (which / that) I bought yesterday.

non-defining relative clauses (giving extra non-essential information)

• We use a non-defining relative clause to give extra (often non-essential information) in a
sentence. lf this clause is omitted, the sentence still makes sense.
This painting, which was painted in 1860, is worth millions of pounds.
• Non-defining relative clauses must go between commas {or a comma and a full stop).
• In these clauses, we can't leave out the relative pronoun (who, which, etc.).
• In these clauses, we can't use that instead of who / which. NOT This painting, that was
painted in 1860, is worth millions pf pounds.
This painting, which was painted in 1860, is worth millions of pounds.
Last week I visited my aunt Jane, who's nearly 90 years old.
Bufford, where my grandfather was born, is a beautiful little town.
My neighbour, whose son goes to my son's school, has just remarried.

10 B question tags
positive verb, negative tag negative verb, positive tag
lt's cold today, isn't it? She isn't here today, is she?
You're Polish, aren't you? You aren't angry, are you?
They live in London, don't they? They don't eat meat, do they?
The match finishes at 8.00, doesn't it? Lucy doesn't drive, does she?
Your sister worked in the USA, didn't she? You didn't like the film, did you?
We've met before, haven't we? Mike hasn't been to Rome before, has he?
You'II be OK, won't you? You won't tell anyone, will you?
You'd lend me some money, wouldn't you? Sue wouldn't resign, would she?

• Question tags (is he?, aren't they?, do you?, did we?, etc.) are often used to check
something you already think is true.
Your name's Maria, isn't it?
• To forma question tag, we use:
- the correct auxiliary verb, e.g. be/ do/ have / will / would, etc. in the correct form, e.g. do/
don't, etc. for the present, did / didn't for the past, will / won't, etc. for the future.
- a pronoun, e.g. he, it, they, etc.
- a negative auxiliary verb if the sentence is positive and a positive auxiliary verb if the
sentence is negative or with never, e.g. You never do the washing-up, do you?