Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Relationships between the three states

Swell

An increase in volume of soil due to excavation, because the soil grains are loosened during
excavation and air fills the void space created. As a result, a unit volume of soil in the bank
condition will occupy more than one unit volume after excavation, this phenomenon is called
swell. Swell may be calculated as follows.

𝐋𝐨𝐨𝐬𝐞 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 – 𝐁𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

Swell (%) = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐁𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

𝐕𝐋 – 𝐕𝐁
Swell (%) = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕𝐁

𝐕𝐋
Swell (%) = − 𝟏 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕𝐁

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐖𝐋 𝐖
Since, ρ = ; 𝛒𝐋 = and 𝛒𝐁 = 𝐕 𝐁
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝐕𝐋 𝐁

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭/𝐁𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
Swell (%) = ( − 𝟏 ) 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭/𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

𝛒
Swell (%) = ( 𝛒𝐋𝐁 − 𝟏 ) 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Shrinkage

When a soil is compacted, some of the air is forced out of the soil’s void space. As a result the
soil will occupy less volume than it did under either the bank or loose conditions. This
phenomenon, which is the reverse of the swell phenomenon, is called shrinkage. The value of
shrinkage may be determined as follows.

𝐁𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 – 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

Shrinkage (%) = ( ) 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐁𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

𝐕𝐁 – 𝐕𝐂 𝐕𝐜
Shrinkage (%) = ( ) 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = (𝟏 − 𝐕𝐁 ) 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕𝐁

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭/𝐛𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
Shrinkage (%) = (𝟏 − ) 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭/𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

Load and shrinkage factor

𝐕𝐁
Load factor = 𝐕𝐋
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Or

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭/ 𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐬𝐞 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

Load factor = 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭/ 𝐛𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

𝟏
Load factor = 𝟏 + 𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐥𝐥

Shrinkage factor

𝐕𝐜
fL (load factor) = 𝐕B

Or

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭/ 𝐛𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

Shrinkage factor = 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭/ 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

fL (load factor) = [1-shrinkage]

Productivity of earth moving equipments

The basic relationship for estimating the production of all earthmoving equipment is:

Production = volume of cycle * cycle per hour……………………………equation 2.1

Where:

 Volume of cycle: average volume of material moved per equipment cycle. This is the
normal capacity of the excavator of haul unit must be modified by the appropriate fill
factor based on the type of material and equipment involved
 Cycle per hour: must include any appropriate efficiency factor, so that it represents the
number of cycles actually achieved (or expected to be achieved) per hour

𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓

Cost per unit production = 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓…………………equation 2.2

Job efficiency estimation

There are two principal approaches to estimating job efficiency determining the number of
cycle per hour to be used in equation 2.1.
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Approach 1

To use the number of effective working minutes per hours to calculate the number of cycle
achieved per hour. This is equivalent to using an effective factor equal to the number of
working minutes per hour divided by 60.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
No cycle = ----------------------------------------------equation 2.3
60

Approach 2

Is to multiplying the theoretical cycle per 60-min hour by a numerical efficiency factor. A table
of efficiency factors based on the combination of job conduction and management condition is
presented in table 2.1.

𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
Number of cycle per hour = ∗ 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚-……………………..equation
𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒏

2.4

Excavator Production

To utilize equation 2.1 for estimating the production of an excavator, it’s necessary to know
the volume of material actually contained in one bucket load.
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

The method by which excavator bucket and dozer blade capacity rated is given in table 3.1
below.

Plate line capacity: - is the bucket volume contained within bucket unit following the
outline of the bucket side.
Struck capacity:- the bucket capacity when the load is struck of flush with the bucket
sides.
Water line capacity:- assumes a level of material flush with the lowest edge of the
buck(i.e. the material level corresponding to the water level that would result if the
bucket were filled with water).
Heaped volume: - is the maximum volume that can be placed in bucket without slippage
based on a specific angle of repose of materials in the bucket.

Note: - the bucket rating of the cable shovel family are based on struck volume; it is often
assumed that the heaping of the bucket will compensate for the swell of the soil. Example, 5m3
bucket would be assumed to actually hold 5m3 bank of material.

 Better estimate of the volume of material in one bucket load will be obtained if the
normal bucket volume is multiplied by bucket fill factor or efficiency factor of the
bucket.
Volume of material in one bucket load = normal bucket volume * bucket fill
factor....equation 2.5
o The bucket fill factor for excavator is in table 3.2.
o If desired the bucket load may be converted to bank volume by multiplying its loose
volume by soils load factor.
Construction Equipment Worked Examples
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Worked Example 2.1

Estimate the accurate bucket load in the bank cubic meter for a loader bucket, whose heaped
capacity is 3.82m 3, the soil’s bucket fill factor, is 0.90 and its load factor is 0.80

Given

o heaped capacity = 3.82 m3

o bucket fill factor = 0.90
o load factor is 0.80

Required

Estimate the accurate bucket load in the bank cubic meter for a loader bucket

Solution

1st, change the loose (heaped volume) to bank volume

Bank volume = heaped volume *bucket load factor

Bank volume = 3.82 m3*0.80 = 3.05 m3

Production estimating

No production tables have been prepared for hydraulic excavator. Production is estimated as
follows, together with table 3.3 and 3.4.

Production (m3/h) = C*S*V*B*E……………………………………………..equation 2.7

Where:

C = cycle per hour (table3.3)

S= swing depth factor (table 3.4)

V= heaped bucket volume (m3)

B= bucket fill factor (table 3.2)

E= job efficiency

Note: - In trench work a fall in factor should be applied to excavator production to account for
the work required to clean out materials that fall back into the trench from the trench wall.
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

 Normal excavator production should be multiplied by the appropriate value from table 3.5 to
obtain the efficiency trench production

Worked Example 2.2

Find the expected production in loose cubic meter per hour of a small hydraulic excavator.
Heaped bucket capacity is 0.57m3. The material is sand and gravel with a bucket fill factor of
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

0.95. Job efficiency is 50min/hr. average depth of cut is 4.3m. Maximum depth of cut is 6.1m
and average swing is 90.

Given

Heaped bucket capacity = 0.57m3

Material type = sand and gravel

Size of excavator = small hydraulic excavator

Bucket fill factor = 0.95

Job efficiency = 50min/hr

Average depth of cut = 4.3m

Maximum depth of = 6.1m

Average swing = 90

Required

Find the expected production in loose cubic meter per hour of a small hydraulic excavator

Solution

Productivity = C*S*V*B*E

1st, find C (cycle per hour) from table 3-3, it’s possible to get cycle per hour for small excavator
for sand and gravel i.e. 250cycle/hr or 250/60min

2nd , find S (swing depth factor) from table 3-4, but before calculating swing depth factor, its
important to calculate the % of maximum depth cut by dividing average depth cut by maximum
depth cut and express in percentage. i.e. % maximum depth cut = 4.3m/6.1m*100 = 70. Then,
take this number and go to table 3-4 with swing angle and its possible to obtain the swing depth
factor, i.e. 1.00

3rd, change job efficiency to min, i.e. 50/60 = 0.8333

Productivity = 250/hr*1.00*0.57m3*0.95*0.833= 113m3/h

 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Shovels Productivity Estimating

Production for hydraulic shovels is estimated as follows, together with table 3.6

Production (m3/h) = C*S*V*B*E……………………………………………..equation 2.8

Where:

C = cycle per hour (table3.6)

S= swing depth factor (table 3.6)

V= heaped bucket volume (m3)

B= bucket fill factor (table 3.2)

E= job efficiency
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Example Worked 2.3

Find the expected production in loose cubic meter 2.3m3 hydraulic shovels equipped with a
front-dump bucket. The material is common earth with a bucket fill factor of 1.0. The average
angel of swing is 75° and job efficiency is 0.80.

Given

Volume lose cubic meter = 2.3m3

Bucket fill factor = 1.0

Material type = common earth

Average angle of swing = 75°

Job efficiency = 0.80

Required

Find the expected production in loose

Solution

C= 150/hr (table 3.6)

S = 1.05 (table 3.6)

Production = 150/hr*1.05*2.3m3*1.00*0.8 = 290m3/hr

Productivity Estimation of Dragline

A versatile machine that has the longest reach for digging and dumping. To estimate the
dragline production use table 3-7 and 3-9. Determine the ideal out put of the dragline for the
machine size and material from table 3-7, and then adjust this figure by multiplying by a swing
depth factor (table 3-9) and job efficiency.

Expected production = ideal output* job efficiency…..equation 2.9

To use table 3.9, it’s necessary to determine the optimum depth of cut for the machine and
material involved from table 3.8, then divide the actual depth of cut by the optimum depth and
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

expressed the result as a percentage. The appropriate swing depth factor is then obtained from
table 3.9, interpolating as necessary.
Construction Equipment Worked Examples
Construction Equipment Worked Examples
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Worked Example 2.4

Determine the expected dragline production in loose cubic meter per hour based on the
following information

Dragline size= 1.53m3

Swing angle = 120°

Average depth of cut = 2.4m

Material type= common earth

Job efficiency= 50min/hr =50/60=0.833

Soil swell = 25%

Solution

Ideal output = 176m3/hr (table 3-7)

Optimum depth of cut= 3.0m (table 3.8)

Swing depth factor = 0.9 (table 3.9), i.e. actual depth/optimum depth cut= 2.4/3 = 80
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Volume change = 1+0.25 =1.25

Productivity = 176*0.9*0.833*1.25 =165m3/h by using equation 2.9

Production estimation for Clamshells

When the crane-shovel is equipped with a crane boom and clamshell bucket, it becomes an
excavator known as clamshells. No standard production tables are available for the clamshell.
Thus production estimation should be based on the use of equation 2.1. The procedures for
calculating the production of clamshell are as follow

Worked Example 2.5

Estimate the production in loose cubic meter per hour for a medium weight clamshell
excavating loose earth. Heaped bucket capacity is 0.75m3. The soil is common earth with a
bucket fill factor of 0.95. Estimated cycle time is 40sec. job efficiency is estimated at 50min/h

Given

 Heaped volume = 0.75m3

 Type of soil = soil is common earth with out attachment and machine size
 Bucket fill factor = 0.95
 Estimated cycle time is 40sec
 Job efficiency is estimated = 50min/h = 50/60 = 0.833

Required

Estimate the production in loose cubic meter per hour for a medium weight clamshell
excavating loose earth

Solution

 Use equation 2.1 as a reference

 Productivity = volume per cycle*cycle per hour with a additional factors.

Therefore, productivity can be calculated by multiplication of volume per cycle, Bucket fill
factor, estimated cycle time and estimated Job efficiency.

 Productivity= 0.75m3*0.95*0.833*3600/40 = 53 m3/h

 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Productivity of Dozers
The basic earth moving production equation (Equation 2 – 1) may be applied in estimating
dozer production. This method requires an estimate of the average blade load and the dozer
cycle time. There are several methods available for estimating average blade load, including
the blade manufacturer’s capacity rating, previous experience under similar conditions, and
actual measurement of several typical loads. Blade volume can be computed by using equation
2 – 10
Blade Load (Lm3) = 0.375*H (m) *W (m)*L (m)……. equation 2 – 10:
o Total dozer cycle time is the sum of fixed time and variable cycle time.
o Cycle time = fixed time + variable time

Fixed time= represents those components of cycles time other than travel time. It includes spot
time (moving the unit into position to began loading), load time, dump time, changing gears,
start loading. Table 4-4 may be used to estimate doze fixed cycle time.

Variable time= represents the travel time required for a unit to haul material tot un loading
(doze) site and return. Table 4-5 provides typical operating speeds for dozing and return. Some
manufacturers provide dozer production estimating chart for their requirement.
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Worked Example 2.6

A power shit crawler tractor has a rated blade capacity of 7.65 Lm3. The dozer is excavating a
loose common earth and pushing it a distance of 61 m. Maximum reverse speed in third range
is 8 km/hr. . Estimate the production of the dozer is the job efficiency is 50min/hr .
Given
 A power shit crawler tractor has a rated blade capacity of 7.65 Lm3
 Type of soil, common earth
 pushing it a distance = 61 m
 Maximum reverse speed in third range = 8 km/hr
 job efficiency = 50min/hr
Required
 Estimate the production of the dozer
Solution
Production = volume of lead capacity *cycle time
 Cycle time = fixed time + variable
 Fixed time = o.05min (table 4-4)
 Variable time = dozing + reverse
 Dozing speed = 4km/h (table4-5)
61
 Dozing time = 4∗16.7 = 0.91min

Note 1km/h =16.7min

61
 Return time = 8∗16.7 = 0.45min
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

 Cycle time = 0.05+0.91+0.45 = 1.14min

𝟓𝟎
Production = 7.65m3*𝟏.𝟒𝟏 = 217m3/h

Estimating Loader Production

Loader production may be estimated as the average bucket load multiplied by the cycle per
hour equation 1. Table 4-6 presents typical values of basic cycle’s time for wheel and truck
loaders. While manufacturer’s performance curve should be used when even possible, typical
travel-time curves for wheel loader are presented in figure 4.15.
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Worked Example 2.7

Estimate the hourly in loose volume 2.68m3 wheel loader excavating sand and gravel (average
) materials)From a pit and moving it in to a stockpile. The average haul distance is 61m, the
effective grade is 6%, the bucket fill factor is 1.00 and job efficiency is 50min/h.

Solution

o Bucket volume = 2.68m3

o Basic cycle time = 0.50min (table 4.6)
o Travel time = 0.30min (figure 4.15)
 Cycle time = 0.50+ 0.30 = 0.80min

𝟓𝟎
Productivity = 2.68*𝟎.𝟖𝟎 = 168 m3/h
 Construction Equipment Worked Examples

Productivity of Graders

Grader production is usually calculated on a linear basis (kilometers completed per hour) for a
road way projects and on an area basis (square meters per hour) for general construction
projects. The time required to complete a roadway may be estimated as follows:

Number of pass x Section Length(km) 1

Time (hr) =(⅀ ) * efficency =
Average Speed for Section(km /hr)

Average speed depends on the operator skill, machine characteristics, and job condition.

Typical grader speeds for various types of operations are given in Table 4.7.
Operation Speed (km/hr)

Bank Sloping 4.0

Ditching 4.0 – 6.4

Spreading 9.7 – 14.5

Finishing 6.5 – 14.5

Mixing 14.5 – 32.2

Grading and road maintenance 6.4 – 9.7

Snow Removal 19.3 – 32.3

Table 4 .7– Typical grader operating speed

Worked Example 2.8

A 60 km gravel load requires reshaping and leveling. It is estimated that six passes of a motor
grader will be required. Based on the operator skill, machine characteristics, and job condition,
estimates indicated two passes at 14 km/hr, two passes at 21 km/hr and two passes at 25km/hr.
If the job efficiency is 0.80, how many grader hours will be required for this job?
Solution:
Number of pass x Section Length(km) 1
Time (hr) =(⅀ )* efficency
Average Speed for Section(km /hr)

2∗60 2∗60 2∗60 1

Time (hr) = (⅀ )+(⅀ )+(⅀ ) ∗ 0.8 = 23hr
14 21 25