Writing reports: a guide

There are numerous different formats and styles of writing, from an

informal letter or e-mail, to a formal government report. Each has its own
purpose – to communicate to the intended audience. A good report could
be defined as an effective one, that is, one that produces its intended
results. If the author relates directly to the objectives by writing a well-
structured document in clear language, it is more likely to gain attention
and be effective. An effective report gives the writer, and the organization,
a professional image, makes a good impression, and persuades others to
take the work seriously. This guide will help you to write such a report.

Contents of this guide

Introduction...................................................... 1
Types of reports............................................... 1
The writing process.......................................... 3
Organizing the information............................... 8
Structuring the report..................................... 14
Reporting on projects.................................... 16
Writing the report........................................... 19
Format........................................................... 24
References..................................................... 24

The water and sanitation sector can be very complex, with many different professionals
working together at different times of the project cycle. Reporting the decisions, activities
and outcomes of studies, visits, discussions and practical work helps communicate
and record important information. A well-written report is easy to read and adds to the
effectiveness of any project.

OPEN AND PRINT

WEDC GUIDE 009 AS A BOOKLET
 2

© WEDC, Loughborough University, 2012

Text: Brian Reed based on the DFID-funded WELL learning module written by
Jane Bevan, Sue Coates and Rebecca Scott, with further contributions from
Hazel Jones

Edited by Julie Fisher

Illustrations: Rod Shaw

Quality Assurance: Tricia Jackson

Designed and produced by WEDC Publications

This guide is one of a series of published learning resources which are available for
purchase in print or available to download free of charge from the WEDC Knowledge
Base. Any part of this publication, including the illustrations (except items taken from
other publications where WEDC does not hold copyright) may be copied, reproduced
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ends and the source is fully acknowledged. Please send copies of any materials in
which text or illustrations have been used to WEDC at the address given below.

Published by WEDC, Loughborough University

ISBN 978 1 84380 149 8

Keywords: writing reports; project-based reporting

 1

Introduction
The purpose of a report is to communicate findings effectively – for example the results
of research, a review of literature or recording the activities and outcomes of a visit to a
project, conference, meeting or interview.
Reports may be written at regular intervals such as an annual report to sponsors
or monthly progress reports for a project. Besides being informative, reports can
persuade people of a particular point of view, provoke discussion on an issue or initiate
change. A report is a very specific form of writing, which usually follows a clear and
formal structure.

Types of reports
Whilst there are several different types of A Terms of Reference (TOR) usually has
report, the basic format of most reports is a few paragraphs on the background of a
the same with variations in the purpose piece of work, before describing in detail
and length of the document. the work that is needed and the outputs
that are expected.
Project-based reporting
During a project, reports are required at A Baseline Study or Survey is
various stages of the cycle. sometimes requested at the beginning
of a project. This may be a strictly
A Briefing Note. External staff and other
quantitative account of existing services in
stakeholders need to ‘get up to speed’
an area, to be compared with subsequent
and quickly familiarize themselves with
improvements. It could also be a more
a country/ project/ situation. These
in-depth social record of knowledge,
are short pieces of writing (one or two
attitudes and practice (KAP), for example
pages), but can refer to other documents
if your project aims to change behaviour
as necessary. In an emergency, a rapid
in health and/ or hygiene practices.
assessment of the current situation is
required and this briefing document may Baseline surveys are an important step
be referred to as a Situation Analysis. in environmental impact assessments.
Formal site surveys are needed before
A Scoping / Feasibility Study. If a new
infrastructure developments – the reports
project or venture is being considered,
produced include considerable amounts
a preliminary step is a scoping study.
of data.
These reports examine existing services
and resources, identify where the gaps Design Reports record the next stage
are and suggest potential solutions. of the project, setting out the proposed
This report is based on written sources, project in detail, explaining why specific
interviews and site visits. decisions have been made.
 2

Table 1. Comparing reports are likely to be made with the baseline

survey (if any) conducted at the
Project Reports Research beginning of the study. In an evaluation,
Reports ‘lessons learned’ can be drawn out for
Briefing Note/ Background the benefit of future work.
Situation Report Paper
Scoping Study/ Literature Review
Research and policy reports
Baseline Study Besides the practical project-based
reporting, there are reports based
Terms of Position Paper
Reference on research, advocacy and policy
development. These often have a similar
Progress Reports Workshop/
Meeting Reports purpose to project reports but a different
audience.
Evaluation Report Thesis/
Dissertation/ A Background Paper is for
Paper familiarization purposes. It might go into,
for example, the history of a project,
(Environmental) Impact Statements set similar work in other countries or projects
out the probable ecological (and social) and key issues to be aware of. These
outcomes of the work. short contributions are composed by
experts, to advise decision-makers of the
Progress Reports record the activities
latest developments.
and outcomes during a project.
They will contain a narrative report A (Literature) Review. A review can be
as well as record issues such as purely a ‘desk job’, bringing together and
expenditure, progress against the assessing the information provided in
planned programme and achievement various documents and perhaps drawing
of milestones. This can be called a new conclusions from them.
Monitoring Report. Where the project
A Position Paper. Such a document
is related to supporting process
is useful to raise awareness on a
(e.g. institutional reform) rather than
subject that might otherwise be given
construction, then a Process Facilitation
low priority. A Position Paper usually
Report would be written, recording key
describes the current situation regarding
events and activities.
a certain issue, possibly highlighting
An Evaluation Report is usually areas where action might be needed,
requested at the end of a project to and targeted at policy makers. A Position
assess the overall effectiveness and Paper could be used as a political tool,
impact (sometimes called an Impact being developed into a Strategy Paper or
Assessment Study). Comparisons even draft policy.
 3

A Conference/ Workshop/ Meeting/ and be different lengths. A 100 page

Training Report – this is usually a research dissertation may be re-written
straightforward account of who was as an eight page journal paper with a 10
present and what took place at a line abstract. An evaluation of a project
particular event. may be 50 pages long, with a five page
executive summary and a two page
A Research Thesis (PhD) or
Briefing Note.
Dissertation (MSc) is a formal record
of the process and results of a research
project, which may be re-written as a The writing process
journal paper.
Know your audience
A Fact Sheet is a short (about 4 pages) It is necessary to be clear who will be
information or advocacy document, reading the report, as this will influence
which clearly and simply puts across an the style of writing. Consider:
idea, often a recent research topic or,
on more general issues, for information. • Who is going to read your report?
They will be accessed by a wide range • Why are they reading the report?
of readers, from school-children to
professionals and practitioners. • What are they hoping to find out?

Each type of document has its own • What do they already know
particular format that, with practice, can • How will the report be used?
aid the writing of the report in terms of
style and structure. • What should happen as a result of
the report?
Length of reports
Knowing the backgrounds, experience,
For a single project, a variety of reports
interests and other characteristics, such
may be produced for different audiences
as nationality or language, influences
the report writing. For example, when
Objectives. There are many facets writing about Asian water and sanitation
to a good report, but a key factor practices for an African or European
is that there are clear objectives. audience, certain cultural differences
By keeping these objectives in in the use of water would need to be
mind, unnecessary information will explained. If writing only for an Asian
be rejected and only that which is audience, these issues would be
needed to support the conclusions understood.
will be included. A technical report aimed at people
with a similar technical background
 4

can contain specialist terms, which missing ones mean the whole report is
might otherwise be considered jargon incomplete. Some allowance needs to
and require more explanation. If it is be made for unforeseen circumstances.
for general consumption, a glossary These deadlines can always be revised,
of technical terms may be necessary. so it is useful to keep track of progress
However, it is a useful rule never to make to avoid rushing parts of the writing
too many assumptions about the readers’ unnecessarily.
understanding and always to explain why
something is a good idea. Planning the report
Many reports are based on a Terms Of
Reference (TOR), scope or brief for the
Time scale
task, that is, why the report is needed
Often the actual writing of a report is the
and by whom. The TOR will usually
part that takes the least time in the overall
contain a little background and then set
plan. Gathering the information, reading
out what is expected for completion of
the background material and selecting
the task. It can be very short, such as
the information to present can all be very
a few sentences, or quite lengthy, with
time-consuming. Checking and revising
numerous attached reports that need to
the first draft of the report can also take
be read in conjunction with the text. It
more time than expected.
usually sets out a time-scale for the work.
Delivering a report on time can be
It is important to stick to the boundaries
considered part of the ‘art’ of professional
of the objectives and not cover ground
report writing. No matter how fine the
that is not asked for. If the scope is not
report is, it will have a negative impact
clear and there is uncertainty about
on the minds of the readers if it was due
what questions the report should be
three weeks earlier. There will always be
addressing then clarification is necessary
a trade-off between the ‘ideal’ report and
before any data-gathering or writing is
the ‘good enough’ report that needs to
started. This may seem obvious, but it
be on the manager’s desk by Monday
is quite surprising how many reports do
morning. A timetable that is linked to the
not address the issues that they set out
plan is therefore an important element of
to cover.
writing a report well.

Deadlines are good to set whilst report A great deal of time is invested in
writing, to avoid endlessly striving for writing. This needs to be treated
the right wording or the perfect diagram carefully by taking a copy, keeping
and never producing the document. a back-up and making sure it does
Each chapter needs a separate deadline not get lost.
as four perfect chapters and two
 5

Iterative process. Plans are predictions is to make a draft of the contents

of how the report will look. Sections will page. This technique is also known
expand, alter and move around as the as ‘outlining’. Chapters, sections and
text is written. There is often more than sub-sections provide the skeleton of
one way to organize the material, but the report, with brief notes under each
by thinking carefully about the audience heading about the content. Once more
and the objectives, the best design will text is added, some re-ordering and re-
gradually emerge. Reviewing the report titling may be necessary. A good rule of
from the perspectives of different readers thumb is to avoid full pages of text with
will help ensure that the route through no headings – if this is the case, break
the document will be clear. it down into smaller segments. If there
is a great deal of data to present, they
It is tempting to begin writing straight would be better in the appendices, with a
away but time taken thinking about the summary table in the text, to prevent the
content, the order in which to present narrative flow being disrupted.
information, and the structure of the
whole report will save time in the end.
Headings. Documents can be
Having a plan will help ensure that no
divided up into sections or chapters.
information is left out and will point out
The title for each chapter is called
any possible areas of repetition.
a “first level” heading. These
It is particularly useful if there is a great sections can be divided by “second
deal of information for the reader to level” headings and further divided
absorb or, if the report is being produced with “third level” headings. Whilst
by a team, so each member knows further sub division is possible, too
which sections they are expected to many layers can become complex.
produce and where they fit in. Sections are sometimes numbered
(e.g. 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.2.1, 2.2.2), but the
Even for a very straightforward, short
level of heading should be obvious
report, making a plan is good practice as
from the format of the text (e.g. size,
there are always times when a piece of
font).
work might have to be left for a while so
referring back to the plan will save time. Heading one
The work may be taken over by another text
person, in which case a clear plan will let Heading two
them see exactly what was intended. text
Contents list. If there is a reasonably Heading three
clear idea of the preliminary structure of text
the report, a more direct way of planning
 6

Brainstorming in groups or using a mind useful method of preparing a report

map is a useful technique if it is not clear outline or plan. It is important to ensure
where to begin. It is particularly helpful that all the team members have similar
for a team compiling a report, with each objectives in mind and that any overlaps
member having different ideas of how between responsibilities are discussed
the report should look. and clarified.
Using a large sheet of paper, the team
Usually one person will take on the
write down everything that is to do with
responsibility of bringing all the material
the report. At this preliminary stage they
together and editing the final document
do not need to be concerned about
to make it a coherent whole. All
the order, the key is just getting all the
contributors should be clearly listed at
information out. Often a circular format,
the front of the report.
with a central issue and radiating sub-
sections can be helpful. This process The report content
can go on for a long time, so having a Material for reports comes from a
time limit (e.g. half an hour) is a good variety of sources; notes on paper, in
idea. Once the brainstorm page or mind documents on the computer, in journals
map is completed, links between certain and in the author’s mind. All these need
issues are likely to become apparent and to be collected together, and assembled
a plan will begin to emerge. into the structure of the report.
From this brainstorm page, an initial
structure of writing can emerge, It is possible to end up with far too
clustering material on the plan under much material, which can make a report
sub-headings. A report is always draft unwieldy and difficult to read. It is useful
until the final report is produced, so to review each item of information and
noting down a preliminary order then consider whether it really needs to be
re-arranging it later is fine. Often more included to answer the objectives of the
logical steps or progressions only begin report.
to emerge once the writing has begun.
Once the information is roughly
Group Reports. When a team of assembled, the main points of each
professionals is asked to perform a task section can be noted down. This process
together, there is often only one report may include some fine-tuning of the
wanted. Usually in these situations, section headings and deciding what
divisions are clear-cut, as each person information can be excluded or relegated
will be looking at different aspects, but to the appendices. This activity needs to
a brainstorming session before the fact- be kept short – it is only a rough draft,
finding begins would still be the most and does not need to be perfect.
 7

The first draft. Often the biggest hurdle Major structural issues need to be
with writing is getting started and this finalized then the focus can move to
can be helped by writing the first draft issues of style and language. Checking
as quickly as possible – in one sitting referencing and cross-referencing is one
if possible. The bulk of the writing is of the final tasks. There may need to be
produced without detailed consideration several re-readings and revisions before
of spelling or style. the document is finally completed.

The second draft. Once the first draft is Draft final report. Once the author(s)
roughly assembled, take a break so that of the report are satisfied that the report
it can be approached with a fresh mind. is mostly complete, it can be circulated
At this stage the report is read looking at: to a few people related to the project
for comment. This allows the writer to
• the way the report addresses the check that the audience understands the
objectives; report.
• the flow of the document – seeing it if
tells a story;

• the logical development of the

arguments;

• unnecessary or irrelevant information

that could be cut or summarized;

• specific points to ensure they have

been sufficiently described, explained
and justified;

• facts and references, checking they

are correct; and

• for language and style issues

For the second draft, the report can be

fine-tuned, corrected, the style adjusted,
the language simplified and, if necessary,
the structure altered if some sections
seem too bulky. This process often takes
longer than the original writing. A critical
friend can read through and comment on
the text to see how clear it is.
 8

Organizing the information Importance of structure. As an analogy,

The aim of any report is to present the consider the construction of a pyramid
information in a clear and logical way, (Figure 1). The structure culminates in
so that the reader can progress through a single point; the rest of the structure
the ‘story’ without having to make jumps, provides support to this point, layer
cross-references or assumptions. This is upon layer. These are all based on a firm
especially true of research reports. With foundation. The same structure supports
research, the outcome is (probably) not the findings of a research project.
known to the researcher before the work The foundations. Deciding where to
starts. It is also not known to the reader start building up the evidence will require
– if it were, then research would not be the author to think about the audience.
required! The writer has to communicate The report should start at their level; if it
and justify the findings in a clear way starts at too advanced a level, beyond
to the reader. Whereas the researcher their existing knowledge, then there will
may have taken a significant amount of be a gap between what the reader knows
time developing their ideas, often going and the start of the logical structure
down dead ends and following circular of the report. This is like the pyramid
paths, the reader has to follow the final floating in the air, with no connection with
thought process in the time taken to read the ground. Alternatively, the report may
the report, so a clear, logical structure underestimate the level of knowledge
is important. Superfluous information and may start at too basic a level. The
needs to be omitted and essential writer is having to do extra work – and
information included at the correct point so is the reader. The foundations in
to support the argument. this case are below the level that the
audience requires (Figure 2).
Although research reports are
The introduction of the report sets the
assessed by knowledgeable people,
scene and tells the reader “this is where
they will want to know that the
researcher is aware of the basics,
without simplifying issues too
Results
much. As a guideline, the audience
for a research dissertation is a Methodology
fellow student; somebody who has
completed the same course of study Review of existing knowledge
and knows the broad subject matter.
From this common foundation, they
can be led through the research. Figure 1. Think of a report as a pyramid
 9

There is no significant analysis of the

information apart from setting out to
✗
✓ communicate, compare and contrast
✗ existing knowledge. The audience may
know some of this, but this section goes
into more depth than would be expected
to be known by a non-specialist.

Figure 2. Determine the level of This summary of existing knowledge

understanding of the audience needs to include everything that is
built upon later on in the report. The
we are starting from”. It is information researcher may come across information
that the reader probably already knows late in the research process that is used
but may need reminding of. Starting an to support conclusions; this should be
introduction with “there are 1.2 billion included at this introductory level to
people without adequate water” is fine provide a logical order for the reader
for a report for a general audience, but to follow, rather than leaving gaps in
for a report for fellow professionals, they the summary of existing knowledge.
will know this. Perhaps “the problem with Similarly, not all the information gathered
inadequate water for millions of people is is needed; do not include it unless
a complex one, involving many factors” it supports the later argument. If it is
may be better. extraneous, it may confuse the reader,
as they do not see where it is leading
The known facts. The first layers of (Figure 3). Of course, just as with the
the report begin to focus onto the area pyramid, each layer is narrower than
under consideration. This involves the one below, but it should not be
what information is publicly available excessive. This is a matter of judgement.
but perhaps not widely known by the
audience. This often takes the form of a
literature review. This review looks at the
status of knowledge, summaries of facts,
areas of agreement between different
authorities, differences in opinions
and gaps in the published literature.
Areas that are missing in the literature
can be more important than what is
there – but it is difficult to demonstrate Figure 3. Provide support for the layers
that there is a gap – it could be that the above – not too much or leaving gaps
researcher has not looked hard enough.
 10

The new facts. From this foundation of

what is publicly known, the researcher
can then focus on the unknowns. Using
primary data collection, interviews,
laboratory experiments, questionnaires,
surveys, correspondence and
measurements, the researcher can find
out more about the subject.
Figure 5. Analysis has to build on the
The data need to be collected in the known facts and support the conclusions
correct way to ensure that they have
value. The collection process has to be supports provide a stronger structure
recorded to demonstrate that the data than a single support, then two different
produced is valid. The more robust the viewpoints of the same problem can
data collection method, the stronger indicate the quality of the results as each
are the conclusions that can be made piece of evidence confirms the results
(Figure 4). from a different source. In research this
is called triangulation.
Even if the theoretical method of data
collection is strong, it can be difficult Building on the evidence. Once all the
to obtain data in reality. The researcher factual material has been assembled,
needs to be critical of their work – either directly from the data collection,
identifying weak areas and potential or indirectly by looking at the literature,
errors. This is not to say that the work analysis can start. This has to build on
was poor, but to confirm the quality of the facts. If there are facts that are not
the data. Some weak areas may be going to be analysed and used in the
strengthened by looking at the problem conclusions, then the reader should not
from a different angle. Just as two be confused with information that they
do not need (Figure 5). The researcher
may need to discuss why data cannot be
used – this is part of the critique of the
research methodology.

There is a marked change in the

information once analysis starts.
Whereas all the preceding layers have
Figure 4. All the building materials have to been factual or based on other people’s
be of good quality; weak data leads to weak views, this is where the researcher
conclusions begins to put his/ her own opinions
forward. They are drawing on the facts,
 11

discussing them and deciding what they a path that does not lead anywhere
mean. This section has to be strong, as – provided it is well supported and
it distinguishes the research report from the reasons for this conclusion fully
just a simple data collection exercise. explained.
The evidence has to be tested, looking
at arguments for and against a position, Summarizing the report
trying to prove what is “true”. The whole report may be well argued
with balance between all the different
Reaching the summit. The ultimate
facets, but this may mean that it is
purpose of the research report is to
too long for some readers. “Executive
put forward some well-supported
summaries” are written to allow a reader,
conclusions (Figure 6). The argument
such as a fellow researcher, to gain a
and evidence should be strong enough
broad overview of the project. They may
for the reader to agree and not conclude
want to go on and read the full report
that the researcher has jumped to some
or they may decide it is not what they
unsupported viewpoint.
were looking for. Some people will only
Whilst it may be desirable to come ever read this summary – hence the term
up with some new and wonderful “executive summary” to indicate that
perspective on the research subject, some decision-makers will only have the
the answer may be a “no” rather than a time to read the key points and not the
“yes”. This is still a very valid research whole report.
outcome. If after careful work, the
The art of summarizing information, or
conclusion is that something will not
précis, is a skill, which has to be learnt
work or a proposal cannot be justified,
and practised. The aim is to reduce
then this is important – especially to
a long piece of text to a few short
other researchers who can then build
paragraphs that cover all the key points.
on your work. A “no” helps them avoid
The previous points apply but the writer
has to be much more critical about what
to include.

A good summary will entice the reader to

delve further into the document. It should
thus not be a collection of sentences
pulled from the text, but the ideas distilled
and re-written in shortened form. All
detail, examples and peripheral text must
Figure 6. People look to the top be left out. The order of presentation may
also change from that in the original.
 12

Although “cutting and pasting” from be read by somebody who is interested

your main document may seem an easy and knowledgeable about the subject
option, this will not result in a good (such as a colleague), the executive
summary. It is better to start with a blank summary will have a wider audience.
sheet and think about the main points The readership may not be expert in the
that need to be communicated. Allow area, so the starting foundation needs to
sufficient time to write a summary as it is be lower and the writing style clear and
often harder to write two pages than ten simple.
pages; each word and sentence has to
count. The structure needs to be explicit,
to show what work has been done,
As there will be many things in the main but, due to limitations of space, some
report, it is easy to overlook some of the aspects may have to be completely
basic information that is required for the omitted or just alluded to. Unless the
summary, even such simple aspects as project process was unusual, it can
titles and authorship. Abbreviations need just be referred to using “standard” or
to be spelt out in full to begin with (a “commonly-accepted” methods rather
common problem resulting from cutting describing the methodology in detail.
and pasting techniques) or even not Similarly writing “a wide-ranging literature
used at all if they are unusual. review shows…” may be sufficient unless
Thinking about the audience is there are particularly important aspects
important. Whilst the main report will of the literature review process (such as
keywords) that need to be explained.

The reader will have to trust that the

Writing a précis
basics are correct; it is the new material
• Read the whole document
(and an indication that it is supported
carefully
by good evidence) that they will want
• Reflect on the content and decide to learn about. This does not mean
what the summary is to be about that the summary starts with the main
• Skim the document again, picking findings – it is a summary of the whole
out key points, and making notes research process, so there has to be
on the important points but re- enough evidence all the way through the
phrasing them summary to show that the conclusions
• Re-order the information, which can be supported and an indication of
can be different to the original the strength of that support.

• Write the summary from the notes. Summarizing the summary. Executive
summaries summarize a 100 page report
 13

“The abstract should not be a table of contents in prose, neither should it be

an introduction. It should be informative. Tell the reader what the research was
about, how it was undertaken and what was discovered, but not how the paper is
organized. The main findings must be summarized. If there are too many of them,
then just exemplify them in the abstract. The essential elements … are:

• Background: A simple opening sentence or two placing the work in context.

• Aims: One or two sentences giving the purpose of the work.
• Method(s): One or two sentences explaining what was done.
• Results: One or two sentences indicating the main findings.
• Conclusions: One sentence giving the most important consequence of the
work.
The following guidelines … may help to overcome some of the most frequent
problems:

• Do not commence with “this paper…”, “this report…” or similar. It is better to

write about the research than about the paper. Similarly, do not explain the
sections or parts of the paper.
• Avoid sentences that end in “…is described”, “…is reported”, “…is analysed” or
similar. These are simply too vague to be informative.
• Do not begin sentences with “it is suggested that…”, “it is believed that…”, “it
is felt that…” or similar. In every case, the four words can be omitted without
damaging the essential message.
• Do not write in the first person in any form. Thus, not only should you avoid “I”,
but also “we”, “the author”, “the writer” and so on. Again, this is because the
abstract should be about the research, not about the act of writing.
Here is a spoof abstract containing some of the worst practices in abstract writing:

This paper discusses research which was undertaken in the author’s country. A
theoretical framework is developed from a literature search and this is used by the
authors as the basis of an analytical model. The researchers collected data within
this framework and analysed it according to the precepts laid down by earlier
researchers in the field. The data is used to demonstrate that our understanding
can be significantly increased and this is discussed in the light of previous work.
Conclusions are drawn and it is shown that these may be useful for practitioners.”

Source: Taylor & Francis Group

http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/authors/rcme_abstracts.asp
 14

into perhaps five or ten pages. Abstracts repetitive approach reflects the
take this a stage further by reducing the organization and preparation necessary
whole topic to a few hundred words. This to communicate complex information.
distillation of the report will be read by This structure depends on the type of
many people so it needs to be concise document being produced. A short fact
but convey the main points. It may be sheet, for example, might only have an
the most important part of the report, as introduction, a main body of text and a
the best project will have no impact if conclusion.
nobody reads about it.
Title Page. The title should give a
Structuring the Report precise indication of the subject matter
Once the general flow of information has and the type of report. This section
been determined, it can be divided into also includes details of the writer, the
sections. This helps the reader navigate date, the funding agency and other
their way through the document. Many administrative data.
organizations have a standard structure
and format for their reports. The following Summary or ‘Executive’ Summary. This
are some commonly used sections: is a form of précis or shortened version
of the report, before or after the contents
• Title Page page. It should neatly and concisely
• Summary or ‘Executive’ Summary sum up the main information presented
in the report and the main conclusions
• Contents or recommendations. The summary
• Introduction should be able to stand alone from the
main body of the report – it is often the
• Main Body of Text
only part that many people read in full,
• Discussion so needs to be good. It is easier to write
when the whole report is completed.
• Conclusions, ‘Lessons Learned’ and/
or Recommendations Contents. A simple listing of all the
• References sections in the report, with their page
numbers, so that the reader can find
• Appendices
their way round the document. Figures
Some of this may seem quite repetitive, and Tables may also be listed. If you are
but formal writing structure reflects using many abbreviations and acronyms
the old adage that “if you want to tell (e.g. WEDC, UNDP), or technical terms
somebody something, tell them what (e.g. Aqua privy, infiltration gallery,
you are going to say, then say it, then non-revenue water) it may also be worth
tell them what you said.” This seemingly listing them here in a glossary.
 15

Acknowledgements. All help given Analysis and discussion. This section

towards the report should be mentioned, identifies key issues, drawing on
and individuals thanked. This may information from the main text and
include thanks to administrative and suggesting explanations, presenting
support staff such as librarians and the pros and cons of any arguments or
technicians, as well as colleagues who conclusions that can be inferred. If the
may have proofread the report. report is in several sections, it may be
simpler to have a small discussion for
Introduction. This section is also each of these, drawing them all together
sometimes easier to write when the main in the conclusion.
body of text is already largely complete.
The introduction is the place to set the Conclusions (or ‘Lessons Learned’ or
scene, give the context and background, Recommendations). This is the section
a broad overview of the material and to people often turn to after reading the
state the purpose – and limits - of the summary. It should be able to stand
report. It may be helpful to refer to any alone, presenting no new material,
Terms of Reference (perhaps with the but drawing together all the threads
TOR in an Appendix). of argument from the report and the
discussion in a clear and logical manner.
Main Body of Text. This sets out the Recommendations should be practical
factual account of events and/ or details and constructive, making clear what
the nature of the investigation. Each decisions need to made, and by whom.
section should deal with a specific Some authors find it helpful to separate
aspect, keeping main points separate out ‘Action Points’, to give greater
and clear and distinguishing between emphasis on the outcomes expected. If
the facts and the author’s opinion. there is a series of recommendations,
Research reports may have chapters it may help to list them in order of
on methodology, literature review and importance, and bullet or number them
findings or results. for ease of cross-reference. There should
be no surprises here – all points will
Avoid putting huge amounts of data or
already have been made in the main
transcripts of discussions in the main
text – this is just the bringing of them all
text. They will break the flow and make
together.
the report unnecessarily long. These
can be placed in tables, boxes or When making recommendations,
appendices, where they can be referred consider:
to from the text. Any figures or tables
should be as close as possible to the • What questions is my report aiming
section of text referring to them. to answer?
 16

• Who are my audience and what are Only include these if they are genuinely
they hoping to find out? supporting information. Appendices are
usually numbered (1, 2, 3), or can be
• How will the report be used?
lettered (A, B, C), in the order in which
• What should happen as a result of they are referred to in the text.
the report?
Reporting on projects
References. Any work quoted in the
report should be fully referenced, so that Whilst the writer knows that reports flow
readers can locate the article or book for from general introductions to specific
themselves. There are several standard recommendations, the constraints of
formats for referencing, but the most standard report structures can cause
common is to cite the author and date confusion as it not always clear what
in the text, and then to list the articles by should go in each section. “Results” and
author, alphabetically at the end of the “discussion” can often seem to merge
document. into each other, yet the former is mainly
factual and the latter sets out the author’s
Appendices. Material that is required interpretation of those facts.
for reference in the report, but would
interrupt the flow of the main body of Flow of logic
text, can go in an appendix. Examples There is a structure to the process of
are the Terms of Reference, survey projects and research, which can be
data details where the key results have illustrated using a logical framework
been presented in the text, transcripts approach (Figure 7). This logical process
of meetings or interviews, and so on. can be reflected in the report. This

Goal Recommendations
Wisdom

– Problem statement – Where do we go now?

Introduction

Purpose Conclusions
Knowledge

– Research aim – What has been learned?

Information

Outputs Analysis / discussion

Methodology

– Objectives / questions – What do the data show?

Inputs Results
Data

– Activities – What are the data?

Figure 7. Structure of a (research) project

 17

is a simplified model and may vary

Facts versus opinion. A clear depending on the type of research and
division must be made between data collected.
facts and opinions about those facts.
The latter should be presented in the The report needs to articulate clearly
‘discussion’ section of the report. the project goal. This is likely to be a
high-level issue and the project will
When writing something that an only partially contribute to this goal. For
individual knows or feels to be right, example, if the goal is to improve the
it is important not to assume that living conditions of people living in slums
others may also think it right. It is then research into suitable water supply
necessary to state all the premises techniques will help towards this.
or reasons behind an argument
and set out the benefits. Consider The aim or purpose of the research is
what those opposed might say more specific and should be achievable
in argument and explain why the within the resources and time available.
chosen route is better. To achieve this aim, the project will
need to produce some outputs. These
Consider the difference in impact of outputs can be expressed as responses
the following two statements: to questions. Inputs will need to be
A “It makes far more sense for provided to produce these responses.
everybody to be paid on the same This last stage is the research or project
date each month.” activities.

B “Currently we pay staff in the The logic is “if I carry out these activities,
regions on the 14th and 21st, and then I should produce these outputs
those in the capital at the end of (answers to questions) and from these
each month. There is a high cost should produce the anticipated research
to the organization to pay the aim, which should contribute (eventually)
accountant for three sessions a towards a wider goal”. Each stage builds
month, plus her travelling expenses. on the next.
The loss of convenience for the
The left hand side of the diagram
regional workers will be outweighed
is the foundation (introduction) and
by the necessity to reduce their
plan for the research (methodology)
hours if this practice continues. It
or project process. The activities are
is therefore recommended that we
carried out and this should result in
pay all staff on the same date each
data. After presenting the results of
month.”
the data collection, the subsequent
analysis and discussion will produce
 18

information, which should answer the Report symmetry

research questions. These answers The report can be seen as almost
to the research questions should then symmetrical. If the reader were to read
help achieve the aim. It may be that the Introduction (Problem statement,
the questions cannot be answered, research aim) and then skip directly to
or cannot be answered using the the concluding chapters (Conclusions
methodology chosen, but whatever the and Recommendations) these should
result, there will be new knowledge, make sense even without the intervening
which progresses towards the goal. This chapters, because they are logically
flow is represented by the upward arrows linked. The issues raised in the
on the right-hand side of the figure. introductory chapter should be answered
The elements of this model do not in the concluding chapter (Figure 8).
map precisely onto the chapters of
Similar symmetry can be seen between
a research report. For example, the
the Outputs and the Discussion, as
problem statement (goal), research aim
the questions posed are subsequently
and overall objectives (questions) are
answered, and the Input and the Results,
normally all included in the Introduction
showing how the planned activities
chapter. More detailed research
resulted in the collection of the data.
questions may be included in the
methodology, along with details of the This model is clear and logical and
planned activities. The literature review helps structure the report, even if the
may be part of the production of data project did not proceed as smoothly as
and included after the methodology (in planned. In reality, there is repetition
the results chapter) or alternatively may and adjustment in projects, as activities
precede and inform the methodology (as consist of several cycles, with data being
an extension to the introduction). gathered and analysed from literature,

Goal Recommendations
Wisdom

– Problem statement – Where do we go now?

Introduction

Purpose Conclusions
Knowledge

– Research aim – What has been learned?

Figure 8. Issues in the introduction are answered in the conclusion

 19

then pilot studies followed by fuller data • Describe a problematic issue rather
gathering. Each cycle will provide some than judging it in the text.
knowledge of what works (or does not • Be specific about the points where
work). This refinement of knowledge, there appear to be problems –
adding more detail and more depth generalizations are not helpful – and
with each iteration, is part of the wider give some constructive ideas as to
research process. how best to solve them or improve
the situation.
Evaluation reports
There is an art to constructive criticism. • Keep all criticisms ‘structural’ and
When an external evaluator reports avoid the personal.
on a project, the writing needs to be • Do not hide or erase past mistakes
approached in a very delicate and but look for the ‘Lessons Learned’
diplomatic way and particularly must be and move on.
seen to be independent and unbiased.
The evaluation report should use the
evaluator’s experience and the benefit
Writing the report
A report needs to be readable, with clear
of a fresh perspective to give advice on
and concise language, well-constructed
how the project could be enhanced.
sentences and correct spelling and
Project workers will be apprehensive grammar. The ‘tone’ of the report is
about the visit of the ‘expert’ and important – a professional report should
can quickly become defensive and be unbiased and well argued, with a
dismissive if they read new criticisms in a consistent style.
report that were not discussed with them
Everybody will write in a different way,
first in a sensitive and respectful way.
depending on their education and
Negative feedback that is not handled
experience. Report writers should be
carefully can thus be very destructive.
aware that they should adjust their
Some useful guidelines, therefore, are:
individual style to suit the report. This
• Only give opinions where they have goes beyond grammatical conventions
definitely been asked for. to include choice of vocabulary and the
• Give praise and encouragement first, tone of text. Reading other reports helps
for those parts of the work that are increase familiarity with different writing
good. styles (good and bad).

• Always tell the people involved what Whilst there are conventions about
is intended to be written – preferably writing style, the over-riding advice is
in a dialogue – so there are no “Keep It Short and Simple” – KISS. This
surprises. applies to words, sentences and reports.
 20

Long words and long sentences make

the ideas harder to absorb immediately. Use or utlize?
It is tempting to use long words to
Words make a report appear erudite but
The vocabulary used needs to reflect this can either make the writing
the ability of the reader. Subject specific difficult to read or even mislead if
terminology needs to be explained the word is not correct.
unless the readership for the document
is likely to understand the words. A You use a hammer to bang in a nail;
broad audience may consider these you utilize it to prop open a door –
words as jargon. i.e. a purpose for which it was not
designed.
Subject specific terminology does aid
communication as complex ideas can
be summed up succinctly. However, become repetitious as each repetition
the gratuitous1 use of prolix2 words can of the repeated word becomes more
obfuscate3 the meaning of the sentence noticeable and the repetition of the
and appear magniloquent4 or even repeated words is repetitive. Using a
grandiloquent5. A balance has to be thesaurus and dictionary helps to identify
made between using a precise word that synonyms and select the right word.
may not be in common use and writing
a bland piece of prose without drawing Acronyms and abbreviations can also
on the rich vocabulary of the English be confusing; these need to be spelt
language. Reading a variety of books will out in full when they are first used (e.g.
help to expand vocabulary and identify “Water, Engineering and Development
different styles of writing. Glossaries can Centre (WEDC)”) and perhaps included
aid understanding of subject-specific in a glossary. Acronyms should only be
terms and subject-specific dictionaries used if they are either well known (e.g.
can provide succinct definitions. UNICEF rather than the United Nations
Children’s Emergency Fund) or they
At the other extreme from using unusual are going to be repeatedly used. If an
words is the repeated use of particular uncommon acronym is only used once, it
words. Repeating the same word can should only be spelt out in full. Acronyms
should not be made up unless there is a
specific reason for doing so.
1
Uncalled for
2
Lengthy, tedious Euphemisms are often used by people
3
To obscure, to confuse writing about issues such as sanitation.
4
Grandiloquent in speech Words such as “human waste” may be
5
Inflated and pompous in style or speech confusing as this is not very precise.
 21

Scientific words such as “faeces” and – provided the program is using the
“urine” are acceptable and convey the correct language. However, words can
meaning more clearly. Slang or crude still be spelt correctly, but the sense lost.
words such as “crap” and “shit” are Homophones sound the same but mean
simpler still but would not be acceptable different things (e.g. “their”, “they’re” and
in formal writing. “there”, “here” and “hear” or “practice”
(noun) and “practise” (verb)). Spell-
Spelling words correctly is less of checkers can come up with surprising
a challenge if ‘spell-checkers’ on re-wordings if you slightly mis-spell
word processing packages are used a word, for example, “brothels” for

Know your audience

Engineers, social scientists and economists all have different interpretations of
supply and demand. Engineers on a water supply project consider supply and
demand as the quantity of water supplied. Demand is often expressed as litres of
water per capita per day and can vary from as little as 10 l/c/d in a refugee camp
to 500 l/c/d in some industrialized countries. This is often measured by looking at
actual use in similar situations rather than asking what people “demand”. Ideally,
supply equals demand and often they are regarded as the same measurement.

Social scientists use the terms supply and demand to describe the way a project
is delivered. A supply-driven project is organized by those in authority and
concentrates on the delivery of services. It is measured in terms of amount of
water supplied, numbers of latrines constructed, length of irrigation canal built.
Demand-led projects concentrate on what people say they want and deliver the
request in the manner the people ask for. The practice is not as simple as the
theory. People have to be informed of the choices that are available, even to the
extent of creating “demand”. Sanitation is an example of a facility people may not
know that they want until they are told about it. Demand in this sense is difficult
to measure.

Economists have narrow definitions of supply and demand. Demand is the

quantity of a commodity that people will buy at a certain price. Supply is the
quantity of the same commodity that can be produced for a certain price. The
relationship between supply and demand may be influenced by non-monetary
factors, which economists attempt to measure and include in their models of the
economy.
22

“Therefore” is a useful word to

explain a logical progression
of ideas, but a long series of
“therefores” can be difficult to
follow, so using “then”, “so”,
“consequently”, “thus”, “hence”,
“and so”, or “as a result” may
provide some variety.

“boreholes” – this type of replacement

can give a very different meaning to your by the poor writing style and not focus
writing! There is no substitute for reading on the message that the writer (or even
and re-reading text for typographical writers) were trying to get across so if a
errors (typos), as well as for grammar, sentence does get too long it is a good
punctuation and general style. idea to break it down into several shorter
sentences, each with a single idea
Sentences (which has been mentioned before in this
Good sentence structure is the key to section) and ensure that each of these
clear expression, so, ideally, sentences sentences follows on from the previous
should present ideas one at a time and one.
each sentence should make sense on These paragraphs
its own as when the meaning of a piece Sections and paragraphs are too short!
of writing is unclear, it is often because After sentences, paragraphs are the
it is not written in proper sentences or building blocks of writing structure.
the sentence is too long and rambling, A paragraph is a cluster of sentences
with many sub-clauses (or issues in about one subject.
parentheses), so that the reader has
forgotten where the sentence started and However, paragraphs should not be too
lost the thread of the argument as the short as this breaks up the flow of ideas.
writing becomes difficult to follow and it
A page of text is much more manageable
(the sentence) seems to wander around
for the reader if it is broken into several
without ever seeming to come to a clear
paragraphs, each with its own subject or
conclusion as well as losing all focus
idea.
and direction so it is best to check that
any sentience you have written is not too These should follow on logically from
long as this will be very annoying to your one-another, leading the reader through
reader and they will become distracted the story or argument.

This sentence is
too long!
 23

A series of paragraphs forms a section,

grouped under a heading. Their headings Consider the difference between:
should be unambiguous – one-word titles “We discussed funding and did say
can be misleading. that $50,000 would cover the first
job”
Writing style
which is what might be said, and
For report writing, a different style
the more impersonal and less
of writing is used from personal
colloquial:
communications. Whilst style is largely a
matter for personal taste, there are a few “At a meeting of all stakeholders,
conventions to be considered. initial project funding was agreed to
be set at $50,000.”
‘Voice’ refers to the style of language used
– formal or informal, active or passive. In
general, reports need to be quite formal
Various tests have been developed
to be taken seriously and the passive,
to measure the “readability” of a
impersonal voice will help.
document. This involves counting
Formal writing always uses the full form the number of words per sentence
of phrases that are shortened in everyday and the number of syllables per
speech. Thus, “don’t”, “can’t” or “they’re” word to calculate an index or score
should be written in full (i.e. “do not”, for the whole document.
“cannot” or “they are”).

Formal reports are written in the third

person (i.e. “the author thinks that...”
rather than “I think that…” and “the reader
should be aware that…” rather than “you
will be aware that…”). The writing is also
“passive” (i.e. “the survey was carried out”
rather than “I carried out the survey”).

However, long passages of passive text

can become very dry to read, and it is
easy to get carried away with very wordy
sentences. In project reports (but not
research papers) it is possible to alternate
between both active and passive in a
report – active statements are often more
immediate, and energetic.
 24

Format Whilst formal reports will be mainly

The layout or the look of the report is
text written in a long narrative form,
also important. Computer programs
information can be placed in boxes
and printers enable reports of high
to provide additional material,
visual quality to be produced. Some
diagrams can illustrate points, and
organizations will have a “house style”
tables incorporated to present
which sets out the fonts, line spacing,
data. Indenting, italics, bold text
margins and other factors that should
and bullet points alter the way the
be used. Some programs enable fixed
reader views the text, differentiating
styles to be used for text and headings,
between types of information.
which helps the writer be consistent
through the whole document.
make the report more visually appealing.
Fonts should be plain, such as Arial,
Diagrams and illustrations can be
Swiss or Helvetica. Complex or
engaging to some readers and help
unusual fonts can be distracting
explain issues. Too much variety however
and difficult to read. Font size , line
can be distracting.
spacing and left justification also aid
l e g i b i l i t y. C o n s i s t e n t f o r m a t t i n g o f Conclusion
headings helps the reader to navigate Report writing is a skill, but one worth
their way through the document. acquiring as it is a key professional
Too much solid text can be daunting competence. Good reports are easy
to read so breaking it up into sections to read and the reader understands
and using appropriate formatting can the message that the writer wants
to communicate. Poor reports are
frustrating to read and fail to have the
intended impact. Good project work has
a reduced impact if it is not reported and
shared.
 25

Editing Checklist

1. Objectives • Have you avoided introducing any new

• Are there clear objectives? information?
• Has the audience been identified? • Are your recommendations
• Does the report address the objectives constructive, clear and concise?
and the needs of the audience?
7. Format
2. Summary • Is it easy to find information in your
• Is your summary short and clear? document?
• Does it cover the task, the scope, the • Are headings and numberings clear?
main findings, the conclusions and the • Is the layout appealing?
recommendations?
8. Accuracy
• Are there any spelling mistakes?
3. Introduction
• Do any figures presented add up?
• Do you refer to the Terms of
• Are all references correct, in the text
Reference?
and at the end?
• Are the limits/scope of the report made
• Are abbreviations consistent?
clear?
• Are all sources of information listed
• Have you given a brief background to
alphabetically in the text?
the subject?
• Are all references correct, in the text
and at the end?
4. Main Text • Are abbreviations consistent?
• Is there an even balance between the • Are all sources of information listed
sections? alphabetically in the text?
• Is the ‘story’ or argument logical and
easy to follow? 9. Images
• Do the most important items have the • Are the figures and tables clear and
most space? clearly labelled?
• Are they close to the relevant text?
5. Discussion
• Have you included all the main points? 10. Language and Style
• Are points made supported by • Is your document clear and easy to
evidence? read?
• Have you suggested explanations for • Will the readers understand it?
any findings? • Will the tone help you to achieve the
• Have you remained detached and report objectives?
provided a balanced view? • Is your vocabulary suitably varied?
• Can any unnecessary words or
6. Conclusions/ Recommendations phrases be deleted?
• Have you summed up and drawn all • Are both grammar and punctuation
your points together? correct?
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