CONTENT

1.INTRODUCTION

2.CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS

3.SYMPTOMS AND DIAGNOSIS

4.HORMONAL IMBALANCE

5.IMPACT ON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

6.TREATMENT OPTIONS

7.CONCLUSION

8.REFERENCES
 INTRODUCTION

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is a common hormonal disorder that affects people with ovaries,
primarily during their reproductive years. It is characterized by a combination of symptoms, which may
include irregular menstrual cycles, excess androgen (male hormone) levels, and the presence of small cysts
on the ovaries. PCOS can lead to various health issues, including fertility problems, weight gain, acne, and
insulin resistance. The exact cause of PCOS is not fully understood, but it likely involves a combination of
genetic and environmental factors. Management and treatment options for PCOS often focus on symptom
control, lifestyle changes, and, in some cases, medical intervention. If you suspect you have PCOS or have
been diagnosed with it, it's essential to work with a healthcare provider for proper evaluation and
management.

Irregular Menstrual Cycles: Women with PCOS often experience irregular or infrequent menstrual periods,
which can make it challenging to predict ovulation and plan for pregnancy.

Excess Androgens: PCOS can lead to an overproduction of androgens, which are male hormones that
women also produce. This can result in symptoms like acne, excessive facial and body hair (hirsutism), and
male-pattern baldness.

Ovarian cyst: While the name suggests the presence of cysts in the ovaries, it's important to note that
these are not typical cysts but rather small, undeveloped follicles. These cysts can cause the ovaries to
become enlarged.

Insulin Resistance: Many individuals with PCOS have insulin resistance, which can lead to high levels of
insulin in the body. This may contribute to weight gain and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes.

Fertility Issues: PCOS is a common cause of infertility due to irregular ovulation or the lack of ovulation.

Metabolic and Cardiovascular Risks: PCOS is associated with an increased risk of other health problems,
including obesity, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and an elevated risk of heart disease.
 CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is a complex hormonal disorder, and its exact cause isn't fully
understood, but several factors are believed to contribute to its development. Some of the potential
causes and risk factors include:

Genetics: There appears to be a genetic component to PCOS. If your mother, sister, or other close female
relatives have PCOS, you may be at a higher risk.

Insulin Resistance: Many women with PCOS have insulin resistance, which can lead to high insulin levels in
the body. This can contribute to increased androgen (male hormone) production and disrupt the normal
menstrual cycle.

Hormonal Imbalance: PCOS is often characterized by an imbalance in sex hormones, particularly elevated
levels of androgens (such as testosterone) and irregularities in the menstrual cycle.

Inflammation: Chronic inflammation might be a contributing factor in PCOS, as it can exacerbate insulin
resistance and disrupt normal ovarian function.

Lifestyle Factors: Obesity and an unhealthy lifestyle, including a diet high in refined carbohydrates and low
in physical activity, can increase the risk of developing PCOS and exacerbate its symptoms.

Environmental Factors: Some studies suggest that exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals, such as
Bisphenol A (BPA), may play a role in the development of PCOS.

Family History: If you have close female relatives with PCOS, such as your mother or sister, your risk may
be higher due to the genetic component of the condition.

Sedentary Lifestyle: Lack of physical activity and a sedentary lifestyle can contribute to weight gain and
worsen insulin resistance, both of which increase the risk of PCOS

Poor Diet: Consuming a diet high in refined carbohydrates and sugars may exacerbate insulin resistance
and hormonal imbalances, making PCOS more likely.

Age: PCOS can occur at any age, but it is most commonly diagnosed in women of childbearing age, typically
between their late teens and early 40s.
 SYMPTOMS AND DIAGNOSIS
Common Symptoms of PCOS:

Irregular Menstrual Cycles: Irregular or absent periods are a hallmark of PCOS. Some individuals may have
infrequent or prolonged menstrual cycles.

Excess Androgen Hormones: Elevated androgen levels can lead to symptoms such as acne, hirsutism
(excess hair growth), and male-pattern baldness.

Polycystic Ovaries: Multiple small cysts can often be seen on the ovaries through ultrasound, although not
all women with PCOS have these cysts.

Insulin Resistance: This can result in weight gain, particularly around the abdomen, and can lead to
difficulties in losing weight.

Fertility Issues: PCOS is a common cause of infertility due to irregular ovulation or the absence of
ovulation.

Diagnostic Process:

To diagnose PCOS, healthcare professionals typically follow these steps:

Medical History: Your doctor will ask about your menstrual history, symptoms, and family history to
understand your condition better.

Physical Examination: This may include assessing your weight, blood pressure, and signs of excess hair
growth or acne.

Blood Tests: Blood tests may be conducted to measure hormone levels, such as testosterone, luteinizing
hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and insulin levels.

Pelvic Ultrasound: An ultrasound may be performed to visualize the ovaries. While the presence of
polycystic ovaries is one of the criteria, it's not necessary for the diagnosis.

To receive a diagnosis of PCOS, you generally need to meet at least two of the following criteria:

1. Irregular or absent menstrual cycles.

2. Clinical or laboratory evidence of elevated androgen hormones.

3.The appearance of polycystic ovaries on ultrasound.

This hormonal imbalance can lead to various symptoms and health issues, including:

Irregular menstrual cycles: PCOS can cause infrequent, irregular, or prolonged periods.

Ovulatory dysfunction: Ovulation may not occur regularly, which can lead to fertility issues.

Excess hair growth (hirsutism): High androgen levels can result in increased facial and body hair growth.

Acne: Androgens can contribute to acne outbreaks.

Scalp hair thinning: Some individuals with PCOS experience hair thinning or male-pattern baldness.

Weight gain: Insulin resistance and hormonal imbalances can make it easier to gain weight and harder to
lose it.

Skin issues: PCOS is associated with skin problems like dark patches (acanthosis nigricans) and skin tags.

Mood changes: Hormonal fluctuations can affect mood and emotional well-being.

Irregular Menstrual Cycles: Hormonal imbalances in PCOS can lead to irregular or absent menstrual cycles.
This can make it challenging for those with PCOS to conceive.

High LH (Luteinizing Hormone): Elevated levels of LH can disrupt the normal menstrual cycle and
contribute to the development of cysts on the ovaries.

Low FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone): In PCOS, the ratio of LH to FSH is often elevated, which can affect
ovarian function and ovulation.

Insulin resistance: Many in dividuals with PCOS have insulin resistance, which can increase the risk of type
2 diabetes.

Low Progesterone: Progesterone levels may be lower than normal in PCOS, which can further disrupt the
menstrual cycle and lead to abnormal uterine bleeding.

Elevated Estrogens: In some cases, women with PCOS may have higher levels of estrogen, which can also
affect the menstrual cycle and increase the risk of endometrial hyperplasia and cancer.
 IMPACT ON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome) can have a significant impact on reproductive health. Here are some
ways in which PCOS can affect fertility and reproductive function:

Ovulatory Dysfunction: Many women with PCOS experience irregular or absent menstrual cycles, which
indicates irregular ovulation or anovulation (lack of ovulation). Irregular ovulation can make it challenging
to conceive.

Infertility: The combination of irregular ovulation, hormonal imbalances, and elevated androgen levels in
PCOS can lead to infertility. It may take longer for women with PCOS to become pregnant, and some may
require fertility treatments to conceive.

Increased Risk of Miscarriage: Women with PCOS have a slightly higher risk of miscarriage compared to
women without the condition.

Metabolic Factors: PCOS is associated with insulin resistance and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes.
These metabolic factors can also affect fertility and increase the risk of gestational diabetes during
pregnancy.

Complications During Pregnancy: Women with PCOS may be at a higher risk of complications during
pregnancy, such as gestational diabetes, high blood pressure, and preterm birth.

Endometrial Hyperplasia: Irregular or absent menstrual cycles can lead to the buildup of the uterine lining
(endometrial hyperplasia), which can increase the risk of endometrial cancer.
 STANSFORD INTERNATIONAL HIGHER

SECONDARY SCHOOL

CHEMISTRY
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
SUBMITTED BY : VIDHYA.M

CLASS & SEC : XII - A1B

SUBJECT : CHEMISTRY

TOPIC : EXTRACTION NICOTINE SULPHATEFROM

SUBMITTED TO : MRS.DEVI
 INDEX
1. AIM
2.

2.MATERIALS REQUIRED

3.PROCEDURE

4.RESULT

5.CONCLUSION

6.BIBLIOGRAPHY
 AIM
Nicotine is an alkaloid found in the solanaceae family

of a plants.Nicotine accumlation occurs in the leaves of

the solanaceae nicotine functions as an ant herbivore

chemical, therefore nicotine was widely used in a

past . In lower doses,the substance acts as stimulation

in mammals with high amount of fatal nicotine

additions was huge problem in a past in was huge

problem in a past in was hardtop break the people

from the addition.Nicotine was found for all major

market categories of cigarettes.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
 1. 250ml Beaker
2. Filter Paper
3. Funnel
4. China Dish
5. Chemical Balance
6. Glass Rod
7. Calcium Hydroxide
8. Kerosene
9. Conc.Sulphuric Acid
10. Cigarettes

PROCEDURE
1.Collect differnt types of cigarettes
2.Remove the covers and the cigarettes onseperate
pieces of papers
3.Weigh 1 gram of each sample using a chemical
balancs and label them .
4.Dissolve each samples in calcium hydroxide solutions
taken in 100ml beaker
5.Filter the different solutions after the nicotine has
fully dissolved.
6.The lighter layer remians in the seperating funnel.
 7.Add half a test tube of concentrated sulphuric acid
to each seperating funnel.
8.Again shake it in order to mix them and leave it for
some time.
9.Two layers are formed dark drown layer at the
bottom and atmost transparent layer on the top.

10.Open the valve of the seperating funnel and

The analysis showed higher levels of nicotin in

tobacco from beedis (0.17g) as compared to cigarettes

(0.05g in sample B and 0.06g in sample A )

tobacco contained in a country cigarettes (beedi) is

higher compared to the content in company

manufactured branded cigarettes

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. WWW.wikipedia.com

2. WWW.righthealth.com

3. WWW.netdoctor

4. WWW.nicorette.com