SECTION A

Experiments - 1
Observations:
1. Length of given wire, L = 100 cm
2. Table for unknown resistance
Serial No Resistance Length AB = Length BC Unknown
from the l (cm) = (100 – l) Resistance
resistance (cm) X=R[(100– l)/ l]
box R (ohm)
1 2 33.8 66.2 3.9
2 3 44.1 55.9 3.8
3 4 50.3 49.7 3.9

3. Least Count of the Screw gauge

Pitch of the screw gauge = 1 mm
Total no of divisions on circular scale = 100
LC of the given screw gauge = 0.01mm
Zero error, e = 0 mm
Zero correction, c = -e = 0 mm
4. Table for Diameter (D) of the wire
Serial No Linear Circular Scale Reading Observed Correcte
Scale Diameter d
No. of Value
Readin D0 = N = n x Diameter
circular scale n x LC
gN LC (mm) D = D0 + c
division on (mm)
(mm)
reference line
(n)
1 0 34 34 x 0.01 0 + 0.34 = 0.34
= 0.34 0.34
2 0 34 34 x 0.01 0 + 0.34 = 0.34
= 0.34 0.34
3 0 34 34 x 0.01 0 + 0.34 = 0.34
 = 0.34 0.34

Calculation :
1. Calculation for X
Mean X = ( 3.9 +3.8 +3.9 ) /3 = 3.86 ohm
2. Calculation for D
Mean Corrected Diameter = (0.34 + 0.34 + 0.34 )/ 3 = 0.34mm = 0.034
cm
3. Calculation for specific Resistance
Specific Resistance of the material of the given wire,
Experiments - 2
Observations:

Table for length (L) and unknown resistance (X)

Resistanc Serial Resistanc Length Length Unknown Mean

e Coil No e from the AD = l DC = Resistance Resista
resistance (cm) (100 – l) X =R(100 – l)/ nce
box R (cm) l (Ohm)
(ohm)

r1 1 40 46.2 53.8 46.58 46.55

2 50 51.8 48.2 46.52

3 60 56.3 43.7 46.57

r2 1 90 47.7 52.3 98.67 98.94

2 80 44.6 55.4 99.37

3 100 50.3 49.7 98.80

r1 and r2 1 100 40.5 59.5 146.91 147.45

in series
2 110 42.7 57.3 147.61

3 120 44.8 55.2 147.85

Calculation :-

Experimental value of Rs = 147.45 ohm

Theoretical value of Rs = r1 + r2 = 147 ohm
Difference = 0.45 ohm
Experiments - 3
Observations:

1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection method :-

Seria Resistanc Deflection in Shunt Half- Galvanomete

l No e R (ohm) the Resistanc Deflectio r resistance G
Galvanomete e S (Ohm) n = RS / (R-S)
r Ө/2 (ohm)
Ө

1 9000 28 120 14 121.6

2 9700 26 120 13 121.5

3 10500 24 120 12 121.38

4 11000 23 120 11 121.32

2. Table for figure of merit

Serial No Reading of Resistance Deflection Figure of

battery from R.B merit
Eliminator R (ohm) Ө k=
E/(R+G) Ө
1 2 5000 25 1.5 x 10-5

2 4 10000 25 1.5 x 10-5

3 6 15000 24 1.6 x 10-5

Calculation :-

Result :-

Resistance of given galvanometer = 121.32 ohm

-5
Figure of merit of given galvanometer = 1.5 x 10 A/div
Experiments - 4

Aim
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit)
into a voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter of 0-3 volts range, range a battery
of two cells or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance
boxes, two one way keys, a rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand
paper.
Procedure

1. Calculate the value of series resistance R to be connected in series

with the galvanometer for the given range V (say 3 volts).
2. Connect a resistance box in series with the galvanometer and take out
the plugs of resistance R. Now the given galvanometer is ready for use
as a voltmeter of range V volts.
3. For verification make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
Here AB is a rheostat being used as a potential divider. A and B are the
fixed terminals and C is the variable terminal of the rheostat.
4. Take out the plugs of calculated resistance R from the resistance box.
Insert the key K and adjust the movable contact of the rheostat so that
deflection in the galvanometer becomes maximum.
5. Note the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer. Convert the
galvanometer reading into volts.
6. Find the difference, if any, between the readings of voltmeter and
galvanometer. The difference gives the error.
7. Move the variable contact C of the rheostat and take at least five
observations covering the whole range of the voltmeter i.e., 0-3 volts.

Observations

Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = 121 ohm

Figure of merit k = 1.5 x 10-5 A/div
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale n = 30
Current for full scale deflection Ig = nk = 45 x 10-5
Range of conversion V = 3
Resistance to be placed in series with the galvanometer R = (V/ Ig ) – G
= (3 / 45 x 10-
5
) - 121
= 6666.66 – 121 =
6545.6 ohm
Least Count of the galvanometer converted into voltmeter = V/n = 3/30 =
0.1

Table for verification for converted voltmeter

S.No Reading of converted galvanometer into Standard Differenc

voltmeter voltmeter e (V2
Deflection ᶿ P.D in volts reading V2 –V1)
(V)
V1 = ᶿ x L.C (V) (V)
1 10 10 x 0.1 = 1 1 0
2 20 20 x 0.1 = 2 2 0
3 30 30 x 0.1 = 3 3 0

Result

As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference (as

recorded, in column 4) is very small, the conversion is perfect.

Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight. 2

2. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.

3. The ammeter used for verification should preferably be of the same

range, as the range of conversion.

4. The diameter of the wire to be used for shunt resistance, should be

 measured accurately.

5. Length of shunt wire used should be neither too small nor too large.

6. The resistance box should be a high resistance one.

7. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably be of the same

range, as the range of conversion.

8. Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.

SECTION – B

Experiments - 5

Aim
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a
graph between angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
Apparatus
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-
metre scale, pins, graph paper and a protractor.

Theory
The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by

Where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing
pins or tape.

2. Draw a straight line XX' parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the
middle of the paper.

3. Mark points Q, Q, Q... on the straight line XX' at suitable distances of

about 5 cm.

4. Draw normals N,Q, N,Q, N,Q,,.. ... on points Q, Q, Q, ... as shown in

diagram.

5. Draw straight lines R,Q, R,Q, R,Q,,... making angles of 35, 40",... 60" (write
value of the angles on the paper) respectively with the normals.

6. Mark one corner of the prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism
for all the observation

7. Put a prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX' and point Q, in the
middle of AB.

8. Mark the boundary of the prism.

9. Fix two or more office pin P, and P, vertically on the line R,Q,. The
distance between the pins should be 10 mm or more.

10. Look the images of point P, and P, through face AC.

11. Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images.

12. Fix two office pins P, and P, vertically, and 10 cm apart such that the
open right eye sees piz P, and P, and images of P, and P, in one straight line.

13. Remove pins P, and P, and encircle their pricks on the paper.
14. Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q, Q. ... for i = 40",..., 60". To measure D
in different cases

15. Draw straight lines through points P, and P, (pin pricks) to obtain
emergent rays S,T, ST, S,T,....

16. Produce T,S,, T,S,,T,S,.... inward in the boundary of the prism to meet
produced incident rays RQ, RQ, R,Q, at points F., F., F...

17. Measure angles K,F,S,, K,F,S,, K,F,S,... These give angle of deviation D₁,
D,, D,...

18. Write values of these angles on the paper.

To measure A

19. Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.

20. Record your observations.

Observations

Angle of prism ‘A’ = 60 0

Serial No Angle of incidence Angle of deviation

(i) (D)

1 350 440

2 400 410

3 450 380

4 500 420

5 550 450

Calculations
 0 0 0
n = sin [( sin 60 + 38 ) / 2] / sin (60 /2)

0 0
n = sin 49 / sin 30

n = 0.75/0.5

n = 1.5

Result

1. I-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the
angle of deviation (D) first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm )
and then starts increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 380
3. Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = 1.5

Precautions

1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.

2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent
rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

Sources of error

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
Experiments - 6

Aim
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus
Three “glass slabs of different thickness but same material, a travelling
microscope, lycopodium powder.

Diagram
Procedure
Adjustment of travelling microscope

1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that
sufficient light falls on it.
2. Adjust the levelling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes
horizontal.
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that
the cross wires are clearly visible.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope.
Other steps
5. Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope. The mark
will serve as point P.
6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that
there is no parallax between the cross-wires and the image of the mark P.
7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R) on the vertical
scale.
8. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P.
9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P, of the cross-
mark. 10. Note the reading (R) on the vertical scale as before (Step 7).
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the
slab.
12 Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the particle near S.
13. Note the reading (R) on the vertical scale again (Step 7).
14. Repeat above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses.
15. Record observations in tabular form as given below.

Observations :-
Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope = 0.001 cm.

Serial Reading on vertical scale Real Apparen R.I

No when microscope is focused thicknes t n = (R3-R1) / (R3-
on s Thickne R2)
(R3-R1) ss
(cm) (R3-R2)
(cm)
Cross Cross Lycopodiu
Mark Mark m powder
withou with R3
t Slab Slab (cm)
R1(cm) R2
(cm)
1 6 6.55 7.7 1.7 1.15 1.47
2 6 6.6 7.65 1.65 1.05 1.57
3 6 6.55 7.65 1.65 1.1 1.5

Calculations :-
n = (n1 +n2+n3) / 3
= (1.47+ 1.57 + 1.5) / 3
= 4.54/3
= 1.51
Result

Precautions

1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.

2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid

back lash error.

Sources of error
The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.
Experiments - 7

Aim
To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane
mirror.

Apparatus
A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an
optical needle, iron stand with base and clamp arrangement, plane glass
slab,half metre scale etc.
Theory
If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be
the focal length of their combination then,

Liquid lens formed is a plane concave lens with R1= R (radius of curvature
of convex lens surface), R2 = ∞
Procedure
(a) For focal length of convex lens

1. Take any one convex lens and find its rough focal length.
2. Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron stand.
3. Place the convex lens on the plane mirror.
4. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it
horizontally above the lens at distance equal to its rough focal length.
5. Bring the tip of the needle at the vertical principal axis of the lens, so that
tip of the needle appears touching the tip of its image.
6. Move the needle up and down and remove parallax between tips of the
needle and its image.
7. Measure distance between tip and upper surface of the lens by using a
plumb line and half metre scale.
8. Also measure distance between tip and the surface of its plane mirror.
(b) For focal length of the combination
9. Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the
convex lens over it with its same face above as before (A plano concave
liquid lens is formed between plane mirror and convex lens).
10. Repeat steps 6, 7 and 8.
11. Record your observations as given below.
Diagram

Observations

1. Rough focal length of convex lens = 20 cm.

Table for distance of needle tip from lens and mirror.

Arrangement Distance of needle tip Focal

From From Mean Length
lens Plane
surfac Mirror X = (X1 + X2) / X (cm)
e 2
X2
X1 (cm)
(cm)
 Without Liquid 20.3 20.8 20.55 F1 = 20.55
With Liquid 29.8 30.3 30.05 F = 30.05
Radius of curvature R = 20.55 cm

Calculations

Precautions

1. The liquid taken should be transparent.

2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.

Sources of error

1. Liquid may not be quite transparent.

2. The parallax may not be fully removed.
Experiments – 8

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and
Reverse bias.

Apparatus
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a
high resistance rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter,
one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter, one way key, connecting
wires and pieces of sand paper.

Theory
Forward-bias characteristics:- When the p-section of the diode is
connected to posit terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to
negative terminal of the battery then junction is said to be forward biased.
With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the
beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the
current increases suddenly the value of forward bias voltage, at which the
forward current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold
voltage.
Reverse-bias characteristics: - When the p-section of the diode is
connected to negative terminal of high voltage battery and n-section of the
diode is connected to positive terminal of the same battery then junction is
said to be reverse biased.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse
current flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse
bias voltage increases to sufficiently high value the reverse current
suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown of
junction diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) is called zener
breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage may starts
from one volt to several hundred volts, depending upon dopant density and
the depletion layer.

Diagram
Procedure
For forward-bias
1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA).
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end
and insert the key K. Voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA) will give zero
reading.
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bias
voltage (V) of 0.1 V. Current remains zero.
6. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current
remains zero. (It is due to junction potential barrier of 0.3 V).
7. Increase V, to 0.4 V milli-ammeter records a small current.
8. Increase V, in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current. Current
increases first slowly and then rapidly, till V, becomes 0.7 V.
9. Make V, 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents
"forward breakdown" stage.
10. If the V, increases beyond "forward breakdown" stage, the forward
current does not chane much. Now take out the key at once.
11. Record your observations as given ahead.
For reverse-bias
12. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
13. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
14. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter
(µA).
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near positive end
and insert the key K. Voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (UA) will give zero
reading.
16. Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias voltage
(V) of 0.5 V,a feebly reverse current starts flowing.
17. Increase V, in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first slowly and then
rapidly till V, becomes 20 V. Note the current.
18. Make V-25 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents "reverse
breakdown" stage. Note the current and take out the key at once.
19. Record your observations as given ahead.

Observations

For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter = 0 – 1.2 V
Least count of voltmeter = 0.02 V
Zero error of voltmeter = 0 V
Range of milli-ammeter = 0 - 15 mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.3 mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = 0 mA

Serial Forward Bias Voltage (VF) Forward Bias Current (IF)

No (V) (mA)
1 0 0
2 0.1 0
3 0.2 0
4 0.3 0
5 0.4 1.2
6 0.5 4.8
7 0.6 10.2
8 0.7 Out of range

For reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter = 0 –30 V
Least count of voltmeter = 0.5 V
Zero error of voltmeter =0V
Range of micro-ammeter = 0 – 100 μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = 2 μA
Zero error of micro-ammeter = 0 μA

Serial Reverse Bias Voltage Reverse Bias Current

No (VR) (IF)
(V) (μA)
1 0 0
2 2.5 2
3 5 6
4 7.5 10
5 10 16
6 12.5 26
 7 15 36
8 17.5 62
9 20 70
10 25 Out of range

Result
The I – V characteristics curve of a p-n junction diode is not a straight line
therefore diode is non- ohmic in nature.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being
used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error

1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

2. Error may be due to carelessness of the student.

3. The terminals of battery may not be connected properly.

ACTIVITIES

SECTION –A
Observtions :

(a) For measurement of resistance

Resist Colour and Codes of rings Value Value by Differenc

or and multimete e %
Used 1 2 3 4 toleranc r (W)
e from
colour
code
(W)

R1 Orang Red Brow Silver 32 x 101 330 + 10.0

e n + 10%

R2 Yellow Viole Black Golde 47 + 5 % 50 +3

t n

R3 Brown Blac Brow Golden 100 + 105 +5

k n 5%

(b) Measurement of voltage

A. C or D.C Obs. Voltage between Voltage Difference in

Volts No terminals V0 reading as Voltage
(Volts) measured by reading and
multimeter V volt. Marked
(Volt) V – V0 (Volt)

1 4 4.9 0.1

D.C Voltage 2 6 6.10 0.10

3 10 9.98 0.02

1 1.00 0.98 0.02

A.C Voltage 2 1.50 1.42 0.08

3 2.25 2.20 0.05

SECTION – B

Aim
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor
from a mixed collection of such items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory

For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be

considered.

1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and

does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while
conducting. Hence, it does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also
conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse
biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glow.
3. A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter
(E), base (B) and collector (C).
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip.
[See figure (UM 3482 IC Tone Generator)]
5. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward
biased or reverse biased. (In fact there is no forward or reverse bias
for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when
either forward biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor is
connected to a D.C. source, then multimeter shows full scale current
initially but it decay to zero quickly. It is because that initially a
capacitor draw a charge.
Procedure

1. If the item has four or more terminals and has form of a chip, it is an
IC (integrated circuit).
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
3. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as ahead.
4. Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity.
The probe metal ends are inserted in terminal marked on the multimeter as
common and P (or + ve).

If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve). On
touching the two ends of the device to the two other metal ends of probes.

1. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move
when reversed and there is no light emission, the item is a diode.
2. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move
when re-versed and there is light emission, the item is a LED.
3. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when
reversed, the item is a resistor. If pointer does not moves when voltage
is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is capacitor.
Aim
To use a multimeter to:
(a) see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an LED.
(b) check whether a given electronic component (e.g., diode, transistor or
IC) is in working order.

Apparatus
A multimeter, a diode and an LED.

Theory
(a)A diode or an LED conducts only when forward biased and in reverse
biasing, there is no flow of current.
(b) When a diode is in working order, it will allow the current to flow in one
direction, when forward biased.

Procedure

(a)Unidirectional flow of current

Case of junction diode

1. Connect the +ve marked end of the diode to +ve terminal of a 6 V

variable D.C. battery adjusted to minimum voltage.
2. Select the D.C. current at 10 mA range by using the selector switch.
Insert one the metallic ends of probe in terminal P(+) and the black
metallic end into the terminal marked common.
3. Connect the other metallize end of red probe to the free end of the
diode and the metallic end of black probe into the -ve terminal of the
battery eliminator and read the value of current by varying the output
of the eliminator. Since the diode is forward biased, it allows the
current to pass.
4. Now reverse the terminals of the diode such that the end marked -ve is
at higher potential* and the one marked + is at lower potential. Again
observe the current in multimeter on the appropriate D.C. milliampere
scale. No current reading in the multimeter would indicate that the
diode allows the flow of current in one direction only, i.e., the current is
unidirectional in a diode.
 5. Now replace the diode by the LED and repeat the steps to establish
that an LED also allows the flow of current only when it is forward
biased as well as emits light.

(b) Checking whether diode, transistor in IC is in working order

A diode will conduct only in one direction i.e., first connect the ends of
diode to the two metal ends of the probes and reverse the connecting
points. If it conducts in one case, then diode is in working order. If
conducts in both cases or does not conduct in both cases, then it is
damaged.
Aim
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident
obliquely on a glass slab.

Apparatus
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins,
protractor.

Theory
when a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends
towards the normal since refraction takes place from rarer to denser
medium. The refracted ray (QR) travel along straight line and incident on
face DC of slab and bends away from the normal since refraction takes
place from denser to rarer medium. The ray (RS) out through face DC is
called emergent ray.
From the following diagram

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

2. The perpendicular distance between the incident ray and the emergent
ray is called lateral deviation. For a given angle of incidence and a pair
of media, the lateral deviation is proportional to the thickness of the
glass slab.

We have, d = t sec r sin (i – r).

Procedure

1. Take a drawing sheet and fix it on a drawing board with the help of
drawing pins or adhesive tape
2. Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and
mark its boundary ABCD
3. Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle
i with the normal PQ will represent an incident ray.
4. Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distance 5 cm or more
between them.
5. See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at
points 3 and 4 (1 cm or more apart) such that these two pins cover the
images of first two pins, all being along a straight line
6. Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to
represent emergent ray Join QR to represent refracted ray.
7. Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be
equal to i
8. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU
measures lateral displacement d.
9. Now take more sets for different angles of incidence and measure the
lateral displacements.
10. Make small circles around each pin-pricks on the drawing sheet.
 11. Start with a value of 30° for i and repeat the process for 35, 40°, 45°
and 50°' for i.
12. The process can be repeated for glass slabs of different thickness.

Observations
Least count of protractor = 1 degree
Least count of metre scale = 0.1 cm

S.No Thickness Angle of Angle of Lateral

of glass incidence, i emergenc Deviatio
slab, t(cm) (degree) e, e n d (cm)
(degree)

1 t1 300 180 0.8

2 t2 450 230 1.7

3 t3 600 320 3.1

Result
1. The ray of light changes its path emerging out of glass slab which
proves that refraction happens when light travels from one medium
to another. The emerging ray is parallel to the incident ray.

2. The lateral deviation of the emergent ray with respect to the incident
ray is directly proportional to the thickness of the glass slab.

3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence ().

Precautions
 1. The pins should be fixed vertically on the drawing board. 2

2. The glass slab should be clean and of uniform thickness.

3. Use sharp pencils for making lines.

4. The glass slab should be kept lengthwise at the centre of the drawing
sheet.

5. Measurement of angles should done accurately.

6. For better accuracy, distance between the pins should be 5 cm or

more while locating the angle of incidence and angle of emergence.

7. It must be ensured that the pins 1 and 2 are in straight line. Similarly,
the pins 3 and 4 are in straight line.

8. While viewing the pins, one eye should always be kept closed.

Sources of error
1. Measurement of angles may not be accurate.
2. Glass slab may not have uniform thickness.
3. The pin pricks may not be sharp.
4. The pins may not have been inserted on the line.

Aim

To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a
screen by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle
from the lens)

Apparatus

An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with holder, a burning
candle, a card-board screen.