CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: PRACTICAL TEACHER’S GUIDE

11 Oscillations
CHAPTER OUTLINE
This chapter relates to Chapter 18: Oscillations, in the Coursebook.
In this chapter learners will complete investigations on:
• 11.1 Oscillation of a metre rule as a pendulum
• 11.2 The period of oscillation of a steel blade
• 11.3 Planning investigation into damped oscillations
• 11.4 Simple harmonic oscillation of a mass on a spring.

Practical investigation 11.1 Oscillation of a metre

rule as a pendulum
Skills focus
See the Skills grid for details of the skills developed and used in this investigation.

Duration
The practical work will take 30 minutes; the analysis and evaluation questions will take 30 minutes.

Preparing for the investigation

Learners should know:
• how to rearrange equations and use the formula for a straight line y = mx + c
• how to time oscillations using a fiducial mark placed at the centre of the oscillation
• the meaning of one complete oscillation.
Learners will measure the period of oscillation of a metre rule suspended from holes made at different positions
in the rule.

You will need

Equipment
• metre rule with holes drilled at 50 cm, 40 cm, • stopwatch to read to a precision of at least 0.1 s
35 cm, 30 cm, 20 cm and 10 cm from one end. • pin or nail, firmly fixed in the clamp or boss of a
The holes should be big enough so that the retort stand
rule oscillates freely when suspended from a
• G-clamp or weight to stop the retort stand from
small pin or nail placed in the hole.
toppling over.

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Safety considerations
• The pin should not be in any position or height where a learner may injure themselves, particularly when
bending to take a reading. Cover the sharp end of the pin with a small ball of clay or a small cork to
prevent injury.
• The retort stand should be stable enough so that it does not topple when the metre rule starts swinging.
Use a G-clamp to fix the base of the retort stand to the bench or place a heavy weight on the base of the
retort stand.

Carrying out the investigation

• The metre rule may slip forwards off the pin. Angle the pin slightly from the horizontal to prevent
this happening.
• Learners start by timing with the rule suspended at the 40 cm mark from one end.

Common student misconceptions

• Learners often think that one oscillation is from one extreme to the other. They also believe that one
should measure the period starting at the extreme position. More accurate results are usually obtained by
measuring with a fiducial mark at the centre of the oscillation.
• Learners may also start the timing as they count 1, then stop when they reach 10. This results in them timing
only 9 oscillations. They should be trained to say 0 as they start timing and then 1 after one oscillation. They
stop on 10.
Learners should be encouraged to decide for themselves whether they should start their axes from (0,0). This
has advantages in that it will allow them to read the intercept accurately, but it may mean their points do
not use enough of the graph page. If learners do not start their graph axes from (0,0), you may have to show
them how to use one point on the graph and the gradient to obtain the intercept.
You can ask confident learners why it is not necessary to time at distances of 15 cm and 5 cm from one end.

Sample results
Table 11.1 should give an idea of the results learners should end the investigation with. They can be used to
complete the Data analysis and Evaluation questions if learners are not able to conduct the investigation.

D/m time for 10 oscillations / s period T / s d/m T 2d / s2 m d 2 / m2

0.400 19.81, 19.91, 19.89 1.987 0.100 0.395 0.0100
0.350 17.09, 17.00, 17.18 1.709 0.150 0.438 0.0225
0.300 15.79, 15,81, 15.83 1.581 0.200 0.500 0.0400
0.200 15.29, 15.31, 15.37 1.532 0.300 0.704 0.0900
0.100 15.72, 15.77, 15.67 1.572 0.400 0.988 0.1600
Table 11.1

Answers to the workbook questions (using the sample results)

a See Table 11.1 (4th column).
b T 2d = Bd 2 + A
c See Table 11.1 (5th and 6th columns).
d See Figure 11.1.

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1.2

1.0

0.8

T 2d / s2m 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15
d 2 / m2

Figure 11.1

e Gradient of best-fit line = 4.0 y-intercept = 0.35

f A = 0.35 s2 m B = 4.0 s2 / m
g T = 1.60 s

Practical investigation 11.2: The period of oscillation

of a steel blade
Skills focus
See the Skills grids for details of the skills developed and used in this investigation.

Duration
The practical work will take 30 minutes; the analysis and evaluation questions will take 30 minutes.

Preparing for the investigation

Learners should know:
• the equation and units for the Young modulus
• how to time oscillations using a fiducial mark placed at the centre of the oscillation
• the meaning of one complete oscillation
• how to combine percentage uncertainties from several readings of the same quantity
• how to plot error bars and use them to draw lines of best fit and worst fit.
Put the masses on the end of the hacksaw blade. Show learners how to clamp the blade without damage to
the bench.
Learners will vary the distance d. They will measure the period of oscillation of the blade when it oscillates
upwards and downwards with small amplitude.

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You will need

Equipment Access to
• steel blade, e.g. a hacksaw blade of about 30 cm in length or other • micrometer screw gauge or
similar steel blade of the same thickness and width. Place a piece callipers.
of tape over the serrated edge of the blade so learners do not cut
their hands when touching the blade
• stopwatch to read to a precision of at least 0.1 s
• two 50 g masses (or one 100 g mass). Securely attach the masses
to the end of the hacksaw blade with tape or modelling clay.
• G-clamp and small blocks of wood
• 30 cm ruler or metre rule.

Safety considerations
• Fix the masses securely to the end of the blade so that when the blade oscillates they do not fall off.
• Tape over any sharp edges on the blade.

Carrying out the investigation

• The oscillation may be rather fast. If you place a piece of paper gently against the oscillating blade you can
hear when the blade reaches the end of an oscillation. This is particularly useful when the period is small.
Plotting logarithmic graphs that have negative values can prove difficult. You may need to give help.
In particular, the choice of axes is important as the graph should not start at (0,0).
Challenge confident learners to use base units in the SI system to find a value for n with the equation:
16π2 M
T = dn ×
Ewt 3
See Table 11.2 for an example.

Quantity E M w, d and t
Base units kg m s
−1 −2
kg m
Table 11.2

As the base units must be the same on each side of the equation, n = 1.5

Common learner misconceptions

Learners often think that one oscillation is from one extreme to the other.

Sample results
Table 11.3 gives an idea of the results learners should end the investigation with.

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d/m T10 / s T/s lg (d / m) lg (T / s)

1st 2nd average
0.125 2.16 2.26 2.21 0.221 ± 0.005 −0.903 −0.656 ± 0.010
0.145 2.52 2.68 2.60 0.260 ± 0.008 −0.839 −0.585 ± 0.013
0.173 3.50 3.72 3.61 0.361 ± 0.011 −0.762 −0.442 ± 0.013
0.216 4.53 4.95 4.74 0.474 ± 0.021 −0.666 −0.324 ± 0.019
0.242 5.60 5.85 5.73 0.573 ± 0.008 −0.616 −0.242 ± 0.009
0.276 6.86 6.36 6.61 0.661 ± 0.025 −0.559 −0.180 ± 0.016
Table 11.3

Width of blade w = 0.0127 m Thickness of blade t = 0.000 80 m

Answers to the workbook questions (using the sample results)

a See Table 11.3 (5th column).
b lg T = lg k + n lg d
c Gradient = n Intercept = lg k
d See Table 11.3 (6th and 7th columns).
e, f See Figure 11.2.
−0.1

−0.2 worst acceptable line

−0.3

lg (T / s) −0.4

−0.5

−0.6

−0.7
−0.95 −0.85 −0.75 −0.65 −0.55
lg (d / m)

Figure 11.2

g Gradient of best-fit line = 1.42, gradient of worst-fit line = 1.44

h n = 1.42, uncertainty in n = ± 0.02
i Point on graph, for example, lg (T / s) = −0.3; lg (d / m) = −0.65
lg k = 0.623, k = 4.2
j E = 1.4 × 1011 N m−2

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Practical investigation 11.3: Planning investigation

into damped oscillations
Skills focus
See the Skills grids for details of the skills developed and used in this investigation.

Duration
The planning investigation will take about 40 minutes. Carrying out the experiment after planning will take
about 40 minutes.

Preparing for the investigation

It may be helpful to demonstrate a swinging simple pendulum with small piece of card attached.
Learners need to:
• know what is meant by the amplitude of an oscillation
• know about different types of variables and the control of quantities
• be able to handle natural logarithms and know the relationship: ln a b = b ln a.
Learners will plan an experiment to show the exponential decay of amplitude A with the number of swings n.
If apparatus is available, then readings can be taken and the constant λ in the equation A = A0 e−λn can be
determined. A sample set of readings is also provided.
Additional notes and advice
• There is no practical equipment necessary in the planning. You may want to show a demonstration of a
simple pendulum with a piece of card or paper at the bottom to increase damping. If you perform the
experiment, you can use items such as a mass on a string, metre rule and some pins on stands to mark
the position of the mass. Alternatively, you can use a longer string, make marks on the floor and position
the eye directly above the mass. If pins are used, learners must be instructed to be careful. It is sensible to
keep the flat end of a pin uppermost to avoid injury.
Variables
Learners should identify:
• dependent variable: amplitude A
• independent variable: number of swings n
• variables to be controlled: mass, length of string, amount of air resistance.
These dependent and independent variables can be interchanged, leading to a slightly different method.

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You will need

Equipment
Examples might be mass on string or metre rule with hole and pin to act as a pendulum, retort stand,
boss and clamp and means of securing stand to the bench, such as a heavy weight or a G-clamp, long
pins or nails and sticky tack to stick pins to the bench to mark the amplitude and a ruler (see Figure 11.3
for an example).

metre rule with hole

at top supported
by pin in stand

stand

mass
pin weight

Figure 11.3

Alternatively, a camera and video recorder can be placed at right angles to the plane of oscillation of the
pendulum with a metre rule alongside the oscillating mass.

Safety considerations
• Ensure the stand does not fall over by clamping to the bench with a G-clamp or adding a heavy weight.
• Take care using the pins.
• Ensure heavy weights do not fall off the bench onto your foot.

Method
A suggested method with the amplitude as the dependent variable is:
1 Start with the mass stationary at the middle of the oscillation. Place a pin just under the centre of the mass.
Move the mass to the starting point. Hold it stationary. Place another pin just under the centre of the mass.
2 Release the mass. After five swings, place a pin just under the mass at the furthest point it reaches from the
middle of the oscillation. Place additional pins under the mass after 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 swings.
3 Measure the distance from each pin to the pin at the middle of the oscillation. Repeat and average the
results. The first result at the start is tabulated at n = 0.
4 To increase the air resistance add a piece of card to the mass at right angles to the plane of oscillation.
Extra detail, for example:
• Look directly at right angles to the plane of oscillation of the pendulum to avoid parallax error when
judging the position of the pin. Adjust the height of the pin to just touch the mass.
• Five oscillations might not be enough. Place new pins when the oscillation has changed significantly.
Count the total number of oscillations each time.
• Make sure the ruler is horizontal as each measurement is made.

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• Adding the card may affect the period. The period is a control variable. The card may be added to the mass
at the start of the experiment. In the beginning, the card is angled to be in the same plane as the oscillation
of the pendulum. To increase the air resistance rotate the card by 90°.

Carrying out the investigation

You may need to help learners who are not studying mathematics to deal with the logarithm of an
exponential quantity.
Some learners, who have finished the investigation, can help others who may be struggling. However, this
exercise provides the opportunity for such learners to take measurements and start the experiment, with
others who have yet to finish joining them later. As an alternative, they could use the sample measurements
in Table 11.4.
• If learners look at one another’s plans and discuss them, they can make sensible comments to each other
about whether the plan is logical. Such discussion is often very useful in demonstrating to each other which
elements of a plan are missing.

Common learner misconceptions

Learners may think that the distance between the two extremes of the motion is the amplitude. Although
this distance can be measured and used, it is not the amplitude. Amplitude is measured to the centre of
the oscillation.

Sample results
Table 11.4 provides sample results that learners may analyse.

Number of swings Amplitude A / cm ln (A / cm)

0 35.2 3.561
5 30.8 3.428
10 26.8 3.288
15 23.2 3.144
20 20.8 3.035
25 18.8 2.934
30 16.8 2.821
35 14.8 2.695
Table 11.4

Answers to the workbook questions (using the sample results)

a Calculate values of ln A (or lg A). Plot a graph of ln A on the y-axis and n on the x-axis.
An example is shown in Figure 11.4.

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3.8

3.6

3.4

3.2

3.0
ln (A / cm)
2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2

2.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
n

Figure 11.4

b Since ln A = ln A0 − λt then the gradient of the graph is −λ.

c Having performed the experiment, learners may, for example, realise the necessity of avoiding parallax error
either when placing pins or when measuring the distance. It is helpful if they can appreciate some problems
for themselves and you can discuss their suggestions afterwards with the whole class. The particular
problems and improvements will depend on the apparatus and methods chosen.

Practical investigation 11.4: Simple harmonic

oscillation of a mass on a spring
Skills focus
See the Skills grids for details of the skills developed and used in this investigation.

Duration
The practical work will take 30 minutes. The analysis and evaluation questions will take about 30 minutes.

Preparing for the investigation

Learners will need to:
• know how to time 10 complete oscillations using a fiducial mark such as a point on the retort stand near the
centre of the oscillation
• know how to choose a sensible number of oscillations
• measure at least 10 oscillations with a stopwatch and write down the reading to 0.01 s, even though their
reaction time is larger than this
• be able to use logarithms and antilogarithms to base 10 and to use the relationships:
lg (ab) = lg a + lg b and lg (ab) = b lg a
• measure the time for a number of oscillations for different masses hanging on the spring.

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You will need

Equipment
• retort stand, boss and clamp • 100 g mass hanger with five 100 g slotted
• G-clamp or heavy weight to stop the stand from masses
toppling • stopwatch.
• steel spring

Alternative equipment
Any spring or combination of springs, for example in series, can be used with any sensible range of masses as
long as the time for 10 oscillations can be measured.

Safety considerations
Make sure that the retort stand cannot topple. Place a heavy weight on the base of the retort stand or clamp the
stand to the bench.

Carrying out the investigation

• The amplitude of the oscillation should not become too small in 10 oscillations. It should not be so large
that the tension in the spring reduces to zero.
Learners may find it difficult to plot and understand a logarithmic graph, particularly with the
negative values.
More confident learners can extend the investigation by connecting two springs in series or parallel.
They predict the effect on the investigation. Then they obtain readings to see whether their prediction is
correct. For example, how does the period of the mass depend on the number n of identical springs in series?
They can also show by the method of dimensions that the constant b should be 0.5.

Common learner misconceptions

• Learners might think that they are timing 10 oscillations when they are only timing 9 oscillations.
• It is best to measure the time for 10 oscillations by starting the stopwatch and counting 0 as the mass passes
through the mid-position, then stopping the stopwatch when the count has reached 10. Learners often think
that they can obtain a more accurate period by measuring from one extreme of the oscillation rather than
from the centre of the oscillation. However, as the mass is moving faster in the middle, it is easier to time
from this point.
• Learners often think they should record the timings to the nearest 0.2 s because that is about their reaction
time. Strictly, the uncertainty is the difference between the starting and stopping reaction times which may
be less than 0.1 s. In any case, there is some merit in writing down the reading on any meter, even when the
last digit may not be significant.

Sample results
The sample results in Table 11.5 can be used.

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M / kg n Time for n oscillations t10 / s T/s lg (T / s) lg (M / kg)

1st 2nd 3rd average
0.100 10 6.92 6.89 6.95 6.92 ± 0.03 0.692 ± 0.003 −0.160 ± 0.002 −1.000
0.200 10 9.95 9.80 10.13 9.96 ± 0.12 0.996 ± 0.012 −0.002 ± 0.001 −0.699
0.300 10 12.10 11.99 12.25 12.11 ± 0.13 1.211 ± 0.013 0.083 ± 0.004 −0.523
0.400 10 14.00 13.90 14.10 14.00 ± 0.05 1.400 ± 0.005 0.146 ± 0.002 −0.398
0.500 10 15.28 15.22 15.23 15.24 ± 0.04 1.524 ± 0.004 0.183 ± 0.001 −0.301
Table 11.5

Answers to the workbook questions (using the sample results)

a See Table 11.5 (unshaded section).
b See Figure 11.5 (worst-fit line is very close to best-fit line).
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
lg (T / s)
0.00
−0.05
−0.10
−0.15
−0.20
−1.0 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3
lg (M / kg)

Figure 11.5

c Gradient = 0.495 ± 0.003 approximately

d lg T = lg a + b lg M
e 0.495 ± 0.003 approximately
f Point on graph: y-value (lg T) = 0.144; x-value (lg M) = −0.400
lg a = 0.342 a = 2.20
g The value for b should be 0.5 and this is only slightly outside the calculated uncertainty; therefore, there is
fair agreement.
h k = 8.2 (N m−1)

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